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segregation can never be excluded, and assumption of such randomness can indeed serve as a null-model. – Many physiological and morphological differences between species can prevent hybridization. Evidence for niche segregation as the result of reinforcement of reproductive barriers is especially convincing in those cases in which such differences are not found in allopatric but only in sympatric locations. For example, Kawano (2002) has shown this for giant rhinoceros beetles in
Southeast Asia. Two closely related species occur in 12 allopatric (i.e., in different areas) and 7 sympatric (i.e., in the same area) locations. In the former, body length and length of genitalia are practically identical, in the latter, they are significantly different, and much more so for the genitalia than the body, convincing evidence that reinforcement is an important factor (and possibly the only one) responsible for niche segregation. - The very detailed studies of communities of Monogenea parasitic on the gills of marine and freshwater fishes by several authors have shown the same. Species use strictly defined microhabitats and have very complex copulatory organs. This and the fact that fish replicas are available in almost unlimited numbers, makes them ideal ecological models. Many congeners (species belonging to the same genus) and non-congeners were found on single host species. The maximum number of congeners was nine species. The only limiting factor is space for attachment, since food (blood, mucus, fast regenerating epithelial cells) is in unlimited supply as long as the fish is alive. Various authors, using a variety of statistical methods, have consistently found that species with different copulatory organs may co-occur in the same microhabitat, whereas congeners with identical or very similar copulatory organs are spatially segregated, convincing evidence that reinforcement and not competition is responsible for niche segregation.
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550:) species, which often coexist with new species in their nonnative ranges, but do not appear to be constricted these requirements. In other words, contemporary niche theory predicts that species will be unable to invade new environments outside of their requirement (i.e. realized) niche, yet many examples of this are well-documented. Additionally, contemporary niche theory predicts that species will be unable to establish in environments where other species already consume resources in the same ways as the incoming species, however examples of this are also numerous.
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phosphorus, perhaps) and each species must outcompete the other species to get that resource (P1 needs to be better at obtaining nitrogen and P2 needs to be better at obtaining phosphorus). Intuitively, this makes sense from an inverse perspective: If both consumers are limited by the same resource, one of the species will ultimately be the better competitor, and only that species will survive. Furthermore, if P1 was outcompeted for the nitrogen (the resource it needed most) it would not survive. Likewise, if P2 was outcompeted for phosphorus, it would not survive.
623:. To understand the mechanisms of niche differentiation and competition, much data must be gathered on how the two species interact, how they use their resources, and the type of ecosystem in which they exist, among other factors. In addition, several mathematical models exist to quantify niche breadth, competition, and coexistence (Bastolla et al. 2005). However, regardless of methods used, niches and competition can be distinctly difficult to measure quantitatively, and this makes detection and demonstration of niche differentiation difficult and complex.
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exclusion, the less competitive species were eliminated, leaving only the species that were able to coexist (i.e. the most competitive species whose realized niches did not overlap). Again, this process does not include any evolutionary change of individual species, but it is merely the product of the competitive exclusion principle. Also, because no species is out-competing any other species in the final community, the presence of niche differentiation will be difficult or impossible to detect.
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has excluded it from the lower portion of the slope. With this scenario, competition will continue indefinitely in the middle of the slope between these two species. Because of this, detection of the presence of niche differentiation (through competition) will be relatively easy. Importantly, there is no evolutionary change of the individual species in this case; rather this is an ecological effect of species Y out-competing species X within the bounds of species Y's fundamental niche.
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populations usually don't even approach exhaustion of resources, and too much emphasis on interspecific competition is therefore wrong. Concerning the possibility that competition has led to segregation in the evolutionary past, Wiens (1974, 1984) concluded that such assumptions cannot be proven, and
Connell (1980) found that interspecific competition as a mechanism of niche segregation has been proven only for some pest insects. Barker (1983), in his review of competition in
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scales. Most literature has focused on
Ginnellian niche constructs, often from a climatic perspective, to explain distribution and abundance. Current predictions on species responses to climate change strongly rely on projecting altered environmental conditions on species distributions. However, it is increasingly acknowledged that climate change also influences species interactions and an Eltonian perspective may be advantageous in explaining these processes.
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result, species that produce such defenses are often poor competitors when predators are absent. Species can coexist through a competition-predation trade-off if predators are more abundant when the less defended species is common, and less abundant if the well-defended species is common. This effect has been criticized as being weak, because theoretical models suggest that only two species within a community can coexist because of this mechanism.
586:, then one will inevitably drive the other to extinction. This rule also states that two species cannot occupy the same exact niche in a habitat and coexist together, at least in a stable manner. When two species differentiate their niches, they tend to compete less strongly, and are thus more likely to coexist. Species can differentiate their niches in many ways, such as by consuming different foods, or using different areas of the environment.
