31:
496:
595:
453:
408:
431:
eruption to the mid-15th century, while high and blended chronologies push the date back to a point in between Evans' and low chronologies, a more commonly accepted specific date of approximately 1628, though the date is by no means generally agreed. The precise date is of more concern to archaeologists of the Asian mainland and
Ancient Egypt, where volcanic ash from Thera is widely evident, and there are established competing chronologies, than to those of Crete.
603:
burned while the palace itself did not. The causes of these destructions have been a perennial topic of debate. While some researchers attributed them to
Mycenaean conquerors, others have argued that they were the result of internal upheavals. Similarly, while some researchers have attempted to link them to lingering environmental disruption from the Thera eruption, others have argued that the two events are too distant in time for any causal relation.
460:
Early Minoan society developed largely continuously from local
Neolithic predecessors, with some cultural influence and perhaps migration from eastern populations. This period saw a gradual shift from localized clan-based villages towards the more urbanized and stratified society of later periods.
602:
Late Minoan IB (c. 1625-1470 BC) ended with severe destructions throughout the island, marking the end of
Neopalatial society. These destructions are thought to have been deliberate, since they spared certain sites in a manner inconsistent with natural disasters. For instance, the town at Knossos
510:
society. During MM IA (c. 2100-1925 BC), populations increased dramatically at sites such as
Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia, accompanied by major construction projects. During MM IB (c. 1925-1875 BC), the first palaces were built at these sites, in areas which had been used for communal ceremonies
467:(c. 3100-2650 BC) is marked by the appearance of the first painted ceramics. Continuing a trend that began during the Neolithic, settlements grew in size and complexity, and spread from fertile plains towards highland sites and islands as the Minoans learned to exploit less hospitable terrain.
430:
The Theran eruption plays a role in both the high and low chronological approaches, although there is a difference in the date range each system assigns to the event. In his initial framework, Evans vaguely assigned the eruption to the 17th century BCE. Low chronological assessments revise the
473:(c. 2650-2200 BC) has been termed an international era. Trade intensified and Minoan ships began sailing beyond the Aegean to Egypt and Syria, possibly enabled by the invention of masted ships. Minoan material culture shows increased international influence, for instance in the adoption of
586:
and led to the abandonment of some sites in northeast Crete, other Minoan sites such as
Knossos continued to prosper. The post-eruption LM IB period (c.1625-1470) saw ambitious new building projects, booming international trade, and artistic developments such as the
438:
debris to pinpoint the exact timing of the event, and therefore which Minoan period it belongs in. However, the broadness of radiocarbon dating has also resulted in dates for the eruption of Thera that do not precisely match evidence from the archeological record.
378:
has proved difficult. Archaeologists have attempted to determine calendar dates by synchronizing the periods of Minoan relative chronology with those of better understood neighbors. For example, Minoan artifacts from the LM IB ceramic period have been found in
353:
in 1961, though later scholars have proposed variants and refinements. This system is often used side-by-side with the ceramic chronology, since the two are commensurate. For instance, the
Prepalatial period covers the ceramic phases EM I through MM IA.
1485:
574:, which occurred around 1600 BC towards the end of the LM IA subperiod. One of the largest volcanic explosions in recorded history, it ejected about 60 to 100 cubic kilometres (14 to 24 cu mi) of material and was measured at 7 on the
543:
period. Most of the palaces were rebuilt with architectural innovations, with the notable exception of
Phaistos. Cretan hieroglyphs were abandoned in favor of Linear A, and Minoan cultural influence becomes significant in mainland Greece.
363:
634:, coastal settlements were abandoned in favor of defensible locations on higher ground. These small villages, some of which grew out of earlier mountain shrines, continued aspects of recognizably Minoan culture until the
399:, which is known to have occurred towards the end of the LM IA period. While carbon dating places this event (and thus LM IA) around 1600 BC, synchronism with Egyptian records would place it roughly a century later.
619:(c. 1420-1075 BC) shows profound social and political changes. Among the palaces, only Knossos remained in use, though it too was destroyed by LM IIIB2 and possibly earlier. The language of administration shifted to
310:
during his excavations at
Knossos. It remains the standard in Minoan archaeology, though it has been revised and refined by subsequent researchers and some aspects remain under debate.
