472:
771:
2429:
637:
362:
933:
54:
2865:
1659:
1651:
967:: single process. Unipolar cells are exclusively sensory neurons. Their dendrites are receiving sensory information, sometimes directly from the stimulus itself. The cell bodies of unipolar neurons are always found in ganglia. Sensory reception is a peripheral function, so the cell body is in the periphery, though closer to the CNS in a ganglion. The axon projects from the dendrite endings, past the cell body in a ganglion, and into the central nervous system.
1912:
756:
1738:
1291:
7406:
2193:
626:
2013:
1188:. Similarly, GABA acts on several types of receptors, but all of them have inhibitory effects (in adult animals, at least). Because of this consistency, it is common for neuroscientists to refer to cells that release glutamate as "excitatory neurons", and cells that release GABA as "inhibitory neurons". Some other types of neurons have consistent effects, for example, "excitatory" motor neurons in the spinal cord that release
747:. The interactions between ion channels and ion pumps produce a voltage difference across the membrane, typically a bit less than 1/10 of a volt at baseline. This voltage has two functions: first, it provides a power source for an assortment of voltage-dependent protein machinery that is embedded in the membrane; second, it provides a basis for electrical signal transmission between different parts of the membrane.
2085:
1997:
878:
7418:
4661:
723:, but in neurons, many of the protein structures embedded in the membrane are electrically active. These include ion channels that permit electrically charged ions to flow across the membrane and ion pumps that chemically transport ions from one side of the membrane to the other. Most ion channels are permeable only to specific types of ions. Some ion channels are
858:
2173:, a common subject in biological experiments, has around 100,000 neurons and exhibits many complex behaviors. Many properties of neurons, from the type of neurotransmitters used to ion channel composition, are maintained across species, allowing scientists to study processes occurring in more complex organisms in much simpler experimental systems.
1828:, stretch, chemical transmitters, and changes of the electric potential across the cell membrane. Stimuli cause specific ion-channels within the cell membrane to open, leading to a flow of ions through the cell membrane, changing the membrane potential. Neurons must maintain the specific electrical properties that define their neuron type.
4762:... a man who would write a highly influential review of the evidence in favor of the neuron doctrine two years later. In his paper, Waldeyer (1891), ... , wrote that nerve cells terminate freely with end arborizations and that the 'neuron' is the anatomical and physiological unit of the nervous system. The word 'neuron' was born this way.
645:
1157:. The effect upon the postsynaptic neuron is determined by the type of receptor that is activated, not by the presynaptic neuron or by the neurotransmitter. A neurotransmitter can be thought of as a key, and a receptor as a lock: the same neurotransmitter can activate multiple types of receptors. Receptors can be classified broadly as
1473:. When blood flow is suppressed, glutamate is released from presynaptic neurons, causing greater NMDA and AMPA receptor activation than normal outside of stress conditions, leading to elevated Ca and Na entering the post synaptic neuron and cell damage. Glutamate is synthesized from the amino acid glutamine by the enzyme
2116:, which are non-neuronal, play an essential role in information processing. Also, electrical synapses are more common than previously thought, comprising direct, cytoplasmic connections between neurons. In fact, neurons can form even tighter couplings: the squid giant axon arises from the fusion of multiple axons.
1934:
respond to a steady stimulus and produce a steady rate of firing. Tonic receptors most often respond to increased stimulus intensity by increasing their firing frequency, usually as a power function of stimulus plotted against impulses per second. This can be likened to an intrinsic property of light
530:
Neurons are highly specialized for the processing and transmission of cellular signals. Given their diversity of functions performed in different parts of the nervous system, there is a wide variety in their shape, size, and electrochemical properties. For instance, the soma of a neuron can vary from
1950:
is one such structure. It has concentric layers like an onion, which form around the axon terminal. When pressure is applied and the corpuscle is deformed, mechanical stimulus is transferred to the axon, which fires. If the pressure is steady, the stimulus ends; thus, these neurons typically respond
1623:
community to come up with a universal classification of neurons that will apply to all neurons in the brain as well as across species. This is done by considering the three essential qualities of all neurons: electrophysiology, morphology, and the individual transcriptome of the cells. Besides being
660:
Axons and dendrites in the central nervous system are typically only about one micrometer thick, while some in the peripheral nervous system are much thicker. The soma is usually about 10â25 micrometers in diameter and often is not much larger than the cell nucleus it contains. The longest axon of a
902:
grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and type II with short axons, which can often be confused with dendrites. Type I cells can be further classified by the location of the soma. The basic morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal
314:
Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite. The signaling process
1203:
The distinction between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters is not absolute. Rather, it depends on the class of chemical receptors present on the postsynaptic neuron. In principle, a single neuron, releasing a single neurotransmitter, can have excitatory effects on some targets, inhibitory
2128:
Although neurons are often described of as "fundamental units" of the brain, they perform internal computations. Neurons integrate input within dendrites, and this complexity is lost in models that assume neurons to be a fundamental unit. Dendritic branches can be modeled as spatial compartments,
727:, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by altering the voltage difference across the membrane. Others are chemically gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by interactions with chemicals that diffuse through the extracellular fluid. The
1409:
ions to enter the post synaptic neuron. Cl causes hyperpolarization within the neuron, decreasing the probability of an action potential firing as the voltage becomes more negative (for an action potential to fire, a positive voltage threshold must be reached). GABA is synthesized from glutamate
2119:
RamĂłn y Cajal also postulated the Law of
Dynamic Polarization, which states that a neuron receives signals at its dendrites and cell body and transmits them, as action potentials, along the axon in one direction: away from the cell body. The Law of Dynamic Polarization has important exceptions;
1492:
is a neurotransmitter that acts on D1 type (D1 and D5) Gs-coupled receptors, which increase cAMP and PKA, and D2 type (D2, D3, and D4) receptors, which activate Gi-coupled receptors that decrease cAMP and PKA. Dopamine is connected to mood and behavior and modulates both pre- and post-synaptic
2442:
is a process characterized by the gradual loss of the myelin sheath enveloping nerve fibers. When myelin deteriorates, signal conduction along nerves can be significantly impaired or lost, and the nerve eventually withers. Demyelination may affect both central and peripheral nervous systems,
1929:
response. In other words, if a neuron responds at all, then it must respond completely. Greater intensity of stimulation, like brighter image/louder sound, does not produce a stronger signal but can increase firing frequency. Receptors respond in different ways to stimuli. Slowly adapting or
2108:
The neuron doctrine is the now fundamental idea that neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. The theory was put forward by
Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal in the late 19th century. It held that neurons are discrete cells (not connected in a meshwork), acting as
2795:
Najle, Sebastiån R.; Grau-Bové, Xavier; Elek, Anamaria; Navarrete, Cristina; Cianferoni, Damiano; Chiva, Cristina; Cañas-Armenteros, Didac; Mallabiabarrena, Arrate; Kamm, Kai; Sabidó, Eduard; Gruber-Vodicka, Harald; Schierwater, Bernd; Serrano, Luis; Sebé-Pedrós, Arnau (Oct 2023).
1674:
of one cell contacts another neuron's dendrite, soma or, less commonly, axon. Neurons such as
Purkinje cells in the cerebellum can have over 1000 dendritic branches, making connections with tens of thousands of other cells; other neurons, such as the magnocellular neurons of the
580:
away from the soma and carries some types of information back to it. Many neurons have only one axon, but this axon mayâand usually willâundergo extensive branching, enabling communication with many target cells. The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma is called the
3203:
Zecca L, Gallorini M, SchĂŒnemann V, Trautwein AX, Gerlach M, Riederer P, Vezzoni P, Tampellini D (March 2001). "Iron, neuromelanin and ferritin content in the substantia nigra of normal subjects at different ages: consequences for iron storage and neurodegenerative processes".
2498:(caused by the influx of calcium ion), suggesting that axonal degeneration is an active process that produces complete fragmentation. The process takes about roughly 24 hours in the PNS and longer in the CNS. The signaling pathways leading to axolemma degeneration are unknown.
224:
secretory cells. They eventually gained new gene modules which enabled cells to create post-synaptic scaffolds and ion channels that generate fast electrical signals. The ability to generate electric signals was a key innovation in the evolution of the nervous system.
1632:. In 2023, a comprehensive cell atlas of the adult, and developing human brain at the transcriptional, epigenetic, and functional levels was created through an international collaboration of researchers using the most cutting-edge molecular biology approaches.
2326:), which usually manifests as minor forgetfulness that becomes steadily more pronounced with illness progression, with relative preservation of older memories. As the disorder progresses, cognitive (intellectual) impairment extends to the domains of language (
1942:
which, when touched causes neurons to fire, but if the object maintains even pressure, the neurons stop firing. The neurons of the skin and muscles that are responsive to pressure and vibration have filtering accessory structures that aid their function.
1702:
filled with neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with the membrane, releasing their contents into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and activate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. High cytosolic calcium in the
647:
652:
650:
646:
5584:, is the latest in a fast-moving field called transdifferentiation, in which cells are forced to adopt new identities. In the past year, researchers have converted connective tissue cells found in skin into heart cells, blood cells, and liver cells.
1951:
with a transient depolarization during the initial deformation and again when the pressure is removed, which causes the corpuscle to change shape again. Other types of adaptation are important in extending the function of a number of other neurons.
4579:
in 1888. He acknowledged that he found the nerve fibers to be very intricate, but stated that he could find no evidence for either axons or dendrites undergoing anastomosis and forming nets. He called each nervous element 'an absolutely autonomous
1223:
glutamate receptors. When light is present, the photoreceptors cease releasing glutamate, which relieves the ON bipolar cells from inhibition, activating them; this simultaneously removes the excitation from the OFF bipolar cells, silencing them.
651:
5579:
By transforming cells from human skin into working nerve cells, researchers may have come up with a model for nervous-system diseases and perhaps even regenerative therapies based on cell transplants. The achievement, reported online today in
291:. The soma is a compact structure, and the axon and dendrites are filaments extruding from the soma. Dendrites typically branch profusely and extend a few hundred micrometers from the soma. The axon leaves the soma at a swelling called the
2296:) that is characterized by loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation, predominantly in the feet and legs extending to the hands and arms in advanced stages. Presently incurable, this disease is one of the most common inherited
4178:
OâLeary, Olivia F.; Ogbonnaya, Ebere S.; Felice, Daniela; Levone, Brunno R.; C. Conroy, Lorraine; Fitzgerald, Patrick; Bravo, Javier A.; Forsythe, Paul; Bienenstock, John; Dinan, Timothy G.; Cryan, John F. (1 February 2018).
3974:
Ucar, Hasan; Watanabe, Satoshi; Noguchi, Jun; Morimoto, Yuichi; Iino, Yusuke; Yagishita, Sho; Takahashi, Noriko; Kasai, Haruo (December 2021). "Mechanical actions of dendritic-spine enlargement on presynaptic exocytosis".
1729:
has some 8.6 x 10 (eighty six billion) neurons. Each neuron has on average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons. It has been estimated that the brain of a three-year-old child has about 10 synapses (1 quadrillion).
4783:
Today, Wilhelm von
Waldeyer-Hartz is remembered as the founder of the neurone theory, coining the term "neurone" to describe the cellular function unit of the nervous system and enunciating and clarifying that concept in
1801:
could be used to study neuronal electrical properties. It is larger than but similar to human neurons, making it easier to study. By inserting electrodes into the squid giant axons, accurate measurements were made of the
1785:, the brain's main immune cells via specialised contact sites, called "somatic junctions". These connections enable microglia to constantly monitor and regulate neuronal functions, and exert neuroprotection, when needed.
649:
1682:
Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory, either increasing or decreasing activity in the target neuron, respectively. Some neurons also communicate via electrical synapses, which are direct, electrically conductive
6438:
6156:
841:
is found almost exclusively in neurons. Actin is predominately found at the tips of axons and dendrites during neuronal development. There the actin dynamics can be modulated via an interplay with microtubule.
6097:
4087:
Schiapparelli, Lucio M.; Sharma, Pranav; He, Hai-Yan; Li, Jianli; Shah, Sahil H.; McClatchy, Daniel B.; Ma, Yuanhui; Liu, Han-Hsuan; Goldberg, Jeffrey L.; Yates, John R.; Cline, Hollis T. (25 January 2022).
2588:
forms before birth and persists without replacement. The extent to which adult neurogenesis exists in humans, and its contribution to cognition are controversial, with conflicting reports published in 2018.
562:
of a neuron are cellular extensions with many branches. This overall shape and structure are referred to metaphorically as a dendritic tree. This is where the majority of input to the neuron occurs via the
5515:
Kempermann G, Gage FH, Aigner L, Song H, Curtis MA, Thuret S, Kuhn HG, Jessberger S, Frankland PW, Cameron HA, Gould E, Hen R, Abrous DN, Toni N, Schinder AF, Zhao X, Lucassen PJ, Frisén J (July 2018).
1856:
than in unmyelinated axons of the same diameter, whilst using less energy. The myelin sheath in peripheral nerves normally runs along the axon in sections about 1 mm long, punctuated by unsheathed
1835:
expense to produce and carry action potentials, but thicker axons convey impulses more rapidly. To minimize metabolic expense while maintaining rapid conduction, many neurons have insulating sheaths of
2076:
investigations because, for reasons unknown, it stains only a small percentage of cells in a tissue, exposing the complete micro structure of individual neurons without much overlap from other cells.
3247:
Herrero MT, Hirsch EC, Kastner A, Luquin MR, Javoy-Agid F, Gonzalo LM, Obeso JA, Agid Y (1993). "Neuromelanin accumulation with age in catecholaminergic neurons from Macaca fascicularis brainstem".