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750:, such as herbivorous insects. If a species density declines, so too will the density of its natural enemies, giving it an advantage. Thus, if each species is constrained by different natural enemies, they will be able to coexist. Early work focused on specialist predators; however, more recent studies have shown that predators do not need to be pure specialists, they simply need to affect each prey species differently. The
85:, which focuses on spatial patterns of ecological communities. "Species distributions and their dynamics over time result from properties of the species, environmental variation..., and interactions between the two—in particular the abilities of some species, especially our own, to modify their environments and alter the range dynamics of many other species." Alteration of an ecological niche by its inhabitants is the topic of
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332:, that define the requirements of an individual or a species to practice its way of life, more particularly, for its population to persist. The "hypervolume" defines the multi-dimensional space of resources (e.g., light, nutrients, structure, etc.) available to (and specifically used by) organisms, and "all species other than those under consideration are regarded as part of the coordinate system."
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431:. Hutchinson used the idea of competition for resources as the primary mechanism driving ecology, but overemphasis upon this focus has proved to be a handicap for the niche concept. In particular, overemphasis upon a species' dependence upon resources has led to too little emphasis upon the effects of organisms on their environment, for instance, colonization and invasions.
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starts with the secretions from plant roots into the rhizosphere. If another plant that is kin is entering this area the plant will take up exudates. The exudate, being several different compounds, will enter the plants root cell and attach to a receptor for that chemical halting growth of the root meristem in that direction, if the interaction is kin.
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examples of nearly identical species clusters occupying the same niche were water beetles, prairie birds and algae. The basic idea is that there can be clusters of very similar species all applying the same successful strategy and between them open spaces. Here the species cluster takes the place of a single species in the classical ecological models.
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between kin and non-kin competition. This means there could be specific subsets of genotypes in kin plants that selects well with specific strains that could outcompete other kin. What might seem like an instance in kin competition could just be different genotypes of organisms at play in the soil that increase the symbiotic efficiency.
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are more successful during wet years, while others are more successful during dry years. As a result, each species will have an advantage in some years, but not others. When environmental conditions are most favorable, individuals will tend to compete most strongly with member of the same species.
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Niche differentiation can arise from current competition. For instance, species X has a fundamental niche of the entire slope of a hillside, but its realized niche is only the top portion of the slope because species Y, which is a better competitor but cannot survive on the top portion of the slope,
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lizards in the
Caribbean islands share common diets—mainly insects. They avoid competition by occupying different physical locations. Although these lizards might occupy different locations, some species can be found inhabiting the same range, with up to 15 in certain areas. For example, some live on
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occur, and that overlap in resource utilization directly enables the estimation of the competition coefficients. This postulate, however, can be misguided, as it ignores the impacts that the resources of each category have on the organism and the impacts that the organism has on the resources of each
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are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (for example, limiting access to resources by other organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey). "The type and number of variables comprising the dimensions of an environmental niche vary from one species to another
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Two ecological paradigms deal with the problem. The first paradigm predominates in what may be called “classical” ecology. It assumes that niche space is largely saturated with individuals and species, leading to strong competition. Niches are restricted because “neighbouring” species, i.e., species
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states that two competing species can coexist when intra-specific (within species) competition is greater than inter-specific (between species) competition. Since niche differentiation concentrates competition within-species, due to a decrease in between-species competition, the Lotka-Volterra model
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These requirements are interesting and controversial because they require any two species to share a certain environment (have overlapping requirement niches) but fundamentally differ the ways that they use (or "impact") that environment. These requirements have repeatedly been violated by nonnative
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In contemporary niche theory, the "impact niche" is defined as the combination of effects that a given consumer has on both a). the resources that it uses, and b). the other consumers in the ecosystem. Therefore, the impact niche is equivalent to the
Eltonian niche since both concepts are defined by
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within an ecosystem. The framework centers around "consumer-resource models" which largely split a given ecosystem into resources (e.g. sunlight or available water in soil) and consumers (e.g. any living thing, including plants and animals), and attempts to define the scope of possible relationships
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habitat it lives in—it breeds and feeds in the underbrush and escapes from its predators by shuffling from underbrush to underbrush. Its 'niche' is defined by the felicitous complementing of the thrasher's behavior and physical traits (camouflaging color, short wings, strong legs) with this habitat.
