149:, followed in 1984 by the first paper that used visible radiation for near field scanning. The near-field optical (NFO) microscope involved a sub-wavelength aperture at the apex of a metal coated sharply pointed transparent tip, and a feedback mechanism to maintain a constant distance of a few nanometers between the sample and the probe. Lewis et al. were also aware of the potential of an NFO microscope at this time. They reported first results in 1986 confirming super-resolution. In both experiments, details below 50 nm (about λ
2044:
29:
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116:. His original idea, proposed in 1928, was based upon the usage of intense nearly planar light from an arc under pressure behind a thin, opaque metal film with a small orifice of about 100 nm. The orifice was to remain within 100 nm of the surface, and information was to be collected by point-by-point scanning. He foresaw the illumination and the detector movement being the biggest technical difficulties.
2157:
422:(SERS). This technique can be used in an apertureless shear-force NSOM setup, or by using an AFM tip coated with gold or silver. The Raman signal is found to be significantly enhanced under the AFM tip. This technique has been used to give local variations in the Raman spectra under a single-walled nanotube. A highly sensitive optoacoustic spectrometer must be used for the detection of the Raman signal.
17:
362:
261:
297:, which has a square pyramid shape with two facets coated with a metal. Such a probe has a high signal collection efficiency (>90%) and no frequency cutoff. Another alternative is "active tip" schemes, where the tip is functionalized with active light sources such as a fluorescent dye or even a light emitting diode that enables fluorescence excitation.
923:
469:. It is normally limited to surface studies; however, it can be applied for subsurface investigations within the corresponding depth of field. In shear force mode and other contact operation it is not conducive for studying soft materials. It has long scan times for large sample areas for high resolution imaging.
239:
and have intensities that drop off exponentially with distance from the object. Because of this, the detector must be placed very close to the sample in the near field zone, typically a few nanometers. As a result, near field microscopy remains primarily a surface inspection technique. The detector is then
411:
Direct local Raman NSOM is based on Raman spectroscopy. Aperture Raman NSOM is limited by very hot and blunt tips, and by long collection times. However, apertureless NSOM can be used to achieve high Raman scattering efficiency factors (around 40). Topological artifacts make it hard to implement this
82:
light is focused through an aperture with a diameter smaller than the excitation wavelength, resulting in an evanescent field (or near-field) on the far side of the aperture. When the sample is scanned at a small distance below the aperture, the optical resolution of transmitted or reflected light is
444:
The nanofocusing technique can create a nanometer-scale "white" light source at the tip apex, which can be used to illuminate a sample at near-field for spectroscopic analysis. The interband optical transitions in individual single-walled carbon nanotubes are imaged and a spatial resolution around 6
440:
method is a broadband nanoscale spectroscopy that combines apertureless NSOM with broadband illumination and FTIR detection to obtain a complete infrared spectrum at every spatial location. Sensitivity to a single molecular complex and nanoscale resolution up to 10 nm has been demonstrated with
407:
As the name implies, information is collected by spectroscopic means instead of imaging in the near field regime. Through near field spectroscopy (NFS), one can probe spectroscopically with sub-wavelength resolution. Raman SNOM and fluorescence SNOM are two of the most popular NFS techniques as they
161:
According to Abbe's theory of image formation, developed in 1873, the resolving capability of an optical component is ultimately limited by the spreading out of each image point due to diffraction. Unless the aperture of the optical component is large enough to collect all the diffracted light, the
300:
The merits of aperture and apertureless NSOM configurations can be merged in a hybrid probe design, which contains a metallic tip attached to the side of a tapered optical fiber. At visible range (400 nm to 900 nm), about 50% of the incident light can be focused to the tip apex, which is
238:
This treatment takes into account only the light diffracted into the far-field that propagates without any restrictions. NSOM makes use of evanescent or non propagating fields that exist only near the surface of the object. These fields carry the high frequency spatial information about the object
272:
Though there are many issues associated with the apertured tips (heating, artifacts, contrast, sensitivity, topology and interference among others), aperture mode remains more popular. This is primarily because apertureless mode is even more complex to set up and operate, and is not understood as
425:
Fluorescence NSOM is a highly popular and sensitive technique which makes use of fluorescence for near field imaging, and is especially suited for biological applications. The technique of choice here is apertureless back to the fiber emission in constant shear force mode. This technique uses
382:
from the returning reflected light. The scanning tip, depending upon the operation mode, is usually a pulled or stretched optical fiber coated with metal except at the tip or just a standard AFM cantilever with a hole in the center of the pyramidal tip. Standard optical detectors, such as
453:
NSOM can be vulnerable to artifacts that are not from the intended contrast mode. The most common root for artifacts in NSOM are tip breakage during scanning, striped contrast, displaced optical contrast, local far field light concentration, and topographic artifacts.