2603:
in the mammalian brain, progenitor and stem cells progress from proliferative divisions to differentiative divisions. This progression leads to the neurons and glia that populate cortical layers.
5240:
Krajewski KM, Lewis RA, Fuerst DR, Turansky C, Hinderer SR, Garbern J, Kamholz J, Shy ME (July 2000). "Neurological dysfunction and axonal degeneration in
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A".
3011:
1809:
The cell membrane of the axon and soma contain voltage-gated ion channels that allow the neuron to generate and propagate an electrical signal (an action potential). Some neurons also generate
633:
The accepted view of the neuron attributes dedicated functions to its various anatomical components; however, dendrites and axons often act in ways contrary to their so-called main function.
6032:
5707:
Cserép, Csaba; Schwarcz, Anett D.; Pósfai, Balåzs; Låszló, Zsófia I.; Kellermayer, Anna; Környei, Zsuzsanna; Kisfali, Måté; Nyerges, Miklós; Lele, Zsolt; Katona, Istvån (September 2022).
1528:(5-Hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) can act as excitatory or inhibitory. Of its four 5-HT receptor classes, 3 are GPCR and 1 is a ligand-gated cation channel. Serotonin is synthesized from
1212:
are, like most neurons, excited by the released glutamate. However, neighboring target neurons called ON bipolar cells are instead inhibited by glutamate, because they lack typical
1887:
is concerned with how sensory and other information is represented in the brain by neurons. The main goal of studying neural coding is to characterize the relationship between the
2592:
The body contains a variety of stem cell types that have the capacity to differentiate into neurons. Researchers found a way to transform human skin cells into nerve cells using
648:
6538:
794:(1860â1919), they are involved in protein synthesis and their prominence can be explained by the fact that nerve cells are very metabolically active. Basophilic dyes such as
216:
do not have nerve cells. Molecular evidence suggests that the ability to generate electric signals first appeared in evolution some 700 to 800 million years ago, during the
295:
and travels for as far as 1 meter in humans or more in other species. It branches but usually maintains a constant diameter. At the farthest tip of the axon's branches are
264:
connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain or spinal cord. When multiple neurons are functionally connected together, they form what is called a
1227:
It is possible to identify the type of inhibitory effect a presynaptic neuron will have on a postsynaptic neuron, based on the proteins the presynaptic neuron expresses.
849:, except some in the initial segment. Dendrites contain granular endoplasmic reticulum or ribosomes, in diminishing amounts as the distance from the cell body increases.
2487:
in the paranodal regions at the site of injury. Endoplasmic reticulum degrades and mitochondria swell up and eventually disintegrate. The disintegration is dependent on
889:
5998:
2879:
Betts, J Gordon; Desaix, Peter; Johnson, Eddie; Johnson, Jody E; Korol, Oksana; Kruse, Dean; Poe, Brandon; Wise, James; Womble, Mark D; Young, Kelly A (June 8, 2023).
4693:
López-Muñoz F, Boya J, Alamo C (October 2006). "Neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to
Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal".
576:
is a finer, cable-like projection that can extend tens, hundreds, or even tens of thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. The axon primarily carries
2348:, is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs motor skills and speech. Parkinson's disease belongs to a group of conditions called
5395:
6011:
3629:
2654:
At different stages of mammalian nervous system development two DNA repair processes are employed in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks. These pathways are
2028:
The neuron's place as the primary functional unit of the nervous system was first recognized in the late 19th century through the work of the
Spanish anatomist
676:
have single axons several meters in length running along the entire length of their necks. Much of what is known about axonal function comes from studying the
591:. This makes it the most easily excited part of the neuron and the spike initiation zone for the axon. In electrophysiological terms, it has the most negative
126:
3726:
2584:
can occur and studies of the age of human neurons suggest that this process occurs only for a minority of cells, and that the vast majority of neurons in the
2551:. Dividing cells of the ventricular zone form the intermediate zone which stretches to the outermost layer of the neural tube called the pial layer. The
1915:
As long as the stimulus reaches the threshold, the full response would be given. A larger stimulus does not result in a larger response, and vice versa.
1895:
neuronal responses and the relationships among the electrical activities of the neurons within the ensemble. It is thought that neurons can encode both
1741:
An annotated diagram of the stages of an action potential propagating down an axon including the role of ion concentration and pump and channel proteins
5435:
Kerschensteiner M, Schwab ME, Lichtman JW, Misgeld T (May 2005). "In vivo imaging of axonal degeneration and regeneration in the injured spinal cord".
1259:
Tonic or regular spiking. Some neurons are typically constantly (tonically) active, typically firing at a constant frequency. Example: interneurons in
2452:
3452:
2471:, which is the rapid separation of the proximal and distal ends, occurring within 30 minutes of injury. Degeneration follows with swelling of the
1935:
where greater intensity of a specific frequency (color) requires more photons, as the photons can not become "stronger" for a specific frequency.
6069:
2467:
Although most injury responses include a calcium influx signaling to promote resealing of severed parts, axonal injuries initially lead to acute
4439:
3906:
2402:
at the postsynaptic neuromuscular junction, inhibiting the stimulative effect of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Myasthenia is treated with
2145:
The number of neurons in the brain varies dramatically from species to species. In a human, there are an estimated 10â20 billion neurons in the
2555:
of the brain is derived from the intermediate zone. The extensions of the neurons in the intermediate zone make up the marginal zone that when
2062:
1960:
102:
4839:
Witcher MR, Kirov SA, Harris KM (January 2007). "Plasticity of perisynaptic astroglia during synaptogenesis in the mature rat hippocampus".
1938:
Other receptor types include quickly adapting or phasic receptors, where firing decreases or stops with a steady stimulus; examples include
1536:, and then further by decarboxylase. A lack of 5-HT at postsynaptic neurons has been linked to depression. Drugs that block the presynaptic
1810:
6401:
1273:
Fast-spiking. Some neurons are notable for their high firing rates, for example some types of cortical inhibitory interneurons, cells in
6037:
3317:
Zhao B, Meka DP, Scharrenberg R, König T, Schwanke B, Kobler O, Windhorst S, Kreutz MR, Mikhaylova M, Calderon de Anda F (August 2017).
455:
in the peripheral nervous system (like strands of wire that make up a cable). In the central nervous system bundles of axons are called
5650:"Selective utilization of nonhomologous end-joining and homologous recombination DNA repair pathways during nervous system development"
825:(a yellowish-brown pigment), both of which accumulate with age. Other structural proteins that are important for neuronal function are
4317:
1018:
Some unique neuronal types can be identified according to their location in the nervous system and distinct shape. Some examples are:
598:
While the axon and axon hillock are generally involved in information outflow, this region can also receive input from other neurons.
782:(or Nissl substance) are seen when nerve cell bodies are stained with a basophilic ("base-loving") dye. These structures consist of
6585:
1982:. That spelling was also used by many writers in English, but has now become rare in American usage and uncommon in British usage.
1145:
Afferent and efferent also refer generally to neurons that, respectively, bring information to or send information from the brain.
617:
chemicals are released to communicate with target neurons. In addition to synaptic boutons at the axon terminal, a neuron may have
5818:
Bullock TH, Bennett MV, Johnston D, Josephson R, Marder E, Fields RD (November 2005). "Neuroscience. The neuron doctrine, redux".
6522:
6446:
6370:
2133:
is especially helpful for understanding the behavior of neurons that are too small to record with electrodes, as is the case for
1474:
2046:
In 1888 RamĂłn y Cajal published a paper about the bird cerebellum. In this paper, he stated that he could not find evidence for
5279:
680:, an ideal experimental preparation because of its relatively immense size (0.5â1 millimeter thick, several centimeters long).
334:. This potential travels rapidly along the axon and activates synaptic connections as it reaches them. Synaptic signals may be
5932:
4530:
4395:
Brown EN, Kass RE, Mitra PP (May 2004). "Multiple neural spike train data analysis: state-of-the-art and future challenges".
4162:
3436:
2888:
2615:, and are critical for cell fate determination in the developing and adult mammalian brain. Epigenetic modifications include
5995:
1769:
released from other parts of the organism, which could be influenced more or less directly by neurons. This also applies to
2737:
2130:
911:. The dendritic tree wraps around the cell body and receives signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching
3282:
Brunk UT, Terman A (September 2002). "Lipofuscin: mechanisms of age-related accumulation and influence on cell function".
2129:
whose activity is related due to passive membrane properties, but may also be different depending on input from synapses.
6208:
6062:
2289:
783:
687:
however, stem cells present in the adult brain may regenerate functional neurons throughout the life of an organism (see
5387:
2683:
Peripheral axons can regrow if they are severed, but one neuron cannot be functionally replaced by one of another type (
2050:
between axons and dendrites and called each nervous element "an absolutely autonomous canton." This became known as the
1750:
Beyond electrical and chemical signaling, studies suggest neurons in healthy human brains can also communicate through:
1347:
depolarization and increases the probability of presynaptic neurotransmitter release. Acetylcholine is synthesized from
1180:, have largely consistent actions. Glutamate acts on several types of receptors, and has effects that are excitatory at
845:
There are different internal structural characteristics between axons and dendrites. Typical axons almost never contain
770:
6006:
2544:
989:: neurons with long-projecting axonal processes; examples are pyramidal cells, Purkinje cells, and anterior horn cells
5911:
5883:
5864:
4747:
4560:
4491:
4456:
3635:
2921:
2276:
2257:
1691:
1629:
1425:. Glutamate receptors are one of four categories, three of which are ligand-gated ion channels and one of which is a
1332:
588:
339:
335:
813:(neuronal microtubules) are assembled into larger neurofibrils. Some neurons also contain pigment granules, such as
7209:
7139:
6396:
5193:"The search for true numbers of neurons and glial cells in the human brain: A review of 150 years of cell counting"
2229:
1734:, stabilizing by adulthood. Estimates vary for an adult, ranging from 10 to 5 x 10 synapses (100 to 500 trillion).
133:
5985:
7204:
7134:
6749:
4796:
Grant G (October 2007). "How the 1906 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine was shared between Golgi and Cajal".
6055:
3782:
3132:"[Composition and structure of the neuronal membrane: molecular basis of its physiology and pathology]"
2742:
2214:
2869:
2448:
2432:
2236:
1624:
universal this classification has the advantage of being able to classify astrocytes as well. A method called
1025:, interneurons that form a dense plexus of terminals around the soma of target cells, found in the cortex and
6824:
6203:
121:
2627:. These modifications are critical for cell fate determination in the developing and adult mammalian brain.
7443:
6819:
6807:
6578:
6375:
6248:
3800:"Mitochondrial free CaÂČâș levels and their effects on energy metabolism in Drosophila motor nerve terminals"
6550:
Note: Not all brain tumors are of nervous tissue, and not all nervous tissue tumors are in the brain (see
5989:
3036:
Herrup K, Yang Y (May 2007). "Cell cycle regulation in the postmitotic neuron: oxymoron or new biology?".
6859:
6797:
2717:
2459:
reaction, it may also be caused by viral infections, metabolic disorders, trauma, and some medications.
1094:
719:
molecules with many types of protein structures embedded in it. A lipid bilayer is a powerful electrical
163:
17:
2243:
7396:
6854:
3081:"In vivo astrocyte-to-neuron reprogramming for central nervous system regeneration: a narrative review"
2659:
1620:
1591:
1367:
1208:
in the retina constantly release the neurotransmitter glutamate in the absence of light. So-called OFF
189:
to pass the electric signal from the presynaptic neuron to the target cell through the synaptic gap.
114:
7364:
7214:
7149:
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4595:
4462:
2311:
1383:
866:
802:
highlight negatively charged components, and so bind to the phosphate backbone of the ribosomal RNA.
724:
413:
6042:
4853:
3657:"Ionic conductances underlying excitability in tonically firing retinal ganglion cells of adult rat"
2940:
2093:
2029:
2021:
315:
is partly electrical and partly chemical. Neurons are electrically excitable, due to maintenance of
7144:
6870:
6299:
6294:
6086:
5970:
4090:"Proteomic screen reveals diverse protein transport between connected neurons in the visual system"
2655:
2521:
2225:
1865:
is a neurological disorder that results from demyelination of axons in the central nervous system.
1599:
1450:
417:
308:
174:
109:
72:
4575:
Ramon y Cajal's first paper on the Golgi stain was on the bird cerebellum, and it appeared in the
4238:"Microglia monitor and protect neuronal function through specialized somatic purinergic junctions"
6843:
6571:
6078:
3579:"Intrinsic electrical properties of mammalian neurons and CNS function: a historical perspective"
2747:
2707:
2644:
2399:
2372:, normally caused by the insufficient formation and action of dopamine, which is produced in the
2210:
2203:
2169:
1991:
1411:
1394:
1154:
720:
699:
that have been observed to turn into neurons by virtue of their stem cell-like characteristic of
323:. If the voltage changes by a large enough amount over a short interval, the neuron generates an
31:
4522:
4516:
2928:
A bundle of nerve fibers (axons) connecting neighboring or distant nuclei of the CNS is a tract.
2547:, and a marginal zone. The ventricular zone surrounds the tube's central canal, and becomes the
7311:
6838:
6602:
6218:
6213:
6147:
5958:
4848:
2962:
2913:
2906:
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dendrites can serve as synaptic output sites of neurons and axons can receive synaptic inputs.