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and other very similar warblers can serve as an example. The idea is that it is also a good strategy to be very similar to a successful species or have enough dissimilarity. Also trees in the rain forest can serve as an example of all high canopy species basically following the same strategy. Other
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Both paradigms acknowledge a role for all mechanisms (except possibly for that of random selection of niches in the first paradigm), but emphasis on the various mechanisms varies. The first paradigm stresses the paramount importance of interspecific competition, whereas the second paradigm tries to
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Species can differentiate their niche via a competition-predation trade-off if one species is a better competitor when predators are absent, and the other is better when predators are present. Defenses against predators, such as toxic compounds or hard shells, are often metabolically costly. As a
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Simonsen discusses how plants accomplish root communication with the addition of beneficial rhizobia and fungal networks and the potential for different genotypes of the kin plants, such as the legume M. Lupulina, and specific strains of nitrogen fixing bacteria and rhizomes can alter relationships
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Research has determined that plants can recognize each other's root systems and differentiate between a clone, a plant grown from the same mother plants seeds, and other species. Based on the root secretions, also called exudates, plants can make this determination. The communication between plants
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of the rocky coast of the Isle. Connell described the upper portion of C. stellatus's range is limited by the barnacle's ability to resist dehydration during periods of low tide. The lower portion of the range was limited by interspecific interactions, namely competition with a cohabiting barnacle
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of specific individual phenomena, as the dynamics of this class of niche are difficult to measure at a broad geographic scale. However, the
Eltonian niche may be useful in the explanation of a species' endurance of global change. Because adjustments in biotic interactions inevitably change abiotic
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Resource partitioning is the phenomenon where two or more species divides out resources like food, space, resting sites etc. to coexist. For example, some lizard species appear to coexist because they consume insects of differing sizes. Alternatively, species can coexist on the same resources if
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Grinnellian niches can be defined by non-interactive (abiotic) variables and environmental conditions on broad scales. Variables of interest in this niche class include average temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, and terrain aspect which have become increasingly accessible across spatial
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In reality, this still leaves the question of how much differentiation is needed for coexistence. A vague answer to this question is that the more similar two species are, the more finely balanced the suitability of their environment must be in order to allow coexistence. There are limits to the
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require certain resources in order to survive and reproduce, but also construct dams that alter water flow in the river where the beaver lives. Thus, the beaver affects the biotic and abiotic conditions of other species that live in and near the watershed. In a more subtle case, competitors that
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This example illustrates that the evidence for niche differentiation is by no means universal. Niche differentiation is also not the only means by which coexistence is possible between two competing species. However, niche differentiation is a critically important ecological idea which explains
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species. These beetle species, which eat the same food and occupy the same habitat, coexist without any evidence of segregation or exclusion. The beetles show no aggression either intra- or inter-specifically. Coexistence may be possible through a combination of non-limiting food and habitat
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is of particular importance in all those cases in which sympatric species (i.e., species occurring together in the same area) with large population densities use the same resources and largely exhaust them. However, Andrewartha and Birch (1954,1984) and others have pointed out that most natural
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Species must be specialized in order to survive. They may survive for a while in less optimal habitats under favourable conditions, but they will be extinguished when conditions become less favourable, for example due to changed weather conditions (this aspect was especially emphasized by Price
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Finally, niche differentiation can arise as an evolutionary effect of competition. In this case, two competing species will evolve different patterns of resource use so as to avoid competition. Here too, current competition is absent or low, and therefore detection of niche differentiation is
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and the actual distribution itself. One advantage in using statistics is illustrated in the figure, where it is clear that for the narrower distributions (top) there is no competition for prey between the extreme left and extreme right species, while for the broader distribution (bottom), niche
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Niches remain narrow or become narrower as the result of natural selection in order to enhance the chances of mating. This "mating theory of niche restriction" is supported by the observation that niches of asexual stages are often wider than those of sexually mature stages; that niches become
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The range of environmental conditions where a species can successfully survive and reproduce (i.e. the
Hutchinsonian definition of a realized niche) is also encompassed under contemporary niche theory, termed the "requirement niche". The requirement niche is bounded by both the availability of
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Both paradigms agree that species are never “universal” in the sense that they occupy all possible niches; they are always specialized, although the degree of specialization varies. For example, there is no universal parasite which infects all host species and microhabitats within or on them.
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with small beaks are more able to consume small seeds, and finches with large beaks are more able to consume large seeds. If a species' density declines, then the food it most depends on will become more abundant (since there are so few individuals to consume it). As a result, the remaining
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Each consumer must outcompete the other for the resource that it needs most. For example, if two plants (P1 and P2) are competing for nitrogen and phosphorus in a given ecosystem, they will only coexist if they are limited by different resources (P1 is limited by nitrogen and P2 is limited by
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and related genera, which are among the best known animal groups, concluded that the idea of niche segregation by interspecific competition is attractive, but that no study has yet been able to show a mechanism responsible for segregation. Without specific evidence, the possibility of random
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Another way by which niche differentiation can arise is via the previous elimination of species without realized niches. This asserts that at some point in the past, several species inhabited an area, and all of these species had overlapping fundamental niches. However, through competitive
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Contemporary niche theory (also called "classic niche theory" in some contexts) is a framework that was originally designed to reconcile different definitions of niches (see
Grinnellian, Eltonian, and Hutchinsonian definitions above), and to help explain the underlying processes that affect
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the environment. Unlike other niche concepts, it emphasizes that a species not only grows in and responds to an environment based on available resources, predators, and climatic conditions, but also changes the availability and behavior of those factors as it grows. In an extreme example,
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We will make the crucial distinction between variables that are dynamically modified (linked) by the presence of the species versus those that are not. ... is based upon variables not dynamically affected by the species...in contrast to...those that are subject to modification by niche
78:. An Eltonian niche emphasizes that a species not only grows in and responds to an environment, it may also change the environment and its behavior as it grows. The Hutchinsonian niche uses mathematics and statistics to try to explain how species coexist within a given community.