313:
Feedback mechanisms are usually used to achieve high resolution and artifact free images since the tip must be positioned within a few nanometers of the surfaces. Some of these mechanisms are constant force feedback and shear force feedback
373:
The primary components of an NSOM setup are the light source, feedback mechanism, the scanning tip, the detector and the piezoelectric sample stage. The light source is usually a laser focused into an optical fiber through a
324:
In shear force feedback mode, a tuning fork is mounted alongside the tip and made to oscillate at its resonance frequency. The amplitude is closely related to the tip-surface distance, and thus used as a feedback mechanism.
120:
also developed similar theories in 1956. He thought the moving of the pinhole or the detector when it is so close to the sample would be the most likely issue that could prevent the realization of such an instrument. It was
268:
There exist NSOM which can be operated in so-called aperture mode and NSOM for operation in a non-aperture mode. As illustrated, the tips used in the apertureless mode are very sharp and do not have a metal coating.
288:
Apertureless modes of operation: a) photon tunneling (PSTM) by a sharp transparent tip, b) PSTM by sharp opaque tip on smooth surface, and c) scanning interferometric apertureless microscopy with double
484:
utilize in-plane polarimetry to study physical properties inaccessible to near-field scanning optical microscopes including the spatial dependence of intramolecular vibrations in anisotropic molecules.
218:
1192:
Bao W, Melli M, Caselli N, Riboli F, Wiersma DS, Staffaroni M, et al. (December 2012). "Mapping local charge recombination heterogeneity by multidimensional nanospectroscopic imaging".
978:
Lewis AM, Isaacson M, Harootunian A, Muray A (1984). "Development of a 500 Å spatial resolution light microscope. I. Light is efficiently transmitted through λ/16 diameter apertures".
162:
finer aspects of the image will not correspond exactly to the object. The minimum resolution (d) for the optical component is thus limited by its aperture size, and expressed by the
430:-based dyes embedded in an appropriate resin. Edge filters are used for removal of all primary laser light. Resolution as low as 10 nm can be achieved using this technique.
1395:
Huth F, Govyadinov A, Amarie S, Nuansing W, Keilmann F, Hillenbrand R (August 2012). "Nano-FTIR absorption spectroscopy of molecular fingerprints at 20 nm spatial resolution".
333:
It is possible to take advantage of the various contrast techniques available to optical microscopy through NSOM but with much higher resolution. By using the change in the
273:
well. There are five primary modes of apertured NSOM operation and four primary modes of apertureless NSOM operation. The major ones are illustrated in the next figure.
457:
In apertureless NSOM, also known as scattering-type SNOM or s-SNOM, many of these artifacts are eliminated or can be avoided by proper technique application.
433:
Near field infrared spectrometry and near-field dielectric microscopy use near-field probes to combine sub-micron microscopy with localized IR spectroscopy.
83:
limited only by the diameter of the aperture. In particular, lateral resolution of 6 nm and vertical resolution of 2–5 nm have been demonstrated.
1893:
1629:
1380:
Pollock HM, Smith DA (2002). "The use of near-field probes for vibrational spectroscopy and photothermal imaging". In
Chalmers JM, Griffiths PR (eds.).
231:
for the optical component (maximum 1.3–1.4 for modern objectives with a very high magnification factor). Thus, the resolution limit is usually around λ
2087:
337:
of light or the intensity of the light as a function of the incident wavelength, it is possible to make use of contrast enhancing techniques such as
353:. It is also possible to provide contrast using the change in refractive index, reflectivity, local stress and magnetic properties amongst others.
