291:, the larval sand flounder begins its life with an eye on each side of its head and a round body shape, swimming upright through the midwater. As it grows out of this larval stage entering the juvenile stage one eye moves to the right side leaving the other blind and it takes on a flat diamond shape swimming flat/parallel to the ground. On the right side, the fish is a greenish brown dark colour or grey with faint mottling and on the left side (the side it lies on without eyes) it is white. The average length of an adult sand flounder is 25ā35 cm with the maximum being 45 cm. In the day time, they lie on the seabed camouflaged almost perfectly in sand or mud; they have special pigment cells on their skin that can change colour to match their background, their protruding blue-green eyes being their only giveaway. They swim in a flowing style with an undulating movement of the side fins and when threatened by predators their tail is used for propulsion. Technically the adult swims on its side with the continuous dorsal fin fringing one edge of its diamond shaped body and its extended anal fin on the other. It has no swim bladder and only leaves the seabed for courtship and spawning activities.
378:
migrate from shallow waters (0-50m) in spring and summer to deeper waters (50-100m) in autumn and winter. Male R. plebeia are smaller than female R. plebeia, maturing at a length of 10 cm, but can grow to 15ā17 cm. The females grow faster, with mature size being 16ā20 cm long, but they grow to 23ā24 cm by age two. By age of three, female sand flounders grow to an average size of 30 cm. The average life span of flounder is three to four years. This equates to being able to have two years of spawning.
31:
75:
369:, and at this stage of its development the cartilage above the left eye is absorbed and the eye begins to move from the side of the head, until it is next to the right eye. The unusual, twisted shape of the mouth of the sand flounder is due to the movement of the skull and bones as the left eye migrates to the right side of the body. While this slow process is occurring, the sand flounder begins to grow out to the side and flatten, losing its rounded shape. This
50:
396:
their marginal fins throwing up a shower of sand or mud which lands on them and makes them almost undetectable. In saying this sand flounders still get preyed on, some predators include tope, spined dogfish, Maori chief, ling and toadfish. In a study done in the Avon-Heathcote
Estuary they found that sand flounder were hosts of many different parasites including
447:
there is no current conservation effort to try save sand flounder, but as it is one of the most important commercial fishes in New
Zealand ongoing research on the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed to make sure that they do not leave the Least Concern class and so that they know if they do, conservation efforts can be made.
386:
The sand flounder feeds off a yolk-sac attached to its under surface until they are capable of fending for themselves. As an adult it is adapted to feed best at night on sand or mud. They are ambush predators, going unnoticed by camouflage and then attacking their prey when it comes near. They eat a
442:
became a major location for flounder fishing in the 20th
Century. Recreational fishers catch the fish usually in beach seines, setnets or with spears. Commercially sand flounder are fished by trawl and setnet. Sand flounder is very easy to cook and there are many ways to cook and serve it depending
446:
As of the 21st
Century, sand flounder numbers are decreasing. There is currently no evidence to show that the decline is rapid and they are still common in areas where they are found. Because of this, they have been classed as Least Concern on the red list category and criteria. For these reasons,
344:
attached to their underside, providing nutrients to the fish until it is large enough to feed itself. At this stage, they are less than a half a centimetre in length. They have an eye on each side of their head and swim upright, as most fish do. As sand flounders grow they begin utilising external
316:
They prefer coastal areas and are found in waters up to 50m deep but rarely deeper. They can be found in harbours, inlets, bays and open water. They are common on mudflats but seem to have no preference of bottom substrate as they are also found on sand, clay, pebbles and gravel bottoms. They also
395:
Sand flounder are a very important commercial fish in New
Zealand which means that humans are a predominant predator for them. Flat fishes including the sand flounder are good at camouflage which allows them to hide well from any predators. They are good at it because when they settle they wiggle
377:
The juvenile R. plebeia migrate to the shallow water of the estuaries and mudflats where they remain until they mature at two years old. Once R. plebeia reach a mature age and size, they migrate to deeper water of around 30 to 50 metres deep to spawn. After this first migration, they continue to
307:
Sand flounder are endemic to New
Zealand. New Zealand sand flounder is found in a majority of coastal waters around New Zealand. Its largest population is found at Tasman Bay and on the East Coast of the South Island. Around New Zealand they can be found in harbours, inlets, bays and open water.