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explain many cases which are thought to be due to competition in the first paradigm, by reinforcement of reproductive barriers and/or random selection of niches. – Many authors believe in the overriding importance of interspecific competition. Intuitively, one would expect that
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in 1957. Hutchinson inquired into the question of why there are so many types of organisms in any one habitat. His work inspired many others to develop models to explain how many and how similar coexisting species could be within a given community, and led to the concepts of
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Niches of similar species are segregated (as the result of natural selection) in order to prevent interspecific hybridisation, because hybrids are less fit. (Many cases of niche segregation explained by interspecific competition are better explained by this mechanism, i.e.,
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This perspective of niche allows for the existence of both ecological equivalents and empty niches. An ecological equivalent to an organism is an organism from a different taxonomic group exhibiting similar adaptations in a similar habitat, an example being the different
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resource or adaptive dimension will provide a niche specific to each species. Species can however share a 'mode of life' or 'autecological strategy' which are broader definitions of ecospace. For example, Australian grasslands species, though different from those of the
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Wiens, J.A. 1984. Resource systems, populations, and communities. In: Price, P.W., Slobodchikoff, C.N. and Gaud, W.S. Eds. A new ecology. Novel approaches to interactive systems. John Wiley & Sons, New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore, pp.
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Chase, Jonathan M.; Abrams, Peter A.; Grover, James P.; Diehl, Sebastian; Chesson, Peter; Holt, Robert D.; Richards, Shane A.; Nisbet, Roger M.; Case, Ted J. (March 2002). "The interaction between predation and competition: a review and synthesis".
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Price, P. W. 1983. Communities of specialists: vacant niches in ecological and evolutionary time. In Strong, D., Simberloff, D. and Abele, L. Eds.. Ecological
Communities: Conceptual Issues and the Evidence. Princeton University Press, Princeton,
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Simkova, A., Desdevises,Y.,Gelnar,M. and Morand, S. (2000). Co-existence of nine gill ectoparasites (Dactylogyus: Monogenea) parasitising the roach
Rutilus rutilus ( L.): history and present ecology. International Journal for Parasitology 30,
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the ground while others are arboreal. Species who live in different areas compete less for food and other resources, which minimizes competition between species. However, species who live in similar areas typically compete with each other.
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The Grinnellian niche can be described as the "needs" niche, or an area that meets the environmental requirements for an organism's survival. Most succulents are native in dry, arid regions like deserts and require large quantities of sun
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To answer questions about niche differentiation, it is necessary for ecologists to be able to detect, measure, and quantify the niches of different coexisting and competing species. This is often done through a combination of detailed
421:. However, as a result of pressure from, and interactions with, other organisms (i.e. inter-specific competition) species are usually forced to occupy a niche that is narrower than this, and to which they are mostly highly
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Hutchinson's "niche" (a description of the ecological space occupied by a species) is subtly different from the "niche" as defined by Grinnell (an ecological role, that may or may not be actually filled by a species—see
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with similar ecological characteristics such as similar habitats or food preferences, prevent expansion into other niches or even narrow niches down. This continual struggle for existence is an important assumption of
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might describe the frequency with which a species ate prey of a certain size, giving a more detailed niche description than simply specifying some median or average prey size. For such a bell-shaped distribution, the
477:). Also, when plants and animals are introduced into a new environment, they have the potential to occupy or invade the niche or niches of native organisms, often outcompeting the indigenous species. Introduction of
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Some competing species have been shown to coexist on the same resource with no observable evidence of niche differentiation and in “violation” of the competitive exclusion principle. One instance is in a group of
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narrower at the time of mating; and that microhabitats of sessile species and of species with small population sizes often are narrower than those of non-sessile species and of species with large population sizes.
835:. It is based on many empirical studies and theoretical investigations especially of Kauffman 1993. Causes of vacant niches may be evolutionary contingencies or brief or long-lasting environmental disturbances.
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consume resources at different rates can lead to cycles in resource density that differ between species. Not only do species grow differently with respect to resource density, but their own population growth can
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Simkova, A., Gelnar, M. and Morand, S. (2001). Order and disorder in ectoparasite communities: the case of congeneric gill monogeneans (Dactylogyrus spp.). International Journal for Parasitology 31, 1205-1210.
251:. The existence of this carnivore niche is dependent on the further fact that mice form a definite herbivore niche in many different associations, although the actual species of mice may be quite different.
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are thought to coexist because they nest in different parts of trees. Species can also partition habitat in a way that gives them access to different types of resources. As stated in the introduction,
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Simkova, A., Desdevises,Y., Gelnar,M. and Morand, S. 2001. Morphometric correlates of host specificity in Dactylogyrus species (Monogenea) parasites of European Cyprinid fish. Parasitology 123, 169-177.
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amount of niche differentiation required for coexistence, and this can vary with the type of resource, the nature of the environment, and the amount of variation both within and between the species.
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A niche is a very specific segment of ecospace occupied by a single species. On the presumption that no two species are identical in all respects (called Hardin's 'axiom of inequality') and the
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An organism free of interference from other species could use the full range of conditions (biotic and abiotic) and resources in which it could survive and reproduce which is called its
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Barker, J.S.F. 1983. Interspecific competition. In: Ashburner, M., Carson, H.L. and Thompson, jr., J.N. Ed. The genetics and biology of Drosophila. Academic Press, London, pp. 285-341.