1497:"6 nm super-resolution optical transmission and scattering spectroscopic imaging of carbon nanotubes using a nanometer-scale white light source"
627:"6 nm super-resolution optical transmission and scattering spectroscopic imaging of carbon nanotubes using a nanometer-scale white light source"
480:
of the scanning tip. Metallic scanning tips naturally orient the polarization state perpendicular to the sample surface. Other techniques, like
305:(TERS) at tip apex, and collect the Raman signals through the same fiber. The lens-free fiber-in-fiber-out STM-NSOM-TERS has been demonstrated.
1294:
Hoshino K, Gopal A, Glaz MS, Vanden Bout DA, Zhang X (2012). "Nanoscale fluorescence imaging with quantum dot near-field electroluminescence".
1998:
1684:
408:
allow for the identification of nanosized features with chemical contrast. Some of the common near-field spectroscopic techniques are below.
1926:
1689:
853:
1329:
Kim S, Yu N, Ma X, Zhu Y, Liu Q, Liu M, Yan R (2019). "High external-efficiency nanofocusing for lens-free near-field optical nanoscopy".
365:
Block diagram of an apertureless reflection-back-to-the-fiber NSOM setup with shear-force distance control and cross-polarization; 1:
280:
Apertured modes of operation: a) illumination, b) collection, c) illumination collection, d) reflection and e) reflection collection.
921:, Pohl DW, "optical near field scanning microscope", published 1987-04-22, issued 1982-12-27, assigned to IBM.
545:"Visualizing nanoscale excitonic relaxation properties of disordered edges and grain boundaries in monolayer molybdenum disulfide"
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524:
481:
2125:
1993:
1719:
90:, chemical structure and local stress. Dynamic properties can also be studied at a sub-wavelength scale using this technique.
1159:
1106:
1062:
Harootunian A, Betzig E, Isaacson M, Lewis A (1986). "Super-resolution fluorescence near-field scanning optical microscopy".
108:
is given credit for conceiving and developing the idea for an imaging instrument that would image by exciting and collecting
1152:
Atomic Force
Microscopy, Scanning Nearfield Optical Microscopy and Nanoscratching: Application to Rough and Natural Surfaces
172:
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Ocelic N, Huber A, Hillenbrand R (2006-09-04). "Pseudoheterodyne detection for background-free near-field spectroscopy".
419:
113:
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2028:
2008:
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1615:
350:
1243:
Michaelis J, Hettich C, Mlynek J, Sandoghdar V (May 2000). "Optical microscopy using a single-molecule light source".
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stage. The scanning can either be done at a constant height or with regulated height by using a feedback mechanism.
2072:
2068:
1919:
1811:
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773:
Synge EH (1928). "A suggested method for extending the microscopic resolution into the ultramicroscopic region".
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117:
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1127:
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As in optical microscopy, the contrast mechanism can be easily adapted to study different properties, such as
2193:
1734:
1679:
24:, with the diffraction of light coming from NSOM fiber probe, showing wavelength of light and the near-field.
301:
around 5 nm in radius. This hybrid probe can deliver the excitation light through the fiber to realize
137:
using microwave radiation with a wavelength of 3 cm. A line grating was resolved with a resolution of λ
1701:
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1973:
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146:
105:
731:"Observation of nanostructure by scanning near-field optical microscope with small sphere probe"
2018:
473:
1978:
1440:"Structural analysis and mapping of individual protein complexes by infrared nanospectroscopy"
2188:
1983:
1806:
1438:
Amenabar I, Poly S, Nuansing W, Hubrich EH, Govyadinov AA, Huth F, et al. (2013-12-04).
392:
321:(AFM). Experiments can be performed in contact, intermittent contact, and non-contact modes.
76:
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384:
378:, a beam splitter and a coupler. The polarizer and the beam splitter would serve to remove
334:
33:
8:
2198:
2063:
2003:
1177:
1007:"Near Field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM): Development and Biophysical Applications"
41:
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and crossed polarizers; 2: shear-force arrangement; 3: sample mount on a piezo stage.