419:
The timing of natural disasters is of importance to high and low chronologies, which can use the resulting geological evidence to date co-located artifacts. The eruption of the
1289:
Sigurdsson H, Carey S, Alexandri M, Vougioukalakis G, Croff K, Roman C, Sakellariou D, Anagnostou C, Rousakis G, Ioakim C, Gogou A, Ballas D, Misaridis T, Nomikou P (2006).
552:
The Late Minoan period was an eventful time that saw profound change in Minoan society. Many of the most recognizable Minoan artifacts date from this time, for instance the
434:
High chronological techniques such as radiocarbon dating can be used in conjunction with evidence from artifacts indirectly related to the eruption, such as eruption-caused
1262:"Modelling the Climatic Effects of the LBA Eruption of Thera: New Calculations of Tephra Volumes May Suggest a Significantly Larger Eruption than Previously Reported"
288:. These eras are divided into sub-eras using Roman numerals (e.g. EM I, EM II, EM III) and sub-sub-eras using capital letters (e.g. LM IIIA, LMIIIB, LM IIIC).
499:
The western facade of the Palace at
Knossos. Like other palaces, it was built during the Middle Minoan era but continually renovated throughout its existence.
334:
period, often considered the zenith of Minoan civilization, begins with the rebuilding of the palaces, and ends with yet another wave of destructions. The
901:
Friedrich, Walter L; Kromer, B; Friedrich, M; Heinemeier, J; Pfeiffer, T; Talamo, S (2006). "Santorini Eruption Radiocarbon Dated to 1627–1600 B.C".
533:. It ended with mass destructions generally attributed to earthquakes, though violent destruction has been considered as an alternative explanation.
609:(c. 1470-1420 BC) is sparsely represented in the archaeological record, but appears to have been a period of decline. It marks the beginning of the
1491:
478:
846:
Manning, Sturt W; Ramsey, CB; Kutschera, W; Higham, T; Kromer, B; Steier, P; Wild, EM (2006). "Chronology for the Aegean Late Bronze Age 1700–1400
295:
of pottery styles excavated at Minoan sites. For instance, the transition from EM III to MM IA is characterized by the appearance of handmade
1518:
1348:
A Test of Time: The Volcano of Thera and the chronology and history of the Aegean and east Mediterranean in the mid second millennium BC
481:. Minoan settlements grew, some doubling in size, and monumental buildings were constructed at sites that would later become palaces.
1464:
338:
period covers the era in which Minoan culture continued in the absence of the palaces. Some variants of this system include a
1917:
1070:
1026:
367:
17:
387:
provides generally accepted calendar dates. However, dates determined in this manner do not always match the results of
1290:
1198:
1110:
815:
742:
688:
30:
1741:
1511:
1435:
1395:
1355:
1223:
1160:
1135:
767:
570:(c. 1700-1470 BC) was a continuation of the prosperous Neopalatial culture. A notable event from this era was the
346:
period between the Neo- and Postpalatial periods, corresponding to era when the palace at Knossos was reoccupied.
2019:
2014:
1942:
2024:
1867:
1247:
553:
1665:
1932:
1716:
1504:
627:, and material culture shows increased mainland influence, reflecting the rise of a Greek-speaking elite.
2045:
1609:
583:
575:
292:
58:
594:
1857:
654:
This chronology is based on Manning (2012), which gives absolute dates based on radiocarbon dating.
631:
76:
has proved difficult, since different methodologies provide different results. For instance, while
2050:
1952:
1872:
557:
495:
1190:
1102:
807:
734:
680:
1862:
1852:
38:
pot, characteristic of the Late Minoan IB ceramic period that followed the eruption of Thera.
588:
561:
330:
era begins with the construction of the first palaces, and ends with their destruction. The
1882:
1305:
859:
511:
since the Neolithic. Middle Minoan artisans developed new colorful paints and adopted the
8:
2055:
1527:
384:
85:
50:
1309:
863:
318:
An alternative framework divides Minoan history based on the construction phases of the
1978:
1937:
1907:
1685:
1321:
1261:
999:
926:
883:
526:
1474:
944:
452:
1922:
1690:
1431:
1391:
1351:
1243:
1219:
1194:
1156:
1131:
1106:
1066:
1022:
991:
918:
875:
811:
763:
738:
684:
512:
300:
1479:
1325:
1057:
Höflmayer, Felix (2009). "Aegean-Egyptian Synchronisms and Radiocarbon Chronology".