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to explain how a population could jump from one niche to another that suited it, jump to an 'adaptive zone', made available by virtue of some modification, or possibly a change in the
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of a species can be viewed as a spatial reflection of its niche, along with characteristics of the geographic template and the species that influence its potential to colonize. The
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of a species is the area it occupies in which environmental conditions are favorable, without restriction from barriers to disperse or colonize. A species will be confined to its
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Where three species eat some of the same prey, a statistical picture of each niche shows overlap in resource usage between three species, indicating where competition is strongest.
1083:, which lives specifically in old growth forests. Other plants and animals, called generalists, are not as particular and can survive in a range of conditions, for example the
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The random selection of niches in largely empty niche space will often automatically lead to segregation (this mechanism is of particular importance in the second paradigm).
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Rohde, K. 1980. Warum sind ökologische Nischen begrenzt? Zwischenartlicher Antagonismus oder innerartlicher Zusammenhalt? Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau, 33, 98-102.
147:. In other words, the niche is the sum of the habitat requirements and behaviors that allow a species to persist and produce offspring. For example, the behavior of the
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Beaver dam in Hesse, Germany. By exploiting the resource of available wood, beavers are affecting biotic conditions for other species that live within their habitat.
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using the 'resource-utilization' niche employing histograms to describe the 'frequency of occurrence' as a function of a Hutchinson coordinate. So, for instance, a
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Holt, Robert D.; Grover, James; Tilman, David (November 1994). "Simple Rules for Interspecific Dominance in Systems with Exploitative and Apparent Competition".
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The mathematical representation of a species' fundamental niche in ecological space, and its subsequent projection back into geographic space, is the domain of
442:, that made the adaptive zone available to it without a discontinuity in its way of life because the group was 'pre-adapted' to the new ecological opportunity.
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lizards appear to coexist because each uses different parts of the forests as perch locations. This likely gives them access to different species of insects.
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category. For instance, the resource in the overlap region can be non-limiting, in which case there is no competition for this resource despite niche overlap.
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Bastolla, U., Lässig, M., Manrubia, S.C., Valleriani, A. (August 2005). "Biodiversity in model ecosystems, I: coexistence conditions for competing species".
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overlap indicates competition can occur between all species. The resource-utilization approach postulates that not only can competition occur, but that it
1210:. In Simon A. Levin; Stephen R. Carpenter; H. Charles J. Godfray; Ann P. Kinzig; Michel Loreau; Jonathan B. Losos; Brian Walker; David S. Wilcove (eds.).
291:(biotic variables) on local scales. Because of the narrow extent of focus, data sets characterizing Eltonian niches typically are in the form of detailed
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For instance there is the niche that is filled by birds of prey which eat small animals such as shrews and mice. In an oak wood this niche is filled by
1571:"Predicting species distribution and abundance responses to climate change: why it is essential to include biotic interactions across trophic levels"
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Caldwell, Janalee P; Vitt, Laurie J (1999). "Dietary asymmetry in leaf litter frogs and lizards in a transitional northern Amazonian rain forest".
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For example, in a dry year, dry-adapted plants will tend to be most limited by other dry-adapted plants. This can help them to coexist through a
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when confronting biotic interactions or abiotic barriers that limit dispersal, a more narrow subset of its larger fundamental geographic range.
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Over time, two competing species can either coexist, through niche differentiation or other means, or compete until one species becomes locally
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Pacala, Stephen W.; Roughgarden, Jonathan (February 1985). "Population Experiments with the Anolis Lizards of St. Maarten and St. Eustatius".
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Although "resource" generally refers to food, species can partition other non-consumable objects, such as parts of the habitat. For example,
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The ecological meaning of niche comes from the meaning of niche as a recess in a wall for a statue, which itself is probably derived from the
1071:, no two species can occupy the same niche in the same environment for a long time. The parameters of a realized niche are described by the
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is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition. It describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of
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Wiens, J.A. 1974. Habitat heterogeneity and avian community structure in North American grasslands. American Midland Naturalist 91,195-213.
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Once a niche is left vacant, other organisms can fill that position. For example, the niche that was left vacant by the extinction of the
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A Townsend Peterson; Jorge SoberĂ´n; RG Pearson; Roger P Anderson; Enrique MartĂnez-Meyer; Miguel Nakamura; Miguel Bastos AraĂşjo (2011).
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A Townsend Peterson; Jorge SoberĂ´n; RG Pearson; Roger P Anderson; Enrique MartĂnez-Meyer; Miguel Nakamura; Miguel Bastos AraĂşjo (2011).
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Below is a list of ways that species can partition their niche. This list is not exhaustive, but illustrates several classic examples.
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the relative importance of particular environmental variables for a species may vary according to the geographic and biotic contexts".
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Simkova, A., Gelnar, M. and Sasal, P. (2001). Aggregation of congeneric parasites (Monogenea: Dactylogyrus). Parasitology 123, 599-607.
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Pyke, G.H. (1982). "Local geographic distributions of bumblebees near Crested Butte, Colorado: competition and community structure".
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was probably the first to use it in a research program in 1917, in his paper "The niche relationships of the California Thrasher".
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Kauffman, S.A. 1993. The origins of order. Self-organization and selection in evolution. Oxford University Press, New York Oxford.