1712:
1552:
1533:
1498:
1398:
1278:
1125:
convey information from tissues and organs into the central nervous system and are also called
429:
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421:
401:
97:
5977:
3426:
3169:
2783:
2428:
2322:
symptoms or behavioral changes. The most striking early symptom is loss of short-term memory (
2043:. The improved process involves a technique called "double impregnation" and is still in use.
1876:
tend to be sensory neurons or interneurons, because they cannot carry signals long distances.
838:
7169:
7159:
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6515:
6474:
6198:
4737:
4550:
4062:
2712:
2632:
2529:
2423:
2387:
2377:
2297:
1888:
1568:
1537:
1469:
Glutamate can cause excitotoxicity when blood flow to the brain is interrupted, resulting in
1328:
1220:
1209:
1185:
954:
233:
4981:
4933:"Observations of synaptic structures: origins of the neuron doctrine and its current status"
7294:
7191:
7121:
6947:
6802:
6479:
6289:
5661:
4909:
4325:
4249:
3984:
3811:
3522:
3330:
2648:
2593:
2373:
1853:
1510:
1464:
Metabotropic receptors, GPCRs modulate synaptic transmission and postsynaptic excitability.
1035:
1006:
974:
895:
587:. Besides being an anatomical structure, the axon hillock also has the greatest density of
550:
5001:"Voltage imaging from dendrites of mitral cells: EPSP attenuation and spike trigger zones"
2873:
2864:
8:
7334:
7179:
7174:
6709:
6642:
6322:
4154:
3376:"Dynamic remodeling of dendritic arbors in GABAergic interneurons of adult visual cortex"
2468:
2065:
wrote a highly influential review of the neuron doctrine in which he introduced the term
1873:
1447:
channels permeable to Na cation channels mediating fast excitatory synaptic transmission.
1371:
1336:
1247:
Neurons have intrinsic electroresponsive properties like intrinsic transmembrane voltage
1231:-expressing neurons typically dampen the output signal of the postsynaptic neuron in the
1216:
1213:
1181:
1082:
1046:
592:
5665:
5169:
4937:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
4253:
3988:
3815:
3753:
3526:
3334:
3079:
Talifu Z, Liu JY, Pan YZ, Ke H, Zhang CJ, Xu X, Gao F, Yu Y, Du LJ, Li JJ (April 2023).
2824:
2797:
7369:
7339:
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7239:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7164:
6940:
6850:
6704:
6486:
6428:
5843:
5790:
5765:
5746:
5733:
5708:
5684:
5649:
5625:
5600:
5542:
5517:
5460:
5369:
5326:
5217:
5192:
5133:
5106:
5082:
5057:
5033:
5000:
4957:
4932:
4874:
4821:
4718:
4706:
4638:
4613:
4420:
4372:
4347:
4273:
4218:
4122:
4089:
4016:
3956:
3944:
3883:
3856:
3832:
3799:
3703:
3678:
3631:
Ion conductances related to shaping the repetitive firing in rat retinal ganglion cells
3605:
3578:
3551:
3510:
3491:
3446:
3402:
3375:
3351:
3318:
3229:
3185:
3107:
3080:
3061:
2702:
2581:
2444:
2403:
2394:
and fatigability during simple activities. Weakness is typically caused by circulating
2349:
1947:
1931:
1862:
1803:
1794:
1695:
1676:
1454:
1339:
are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels composed of alpha and beta subunits that bind
1248:
1205:
1135:(motor neurons) transmit signals from the central nervous system to the effector cells.
1077:
805:
The cell body of a neuron is supported by a complex mesh of structural proteins called
618:
253:
4809:
3295:
2798:"Stepwise emergence of the neuronal gene expression program in early animal evolution"
400:
that give them structural and metabolic support. The nervous system is made up of the
7354:
7344:
7329:
7234:
7099:
6880:
6832:
6637:
6632:
6499:
6243:
6108:
5928:
5907:
5879:
5860:
5847:
5835:
5795:
5750:
5738:
5689:
5630:
5547:
5490:
5452:
5373:
5361:
5318:
5257:
5222:
5173:
5138:
5087:
5038:
4962:
4913:
4866:
4813:
4753:
4743:
4710:
4643:
4566:
4556:
4526:
4497:
4487:
4452:
4412:
4377:
4277:
4265:
4210:
4202:
4158:
4127:
4109:
4029:
4020:
4008:
4000:
3948:
3888:
3837:
3778:
3708:
3610:
3556:
3483:
3432:
3407:
3356:
3299:
3264:
3221:
3217:
3151:
3143:
3112:
3053:
2917:
2884:
2829:
2697:
2678:
2624:
2612:
2475:, and eventually leads to bead-like formation. Granular disintegration of the axonal
2383:
2036:
2017:
1818:
1708:
1699:
1461:
within the channel pore. NMDA receptors do not function without both ligands present.
1375:
1352:
1252:
995:: neurons whose axonal process projects locally; the best example is the granule cell
980:
949:
370:
170:
59:
5464:
5417:
5275:
4878:
4825:
4722:
4222:
4197:
4180:
4145:
Levitan, Irwin B.; Kaczmarek, Leonard K. (2015). "Electrical
Signaling in Neurons".
3960:
3495:
3233:
3065:
2684:
2250:
7438:
7321:
7284:
7279:
6627:
6551:
6317:
5949:
5827:
5785:
5777:
5728:
5720:
5679:
5669:
5620:
5612:
5570:
5537:
5529:
5444:
5353:
5330:
5310:
5249:
5212:
5204:
5165:
5128:
5123:
5118:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5028:
5020:
5016:
5012:
4952:
4944:
4905:
4858:
4805:
4702:
4633:
4625:
4404:
4367:
4359:
4257:
4192:
4150:
4117:
4101:
4037:
3992:
3940:
3878:
3868:
3827:
3819:
3698:
3690:
3600:
3590:
3546:
3538:
3530:
3475:
3397:
3387:
3346:
3338:
3291:
3256:
3213:
3102:
3092:
3045:
2987:
2819:
2809:
2640:
2620:
2540:
2517:
2319:
1869:
1798:
1731:
1645:
1625:
1494:
1304:
1299:
677:
669:
614:
366:
361:
346:
331:
186:
4424:
4292:
3466:
Gerber U (January 2003). "Metabotropic glutamate receptors in vertebrate retina".
1650:
636:
90:
7422:
7089:
7058:
7053:
6935:
6930:
6754:
6391:
6235:
6002:
5967:
an online neuromics tool for cataloging neuronal types and synaptic connectivity.
5922:
5724:
4774:
4446:
4105:
3392:
2752:
2628:
2616:
2608:
2391:
2146:
2051:
1926:
1920:
1892:
1858:
1852:
in the peripheral nervous system. The sheath enables action potentials to travel
1845:
1825:
1654:
A signal propagating down an axon to the cell body and dendrites of the next cell
1274:
1239:-expressing neurons typically block dendritic inputs to the postsynaptic neuron.
1132:
1126:
1122:
1050:
1000:
964:
939:
932:
882:
862:
712:
564:
501:
386:
374:
327:
324:
185:, which are specialized connections that commonly use minute amounts of chemical
77:
6047:
5482:
2847:
1824:
Several stimuli can activate a neuron leading to electrical activity, including
1679:, have only one or two dendrites, each of which receives thousands of synapses.
1628:
in which all three qualities can be measured at once is used extensively by the
307:
is used to describe either a dendrite or an axon, particularly when the cell is
53:
7410:
7379:
7349:
7306:
7126:
7084:
7062:
6982:
6865:
6689:
6594:
6360:
6351:
6281:
5654:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5533:
5253:
4363:
4181:"The vagus nerve modulates BDNF expression and neurogenesis in the hippocampus"
4041:
3996:
3907:"Why is the human brain so difficult to understand? We asked 4 neuroscientists"
3342:
2814:
2762:
2407:
2164:
2005:
1968:
1778:
1707:
triggers mitochondrial calcium uptake, which, in turn, activates mitochondrial
1595:
1514:
1363:
1104:
1067:
1061:
944:
916:
541:
448:
393:
296:
265:
229:
193:
178:
166:
3873:
3823:
3479:
3374:
Lee WC, Huang H, Feng G, Sanes JR, Brown EN, So PT, Nedivi E (February 2006).
2035:
To make the structure of individual neurons visible, RamĂłn y Cajal improved a
7432:
7028:
7013:
6694:
6469:
6355:
6271:
5709:"Microglial control of neuronal development via somatic purinergic junctions"
4501:
4206:
4113:
4004:
3727:"Patch-seq technique helps depict the variation of neural cells in the brain"
3595:
3147:
3097:
2439:
2369:
2101:
2097:
2040:
1900:
1884:
1704:
1671:
1564:
1422:
1402:
1379:
1359:
1320:
1232:
1193:
1189:
1153:
A neuron affects other neurons by releasing a neurotransmitter that binds to
1055:
912:
908:
904:
899:
818:
806:
787:
605:
508:
320:
5831:
5674:
4757:
4739:
Origins of neuroscience : a history of explorations into brain function
4570:
4552:
Origins of neuroscience : a history of explorations into brain function
4261:
3677:
Scammell TE, Jackson AC, Franks NP, Wisden W, Dauvilliers Y (January 2019).
2850:. . In: StatPearls . Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-.
2024:, demonstrating the ability of Golgi's staining method to reveal fine detail
1457:. The function of NMDA receptors depend on glycine receptor binding as a co-
907:, consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by a
7274:
7196:
7109:
6990:
6920:
6699:
6622:
6506:
6494:
6223:
6166:
5961:. Fostering neuroscience research especially in less well-funded countries.
5839:
5799:
5742:
5693:
5634:
5551:
5494:
5456:
5365:
5322:
5261:
5226:
5142:
5042:
4966:
4948:
4917:
4870:
4817:
4714:
4647:
4629:
4440:"Spike arrival times: A highly efficient coding scheme for neural networks"
4416:
4381:
4269:
4214:
4131:
4012:
3952:
3892:
3841:
3712:
3694:
3614:
3560:
3511:"Division and subtraction by distinct cortical inhibitory networks in vivo"
3487:
3411:
3360:
3303:
3225:
3131:
3116:
3057:
2833:
2600:
2567:
2560:
2513:
2507:
2484:
2476:
2456:
2365:
2357:
2073:
2055:
1896:
1849:
1770:
1684:
1603:
1560:
1470:
1323:
is released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft. It acts as a
1236:
1088:
1073:
970:
814:
799:
700:
688:
665:
can be over a meter long, reaching from the base of the spine to the toes.
662:
583:
577:
546:
513:
496:
491:
350:
292:
280:
276:
272:
249:
228:
Neurons are typically classified into three types based on their function.
5574:
5357:
5177:
5091:
4612:
Mehta AR, Mehta PR, Anderson SP, MacKinnon BL, Compston A (January 2020).
4236:
Cserép C, Pósfai B, Lénårt N, Fekete R, Låszló ZI, Lele Z (January 2020).
3268:
3155:
1658:
1513:, and levodopa is then converted into dopamine by the aromatic amino acid
1421:
is one of two primary excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters, along with
252:
receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to control everything from
7289:
7104:
7008:
6966:
6898:
6893:
6714:
6652:
6647:
6617:
6365:
6327:
6193:
6161:
6113:
5058:"Glutamate receptor-mediated synaptic excitation in axons of the lamprey"
4237:
2732:
2727:
2636:
2604:
2552:
2536:
2483:
occurs after axolemma degradation. Early changes include accumulation of
2069:
to describe the anatomical and physiological unit of the nervous system.
2047:
2012:
2001:
1726:
1440:
1308:
1307:
are chemical messengers passed from one neuron to another neuron or to a
1228:
1138:
1098:
1040:
1022:
890:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body § Nervous system
834:
810:
791:
763:
759:
456:
409:
397:
261:
241:
221:
5971:
High Resolution Neuroanatomical Images of Primate and Non-Primate Brains
3542:
3534:
2364:). The primary symptoms are the results of decreased stimulation of the
1204:
effects on others, and modulatory effects on others still. For example,
1070:, unique human inhibitory neurons that interconnect with Pyramidal cells
553:
occurs here. The nucleus can range from 3 to 18 micrometers in diameter.
7359:
7048:
6925:
6888:
6510:
6423:
6266:
5616:
4862:
4348:"Neuromodulation and flexibility in Central Pattern Generator networks"
2757:
2722:
2571:
2556:
2411:
2395:
2338:), and functions such as decision-making and planning become impaired.
2293:
2150:
2089:
1939:
1868:
Some neurons do not generate action potentials, but instead generate a
1832:
1529:
1026:
822:
779:
696:
532:
481:
205:
6016:
5208:
4063:"Researchers discover new type of cellular communication in the brain"
3260:
2318:
deterioration, together with declining activities of daily living and
2167:
as scientists have been able to map all of its neurons. The fruit fly
1141:
connect neurons within specific regions of the central nervous system.
711:
Like all animal cells, the cell body of every neuron is enclosed by a
436:, and many sensory neurons are situated in sensory organs such as the
303:
to another cell. Neurons may lack dendrites or have no axon. The term
7374:
6759:
6732:
6185:
6133:
6029:
an online database of digital reconstructions of neuronal morphology.
5314:
5024:
3319:"Microtubules Modulate F-actin Dynamics during Neuronal Polarization"
2669:
is also indispensable for proper neurogenesis and brain development.
2666:
2585:
2524:. Once fully differentiated they are no longer capable of undergoing
2495:
2488:
2480:
2315:
2113:
1911:
1782:
1722:
is a synapse in which a neuron's axon connects to its own dendrites.