373:
makes swimming as the larval sand flounder was able to difficult and exhausting. The now juvenile sand flounders sink to the bottom and begin swimming as adult flatfish do, by undulating their side fins and for rapid acceleration, use their tail.
317:
can be found in estuaries. When they are juveniles they are found in sheltered inshore areas such as estuaries, mudflats and sand flats where they will stay for around two years. They also prefer a temperate climate.
387:
variety of bottom-dwelling invertebrates such as crabs, brittlestars, shrimps, worms, whitebait, shellfish and tiny fishes located by touch and vision. They also ingest mud detritus and seaweed while feeding.
364:
The extra nutrients they receive from these new food sources enables them to grow to around one and a half centimetres by the time they are three weeks old. Above each eye of the sand flounder is a bar of
438:
Flounders were considered one of the most delicious species of New
Zealand fish by early European settlers. The fish was so popular that even by the 1860s, populations were noted to have declined. The
419:, valued for its taste and abundance in shallow estuaries. PÄtiki were typically caught by dragging nets across harbours in the daytime, or by spear fishing at night. Areas famous for flounder include
333:
found sand flounder lay between 100,000 and 500,000 eggs when spawning. The variation in the number of eggs laid was attributed to the difference in size of the female laying the eggs.
443:
on preferences. At its simplest, it can be served beautifully after washing, drenching in flour and frying each side in a medium hot pan with oil/butter until the skin is crisp.
404:
which were both found in less than one percent of fish sampled. They found trematode's in 24% of the sand flounder, Hedruris spinigera in 6%, and fungal patches on 13%.
757:
Webb B.F. Webb (1973) Fish populations of the AvonāHeathcote
Estuary (Breeding and Gonad Maturity) New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
1370:
329:
period. In the north, it has a long spawning period from March to
December. In the south, spawning largely occurs in the spring. A study in the
1409:
836:
1486:
1496:
432:
1344:
783:
1383:
1432:
603:
1388:
684:
McDowall R.M. (1976) The Role of
Estuaries in the Life Cycles of Fishes in New Zealand. New Zealand Ecological Society 26.
294:
The New Zealand sand flounder can be distinguished from other flounder species in New Zealand by its yellow underside.
829:
809:
766:
Enderby, J., & Enderby, T. (2012). Know Your New Zealand Fishes. (B. O'Flaherty, Ed.) New Holland Publishers Ltd.
1414:
1458:
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186:
1318:
974:
420:
1323:
74:
1264:
1194:
1094:
994:
1463:
1424:
748:
D.H. Graham (1939) Food of the Fishes of Otago Harbour and Adjacent Sea Royal Society of New Zealand
532:
Graham, D. H. (1953). A Treasury of New Zealand Fish. Wellington: Hutcheson, Bowman and Stewart Ltd.
1114:
874:
487:
1064:
575:
Paul, L., & Moreland, J. (1993). Handbook of New Zealand Marine Fishes. Auckland: Reed Books.
1375:
1286:
1204:
1184:
1074:
1024:
984:
739:
Manikiam J.S. Manikiam (1969) A Guide to Flatfishes (Order Heterosomata) of New Zealand Tuatara
336:
After a period of time dependent on the temperature of the water (usually around a week), the
1234:
944:
169:
1450:
1401:
566:
Doak, W. (2003). Sea Fishes of New Zealand. (B. O'Flaherty, Ed.) New Holland Publishers Ltd.
1491:
1054:
1044:
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1014:
208:
8:
1214:
1154:
1144:
934:
884:
39:
1164:
964:
954:
464:
195:
69:
635:
Munroe T.A. (2010) | Rhombosolea plebeia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010
1445:
1224:
1134:
1004:
894:
814:
805:
599:
258:
1124:
904:
665:
609:
482:
219:
670:
653:
30:
914:
654:"Spawning and Fecundity of two flounder species in the Hauraki gulf, New Zealand"
439:
416:
1309:
924:
136:
116:
1480:
1396:
1254:
854:
779:
473:
431:, including the diamond-shaped pÄtikitiki weaving pattern and in designs for
59:
54:
613:
424:
370:
330:
428:
1357:
268:
263:
146:
1336:
515:
A Guide Book to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species 2007 Revised Edition
325:
The geographic location of the New Zealand sand flounder determines its
1349:
596:
Secrets of the Sea: The Story of New Zealand's Native Sea Creatures
1362:
366:
86:
1280:
557:
Paul, L. (1997). Marine Fishes of New Zealand. Auckland: Reed Books.