1019:
Timelines: Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 149)
1003:
930:
887:
1576:
1313:
1186:
1098:
981:
910:
867:
803:
730:
676:
1373:
Architecture of Minoan Crete : Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age
1044:
Architecture of Minoan Crete : Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age
709:
Architecture of Minoan Crete : Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age
1988:
1847:
1571:
1566:
986:
969:
635:
620:
571:
420:
396:
392:
375:
350:
81:
73:
54:
1892:
1787:
1640:
1619:
1561:
1551:
319:
66:
62:
2039:
1983:
1947:
1927:
1912:
1877:
1726:
388:
77:
1413:
Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age
1329:
914:
871:
833:
Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age
671:
Manning, Stuart (2012). "Chronology and Terminology". In Cline, Eric (ed.).
2009:
1993:
1897:
1812:
1792:
1645:
1635:
1556:
995:
922:
900:
879:
516:
474:
380:
307:
1887:
1807:
1782:
1317:
1017:
Warren PM (2006). Czerny E, Hein I, Hunger H, Melman D, Schwab A (eds.).
362:
276:
The standard relative chronology divides Minoan history into three eras:
1291:"Marine Investigations of Greece's Santorini or Akrotiri Volcanic Field"
598:
Tablet with Linear B writing, a development of the late palatial period.
407:
1822:
1766:
1695:
1541:
326:
period covers the timespan before the construction of the palaces. The
296:
46:
1496:
1469:
1288:
845:
1797:
1746:
1721:
1700:
525:(c. 1875-1750 BC) saw the development of the Minoan writing systems,
424:
299:
pottery; the transition from MMIA to MM IB follows the appearance of
1093:
Tomkins, Peter; Schoep, Ilse (2012). "Crete". In Cline, Eric (ed.).
65:
styles, while the other is based on the architectural phases of the
1973:
1968:
1902:
1827:
1817:
1731:
1660:
1604:
970:"New Carbon Dates Support Revised History of Ancient Mediterranean"
725:
Hallager, Birgitta (2012). "Minoan Pottery". In Cline, Eric (ed.).
624:
579:
530:
427:
is of particular significance to the chronology of Minoan history.
1756:
1751:
1736:
1675:
1655:
1650:
1599:
1415:. Web: University of Texas Press. pp. 117–120, 122, 126–130.
630:
In Late Minoan IIIC (c. 1200-1075 BC), coinciding with the wider
435:
412:
613:, as the palace at Knossos was the sole one remaining in use.
1761:
1680:
1670:
1614:
1454:
1802:
1375:. University of Texas Press. pp. 117–120, 122, 126–130.
1457:, using the chronology of Andonis Vasilakis in his book on
1021:. Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Peeters. pp. 2: 305–321.
666:
664:
662:
660:
1269:
Chapman Conference on Volcanism and the Earth's Atmosphere
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
657:
487:(c. 2200-2100 BC) saw the continuation of these trends.
69:. These systems are often used alongside one another.
798:
Hallager, Erik (2012). "Crete". In Cline, Eric (ed.).
1079:
835:. Web: University of Texas Press. pp. 9, 19, 31.
395:. Much of the controversy concerns the dating of the
1181:
Schoep, Ilse (2012). "Crete". In Cline, Eric (ed.).
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
781:
779:
1259:
1176:
1174:
1172:
2037:
1430:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–201.
1046:. Web: University of Texas Press. pp. 7, 6.
720:
718:
711:. web: University of Texas Press. pp. 6, 7.
349:The architectural periodization was proposed by
27:Measure of the phases of the Minoan civilization
1390:. Cambridge University Press. p. 188-201.
776:
1364:
1218:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–76.
1169:
1155:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 38–48.
1130:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–38.
313:
1512:
1185:. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–125.
1092:
802:. Oxford University Press. pp. 149–159.