1587:
1583:
1576:
1525:
1521:
1426:
1418:
1173:
1058:, huge neurons in the cerebellum, a type of Golgi I multipolar neuron
1031:
846:
755:
736:
692:
558:
471:
5781:
5434:
3049:
2192:
2112:
Later discoveries yielded refinements to the doctrine. For example,
1996:
1290:
1169:(causing long-lasting effects not directly related to firing rate).
609:
is found at the end of the axon farthest from the soma and contains
139:
7405:
7038:
7023:
7018:
6742:
6737:
6664:
6659:
6415:
6258:
6020:
5448:
4893:
4408:
2548:
2472:
2361:
2154:
1737:
1667:
1502:
1489:
1485:
1406:
1387:
1340:
1267:
1260:
992:
740:
684:
625:
610:
476:
433:
288:
197:
84:
27:
Electrically excitable cell found in the nervous system of animals
5190:
2380:
and subtle language problems. PD is both chronic and progressive.
7301:
7262:
7154:
6563:
3627:
3202:
2635:. Methylcytosine demethylation is catalyzed in several stages by
2525:
2492:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
1766:
1758:
1719:
1641:
1607:
1458:
1348:
1197:
986:
830:
795:
744:
673:
441:
378:
316:
304:
300:
182:
38:
5344:
Querfurth HW, LaFerla FM (January 2010). "Alzheimer's disease".
3857:"The human brain in numbers: a linearly scaled-up primate brain"
1813:. These signals are generated and propagated by charge-carrying
1781:
is also connected with the brain. Neurons also communicate with
1555:
is a neurotransmitter acting at both ligand-gated ion channels (
342:, increasing or reducing the net voltage that reaches the soma.
6916:
6176:
5953:
5817:
5191:
von Bartheld CS, Bahney J, Herculano-Houzel S (December 2016).
4030:"Forceful synapses reveal mechanical interactions in the brain"
2566:
Differentiation of the neurons is ordered by their size. Large
2353:
2084:
1837:
1788:
1572:
1545:
1541:
1506:
1453:
receptors are another cation channel that is more permeable to
1344:
1324:
1107:, interneurons that connect widely separated areas of the brain
1085:, interneurons with unique dendrite ending in a brush-like tuft
732:
518:
437:
217:
201:
6539:
WHO classification of the tumors of the central nervous system
5156:
Williams RW, Herrup K (1988). "The control of neuron number".
3777:(40 ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. pp. 431â434.
3656:
1861:, which contain a high density of voltage-gated ion channels.
1765:
They can also get modulated by input from the environment and
894:
Neurons vary in shape and size and can be classified by their
877:
271:
A neuron contains all the structures of other cells such as a
2575:
1872:, which in turn causes graded neurotransmitter release. Such
1690:
When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it opens
1401:(CNS), along with glycine. GABA has a homologous function to
1312:
1003:: where the axon cannot be distinguished from the dendrite(s)
826:
716:
668:
Sensory neurons can have axons that run from the toes to the
452:
405:
257:
245:
237:
213:
209:
5565:
Callaway, Ewen (26 May 2011). "How to make a human neuron".
5518:"Human Adult Neurogenesis: Evidence and Remaining Questions"
5481:
Caire, Michael J.; Reddy, Vamsi; Varacallo, Matthew (2024).
5239:
4177:
1009:: 1 process which then serves as both an axon and a dendrite
919:
between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron.
857:
817:(a brownish-black pigment that is byproduct of synthesis of
353:
largely ceases during adulthood in most areas of the brain.
236:
such as touch, sound, or light that affect the cells of the
30:
This article is about the type of cell. For other uses, see
7000:
6908:
6724:
4611:
3973:
3676:
2794:
2784:
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/neurone
2665:
Intercellular communication between developing neurons and
1841:
1814:
1774:
1436:
1177:
1172:
The two most common (90%+) neurotransmitters in the brain,
870:
572:
486:
382:
284:
5981:
5706:
5301:
Burns A, Iliffe S (February 2009). "Alzheimer's disease".
3246:
1251:
patterns. So neurons can be classified according to their
6026:
3628:
Kolodin YO, Veselovskaia NN, Veselovsky NS, Fedulova SA.
3316:
2878:
2658:
repair used in proliferating neural precursor cells, and
1817:
including sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl), and
1556:
1444:
728:
5964:
5514:
4998:
4235:
2376:
of the brain. Secondary symptoms may include high level
1382:
neurotransmitter, and the most prevalent of them in the
428:. In vertebrates, the majority of neurons belong to the
4086:
3931:
Drachman DA (June 2005). "Do we have brain to spare?".
2596:, in which "cells are forced to adopt new identities".
2443:
contributing to various neurological disorders such as
2292:(CMT) is a heterogeneous inherited disorder of nerves (
2072:
The silver impregnation stains are a useful method for
1619:
Since 2012 there has been a push from the cellular and
1386:; as with other catecholamines, it is synthesised from
790:. Named after German psychiatrist and neuropathologist
640:
Diagram of a typical myelinated vertebrate motor neuron
4477:
4475:
2360:), and in extreme cases, a loss of physical movement (
1754:
force generated by the enlargement of dendritic spines
973:: 1 axon and 1 dendrite. They are found mainly in the
7394:
5854:
4999:
Djurisic M, Antic S, Chen WR, Zecevic D (July 2004).
2123:
1925:
The conduction of nerve impulses is an example of an
1343:. Ligand binding opens the channel causing influx of
915:
that release neurotransmitters into a gap called the
774:
Actin filaments in a mouse cortical neuron in culture
5647:
4982:"Neurons and Synapses: The History of Its Discovery"
4692:
3509:
Wilson NR, Runyan CA, Wang FL, Sur M (August 2012).
3468:
Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology
2539:
in the embryo. The neural tube has three layers â a
613:. Synaptic boutons are specialized structures where
299:, where the neuron can transmit a signal across the
5878:(3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
5480:
4472:
4448:
Parallel processing in neural systems and computers
3508:
2217:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1493:neurotransmission. Loss of dopamine neurons in the
960:Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as:
750:
5873:
5648:Orii KE, Lee Y, Kondo N, McKinnon PJ (June 2006).
5107:"Signal propagation in Drosophila central neurons"
4838:
2905:
6077:
3373:
2570:are first. Smaller sensory neurons together with
2453:chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy
1978:The word was adopted in French with the spelling
1064:, neurons with triangular soma, a type of Golgi I
621:, which are located along the length of the axon.
7430:
5959:IBRO (International Brain Research Organization)
5343:
4144:
3854:
3797:
3679:"Histamine: neural circuits and new medications"
3174:. State Commission in Lunacy. 1897. p. 378.
1270:. Neurons that fire in bursts are called phasic.
283:but has additional unique structures such as an
4445:. In Eckmiller R, Hartmann G, Hauske G (eds.).
2455:. Although demyelination is often caused by an
1745:
1598:. Histamine-producing neurons are found in the
672:of the spinal cord, over 1.5 meters in adults.
5155:
5055:
4688:
4686:
4684:
4682:
4481:
4394:
4345:
4339:
3078:
2883:. Houston: OpenStax CNX. 12.2 Nervous tissue.
1840:around their axons. The sheaths are formed by
1761:â transneuronally transported proteins (TNTPs)
1563:) receptors. ATP is, however, best known as a
1501:. Dopamine is synthesized from the amino acid
1294:Synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters
545:is the body of the neuron. As it contains the
6579:
6063:
5892:
5598:
5104:
4518:Animal physiology: mechanisms and adaptations
4514:
4315:
3572:
3570:
1429:coupled receptor (often referred to as GPCR).
683:Fully differentiated neurons are permanently
5184:
4894:"Electrical synapses in the mammalian brain"
4775:"Whonamedit - dictionary of medical eponyms"
4486:(12 ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning.
3791:
3634:. Acta Physiologica Congress. Archived from
3502:
3451:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3428:Anatomy and Physiology' 2007 Ed.2007 Edition
2607:modifications play a key role in regulating
1811:subthreshold membrane potential oscillations
1789:Mechanisms for propagating action potentials
1614:
1397:. GABA is one of two neuroinhibitors in the
1111:
922:
6402:Embryonal tumour with multilayered rosettes
5901:
5855:Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM (2000).
5766:"Glial inhibition of CNS axon regeneration"
5594:
5592:
5300:
4891:
4679:
4149:. Oxford University Press. pp. 41â62.
3281:
2941:"What are the parts of the nervous system?"
2903:
1579:, which particularly acts at P2Y receptors.
1378:. Noradrenaline is one of the three common
181:. Neurons communicate with other cells via
6586:
6572:
6070:
6056:
6033:Immunohistochemistry Image Gallery: Neuron
5601:"DNA methylation dynamics in neurogenesis"
5599:Wang Z, Tang B, He Y, Jin P (March 2016).
3772:
3567:
3035:
2662:used mainly at later developmental stages
2352:. It is characterized by muscle rigidity,
1505:. Tyrosine is catalyzed into levodopa (or
1219:and instead express a class of inhibitory
1148:
392:Neurons are the primary components of the
52:
5906:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5789:
5732:
5683:
5673:
5624:
5541:
5422:The International Neuromodulation Society
5268:
5233:
5216:
5132:
5122:
5081:
5032:
4979:
4956:
4852:
4637:
4614:"Grey Matter Etymology and the neuron(e)"
4544:
4542:
4371:
4196:
4121:
3899:
3882:
3872:
3831:
3702:
3604:
3594:
3550:
3401:
3391:
3350:
3106:
3096:
2967:Neuroscience: A journey through the brain
2823:
2813:
2639:that carry out oxidative reactions (e.g.
2277:Learn how and when to remove this message
2176:
2163:has just 302 neurons, making it an ideal
1954:
1715:to support continuous neurotransmission.
220:period. Predecessors of neurons were the
6019:according to the Petilla convention, at
5876:The Fine Structure of the Nervous System
5757:
5589:
5564:
5476:
5474:
5337:
5149:
4930:
3930:
3751:
2427:
2083:
2011:
1995:
1910:
1906:
1736:
1666:Neurons communicate with each other via
1657:
1649:
1289:
1165:(causing a decrease in firing rate), or
931:
876:
856:
769:
754:
643:
635:
624:
462:
360:
349:during brain development and childhood.
345:In most cases, neurons are generated by
6523:Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor
6447:Primary central nervous system lymphoma
6371:Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour
5874:Peters A, Palay SL, Webster HS (1991).
5859:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
5380:
5294:
4742:. Oxford University Press. p. 47.
4555:. Oxford University Press. p. 47.
4521:. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. p.
4229:
3178:
3129:
2858:
2856:
2528:. Neurogenesis primarily occurs during
2512:Neurons develop through the process of
2140:
1362:(norepinephrine) is released from most
1327:for both ligand-gated ion channels and
14:
7431:
5984:, which presently offers two courses:
5558:
5388:"Parkinson's Disease Information Page"
4910:10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131128
4735:
4590:
4588:
4548:
4539:
4437:
3798:Ivannikov MV, Macleod GT (June 2013).
3576:
3465:
3072:
2960:
2462:
2054:, one of the central tenets of modern
1698:to enter the terminal. Calcium causes
1161:(causing an increase in firing rate),
6567:
6051:
5927:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
5920:
5763:
5471:
5276:"About Alzheimer's Disease: Symptoms"
4795:
4789:
4654:
4605:
4388:
4293:"Milestones in Neuroscience Research"
2904:Moore, Keith; Dalley, Arthur (2005).
2897:
2782:UK for neuron; Cambridge Dictionary,
2672:
1319:Cholinergic neurons â acetylcholine.
1242:
6012:Cell Centered Database â Neuron
5282:from the original on 15 January 2012
5197:The Journal of Comparative Neurology
5056:Cochilla AJ, Alford S (March 1997).
4973:
3855:Herculano-Houzel S (November 2009).
3186:"Medical Definition of Neurotubules"
2853:
2738:List of animals by number of neurons
2215:adding citations to reliable sources
2186:
2131:Compartmental modelling of dendrites
1831:Thin neurons and axons require less
1610:and regulating sleep/wake behaviors.
1358:Adrenergic neurons â noradrenaline.
861:Image of pyramidal neurons in mouse
6209:Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma
5398:from the original on 4 January 2017
5346:The New England Journal of Medicine
5170:10.1146/annurev.ne.11.030188.002231
4585:
4346:Harris-Warrick, RM (October 2011).
4290:
3431:. Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 288.
3284:Free Radical Biology & Medicine
2985:
2535:Neurons initially develop from the
2410:inhibitors and, in selected cases,
1417:Glutamatergic neurons â glutamate.
1405:, gating anion channels that allow
1285:
1076:, neurons with both ends linked to
881:SMI32-stained pyramidal neurons in
778:Numerous microscopic clumps called
192:Neurons are the main components of
169:that fires electric signals called
24:
6593:
6007:Neuroscience Information Framework
5810:
5428:
4707:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.07.010
4316:Patlak J, Gibbons R (2000-11-01).
4155:10.1093/med/9780199773893.003.0003
3945:10.1212/01.WNL.0000166914.38327.BB
3583:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience
3424:
3418:
2356:, a slowing of physical movement (
2300:, affecting 36 in 100,000 people.
2124:Compartmental modelling of neurons
2079:
2016:Drawing of a Purkinje cell in the
1848:in the central nervous system and
25:
7455:
6038:Khan Academy: Anatomy of a neuron
5943:
5897:(10th ed.). Baltimore: Wood.
4810:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.11.004
4451:. North-Holland. pp. 91â94.