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Rohde, K. 2005a. Eine neue Ökologie. Aktuelle Probleme der evolutionären Ökologie. Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau, 58, 420-426.
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Research using mathematical modelling is indeed demonstrating that predation can indeed stabilize lumps of very similar species.
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Kronfeld-Schor, N., Dayan, T. (1999). "The dietary basis for temporal partitioning: food habits of coexisting Acomys species".
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Rohde, K. 1991. Intra- and interspecific interactions in low density populations in resource-rich habitats. Oikos 60, 91-104.
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class, but there are exceptions. A premier example of a non-standard niche filling species is the flightless, ground-dwelling
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578:) refers to the process by which competing species use the environment differently in a way that helps them to coexist. The
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The availability of the limiting resources (nitrogen and phosphorus in the above example) in the environment are equivalent.
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1681:"Elton focused on the niche of a species as its functional role within the food chain and its impact upon the environment"
769:) occurs when species differ in their competitive abilities based on varying environmental conditions. For example, in the
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Niches are segregated due to interspecific competition (this mechanism is of particular importance in the first paradigm).
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Strong, D.R.J. (1982). "Harmonious coexistence of hispine beetles on Heliconia in experimental and natural communities".
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Contemporary niche theory provides three requirements that must be met in order for two species (consumers) to coexist:
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3663:"The Influence of Interspecific Competition and Other Factors on the Distribution of the Barnacle Chthamalus Stellatus"
3430:
Andrewartha,H.G. and Birch, L.C. 1954. The distribution and abundance of animals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
2828:
1659:
1332:
1292:
288:
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Connell, J.H. 1980. Diversity and the coevolution of competitors, or the ghost of competition past. Oikos 35, 131-138.
348:(resource differentiation by coexisting species), and 'niche overlap' (overlap of resource use by different species).
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3217:
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2040:
1980:
1887:
1714:
1694:
1629:
1365:
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1223:
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Rohde, K. 1977. A non-competitive mechanism responsible for restricting niches. Zoologischer Anzeiger 199, 164-172.
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more generally). For example, trees could differentiate their niche if they are consumed by different species of
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bird of New Zealand, which feeds on worms and other ground creatures, and lives its life in a mammal-like niche.
705:
can coexist when different species are differently limited by nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon, and light. In the
6978:
6851:
3056:
Grover, James P (1994). "Assembly Rules for Communities of Nutrient-Limited Plants and Specialist Herbivores".
2844:
MacArthur, Robert H. (October 1958). "Population Ecology of Some Warblers of Northeastern Coniferous Forests".
2575:
Joshua Anderson. "Interspecific Competition, Competitive Exclusion, and Niche Differentiation". Retrieved from
701:
each species is limited by different resources, or differently able to capture resources. Different types of
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6623:
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6330:
5583:
5564:
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751:
635:. Several theories exist for how niche differentiation arises or evolves given these two possible outcomes.
493:
6110:
3439:
Andrewartha, H.G. and Birch, L.C. 1984. The ecological web. University of Chicago Press. Chicago and London.
296:
factors, Eltonian niches can be useful in describing the overall response of a species to new environments.
6456:
5512:
3867:
Lawler, S.P., Morin, P.J. (1993). "Temporal overlap, competition, and priority effects in larval anurans".
3099:
Chesson, Peter; Kuang, Jessica J. (13 November 2008). "The interaction between predation and competition".
2577:
https://study.com/academy/lesson/interspecific-competition-competitive-exclusion-niche-differentiation.html
2380:
1523:
506:
6813:
5704:
5502:
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Rohde, K. 1994. Niche restriction in parasites: proximate and ultimate causes. Parasitology 109, S69-S84.
2154:"Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land"
987:
Graph depicting how a realized niche fits within a fundamental niche depending on varying abiotic factors
603:
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1935:
7164:
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5802:
5699:
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Kawano, K. 2002. Character displacement in giant rhinoceros beetles. American Naturalist 159, 255-271.
1035:. These experiments demonstrate how biotic and abiotic factors limit the distribution of an organism.
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For a detailed discussion, especially of competition and reinforcement of reproductive barriers, see
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https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/community-ecosystem-ecology/a/niches-competition
255:
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6281:
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4265:
4074:
3941:"Mechanisms of plant competition for nutrients: the elements of a predictive theory of competition"
831:
The other paradigm assumes that niche space is to a large degree vacant, i.e., that there are many
228:, defined a niche as follows: "The 'niche' of an animal means its place in the biotic environment,
218:
6322:
5953:
2225:
On the logic of the relation between the niche and the corresponding geographic environment, see:
92:
The majority of species exist in a standard ecological niche, sharing behaviors, adaptations, and
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6666:
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6386:
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139:
The Grinnellian niche concept embodies the idea that the niche of a species is determined by the
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1014:) on Scotland's Isle of Cumbrae. In his experiments, Connell described the dominant features of
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6983:
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6651:
6213:
6001:
5709:
5689:
5114:
4796:
4738:
4381:
3340:
2749:
Leibold, M.A. (1995). "The niche concept revisited: mechanistic models and community context".