21:
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72:
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867:
Ash EA, Nicholls G (June 1972). "Super-resolution aperture scanning microscope".
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37:
2013:
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813:
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694:
Dürig U, Pohl DW, Rohner F (1986). "Near-field optical scanning microscopy".
366:
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1424:
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1221:
1048:
1005:
Betzig E, Lewis A, Harootunian A, Isaacson M, Kratschmer E (January 1986).
896:
680:
586:
342:
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Constant force feedback mode is similar to the feedback mechanism used in
543:
Bao W, Borys NJ, Ko C, Suh J, Fan W, Thron A, et al. (August 2015).
499:
427:
379:
240:
109:
729:
Oshikane Y, Kataoka T, Okuda M, Hara S, Inoue H, Nakano M (April 2007).
1947:
1935:
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1463:
1181:
The Optics
Laboratory, North Carolina State University. 12 October 2007
600:
568:
130:
64:
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1315:
465:
One limitation is a very short working distance and extremely shallow
1904:
1754:
1264:
888:
800:
Synge EH (1932). "An application of piezoelectricity to microscopy".
715:
437:
375:
1495:
Ma X, Liu Q, Yu N, Xu D, Kim S, Liu Z, et al. (November 2021).
1083:
963:
938:
625:
Ma X, Liu Q, Yu N, Xu D, Kim S, Liu Z, et al. (November 2021).
284:
67:
technique for nanostructure investigation that breaks the far field
643:
526:
Optical
Spectroscopy of Colloidal CdSe Semiconductor Nanostructures
338:
122:
16:
399:
NSOM for example, have much more stringent detector requirements.
276:
264:
Sketch of a) typical metal-coated tip, and b) sharp uncoated tip.
1242:
2023:
1662:
472:
An additional limitation is the predominant orientation of the
1061:
1004:
854:"Brief History and Simple Description of NSOM/SNOM Technology"
977:
361:
79:
1394:
260:
1437:
1293:
939:"Optical stethoscopy: Image recording with resolution λ/20"
2088:
Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF)
728:
605:
1551:
255:
213:{\displaystyle d=0.61{\frac {\lambda _{0}}{N\!A}}\;\!}
1191:
356:
175:
32:
Comparison of photoluminescence maps recorded from a
2126:
Photo-activated localization microscopy (PALM/STORM)
395:, can be used. Highly specialized NSOM techniques,
212:
209:
201:
2175:
693:
2029:Interference reflection microscopy (IRM/RICM)
1920:
1637:
1623:
1173:
1171:
542:
1379:
1122:
1120:
1118:
936:
827:O'Keefe JA (1956). "Letters to the Editor".
738:Science and Technology of Advanced Materials
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826:
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1038:
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532:(Ph.D. thesis). University of Notre Dame.
1999:Differential interference contrast (DIC)
476:state of the interrogating light in the
360:
283:
275:
259:
235:/2 for conventional optical microscopy.
27:
15:
1134:
1128:Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy.
917:
516:
482:anisotropic terahertz microspectroscopy
293:Some types of NSOM operation utilize a
227:is the wavelength in vacuum; NA is the
2176:
1994:Quantitative phase-contrast microscopy
1934:
1705:Typical atomic force microscopy set-up
522:
308:
57:scanning near-field optical microscopy
49:Near-field scanning optical microscopy
1908:
1611:
1149:
1131:Olympus America Inc. 12 October 2007.
1096:
971:
799:
772:
250:
2156:
2121:Stimulated emission depletion (STED)
1382:Handbook of vibrational spectroscopy
930:
141:/60. A decade later, a patent on an
420:surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy
256:Aperture and apertureless operation
145:near-field microscope was filed by
13:
1700:
1185:
357:Instrumentation and standard setup
351:differential interference contrast
153:/10) in size could be recognized.
14:
2215:
2093:Lightsheet microscopy (LSFM/SPIM)
1591:
1101:. San Francisco: Addison Wesley.
536:
2155:
2144:
2143:
2042:
1384:. Vol. 2. pp. 1472–92.
937:Pohl DW, Denk W, Lanz M (1984).
856:. Nanonics Inc. 12 October 2007.