3659:. Ykolodin.50webs.com. 2008-04-27
3425:Al, Martini, Frederic Et (2005).
2149:and 55â70 billion neurons in the
2088:Drawing of neurons in the pigeon
1630:Allen Institute for Brain Science
983:: 1 axon and 2 or more dendrites
852:
589:voltage-dependent sodium channels
356:
7416:
7404:
6397:Atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumor
4980:Sabbatini RM (AprilâJuly 2003).
4322:Action Potentials in Nerve Cells
4185:European Neuropsychopharmacology
3218:10.1046/j.1471-4159.2001.00186.x
2868: This article incorporates
2863:
2417:
2191:
1879:
1540:are used for treatment, such as
1410:neurotransmitters by the enzyme
1043:, interneurons of the cerebellum
751:Histology and internal structure
470:
432:, but some reside in peripheral
134:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
6750:Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell
5700:
5641:
5508:
5410:
5278:. National Institute on Aging.
5098:
5049:
4992:
4924:
4885:
4832:
4767:
4729:
4508:
4431:
4352:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
4318:"Electrical Activity of Nerves"
4309:
4284:
4198:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.12.004
4171:
4138:
4080:
4055:
3967:
3924:
3861:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
3848:
3766:
3745:
3719:
3670:
3649:
3621:
3459:
3367:
3310:
3275:
3240:
3196:
3162:
3123:
3029:
2202:needs additional citations for
2104:, both of which are multipolar.
1635:
240:, and they send signals to the
6491:Cranial and paraspinal nerves
5124:10.1523/jneurosci.0764-09.2009
5105:Gouwens NW, Wilson RI (2009).
5074:10.1113/jphysiol.1997.sp021940
5017:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0307-04.2004
4067:The Scripps Research Institute
3004:
2979:
2961:Davies, Melissa (2002-04-09).
2954:
2933:
2912:(5th ed.). LWW. pp.
2840:
2788:
2776:
2743:List of neuroscience databases
2633:DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs)
2625:5-methylcytosine demethylation
2501:
2109:metabolically distinct units.
2061:In 1891, the German anatomist
2000:Drawing by Camillo Golgi of a
1692:voltage-gated calcium channels
1571:can also be mediated by other
13:
1:
6204:Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma
6079:Tumours of the nervous system
6017:Complete list of neuron types
5158:Annual Review of Neuroscience
4898:Annual Review of Neuroscience
3296:10.1016/s0891-5849(02)00959-0
3130:Giménez, C. (February 1998).
2963:"The Neuron: size comparison"
2769:
2314:characterized by progressive
1732:This number declines with age
869:. The red staining indicates
525:Structure of a typical neuron
6249:Anaplastic oligodendroglioma
5986:Fundamentals of Neuroscience
5857:Principles of Neural Science
5770:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
5725:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111369
4892:Connors BW, Long MA (2004).
4515:Eckert R, Randall D (1983).
4106:10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110287
3393:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040029
3038:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
2092:, by Spanish neuroscientist
1746:Nonelectrochemical signaling
1116:
977:, and as part of the retina.
898:and function. The anatomist
7:
6860:Postganglionic nerve fibers
5902:Roberts A, Bush BM (1981).
5764:Yiu G, He Z (August 2006).
5005:The Journal of Neuroscience
4662:"Google Books Ngram Viewer"
3773:Macpherson, Gordon (2002).
2908:Clinically Oriented Anatomy
2718:Compartmental neuron models
2690:
2306:(AD), also known simply as
2290:CharcotâMarieâTooth disease
2039:that had been developed by
1606:. Histamine is involved in
1184:and a modulatory effect at
1091:, a type of Golgi II neuron
936:Different kinds of neurons:
927:
784:rough endoplasmic reticulum
706:
10:
7460:
6855:Preganglionic nerve fibers
5978:Department of Neuroscience
5534:10.1016/j.stem.2018.04.004
4364:10.1016/j.conb.2011.05.011
4042:10.1038/d41586-021-03516-0
3997:10.1038/s41586-021-04125-7
3775:Black's Medical Dictionary
3343:10.1038/s41598-017-09832-8
3249:Developmental Neuroscience
2848:Neuroanatomy, Motor Neuron
2815:10.1016/j.cell.2023.08.027
2676:
2660:non-homologous end joining
2656:homologous recombinational
2505:
2421:
2180:
1989:
1985:
1918:
1639:
1621:computational neuroscience
1592:monoamine neurotransmitter
1368:sympathetic nervous system
1297:
1101:located in the spinal cord
887:
36:
29:
7365:Olfactory receptor neuron
7320:
7261:
7254:
7190:
7120:
7077:
7037:
7029:Neurofibril/neurofilament
6999:
6981:
6974:
6960:
6907:
6879:
6785:
6776:
6723:
6680:
6673:
6610:
6601:
6547:
6531:
6459:
6437:
6414:
6384:
6340:
6310:
6280:
6257:
6234:
6184:
6175:
6155:
6146:
6122:
6094:
6085:
5904:Neurones without Impulses
5489:. StatPearls Publishing.
5062:The Journal of Physiology
4986:Brain & Mind Magazine
4931:Guillery RW (June 2005).
4596:Oxford English Dictionary
3874:10.3389/neuro.09.031.2009
3824:10.1016/j.bpj.2013.03.064
3206:Journal of Neurochemistry
2988:"Brain Facts and Figures"
2647:) and enzymes of the DNA
2312:neurodegenerative disease
2063:Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer
1961:Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer
1615:Multimodel classification
1384:peripheral nervous system
1112:Functional classification
1034:, large motor neurons in
923:Structural classification
867:green fluorescent protein
414:peripheral nervous system
132:
120:
108:
96:
83:
71:
66:
51:
46:
6376:LhermitteâDuclos disease
6300:Choroid plexus carcinoma
6295:Choroid plexus papilloma
5996:NIF Search â Neuron
5990:Comparative Neuroscience
5893:RamĂłn y Cajal S (1933).
5254:10.1093/brain/123.7.1516
4736:Finger, Stanley (1994).
4549:Finger, Stanley (1994).
3596:10.3389/fncel.2014.00320
3577:LlinĂĄs RR (2014-01-01).
3171:State Hospitals Bulletin
3098:10.4103/1673-5374.353482
2881:Anatomy & Physiology
2629:DNA cytosine methylation
2617:DNA cytosine methylation
1870:graded electrical signal
1600:tuberomammillary nucleus
1551:Purinergic neuronsâATP.
1370:onto two sets of GPCRs:
1013:
37:Not to be confused with
5832:10.1126/science.1114394
5675:10.1073/pnas.0602436103
5111:Journal of Neuroscience
4695:Brain Research Bulletin
4482:Kalat, James W (2016).
4262:10.1126/science.aax6752
3480:10.1023/A:1022477203420
3190:www.merriam-webster.com
2748:Neuronal galvanotropism
2708:Biological neuron model
2645:5-hydroxymethylcytosine
2449:Guillain-Barré syndrome
2433:GuillainâBarrĂ© syndrome
2400:acetylcholine receptors
2390:leading to fluctuating
2170:Drosophila melanogaster
2135:Drosophila melanogaster
2037:silver staining process
1992:History of neuroscience
1412:glutamate decarboxylase
1395:gamma aminobutyric acid
1149:Action on other neurons
426:somatic nervous systems
319:gradients across their
32:Neuron (disambiguation)
7312:Neuromuscular junction
7175:III or AÎŽ or fast pain
6219:Anaplastic astrocytoma
6214:Fibrillary astrocytoma
4949:10.1098/rstb.2003.1459
4798:Brain Research Reviews
3012:"16.7: Nervous System"
2522:differentiated neurons
2436:
2330:), skilled movements (
2298:neurological disorders
2183:Neurological disorders
2177:Neurological disorders
2160:Caenorhabditis elegans
2105:
2094:Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal
2030:Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal
2025:
2022:Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal
2009:
1975:'sinew, cord, nerve'.
1967:in 1891, based on the
1955:Etymology and spelling
1916:
1891:and the individual or
1742:
1663:
1655:
1582:Histaminergic neuronsâ
1559:receptors) and GPCRs (
1534:tryptophan hydroxylase
1443:receptors function as
1399:central nervous system
1295:
1279:retinal ganglion cells
1186:metabotropic receptors
1049:, most neurons in the
957:
885:
874:
809:, which together with
775:
767:
657:
641:
630:
447:Axons may bundle into
430:central nervous system
402:central nervous system
389:
365:Schematic of a single
6475:Esthesioneuroblastoma
6199:Pilocytic astrocytoma
5924:Clinical Neuroanatomy
5575:10.1038/news.2011.328
5483:"Physiology, Synapse"
5358:10.1056/NEJMra0909142
4599:, 3rd edition, 2003,
4484:Biological psychology
4297:Neuroscience for Kids
3136:Revista de Neurologia
2992:Neuroscience for Kids
2808:(21): 4676â4693.e29.
2713:Cellular neuroscience
2530:embryonic development
2431:
2424:Demyelinating disease
2422:Further information:
2388:neuromuscular disease
2378:cognitive dysfunction
2096:in 1899. (A) denotes
2087:
2015:
1999:
1990:Further information:
1959:The German anatomist
1914:
1907:All-or-none principle
1740:
1661:
1653:
1569:purinergic signalling
1538:serotonin transporter
1520:Serotonergic neuronsâ
1484:Dopaminergic neuronsâ
1293:
955:Pseudounipolar neuron
935:
880:
860:
773:
758:
655:
639:
628:
463:Anatomy and histology
416:, which includes the
404:, which includes the
364:
7330:Meissner's corpuscle
7295:Postsynaptic density
7192:Efferent nerve fiber
7180:IV or C or slow pain
7122:Afferent nerve fiber
6948:Satellite glial cell
6480:Ganglioneuroblastoma
6385:CNS embryonal tumors
6290:Choroid plexus tumor
5418:"Movement Disorders"
4630:10.1093/brain/awz367
4036:. 24 November 2021.
3695:10.1093/sleep/zsy183
2872:available under the
2649:base excision repair
2594:transdifferentiation
2374:dopaminergic neurons
2344:(PD), also known as
2334:), and recognition (
2211:improve this article
2141:Neurons in the brain
1963:introduced the term
1393:GABAergic neurons â
1333:muscarinic receptors
1253:electrophysiological
1182:ionotropic receptors
1083:Unipolar brush cells
1047:Medium spiny neurons
1036:primary motor cortex
975:olfactory epithelium
7444:Medical terminology
7335:Merkel nerve ending
6323:Gliomatosis cerebri
5666:2006PNAS..10310017O
4397:Nature Neuroscience
4254:2020Sci...367..528C
3989:2021Natur.600..686U
3816:2013BpJ...104.2353I
3804:Biophysical Journal
3754:"BRAIN CELL CENSUS"
3535:10.1038/nature11347
3527:2012Natur.488..343W
3335:2017NatSR...7.9583Z
2611:in differentiating
2559:become the brain's
2469:axonal degeneration
2463:Axonal degeneration
2342:Parkinson's disease
2304:Alzheimer's disease
2153:. By contrast, the
1874:non-spiking neurons
1797:suggested that the
1670:, where either the
1511:tyrosine hydroxlase
1499:Parkinson's disease
1497:has been linked to
1372:alpha adrenoceptors
1337:Nicotinic receptors
1217:glutamate receptors
1206:photoreceptor cells
1192:, and "inhibitory"
1078:alpha motor neurons
839:Class III ÎČ-tubulin
593:threshold potential
379:synaptic connection
254:muscle contractions
7370:Photoreceptor cell
7340:Pacinian corpuscle
7271:Electrical synapse
7225:Lower motor neuron
7220:Upper motor neuron
6941:Internodal segment
6881:Connective tissues
6851:Autonomic ganglion
6487:Nerve sheath tumor
6429:Hemangiopericytoma
6001:2015-01-22 at the
5617:10.2217/epi.15.119
4943:(1458): 1281â307.
4863:10.1002/glia.20415
4779:www.whonamedit.com
4438:Thorpe SJ (1990).
4328:on August 27, 2009
3323:Scientific Reports
3016:Biology LibreTexts
2846:Zayia LC, Tadi P.
2703:Bidirectional cell
2673:Nerve regeneration
2582:Adult neurogenesis
2520:divide to produce
2445:multiple sclerosis
2437:
2404:immunosuppressants
2350:movement disorders
2106:
2026:
2010:
2004:stained using the
1948:pacinian corpuscle
1917:
1863:Multiple sclerosis
1804:membrane potential
1795:John Zachary Young
1743:
1677:supraoptic nucleus
1664:
1656:
1475:glutamate synthase
1376:beta adrenoceptors
1296:
1243:Discharge patterns
1155:chemical receptors
958:
886:
875:
776:
768:
731:materials include
658:
642:
631:
619:en passant boutons
390:
115:H2.00.06.1.00002
7392:
7391:
7388:
7387:
7355:Free nerve ending
7322:Sensory receptors
7250:
7249:
7165:Ib or Golgi or Aα
7073:
7072:
6956:
6955:
6833:Ramus communicans
6772:
6771:
6768:
6767:
6638:Commissural fiber
6633:Association fiber
6628:Projection fibers
6561:
6560:
6500:Neurofibromatosis
6455:
6454:
6410:
6409:
6336:
6335:
6244:Oligodendroglioma
6142:
6141:
6109:Craniopharyngioma
5934:978-0-7817-9427-5
5921:Snell RS (2010).
5209:10.1002/cne.24040
5203:(18): 3865â3895.
5117:(19): 6239â6249.
4532:978-0-7167-1423-1
4248:(6477): 528â537.