2676:
Hutchinson, G.E. (1959). "Homage to Santa Rosalia or Why are there so many kinds of animals?".
1147:
812:
478:
435:
35:
3940:
2032:
2025:
2020:
1972:
1965:
1960:
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742:
Predator partitioning occurs when species are attacked differently by different predators (or
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K. Rohde: Nonequilibrium Ecology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005b, 223 pp. auf
1684:
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304:
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resources as well as the effects of coexisting consumers (e.g. competitors and predators).
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Tingley, Reid; Vallinoto, Marcelo; Sequeira, Fernando; Kearney, Michael R. (2014-07-15).
2001:
Ecological concepts: the contribution of ecology to an understanding of the natural world
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Angert, Amy L.; Huxman, Travis E.; Chesson, Peter; Venable, D. Lawrence (14 July 2009).
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Beaver as Engineers: Influences on Biotic and Abiotic Characteristics of Drainage Basins
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Biotic interactions in the tropics: their role in the maintenance of species diversity
1502:
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3784:
3601:"Self-organized similarity, the evolutionary emergence of groups of similar species"
3571:
3316:
3085:
2697:
2488:
Jessica Harwood, Douglas Wilkin (August, 2018). "Habitat and Niche". Retrieved from
2412:
2128:
1299:
The geographic range of a species can be viewed as a spatial reflection of its niche
913:
202:
201:, and the existence of ecological equivalents: the anole lizards evolved in similar
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3825:
3764:
3674:
3630:
3620:
3559:
3550:
Shmida, A., Ellner, S. (1984). "Coexistence of plant species with similar niches".
3350:
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3267:
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The following mechanisms for niche restriction and segregation have been proposed:
547:
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5409:
4758:
4700:
4542:
4479:
4321:
4195:
3202:
Gilbert, Gregory (2005). Burlesem, David; Pinard, Michelle; Hartley, Sue (eds.).
3152:"How specialised must natural enemies be to facilitate coexistence among plants?"
1775:
Armstrong, Robert A.; McGehee, Richard (February 1980). "Competitive Exclusion".
1751:
1175:. In Heams, Thomas; Huneman, Philippe; Lecointre, Guillaume; et al. (eds.).
1019:
689:
406:
174:
133:
4149:
3150:
Sedio, Brian E.; Ostling, Annette M.; Ris Lambers, Janneke Hille (August 2013).
1841:
619:
studies, controlled experiments (to determine the strength of competition), and
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6223:
6203:
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5742:
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5533:
5299:
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4935:
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4821:
4763:
4695:
4690:
4552:
4547:
4441:
4396:
4373:
4255:
4245:
4187:
3768:
1742:; Pastor, John; Pinay, Gilles (1995). Jones, Clive G.; Lawton, John H. (eds.).
1132:
1104:
968:
Diagram representation of the effects of competitive exclusion on the barnacle
948:
825:
779:
770:
364:
292:
54:
and competitors (for example, by growing when resources are abundant, and when
2490:
https://www.ck12.org/biology/habitat-and-niche/lesson/Habitat-and-Niche-MS-LS/
2427:
2145:
607:
predicts that niche differentiation of any degree will result in coexistence.
7143:
7114:
6090:
6064:
6021:
6011:
5966:
5933:
5825:
5659:
5614:
5379:
5274:
5164:
5139:
5134:
5027:
4975:
4970:
4748:
4665:
4567:
4532:
4301:
3686:
3021:
2998:"Reduced plant competition among kin can be explained by Jensen's inequality"
2956:
2907:
2459:
2404:
2344:
2295:
1999:
Schoener, Thomas W. (1986). "The Ecological Niche". In Cherret, J. M. (ed.).
1547:
832:
743:
702:
447:
117:
3625:
3262:
2335:
2247:
1453:
983:
7099:
7084:
6741:
6711:
6656:
6539:
6504:
6381:
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5424:
5404:
5369:
5364:
5354:
5349:
5329:
5309:
5219:
5189:
5149:
5129:
5119:
5099:
5094:
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4965:
4955:
4930:
4587:
4421:
4338:
4296:
4157:
3837:
3776:
3644:
3281:
3238:"Functional tradeoffs determine species coexistence via the storage effect"
3188:
3128:
3039:
2974:
2915:
2531:
2467:
2362:
2187:
2169:
2124:
1604:
1586:
1555:
972:
in the intertidal zone. The fundamental and realized geographic ranges of
937:
774:
463:
82:
38:
occupies an ecological niche: exploiting animal droppings as a food source.
4877:
4024:
3829:
1314:
1274:
1031:
was able to extend the lower edge of its realized niche in the absence of
401:
6391:
5938:
5900:
5875:
5865:
5830:
5777:
5757:
5474:
5469:
5439:
5394:
5339:
5279:
5264:
5259:
5224:
5184:
5074:
5064:
5059:
4743:
4469:
4391:
4270:
4260:
4211:
4153:
3391:
3179:
2947:
2899:
1524:"Grinnellian and Eltonian niches and geographic distributions of species"
1080:
685:
638:
473:
has been filled by other animals (in particular a small horse breed, the
317:
101:
3120:
2996:
Simonsen, Anna K.; Chow, Theresa; Stinchcombe, John R. (December 2014).