729:. Oxford University Press. pp. 405–414.
715:
539:(c. 1750-1700 BC) marks the beginning of the
1482:in the Foundation of the Hellenic World site
1271:. Thera, Greece: American Geographical Union
1183:The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean
1095:The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean
1059:Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens
800:The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean
727:The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean
673:The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean
1097:. Oxford University Press. pp. 66–82.
675:. Oxford University Press. pp. 11–28.
1519:
1505:
1282:
762:. Cambridge University Press. p. 24.
370:found in an 18th Dynasty context in Egypt.
57:are used for the Minoans. One is based on
1253:
1056:
1016:
985:
967:
797:
724:
593:
494:
451:
406:
361:
271:
88:would place it roughly a century later.
29:
1526:
1425:
1410:
1385:
1370:
1350:. Print: Oxbow Books. pp. 18, 19.
1345:
1213:
1191:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0008
1150:
1125:
1103:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0005
1041:
830:
808:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0011
757:
735:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0030
706:
681:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0002
670:
506:(c. 2100-1875 BC) saw the emergence of
14:
2038:
1232:
1180:
839:
515:during MM IB, producing wares such as
266:
1500:
423:volcano on what is now the island of
1461:, published by Adam Editions in 2000
702:
700:
456:An Early Minoan bird-shaped vessel.
411:The remains of the Thera volcano's
24:
1918:Minoan frescoes from Tell el-Dab'a
1404:
824:
402:
357:
49:used to divide the history of the
25:
2067:
1448:
697:
442:
306:This framework was originated by
84:around 1600 BC, synchronism with
490:
2020:Archaeological Museum of Chania
2015:Heraklion Archaeological Museum
1943:Papoura Hill Circular Structure
1419:
1379:
1339:
1207:
1144:
1119:
1050:
1035:
1010:
961:
937:
578:. While the eruption destroyed
447:
2025:Archaeological Museum of Sitia
894:
751:
648:
547:
13:
1:
1428:Minoan Crete: An Introduction
1388:Minoan Crete: An Introduction
1216:Minoan Crete: An Introduction
1153:Minoan Crete: An Introduction
1128:Minoan Crete: An Introduction
760:Minoan Crete: An Introduction
572:eruption of the Thera volcano
383:contexts in Egypt, for which
1933:Minoan Moulds of Palaikastro
1260:McCoy, FW; Dunn, SE (2002).
1242:, C.H. Beck, München, 2002.
987:10.1126/science.312.5773.508
291:This system is based on the
7:
391:and other methods based on
314:Architectural periodization
10:
2072:
1470:World History Encyclopedia
1426:Watrous, L. Vance (2021).
1386:Watrous, L. Vance (2021).
1346:Manning, Sturt W. (1999).
1214:Watrous, L. Vance (2021).
1151:Watrous, L. Vance (2021).
1126:Watrous, L. Vance (2021).
758:Watrous, L. Vance (2021).
576:Volcanic Explosivity Index
2002:
1961:
1840:
1775:
1709:
1628:
1592:
1585:
1534:
1411:McEnroe, John C. (2010).
1371:McEnroe, John C. (2010).
1042:McEnroe, John C. (2010).
831:McEnroe, John C. (2010).
707:McEnroe, John C. (2010).
223:
184:
157:
106:
1858:Hagia Triada Sarcophagus
1240:Die Griechische Frühzeit
641:
632:Late Bronze Age collapse
564:of pottery decoration.
1953:Wall Paintings of Thera
1868:Snake goddess figurines
915:10.1126/science.1125087
872:10.1126/science.1125682
554:Snake goddess figurines
1873:La Parisienne (fresco)
1492:University of Oklahoma
599:
500:
457:
416:
371:
322:. In this system, the
39:
1863:Horns of Consecration
1853:Akrotiri Boxer Fresco
1238:Karl-Wilhelm Welwei:
597:
498:
455:
410:
365:
272:Ceramic periodization
33:
1883:Prince of the Lilies
1841:Art and Architecture
1486:Companion to Manning
1318:10.1029/2006EO340001
582:settlements such as
558:La Parisienne Fresco
1528:Minoan civilization
1310:2006EOSTr..87..337S
864:2006Sci...312..565M
611:Monopalatial period
527:Cretan hieroglyphic
477:based on the older
385:Egyptian chronology
376:absolute chronology
368:Minoan-style fresco
267:Relative chronology
93:
74:absolute chronology
55:relative chronology
51:Minoan civilization
18:Neo-palatial period
2046:Minoan archaeology
1989:Arkalochori script
1979:Cretan hieroglyphs
1938:Minoan Bull-leaper
1908:Knossos board game
968:Balter, M (2006).