1331:
1303:
864:
792:
358:
341:
326:
288:
126:
106:
712:
Coastal Fishes of New Zealand, Identification, Biology, Behaviour
513:
Banks, D.; Crysell, S.; Garty, J.; Paris, S.; Selton, P. (2007).
346:
1437:
804:, (William Collins Publishers Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand 1982)
354:
337:
96:
350:
279:
New Zealand dab, pÄtiki, diamond, tinplate, square flounder.
541:
Paul, L. (1986). New Zealand Fishes. Auckland: Reed Books.
340:
sand flounder hatches. Larval sand flounders have a large
844:
512:
658:
New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
390:
1478:
598:. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. pp. 84ā89.
593:
802:Collins Guide to the Sea Fishes of New Zealand
488:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-4.RLTS.T154914A4666185.en
830:
517:. New Zealand: Seafood Industry Council Ltd.
462:
742:
271:in shallow waters down to depths of 100 m.
837:
823:
705:
703:
701:
699:
693:Torres A. Rhombosolea plebeia summary page
647:
645:
643:
641:
48:
29:
669:
589:
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583:
581:
486:
733:
678:
631:
629:
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625:
623:
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508:
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1479:
724:
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687:
651:
578:
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311:
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407:
1425:edb57bdf-3356-4d66-9753-fb33feca2839
751:
569:
560:
544:
535:
503:
381:
1487:IUCN Red List least concern species
772:
521:
474:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
456:
13:
1497:Endemic marine fish of New Zealand
845:Endemic marine fish of New Zealand
594:Vennell, Robert (5 October 2022).
427:. Flounders are a common motif in
391:Predators, parasites, and diseases
353:, and as they grow further, small
14:
1513:
402:Heteracanthocephalus peltorhamphi
800:Tony Ayling & Geoffrey Cox,
727:A Treasury of New Zealand Fishes
73:
297:
274:
282:
1:
1129:Peltorhamphus novaezeelandiae
1105:New Zealand slender clingfish
671:10.1080/00288330.1973.9515454
450:
320:
1245:Spotted estuary smooth-hound
1175:New Zealand urchin clingfish
899:Fiordichthys slartibartfasti
7:
975:New Zealand black angelfish
421:Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora
10:
1518:
1265:Yellow-and-black triplefin
1219:Coelorinchus aspercephalus
1195:Oblique-swimming triplefin
1095:New Zealand sand stargazer
1049:Trachelochismus pinnulatus
995:New Zealand blueback sprat
714:. Craig Potton Publishing.
415:is a traditional food for
24:New Zealand sand flounder
1293:
1099:Crapatalus novaezelandiae
1085:New Zealand sand flounder
889:Cephaloscyllium isabellum
850:
249:New Zealand sand flounder
201:
194:
175:
168:
70:Scientific classification
68:
46:
37:
28:
23:
1269:Forsterygion flavonigrum
1115:New Zealand smooth skate
782:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.).
302:
1189:Aplodactylus etheridgii
1065:New Zealand rough skate
1059:Acanthoclinus littoreus
729:. A.H. & A.W. Reed.
481:: e.T154914A115251972.
216:Bowenia novaezealandiae
1502:Fish described in 1843
1229:Crapatalus angusticeps
1205:Prickly deep-sea skate
1199:Forsterygion maryannae
1185:Notchheaded marblefish
1149:Notoclinus fenestratus
1109:Gastrocyathus gracilis
1075:New Zealand sand diver
1025:New Zealand damselfish
985:New Zealand black goby
949:Gastroscyphus hectoris
919:Kathetostoma giganteum
463:Munroe, T.A. (2017) .
1249:Mustelus lenticulatus
1235:Smooth deep-sea skate
1179:Dellichthys morelandi
1159:Tetronarce fairchildi
939:Grahamichthys radiata
879:Histiobranchus bruuni
875:Bruun's cutthroat eel
796:. March 2006 version.