4164:978-0-19-977389-3
3983:(7890): 686â689.
3733:. 3 December 2020
3438:978-971-23-4807-5
3261:10.1159/000111315
2890:978-1-947172-04-3
2698:Artificial neuron
2679:Neuroregeneration
2613:neural stem cells
2574:differentiate at
2545:intermediate zone
2518:neural stem cells
2384:Myasthenia gravis
2287:
2286:
2279:
2261:
2018:cerebellar cortex
1709:energy metabolism
1700:synaptic vesicles
1353:acetyl coenzyme A
1305:Neurotransmitters
1255:characteristics:
950:Multipolar neuron
762:neurons in human
653:
551:protein synthesis
451:that make up the
396:, along with the
381:from an incoming
371:excitatory neuron
347:neural stem cells
187:neurotransmitters
171:action potentials
148:
147:
143:
60:multipolar neuron
16:(Redirected from
7451:
7421:
7420:
7419:
7409:
7408:
7400:
7285:Synaptic vesicle
7280:Chemical synapse
7259:
7258:
6979:
6978:
6972:
6971:
6783:
6782:
6678:
6677:
6608:
6607:
6588:
6581:
6574:
6565:
6564:
6552:brain metastasis
6516:Acoustic neuroma
6318:Oligoastrocytoma
6311:Multiple/unknown
6182:
6181:
6173:
6172:
6153:
6152:
6127:
6102:
6092:
6091:
6072:
6065:
6058:
6049:
6048:
5938:
5917:
5898:
5889:
5870:
5851:
5804:
5803:
5793:
5761:
5755:
5754:
5736:
5704:
5698:
5697:
5687:
5677:
5660:(26): 10017â22.
5645:
5639:
5638:
5628:
5596:
5587:
5586:
5562:
5556:
5555:
5545:
5512:
5506:
5505:
5503:
5501:
5478:
5469:
5468:
5432:
5426:
5425:
5414:
5408:
5407:
5405:
5403:
5394:. 30 June 2016.
5384:
5378:
5377:
5341:
5335:
5334:
5315:10.1136/bmj.b158
5298:
5292:
5291:
5289:
5287:
5272:
5266:
5265:
5237:
5231:
5230:
5220:
5188:
5182:
5181:
5153:
5147:
5146:
5136:
5126:
5102:
5096:
5095:
5085:
5068:(Pt 2): 443â57.
5053:
5047:
5046:
5036:
4996:
4990:
4989:
4977:
4971:
4970:
4960:
4928:
4922:
4921:
4889:
4883:
4882:
4856:
4836:
4830:
4829:
4793:
4787:
4786:
4771:
4765:
4764:
4733:
4727:
4726:
4701:(4â6): 391â405.
4690:
4677:
4676:
4674:
4672:
4666:books.google.com
4658:
4652:
4651:
4641:
4609:
4603:
4592:
4583:
4582:
4546:
4537:
4536:
4512:
4506:
4505:
4479:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4461:. Archived from
4444:
4435:
4429:
4428:
4392:
4386:
4385:
4375:
4343:
4337:
4336:
4334:
4333:
4324:. Archived from
4313:
4307:
4306:
4304:
4303:
4288:
4282:
4281:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4200:
4175:
4169:
4168:
4142:
4136:
4135:
4125:
4084:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4073:
4059:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4048:
4024:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3928:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3917:
3903:
3897:
3896:
3886:
3876:
3852:
3846:
3845:
3835:
3795:
3789:
3788:
3770:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3740:
3738:
3731:News-medical.net
3723:
3717:
3716:
3706:
3674:
3668:
3667:
3665:
3664:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3644:
3643:
3625:
3619:
3618:
3608:
3598:
3574:
3565:
3564:
3554:
3506:
3500:
3499:
3463:
3457:
3456:
3450:
3442:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3405:
3395:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3354:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3279:
3273:
3272:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3200:
3194:
3193:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3142:(150): 232â239.
3127:
3121:
3120:
3110:
3100:
3085:Neural Regen Res
3076:
3070:
3069:
3033:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3008:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2998:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2973:
2958:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2911:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2867:
2860:
2851:
2844:
2838:
2837:
2827:
2817:
2792:
2786:
2780:
2641:5-methylcytosine
2631:is catalyzed by
2621:5-methylcytosine
2541:ventricular zone
2320:neuropsychiatric
2282:
2275:
2271:
2268:
2262:
2260:
2219:
2195:
2187:
2100:and (B) denotes
1859:nodes of Ranvier
1846:oligodendrocytes
1799:squid giant axon
1757:the transfer of
1662:Chemical synapse
1646:Chemical synapse
1626:patch-sequencing
1495:substantia nigra
1300:Neurotransmitter
1286:Neurotransmitter
1133:Efferent neurons
1123:Afferent neurons
695:are star-shaped
678:squid giant axon
670:posterior column
654:
629:Neuron cell body
615:neurotransmitter
474:
367:pyramidal neuron
332:action potential
330:pulse called an
309:undifferentiated
258:glandular output
140:edit on Wikidata
137:
56:
44:
43:
21:
7459:
7458:
7454:
7453:
7452:
7450:
7449:
7448:
7429:
7428:
7427:
7417:
7415:
7403:
7395:
7393:
7384:
7316:
7246:
7195:
7186:
7170:II or AÎČ and AÎł
7125:
7116:
7069:
7059:Apical dendrite
7054:Dendritic spine
7033:
6995:
6965:
6952:
6936:Node of Ranvier
6931:Myelin incisure
6903:
6875:
6764:
6755:Oligodendrocyte
6738:Ependymal cells
6719:
6669:
6597:
6592:
6562:
6557:
6556:
6543:
6527:
6451:
6433:
6406:
6392:Medulloblastoma
6380:
6342:
6332:
6306:
6276:
6253:
6236:Oligodendrocyte
6230:
6165:
6159:
6157:Neuroepithelial
6138:
6123:
6118:
6095:
6081:
6076:
6027:NeuroMorpho.Org
6003:Wayback Machine
5946:
5941:
5935:
5914:
5886:
5867:
5826:(5749): 791â3.
5813:
5811:Further reading
5808:
5807:
5782:10.1038/nrn1956
5762:
5758:
5705:
5701:
5646:
5642:
5597:
5590:
5563:
5559:
5513:
5509:
5499:
5497:
5479:
5472:
5437:Nature Medicine
5433:
5429:
5416:
5415:
5411:
5401:
5399:
5386:
5385:
5381:
5342:
5338:
5299:
5295:
5285:
5283:
5274:
5273:
5269:
5238:
5234:
5189:
5185:
5154:
5150:
5103:
5099:
5054:
5050:
5011:(30): 6703â14.
4997:
4993:
4978:
4974:
4929:
4925:
4890:
4886:
4854:10.1.1.598.7002
4837:
4833:
4794:
4790:
4773:
4772:
4768:
4750:
4734:
4730:
4691:
4680:
4670:
4668:
4660:
4659:
4655:
4610:
4606:
4593:
4586:
4563:
4547:
4540:
4533:
4513:
4509:
4494:
4480:
4473:
4465:
4459:
4442:
4436:
4432:
4393:
4389:
4344:
4340:
4331:
4329:
4314:
4310:
4301:
4299:
4289:
4285:
4234:
4230:
4176:
4172:
4165:
4143:
4139:
4085:
4081:
4071:
4069:
4061:
4060:
4056:
4046:
4044:
4028:
4027:
4025:
3972:
3968:
3929:
3925:
3915:
3913:
3911:Allen Institute
3905:
3904:
3900:
3853:
3849:
3810:(11): 2353â61.
3796:
3792:
3785:
3771:
3767:
3758:
3756:
3750:
3746:
3736:
3734:
3725:
3724:
3720:
3675:
3671:
3662:
3660:
3655:
3654:
3650:
3641:
3639:
3626:
3622:
3575:
3568:
3521:(7411): 343â8.
3507:
3503:
3464:
3460:
3444:
3443:
3439:
3423:
3419:
3372:
3368:
3315:
3311:
3280:
3276:
3245:
3241:
3201:
3197:
3184:
3183:
3179:
3168:
3167:
3163:
3128:
3124:
3077:
3073:
3050:10.1038/nrn2124
3034:
3030:
3021:
3019:
3010:
3009:
3005:
2996:
2994:
2984:
2980:
2971:
2969:
2959:
2955:
2946:
2944:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2924:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2861:
2854:
2845:
2841:
2793:
2789:
2781:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2753:Neuroplasticity
2693:
2681:
2675:
2651:(BER) pathway.
2609:gene expression
2510:
2504:
2465:
2435:â demyelination
2426:
2420:
2392:muscle weakness
2283:
2272:
2266:
2263:
2220:
2218:
2208:
2196:
2185:
2179:
2147:cerebral cortex
2143:
2126:
2082:
2080:Neuron doctrine
2074:neuroanatomical
2052:neuron doctrine
1994:
1988:
1957:
1932:tonic receptors
1923:
1921:All-or-none law
1909:
1882:
1791:
1748:
1687:between cells.
1648:
1640:Main articles:
1638:
1617:
1366:neurons in the
1302:
1288:
1275:globus pallidus
1245:
1151:
1127:sensory neurons
1119:
1114:
1062:Pyramidal cells
1051:corpus striatum
1016:
952:
947:
942:
940:Unipolar neuron
937:
930:
925:
892:
883:cerebral cortex
863:cerebral cortex
855:
786:and associated
753:
715:, a bilayer of
713:plasma membrane
709:
656:Neurology video
644:
565:dendritic spine
528:
527:
526:
523:
522:
521:
516:
511:
506:
503:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
465:
449:nerve fascicles
387:dendritic spine
375:cerebral cortex
359:
328:electrochemical
230:Sensory neurons
144:
62:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7457:
7447:
7446:
7441:
7426:
7425:
7413:
7390:
7389:
7386:
7385:
7383:
7382:
7380:Taste receptor
7377:
7372:
7367:
7362:
7357:
7352:
7350:Muscle spindle
7347:
7345:Ruffini ending
7342:
7337:
7332:
7326:
7324:
7318:
7317:
7315:
7314:
7309:
7307:Ribbon synapse
7304:
7299:
7298:
7297:
7292:
7287:
7277:
7267:
7265:
7256:
7252:
7251:
7248:
7247:
7245:
7244:
7243:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7222:
7217:
7212:
7207:
7201:
7199:
7188:
7187:
7185:
7184:
7183:
7182:
7177:
7172:
7167:
7162:
7152:
7147:
7142:
7137:
7131:
7129:
7127:Sensory neuron
7118:
7117:
7115:
7114:
7113:
7112:
7102:
7097:
7095:Pseudounipolar
7092:
7087:
7081:
7079:
7075:
7074:
7071:
7070:
7068:
7067:
7066:
7065:
7063:Basal dendrite
7056:
7051:
7043:
7041:
7035:
7034:
7032:
7031:
7026:
7021:
7016:
7014:Axon terminals
7011:
7005:
7003:
6997:
6996:
6994:
6993:
6987:
6985:
6976:
6969:
6958:
6957:
6954:
6953:
6951:
6950:
6945:
6944:
6943:
6938:
6933:
6928:
6913:
6911:
6905:
6904:
6902:
6901:
6896:
6891:
6885:
6883:
6877:
6876:
6874:
6873:
6868:
6866:Nerve fascicle
6863:
6857:
6848:
6847:
6846:
6841:
6829:
6828:
6827:
6822:
6812:
6811:
6810:
6805:
6800:
6789:
6787:
6780:
6774:
6773:
6770:
6769:
6766:
6765:
6763:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6746:
6745:
6735:
6729:
6727:
6721:
6720:
6718:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6686:
6684:
6675:
6671:
6670:
6668:
6667:
6662:
6657:
6656:
6655:
6650:
6645:
6640:
6635:
6630:
6620:
6614:
6612:
6605:
6599:
6598:
6595:Nervous tissue
6591:
6590:
6583:
6576:
6568:
6559:
6558:
6548:
6545:
6544:
6542:
6541:
6535:
6533:
6529:
6528:
6526:
6525:
6520:
6519:
6518:
6504:
6503:
6502:
6497:
6489:
6484:
6483:
6482:
6477:
6466:
6464:
6457:
6456:
6453:
6452:
6450:
6449:
6443:
6441:
6435:
6434:
6432:
6431:
6426:
6420:
6418:
6412:
6411:
6408:
6407:
6405:
6404:
6399:
6394:
6388:
6386:
6382:
6381:
6379:
6378:
6373:
6368:
6363:
6361:Retinoblastoma
6358:
6352:Ganglioneuroma
6348:
6346:
6338:
6337:
6334:
6333:
6331:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6314:
6312:
6308:
6307:
6305:
6304:
6303:
6302:
6297:
6286:
6284:
6282:Choroid plexus
6278:
6277:
6275:
6274:
6269:
6263:
6261:
6255:
6254:
6252:
6251:
6246:
6240:
6238:
6232:
6231:
6229:
6228:
6227:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6190:
6188:
6179:
6170:
6150:
6144:
6143:
6140:
6139:
6137:
6136:
6130:
6128:
6120:
6119:
6117:
6116:
6111:
6105:
6103:
6089:
6083:
6082:
6075:
6074:
6067:
6060:
6052:
6046:
6045:
6040:
6035:
6030:
6024:
6014:
6009:
5993:
5974:
5968:
5962:
5956:
5945:
5944:External links
5942:
5940:
5939:
5933:
5918:
5912:
5899:
5890:
5884:
5871:
5865:
5852:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5806:
5805:
5756:
5719:(12): 111369.