71:by exploiting the properties of
1812:Scanning quantum dot microscopy
1604: (archived October 2, 2008)
1545:
1488:
1431:
1388:
1322:
1287:
1236:
1090:
1055:
998:
911:
860:
846:
416:Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
303:tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
2098:Lattice light-sheet microscopy
2009:Second harmonic imaging (SHIM)
1767:Photothermal microspectroscopy
820:
793:
766:
722:
687:
618:
593:
460:
412:technique for rough surfaces.
129:who, in 1972, first broke the
1:
1031:10.1016/s0006-3495(86)83640-2
510:
992:10.1016/0304-3991(84)90201-8
448:
7:
1750:Near-field scanning optical
1720:Ballistic electron emission
488:
328:
44:(bottom). Scale bars: 1 μm.
10:
2220:
1848:Scanning probe lithography
1521:10.1038/s41467-021-27216-5
759:10.1016/j.stam.2007.02.013
696:Journal of Applied Physics
662:10.1038/s41467-021-27216-5
243:across the sample using a
100:
2184:Scanning probe microscopy
2139:
2106:
2051:
2040:
1964:
1942:
1871:
1858:Feature-oriented scanning
1840:
1822:Scanning SQUID microscopy
1817:Scanning SQUID microscope
1712:
1698:
1645:
1639:Scanning probe microscopy
1351:10.1038/s41566-019-0456-9
814:10.1080/14786443209461931
787:10.1080/14786440808564615
495:Fluorescence spectroscopy
418:(TERS) is an offshoot of
156:
127:University College London
95:scanning probe microscopy
1802:Scanning joule expansion
1797:Scanning ion-conductance
1782:Scanning electrochemical
1745:Magnetic resonance force
1154:. Heidelberg: Springer.
36:flake using NSOM with a
2059:Fluorescence microscopy
2019:Structured illumination
1974:Bright-field microscopy
1853:Dip-pen nanolithography
1598:SNOM Scan Image Gallery
1554:Applied Physics Letters
1296:Applied Physics Letters
1214:10.1126/science.1227977
1064:Applied Physics Letters
943:Applied Physics Letters
445:nm has been reported.
403:Near-field spectroscopy
319:atomic force microscopy
106:Edward Hutchinson Synge
93:NSOM/SNOM is a form of
40:(top) and conventional
2131:Near-field (NSOM/SNOM)
2069:Multiphoton microscopy
1706:
370:
290:
281:
265:
214:
45:
25:
1984:Dark-field microscopy
1807:Scanning Kelvin probe
1704:
1501:Nature Communications
1444:Nature Communications
1179:Introduction to NSOM.
919:EP patent 0112401
631:Nature Communications
549:Nature Communications
364:
287:
279:
263:
215:
31:
20:Diagram illustrating
19:
2194:Laboratory equipment
2052:Fluorescence methods
1894:Vibrational analysis
1777:Scanning capacitance
385:avalanche photodiode
173:
34:molybdenum disulfide
2083:Image deconvolution
2064:Confocal microscopy
2004:Dispersion staining
1979:Köhler illumination
1792:Scanning Hall probe
1772:Piezoresponse force
1730:Electrostatic force
1566:2006ApPhL..89j1124O
1513:2021NatCo..12.6868M
1456:2013NatCo...4.2890A
1409:2012NanoL..12.3973H
1343:2019NaPho..13..636K
1308:2012ApPhL.101d3118H
1257:2000Natur.405..325M
1206:2012Sci...338.1317B
1200:(6112): 1317–1321.
1076:1986ApPhL..49..674H
1023:1986BpJ....49..269B
1011:Biophysical Journal
955:1984ApPhL..44..651P
881:1972Natur.237..510A
841:1956JOSA...46..359.
750:2007STAdM...8..181O
708:1986JAP....59.3318D
653:2021NatCo..12.6868M
561:2015NatCo...6.7993B
309:Feedback mechanisms
42:confocal microscopy
2204:Optical microscopy
1955:Optical microscopy
1936:Optical microscopy
1735:Kelvin probe force
1707:
1680:Scanning tunneling
1464:10.1038/ncomms3890
569:10.1038/ncomms8993
523:Herzog JB (2011).