600:
501:
458:
417:
372:
301:wheel-made pottery
282:Middle Minoan (MM)
92:Minoan chronology
91:
47:framework of dates
40:
2033:
2032:
1923:Malia altar stone
1836:
1835:
1547:Minoan chronology
1465:Dartmouth College
1335:on June 30, 2007.
1072:978-87-7934-024-4
1028:978-90-429-1730-9
980:(5773): 508–509.
858:(5773): 565–569.
479:Near Eastern seal
397:eruption of Thera
278:Early Minoan (EM)
264:
263:
82:eruption of Thera
53:. Two systems of
43:Minoan chronology
16:(Redirected from
2063:
1590:
1589:
1577:Peak sanctuaries
1521:
1514:
1507:
1498:
1497:
1475:Thera Foundation
1442:
1441:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1334:
1328:. Archived from
1295:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1277:
1276:
1266:
1257:
1251:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1178:
1167:
1166:
1148:
1142:
1141:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1090:
1077:
1076:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1039:
1033:
1032:
1014:
1008:
1007:
989:
965:
959:
958:
956:
955:
949:Thera Foundation
941:
935:
934:
898:
892:
891:
849:
843:
837:
836:
828:
822:
821:
795:
774:
773:
755:
749:
748:
722:
713:
712:
704:
695:
694:
668:
655:
652:
374:Establishing an
286:Late Minoan (LM)
256:
244:
232:
217:
205:
193:
178:
166:
151:
139:
127:
115:
100:
94:
90:
86:Egyptian records
72:Establishing an
21:
2071:
2070:
2066:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2061:
2060:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2029:
1998:
1957:
1848:Aegina Treasure
1832:
1771:
1705:
1624:
1581:
1572:Minoan eruption
1567:Minoan religion
1530:
1525:
1451:
1446:
1445:
1438:
1424:
1420:
1409:
1405:
1398:
1384:
1380:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1304:(34): 337–348.
1293:
1287:
1283:
1274:
1272:
1264:
1258:
1254:
1237:
1233:
1226:
1212:
1208:
1201:
1179:
1170:
1163:
1149:
1145:
1138:
1124:
1120:
1113:
1091:
1080:
1073:
1055:
1051:
1040:
1036:
1029:
1015:
1011:
966:
962:
953:
951:
943:
942:
938:
899:
895:
847:
844:
840:
829:
825:
818:
796:
777:
770:
756:
752:
745:
723:
716:
705:
698:
691:
669:
658:
653:
649:
644:
621:Mycenaean Greek
617:Late Minoan III
550:
493:
450:
445:
405:
403:Theran eruption
393:natural science
360:
358:Absolute dating
351:Nikolaos Platon
316:
274:
269:
254:
242:
230:
215:
203:
191:
176:
164:
149:
137:
125:
113:
98:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2069:
2059:
2058:
2053:
2051:Minoan culture
2048:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2006:
2004:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1965:
1963:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1893:Harvester Vase
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1844:
1842:
1838:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1706:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1596:
1594:
1587:
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1776:Sanctuaries
1742:Nea Roumata
1686:Monastiraki
1646:Palaikastro
1629:Settlements
1480:L. Marangou
1250:. pp. 12–18
548:Late Minoan
541:Neopalatial
332:Neopalatial
324:Prepalatial
80:places the
2056:Chronology
2040:Categories
1823:Traostalos
1767:Yerokambos
1696:Vathypetro
1542:Minoan art
1275:2007-05-29
1248:3406479855
954:2009-01-03
560:, and the
297:polychrome
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1701:Zominthos
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59:sequences
2003:See also
1974:Linear B
1969:Linear A
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