5699:
5640:
5588:
5557:
5522:Cell Stem Cell
5507:
5470:
5449:10.1038/nm1229
5427:
5409:
5379:
5336:
5293:
5267:
5248:(7): 1516â27.
5232:
5183:
5148:
5097:
5048:
4991:
4972:
4923:
4904:(1): 393â418.
4884:
4831:
4788:
4766:
4748:
4728:
4678:
4653:
4624:(1): 374â379.
4604:
4584:
4561:
4538:
4531:
4507:
4492:
4471:
4468:on 2012-02-15.
4457:
4430:
4409:10.1038/nn1228
4387:
4338:
4308:
4283:
4228:
4191:(2): 307â316.
4170:
4163:
4137:
4079:
4054:
3966:
3939:(12): 2004â5.
3923:
3898:
3847:
3790:
3783:
3765:
3752:Science AAAS.
3744:
3718:
3669:
3648:
3620:
3566:
3501:
3458:
3437:
3417:
3366:
3309:
3274:
3239:
3212:(6): 1766â73.
3195:
3177:
3161:
3122:
3091:(4): 750â755.
3071:
3028:
3003:
2978:
2953:
2943:. October 2018
2932:
2922:
2896:
2889:
2852:
2839:
2787:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2763:Sholl analysis
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2677:Main article:
2674:
2671:
2506:Main article:
2503:
2500:
2464:
2461:
2419:
2416:
2408:cholinesterase
2285:
2284:
2199:
2197:
2190:
2181:Main article:
2178:
2175:
2165:model organism
2142:
2139:
2125:
2122:
2098:Purkinje cells
2081:
2078:
2006:silver nitrate
1987:
1984:
1956:
1953:
1919:Main article:
1908:
1905:
1881:
1878:
1790:
1787:
1779:gut microbiome
1763:
1762:
1755:
1747:
1744:
1637:
1634:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1596:neuromodulator
1580:
1549:
1518:
1481:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1466:
1465:
1462:
1448:
1431:
1430:
1415:
1391:
1364:postganglionic
1356:
1298:Main article:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1271:
1264:
1244:
1241:
1194:spinal neurons
1150:
1147:
1143:
1142:
1136:
1130:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1102:
1092:
1086:
1080:
1071:
1065:
1059:
1056:Purkinje cells
1053:
1044:
1038:
1029:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1007:Pseudounipolar
1004:
998:
997:
996:
990:
978:
968:
945:Bipolar neuron
929:
926:
924:
921:
917:synaptic cleft
913:axon terminals
854:
853:Classification
851:
819:catecholamines
807:neurofilaments
752:
749:
708:
705:
623:
622:
601:
600:
599:
568:
554:
524:
517:
512:
507:
500:
495:
490:
485:
480:
475:
469:
468:
467:
466:
464:
461:
394:nervous system
369:, the primary
358:
357:Nervous system
355:
325:all-or-nothing
297:axon terminals
266:neural circuit
238:sensory organs
194:nervous tissue
179:nervous system
175:neural network
146:
145:
136:
130:
129:
124:
118:
117:
112:
106:
105:
100:
94:
93:
88:
81:
80:
75:
69:
68:
64:
63:
57:
49:
48:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7456:
7445:
7442:
7440:
7437:
7436:
7434:
7424:
7414:
7412:
7407:
7402:
7401:
7398:
7381:
7378:
7376:
7373:
7371:
7368:
7366:
7363:
7361:
7358:
7356:
7353:
7351:
7348:
7346:
7343:
7341:
7338:
7336:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7327:
7325:
7323:
7319:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7282:
7281:
7278:
7276:
7272:
7269:
7268:
7266:
7264:
7260:
7257:
7253:
7241:
7240:Îł motorneuron
7238:
7236:
7235:ÎČ motorneuron
7233:
7231:
7230:α motorneuron
7228:
7227:
7226:
7223:
7221:
7218:
7216:
7213:
7211:
7208:
7206:
7203:
7202:
7200:
7198:
7193:
7189:
7181:
7178:
7176:
7173:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7157:
7156:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7133:
7132:
7130:
7128:
7123:
7119:
7111:
7108:
7107:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7082:
7080:
7076:
7064:
7060:
7057:
7055:
7052:
7050:
7047:
7046:
7045:
7044:
7042:
7040:
7036:
7030:
7027:
7025:
7022:
7020:
7017:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7006:
7004:
7002:
6998:
6992:
6989:
6988:
6986:
6984:
6980:
6977:
6973:
6970:
6968:
6963:
6959:
6949:
6946:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6929:
6927:
6924:
6923:
6922:
6918:
6915:
6914:
6912:
6910:
6906:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6886:
6884:
6882:
6878:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6861:
6858:
6856:
6852:
6849:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6836:
6835:
6834:
6830:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6817:
6816:
6813:
6809:
6806:
6804:
6801:
6799:
6796:
6795:
6794:
6791:
6790:
6788:
6784:
6781:
6779:
6775:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6744:
6741:
6740:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6730:
6728:
6726:
6722:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6687:
6685:
6683:
6679:
6676:
6672:
6666:
6663:
6661:
6658:
6654:
6651:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6641:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6625:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6615:
6613:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6600:
6596:
6589:
6584:
6582:
6577:
6575:
6570:
6569:
6566:
6555:
6553:
6546:
6540:
6537:
6536:
6534:
6530:
6524:
6521:
6517:
6514:
6513:
6512:
6508:
6505:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6492:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6472:
6471:
6470:Neuroblastoma
6468:
6467:
6465:
6462:
6458:
6448:
6445:
6444:
6442:
6440:
6439:Hematopoietic
6436:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6421:
6419:
6417:
6413:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6389:
6387:
6383:
6377:
6374:
6372:
6369:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6356:Ganglioglioma
6353:
6350:
6349:
6347:
6345:
6339:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6315:
6313:
6309:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6292:
6291:
6288:
6287:
6285:
6283:
6279:
6273:
6272:Subependymoma
6270:
6268:
6265:
6264:
6262:
6260:
6256:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6242:
6241:
6239:
6237:
6233:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6196:
6195:
6192:
6191:
6189:
6187:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6174:
6171:
6168:
6167:spinal tumors
6163:
6158:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6145:
6135:
6132:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6121:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6084:
6080:
6073:
6068:
6066:
6061:
6059:
6054:
6053:
6050:
6044:
6043:Neuron images
6041:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6028:
6025:
6022:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5997:
5994:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5972:
5969:
5966:
5963:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5951:
5948:
5947:
5936:
5930:
5926:
5925:
5919:
5915:
5913:0-521-29935-7
5909:
5905:
5900:
5896:
5891:
5887:
5885:0-19-506571-9
5881:
5877:
5872:
5868:
5866:0-8385-7701-6
5862:
5858:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5816:
5815:
5801:
5797:
5792:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5776:(8): 617â27.
5775:
5771:
5767:
5760:
5752:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5703:
5695:
5691:
5686:
5681:
5676:
5671:
5667:
5663:
5659:
5655:
5651:
5644:
5636:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5611:(3): 401â14.
5610:
5606:
5602:
5595:
5593:
5585:
5583:
5576:
5572:
5568:
5561:
5553:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5511:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5477:
5475:
5466:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5442:
5438:
5431:
5423:
5419:
5413:
5397:
5393:
5389:
5383:
5375:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5352:(4): 329â44.
5351:
5347:
5340:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5297:
5281:
5277:
5271:
5263:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5236:
5228:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5187:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5164:(1): 423â53.
5163:
5159:
5152:
5144:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5101:
5093:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5075:
5071:
5067:
5063:
5059:
5052:
5044:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5026:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4995:
4987:
4983:
4976:
4968:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4927:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4888:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4835:
4827:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4792:
4785:
4780:
4776:
4770:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4749:9780195146943
4745:
4741:
4740:
4732:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4689:
4687:
4685:
4683:
4667:
4663:
4657:
4649:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4608:
4602:
4598:
4597:
4591:
4589:
4581:
4578:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4562:9780195146943
4558:
4554:
4553:
4545:
4543:
4534:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4519:
4511:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4493:9781305105409
4489:
4485:
4478:
4476:
4464:
4460:
4458:9780444883902
4454:
4450:
4449:
4441:
4434:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4403:(5): 456â61.
4402:
4398:
4391:
4383:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4358:(5): 685â92.
4357:
4353:
4349:
4342:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4312:
4298:
4294:
4287:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4232:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4174:
4166:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4141:
4133:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4100:(4): 110287.
4099:
4095:
4091:
4083:
4068:
4064:
4058:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3970:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3927:
3912:
3908:
3902:
3894:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3851:
3843:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3794:
3786:
3780:
3776:
3769:
3755:
3748:
3732:
3728:
3722:
3714:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3673:
3658:
3652:
3638:on 2012-10-07
3637:
3633:
3632:
3624:
3616:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3571:
3562:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3462:
3454:
3448:
3440:
3434:
3430:
3429:
3421:
3413:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3370:
3362:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3313:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3278:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3199:
3191:
3187:
3181:
3173:
3172:
3165:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3126:
3118:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3075:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3044:(5): 368â78.
3043:
3039:
3032:
3017:
3013:
3007:
2993:
2989:
2982:
2968:
2964:
2957:
2942:
2936:
2929:
2925:
2923:0-7817-3639-0
2919:
2915:
2910:
2909:
2900:
2892:
2886:
2882:
2877:
2875:
2871:
2866:
2859:
2857:
2849:
2843:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2775:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2688:
2686:
2680:
2670:
2668:
2663:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2597:
2595:
2590:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2568:motor neurons
2564:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2440:Demyelination
2434:
2430:
2425:
2418:Demyelination
2415:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2370:basal ganglia
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2281:
2278:
2270:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2249:
2245:
2242:
2238:
2235:
2231:
2228: â
2227:
2223:
2222:Find sources:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2200:This article
2198:
2194:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2174:
2172:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2138:
2136:
2132:
2121:
2117:
2115:
2110:
2103:
2102:granule cells
2099:
2095:
2091:
2086:
2077:
2075:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2042:
2041:Camillo Golgi
2038:
2033:
2031:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1983:
1981:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1969:ancient Greek
1966:
1962:
1952:
1949:
1944:
1941:
1936:
1933:
1928:
1922:
1913:
1904:
1903:information.
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1885:Neural coding
1880:Neural coding
1877:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1850:Schwann cells
1847:
1843:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1827:
1822:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1771:neurotrophins
1768:
1760:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1739:
1735:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1705:axon terminal
1701:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1686:
1680:
1678:
1673:
1672:axon terminal
1669:
1660:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1565:cotransmitter
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1516:
1515:decarboxylase
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1482:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1380:catecholamine
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1360:Noradrenaline
1357:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1321:Acetylcholine
1318:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1301:
1292:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1269:
1265:
1262:
1261:neurostriatum
1258:
1257:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1233:visual cortex
1230:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1210:bipolar cells
1207:
1201:
1199:
1196:that release
1195:
1191:
1190:acetylcholine
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1146:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1106:
1105:Spindle cells
1103:
1100:
1096:
1095:Anterior horn
1093:
1090:
1089:Granule cells
1087:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1074:Renshaw cells
1072:
1069:
1068:Rosehip cells
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
994:
991:
988:
985:
984:
982:
979:
976:
972:
969:
966:
963:
962:
961:
956:
951:
946:
941:
934:
920:
918:
914:
910:
909:myelin sheath
906:
905:motor neurons
901:
900:Camillo Golgi
897:
891:
884:
879:
873:interneurons.
872:
868:
864:
859:
850:
848:
843:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
803:
801:
797:
793:
789:
788:ribosomal RNA
785:
781:
772:
765:
761:
760:Golgi-stained
757:
748:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
725:voltage gated
722:
718:
714:
704:
702:
698:
694:
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578:nerve signals
575:
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535:in diameter.
534:
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515:
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509:Axon terminal
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250:Motor neurons
247:
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58:Anatomy of a
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7275:Gap junction
7197:Motor neuron
6991:Axon hillock
6967:nerve fibers
6961:
6921:Schwann cell
6831:
6814:
6792:
6710:Medium spiny
6681:
6623:White matter
6611:Tissue Types
6549:
6507:Neurilemmoma
6495:Neurofibroma
6343:
6224:Glioblastoma
6162:brain tumors
6124:
6096:
5950:Neurobiology
5923:
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5894:
5875:
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5823:
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5716:
5713:Cell Reports
5712:
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4326:the original
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4291:Chudler EH.
4286:
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4097:
4094:Cell Reports
4093:
4082:
4070:. Retrieved
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4033:
4026:Lay summary:
3980:
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3651:
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3636:the original
3630:
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3543:1721.1/92709
3518:
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3380:PLOS Biology
3379:
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3018:. 2021-01-14
3015:
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2995:. Retrieved
2991:
2986:Chudler EH.