371:
291:
282:
266:
251:Modes of operation
229:numerical aperture
210:
164:Rayleigh criterion
46:
26:
2171:
2170:
2116:Diffraction limit
1902:
1901:
1574:10.1063/1.2348781
1417:10.1021/nl301159v
1316:10.1063/1.4739235
1251:(6784): 325–328.
1161:978-3-540-28405-5
1108:978-0-19-510818-7
875:(5357): 510–512.
505:Near-field optics
206:
135:diffraction limit
22:near-field optics
2211:
2159:
2158:
2147:
2146:
2109:limit techniques
2046:
1967:contrast methods
1965:Illumination and
1929:
1922:
1915:
1906:
1905:
1863:Millipede memory
1832:Scanning voltage
1827:Scanning thermal
1632:
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1403:(8): 3973–3978.
1392:
1386:
1385:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1331:Nature Photonics
1326:
1320:
1319:
1291:
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1265:10.1038/35012545
1240:
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1189:
1183:
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1166:
1165:
1150:Kaupp G (2006).
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1097:Hecht E (2002).
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889:10.1038/237510a0
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716:10.1063/1.336848
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125:and Nicholls at
88:refractive index
73:evanescent waves
69:resolution limit
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474:polarization
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1668:Non-contact
1507:(1): 6868.
1070:(11): 674.
808:(83): 297.
781:(35): 356.
637:(1): 6868.
500:Nano-optics
461:Limitations
441:nano-FTIR.
428:merocyanine
380:stray light
289:modulation.
147:Dieter Pohl
110:diffraction
2199:Microscopy
2178:Categories
2073:Two-photon
1948:Microscope
1889:Microscopy
1884:Microscope
1658:Conductive
986:(3): 227.
949:(7): 651.
835:(5): 359.
744:(3): 181.
644:2006.04903
611:2017-04-06
511:References
478:near-field
114:near field
77:excitation
65:microscopy
1755:Nano-FTIR
1582:0003-6951
1367:256704795
1359:1749-4893
802:Phil. Mag
775:Phil. Mag
449:Artifacts
438:nano-FTIR
376:polarizer
189:λ
2150:Category
1872:See also
1663:Infrared
1539:34824270
1482:24301518
1450:: 2890.
1425:22703339
1273:10830956
1230:12220003
1222:23224550
1049:19431633
897:12635200
681:34824270
587:26269394
555:: 7993.
489:See also
339:staining
329:Contrast
241:rastered
2162:Commons
1600:at the
1562:Bibcode
1530:8617169
1509:Bibcode
1473:3863900
1452:Bibcode
1405:Bibcode
1339:Bibcode
1304:Bibcode
1281:1350535
1253:Bibcode
1202:Bibcode
1194:Science
1072:Bibcode
1040:1329633
1019:Bibcode
951:Bibcode
905:4144680
877:Bibcode
837:Bibcode
746:Bibcode
704:Bibcode
672:8617169
649:Bibcode
578:4557266
557:Bibcode
223:Here, λ
143:optical
112:in the
101:History
63:) is a
2024:Sarfus
1646:Common
1580:
1537:
1527:
1480:
1470:
1423:
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1245:Nature
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157:Theory
2034:Raman
1713:Other
1363:S2CID
1277:S2CID
1226:S2CID
901:S2CID
639:arXiv
530:(PDF)
397:Raman
80:laser
55:) or
1578:ISSN
1535:PMID
1478:PMID
1421:PMID
1355:ISSN
1269:PMID
1218:PMID
1156:ISBN
1103:ISBN
1045:PMID
893:PMID
677:PMID
583:PMID
436:The
349:and
183:0.61
131:Abbe
61:SNOM
53:NSOM
1570:doi
1525:PMC
1517:doi
1468:PMC
1460:doi
1413:doi
1347:doi
1312:doi
1300:101
1261:doi
1249:405
1210:doi
1198:338
1080:doi
1035:PMC
1027:doi
988:doi
959:doi
885:doi
873:237
810:doi
783:doi
754:doi
712:doi
667:PMC
657:doi
573:PMC
565:doi
393:CCD
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