435:; traditional kites.
423:and the mouth of the
345:food sources such as
227:Rhombosolea thompsoni
1259:Notolabrus celidotus
1209:Brochiraja spinifera
1169:Colistium nudipinnis
1119:Dipturus innominatus
1055:New Zealand rockfish
1045:New Zealand lumpfish
1035:New Zealand flathead
1015:New Zealand catshark
979:Parma alboscapularis
710:Francis, M. (2012).
1295:Rhombosolea plebeia
1239:Brochiraja asperula
1215:Rough-head whiptail
1155:New Zealand torpedo
1145:New Zealand topknot
1089:Rhombosolea plebeia
1019:Bythaelurus dawsoni
885:Draughtsboard shark
859:Alertichthys blacki
786:Rhombosolea plebeia
725:Graham, D. (1956).
652:Colman, J. (1973).
467:Rhombosolea plebeia
413:Rhombosolea piebeia
312:Habitat preferences
254:Rhombosolea plebeia
179:Rhombosolea plebeia
40:Conservation status
1165:New Zealand turbot
1039:Bembrops morelandi
1009:Colistium guntheri
999:Sprattus antipodum
969:Pempheris adspersa
965:New Zealand bigeye
955:Longsnout pipefish
945:Hector's clingfish
929:Notolabrus cinctus
408:In a human context
1474:
1473:
1446:Open Tree of Life
1287:Taxon identifiers
1278:
1277:
1225:Slender stargazer
1139:Sprattus muelleri
1135:New Zealand sprat
1079:Tewara cranwellae
1005:New Zealand brill
895:Fiordland brotula
869:Parapercis colias
605:978-1-77554-179-0
398:Nerocila orbignyi
382:Diet and foraging
259:righteye flounder
245:
244:
239:
231:
223:
212:
205:Apsetta thompsoni
127:Pleuronectiformes
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1353:
1352:
1340:
1339:
1327:
1326:
1314:
1313:
1312:
1282:
1281:
1125:New Zealand sole
1069:Dipturus nasutus
1029:Chromis dispilus
989:Gobiopsis atrata
959:Leptonotus norae
935:Graham's gudgeon
909:Hyporhamphus ihi
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773:Other references
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238:Richardson, 1843
237:
235:Rhombus plebeius
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1279:
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915:Giant stargazer
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277:
267:, found around
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161:R. plebeia
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16:Species of fish
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780:Froese, Rainer
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664:(1ā2): 21ā43.
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117:Actinopterygii
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855:Alert pigfish
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810:0-00-216987-8
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371:metamorphism
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298:Distribution
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275:Common names
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230:(Kyle, 1901)
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1492:Rhombosolea
1358:iNaturalist
349:spores and
287:Like other
283:Description
269:New Zealand
264:Rhombosolea
148:Rhombosolea
1481:Categories
614:Q114871191
451:References
321:Life cycle
187:Richardson
433:manu aute
429:MÄori art
367:cartilage
155:Species:
93:Kingdom:
87:Eukaryota
1376:10913371
1332:FishBase
1310:Q2513367
1304:Wikidata
865:Blue cod
793:FishBase
610:Wikidata
494:26 March
359:plankton
342:yolk sac
327:spawning
289:flatfish
196:Synonyms
133:Family:
107:Chordata
103:Phylum:
97:Animalia
83:Domain:
60:IUCN 3.1
1415:1203428
1350:2409312
905:Garfish
347:seaweed
257:) is a
189:, 1843)
143:Genus:
123:Order:
113:Class:
58: (
1464:282601
1451:273737
1438:282601
1422:NZOR:
1402:154914
1389:172953
1363:111766
1255:Spotty
808:
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355:shrimp
338:larval
222:, 1873
211:, 1901
1459:WoRMS
1371:IRMNG
1337:12950
1324:72443
417:MÄori
351:algae
303:Range
220:Haast
1433:OBIS
1410:NCBI
1397:IUCN
1384:ITIS
1345:GBIF
1319:BOLD
806:ISBN
600:ISBN
496:2018
479:2010
400:and
357:and
247:The
209:Kyle
666:doi
483:doi
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