2981:
2970:. Retrieved
2966:
2956:
2945:. Retrieved
2935:
2927:
2907:
2899:
2880:
2862:
2842:
2805:
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2790:
2778:
2682:
2664:
2653:
2601:neurogenesis
2598:
2591:
2580:
2565:
2561:white matter
2534:
2514:neurogenesis
2511:
2508:Neurogenesis
2485:mitochondria
2477:cytoskeleton
2466:
2438:
2382:
2366:motor cortex
2358:bradykinesia
2345:
2340:
2307:
2302:
2288:
2273:
2264:
2254:
2247:
2240:
2233:
2221:
2209:Please help
2204:verification
2201:
2168:
2158:
2144:
2134:
2127:
2118:
2111:
2107:
2071:
2066:
2060:
2056:neuroscience
2045:
2034:
2027:
1979:
1977:
1972:
1964:
1958:
1945:
1937:
1924:
1883:
1867:
1830:
1823:
1819:calcium (Ca)
1808:
1792:
1764:
1749:
1724:
1717:
1696:calcium ions
1689:
1681:
1665:
1636:Connectivity
1618:
1604:hypothalamus
1471:brain damage
1329:metabotropic
1303:
1246:
1237:somatostatin
1226:
1221:metabotropic
1202:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1152:
1144:
1139:Interneurons
1041:Lugaro cells
1023:Basket cells
1017:
959:
893:
844:
835:microtubules
815:neuromelanin
811:neurotubules
804:
800:haematoxylin
798:or (weakly)
780:Nissl bodies
777:
710:
701:pluripotency
689:neurogenesis
682:
667:
663:motor neuron
659:
632:
604:
584:axon hillock
582:
571:
557:
540:
529:
514:Schwann cell
492:Axon hillock
457:nerve tracts
446:
391:
351:Neurogenesis
344:
313:
293:axon hillock
281:Golgi bodies
277:mitochondria
270:
262:Interneurons
227:
191:
159:
155:
151:
149:
103:A14.0.00.002
7290:Active zone
7255:Termination
7105:Interneuron
7009:Telodendron
6917:Myelination
6899:Endoneurium
6894:Perineurium
6715:Interneuron
6705:Von Economo
6653:Decussation
6648:Nerve tract
6618:Grey matter
6366:Neurocytoma
6328:Gliosarcoma
6194:Astrocytoma
6114:Pituicytoma
5982:Wikiversity
5605:Epigenomics
5286:28 December
4671:19 December
4072:12 February
4047:21 February
3474:(1): 83â7.
3329:(1): 9583.
2733:Growth cone
2728:Dogiel cell
2685:LlinĂĄs' law
2637:TET enzymes
2572:glial cells
2553:gray matter
2537:neural tube
2516:, in which
2502:Development
2398:that block
2308:Alzheimer's
2114:glial cells
2048:anastomosis
2002:hippocampus
1927:all-or-none
1727:human brain
1711:to produce
1694:, allowing
1309:muscle cell
1249:oscillatory
1229:Parvalbumin
1099:motoneurons
865:expressing
792:Franz Nissl
764:hippocampal
697:glial cells
685:postmitotic
533:micrometers
410:spinal cord
398:glial cells
242:spinal cord
232:respond to
222:peptidergic
67:Identifiers
18:Nerve cells
7433:Categories
7360:Nociceptor
7100:Multipolar
7049:Nissl body
6926:Neurilemma
6889:Epineurium
6674:Cell Types
6511:Schwannoma
6424:Meningioma
6267:Ependymoma
5965:NeuronBank
5487:StatPearls
4332:2009-06-20
4302:2009-06-20
4147:The Neuron
3916:17 October
3784:0810849844
3759:2023-10-17
3663:2013-02-16
3642:2009-06-20
3386:(2): e29.
3022:2022-02-28
2997:2009-06-20
2972:2009-06-20
2947:2022-07-08
2770:References
2758:Red neuron
2723:Connectome
2605:Epigenetic
2557:myelinated
2481:organelles
2479:and inner
2457:autoimmune
2412:thymectomy
2396:antibodies
2346:Parkinsons
2294:neuropathy
2237:newspapers
2151:cerebellum
2090:cerebellum
1530:tryptophan
1313:gland cell
1266:Phasic or
1235:, whereas
1214:ionotropic
1167:modulatory
1163:inhibitory
1159:excitatory
1032:Betz cells
1027:cerebellum
981:Multipolar
896:morphology
888:See also:
823:lipofuscin
693:Astrocytes
412:, and the
340:inhibitory
336:excitatory
206:placozoans
160:nerve cell
7375:Hair cell
6909:Neuroglia
6871:Funiculus
6760:Microglia
6733:Astrocyte
6690:Pyramidal
6643:Lemniscus
6186:Astrocyte
6134:Pinealoma
6087:Endocrine
5895:Histology
5848:170670241
5751:252416407
5374:205115756
5025:1912/2958
4849:CiteSeerX
4502:898154491
4278:209343260
4207:0924-977X
4114:2211-1247
4021:244648506
4005:1476-4687
3933:Neurology
3737:26 August
3447:cite book
3148:0210-0010
2874:CC BY 4.0
2667:microglia
2586:neocortex
2496:proteases
2489:ubiquitin
2316:cognitive
1833:metabolic
1783:microglia
1685:junctions
1588:Histamine
1584:histamine
1577:adenosine
1526:Serotonin
1522:serotonin
1427:G-protein
1423:aspartate
1419:Glutamate
1174:glutamate
1117:Direction
871:GABAergic
847:ribosomes
737:potassium
721:insulator
559:dendrites
531:4 to 100
418:autonomic
377:, with a
321:membranes
289:dendrites
173:across a
164:excitable
7423:Medicine
7160:Ia or Aα
7090:Unipolar
7039:Dendrite
7024:Axolemma
7019:Axoplasm
6803:Ganglion
6743:Tanycyte
6695:Purkinje
6682:Neuronal
6665:Meninges
6660:Neuropil
6416:Meninges
6259:Ependyma
6021:NeuroLex
6005:via the
5999:Archived
5840:16272104
5800:16858390
5743:36130488
5694:16777961
5635:26950681
5552:29681514
5495:30252303
5465:25287010
5457:15821747
5396:Archived
5366:20107219
5323:19196745
5309:: b158.
5280:Archived
5262:10869062
5227:27187682
5143:19439602
5043:15282273
4967:16147523
4918:15217338
4879:10664003
4871:17001633
4826:24331507
4818:17306375
4758:27151391
4723:11273256
4715:17027775
4648:31844876
4580:canton.'
4571:27151391
4417:15114358
4382:21646013
4270:31831638
4223:46819013
4215:29426666
4132:35081342
4013:34819666
3961:38482114
3953:15985565
3893:19915731
3842:23746507
3713:30239935
3615:25408634
3561:22878717
3496:22296630
3488:12675489
3412:16366735
3361:28851982
3304:12208347
3234:31301135
3226:11259494
3117:36204831
3066:12908713
3058:17453017
2876:license.
2834:37729907
2825:10580291
2691:See also
2619:to form
2549:ependyma
2473:axolemma
2362:akinesia
2267:May 2018
2226:"Neuron"
2155:nematode
2020:done by
1893:ensemble
1889:stimulus
1826:pressure
1793:In 1937
1773:such as
1767:hormones
1759:proteins
1668:synapses
1503:tyrosine
1490:Dopamine
1486:dopamine
1388:tyrosine
1341:nicotine
1331:(GPCRs)
1268:bursting
1001:Anaxonic
993:Golgi II
965:Unipolar
928:Polarity
829:and the
741:chloride
707:Membrane
674:Giraffes
611:synapses
477:Dendrite
183:synapses
85:NeuroLex
7439:Neurons
7411:Biology
7397:Portals
7302:Autapse
7263:Synapse
7110:Renshaw
7085:Bipolar
6962:Neurons
6815:Ventral
6786:General
6700:Granule
5820:Science
5791:2693386
5734:9513806
5685:1502498
5662:Bibcode
5626:4864063
5543:6035081
5500:10 July
5402:18 July
5331:8570146
5218:5063692
5178:3284447
5134:2709801
5092:9080373
5083:1159318
5034:6729725
4958:1569502
4639:6935745
4577:Revista
4373:3171584
4250:Bibcode
4242:Science
4123:8906846
3985:Bibcode
3884:2776484
3833:3672877
3812:Bibcode
3704:6335869
3606:4219458
3589:: 320.
3552:3653570
3523:Bibcode
3403:1318477
3352:5575062
3331:Bibcode
3269:7505739
3156:9563093
3108:9700087
2599:During
2526:mitosis
2493:calpain
2368:by the
2336:agnosia
2332:apraxia
2328:aphasia
2324:amnesia
2310:, is a
2251:scholar
1986:History
1980:neurone
1971:ÎœÎ”áżŠÏÎżÎœ
1897:digital
1844:cells:
1720:autapse
1642:Synapse
1608:arousal
1602:of the
1573:purines
1567:. Such
1459:agonist
1441:Kainate
1349:choline
1198:glycine
1097:cells,
987:Golgi I
971:Bipolar
831:tubulin
821:), and
796:aniline
745:calcium
549:, most
547:nucleus
504:Ranvier
502:Node of
497:Nucleus
442:cochlea
434:ganglia
422:enteric
385:onto a
373:of the
317:voltage
305:neurite
301:synapse
273:nucleus
234:stimuli
202:sponges
200:except
198:animals
196:in all
177:in the
156:neurone
78:D009474
39:Neutron
7155:fibers
6793:Dorsal
6344:neuron
6341:Mature
6177:Glioma
6125:Other:
6098:Sellar
5954:Curlie
5931:
5910:
5882:
5863:
5846:
5838:
5798:
5788:
5749:
5741:
5731:
5692:
5682:
5633:
5623:
5582:Nature
5567:Nature
5550:
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4370:
4276:
4268:
4221:
4213:
4205:
4161:
4130:
4120:
4112:
4034:Nature
4019:
4011:
4003:
3977:Nature
3959:
3951:
3891:
3881:
3867:: 31.
3840:
3830:
3781:
3711:
3701:
3613:
3603:
3559:
3549:
3515:Nature
3494:
3486:
3435:
3410:
3400:
3359:
3349:
3302:
3267:
3232:
3224:
3154:
3146:
3115:
3105:
3064:
3056:
2920:
2887:
2832:
2822:
2451:, and
2354:tremor
2253:
2246:
2239:
2232:
2224:
2067:neuron
2008:method
1973:neuron
1965:neuron
1901:analog
1854:faster
1838:myelin
1777:. The
1546:Zoloft
1542:Prozac
1507:L-DOPA
1445:cation
1325:ligand
766:tissue
743:, and
733:sodium
661:human
453:nerves
438:retina
287:, and
279:, and
218:Tonian
210:Plants
162:is an
152:neuron
47:Neuron
7078:Types
6975:Parts
6844:White
6825:Ramus
6808:Ramus
6725:Glial
6532:Other
5844:S2CID
5747:S2CID
5461:S2CID
5392:NINDS
5370:S2CID
5327:S2CID
5242:Brain
4988:: 17.
4875:S2CID
4822:S2CID
4784:1891.
4719:S2CID
4618:Brain
4466:(PDF)
4443:(PDF)
4421:S2CID
4274:S2CID
4219:S2CID
4017:S2CID
3957:S2CID
3689:(1).
3683:Sleep
3492:S2CID
3230:S2CID
3062:S2CID
2576:birth
2543:, an
2386:is a
2258:JSTOR
2244:books
2157:worm
1842:glial
1590:is a
1575:like
1509:) by
1014:Other
827:actin
717:lipid
406:brain
246:brain
214:fungi
158:, or
138:[
127:54527
7001:Axon
6983:Soma
6839:Gray
6820:Root
6798:Root
5988:and
5976:The
5929:ISBN
5908:ISBN
5880:ISBN
5861:ISBN
5836:PMID
5796:PMID
5739:PMID
5690:PMID
5631:PMID
5548:PMID
5502:2024
5491:PMID
5453:PMID
5404:2016
5362:PMID
5319:PMID
5288:2011
5258:PMID
5223:PMID
5174:PMID
5139:PMID
5088:PMID
5039:PMID
4963:PMID
4914:PMID
4867:PMID
4841:Glia
4814:PMID
4754:OCLC
4744:ISBN
4711:PMID
4673:2020
4644:PMID
4601:s.v.
4567:OCLC
4557:ISBN
4527:ISBN
4498:OCLC
4488:ISBN
4453:ISBN
4413:PMID
4378:PMID
4266:PMID
4211:PMID
4203:ISSN
4159:ISBN
4128:PMID
4110:ISSN
4074:2022
4049:2022
4009:PMID
4001:ISSN
3949:PMID
3918:2023
3889:PMID
3838:PMID
3779:ISBN
3739:2021
3709:PMID
3611:PMID
3557:PMID
3484:PMID
3453:link
3433:ISBN
3408:PMID
3357:PMID
3300:PMID
3265:PMID
3222:PMID
3152:PMID
3144:ISSN
3113:PMID
3054:PMID
2918:ISBN
2885:ISBN
2870:text
2830:PMID
2802:Cell
2623:and
2491:and
2230:news
1946:The
1940:skin
1899:and
1815:ions
1775:BDNF
1725:The
1644:and
1594:and
1544:and
1451:NMDA
1439:and
1437:AMPA
1374:and
1351:and
1178:GABA
1176:and
603:The
573:axon
570:The
556:The
542:soma
539:The
487:Axon
482:Soma
440:and
424:and
408:and
383:axon
285:axon
212:and
204:and
167:cell
98:TA98
73:MeSH
7215:SVE
7210:GVE
7205:GSE
7150:SVA
7145:SSA
7140:GVA
7135:GSA
6778:PNS
6603:CNS
6461:PNS
6148:CNS
5980:at
5952:at
5828:doi
5824:310
5786:PMC
5778:doi
5729:PMC
5721:doi
5680:PMC
5670:doi
5658:103
5621:PMC
5613:doi
5571:doi
5538:PMC
5530:doi
5445:doi
5354:doi
5350:362
5311:doi
5307:338
5303:BMJ
5250:doi
5246:123
5213:PMC
5205:doi
5201:524
5166:doi
5129:PMC
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