2883:
2502:
Hardin, Garrett (29 April 1960). "The Competitive Exclusion Principle".
2451:
2151:
1905:"Population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests"
7104:
6681:
6646:
6286:
6238:
6183:
6153:
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5920:
5797:
5747:
5459:
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5399:
5384:
5324:
5289:
5284:
5254:
5214:
5194:
5124:
5104:
4853:
4680:
4572:
4517:
4446:
4426:
4386:
4291:
4207:
4141:
4137:
3931:
3888:
3694:
3563:
3077:
2865:
2805:
2770:
2735:
2613:
1931:
1796:
1498:
1388:
1064:
1010:
analyzed the environmental factors that limit the range of a barnacle (
929:
920:
647:
439:
422:
3751:
3170:
3013:
2379:
MacDougall, Andrew S.; Gilbert, Benjamin; Levine, Jonathan M. (2009).
1575:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1569:
Van der Putten, Wim H.; Macel, Mirka; Visser, Marcel E. (2010-07-12).
351:
7009:
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6691:
6135:
6105:
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5860:
5835:
5772:
5762:
5737:
5729:
5674:
5605:
5374:
5359:
5344:
5294:
5269:
5010:
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4723:
4605:
4537:
4509:
4416:
4230:
4219:
4215:
4183:
3808:
3708:
Moseley, William; Perramond, Eric; Hapke, Holly; Laris, Paul (2014).
2286:
1084:
925:
808:
410:
244:
225:
182:
152:
3923:
3880:
3678:
2857:
2797:
2762:
2727:
2605:
2428:"Resource-use efficiency and plant invasion in low-resource systems"
1923:
1490:
1055:
variables. These factors may include descriptions of the organism's
976:
are represented by the dark blue and light blue bars, respectively.
673:
582:
states that if two species with identical niches (ecological roles)
413:
in this tree exploits its host for nutrients and as a place to grow.
328:
hypervolume", where the dimensions are environmental conditions and
7064:
6993:
6524:
6352:
6031:
5943:
5890:
5845:
5528:
5464:
5389:
5319:
5249:
5244:
5069:
5003:
4600:
4557:
4456:
4328:
4203:
4179:
3308:
3069:
2689:
2640:
1788:
1172:
677:
263:
Conceptually, the Eltonian niche introduces the idea of a species'
236:
206:
96:
similar to the other closely related species within the same broad
63:
59:
55:
1875:
1682:
1079:, need specific habitats and surroundings to survive, such as the
7054:
6861:
6731:
6726:
6353:
6301:
5961:
5606:
5479:
5209:
5079:
4996:
4841:
4816:
4801:
4783:
4630:
4595:
4436:
4431:
4358:
4353:
4333:
4126:
4111:
4062:
2270:"Linking modern coexistence theory and contemporary niche theory"
914:
Coexistence without niche differentiation: exceptions to the rule
718:
632:
616:
559:
485:
by humans often results in biological pollution by the exotic or
482:
248:
140:
71:
43:
1879:
Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches
1686:
Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches
344:(the variety of resources or habitats used by a given species),
108:
can help explain island species and associated unfilled niches.
5144:
4675:
4660:
4620:
4615:
4489:
4411:
4406:
4316:
3386:
3384:
3382:
2308:
941:
839:
However, the degree of host specificity varies strongly. Thus,
276:
178:
27:
Fit of a species living under specific environmental conditions
2627:
Armstrong, R.A., McGehee, R. (1980). "Competitive exclusion".
1738:
Pollock, Michael M.; Naiman, Robert J.; Erickson, Heather E.;
1445:
Determinate evolution in the color-pattern of the lady-beetles
1323:(3rd ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. p.
1283:(3rd ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. p.
521:
4806:
4705:
4637:
4625:
4363:
4311:
3805:
2587:
2585:
1958:
1737:
723:
590:
474:
186:
159:
3379:
2884:"Kin recognition in plants: a mysterious behaviour unsolved"
2626:
1023:
species and predation by a snail. By removing the competing
4685:
4670:
4610:
4286:
4175:
4131:
3995:
Walter, G.H. (May 1991). "What is resource partitioning?".
804:
309:
4031:
3707:
3235:
2582:
2311:"Realized niche shift during a global biological invasion"
1018:
niches and provided explanation for their distribution on
891:
843:(Protista) infects numerous vertebrates including humans,
434:
The term "adaptive zone" was coined by the paleontologist
4464:
3866:
1647:
1568:
320:
with it, enabling it to exploit the nectar as a resource.
81:
The concept of ecological niche is central to ecological
1173:"The Ecological Niche: History and Recent Controversies"
359:
Statistics were introduced into the Hutchinson niche by
4348:
3656:
3654:
3149:
2995:
2877:
2875:
2378:
1358:
Ecological Niches and Geographic Distributions (MPB-49)
1315:
Mark V Lomolino; Brett R Riddle; James H Brown (2009).
1275:
Mark V Lomolino; Brett R Riddle; James H Brown (2009).
1245:
Ecological Niches and Geographic Distributions (MPB-49)
714:
individuals will experience less competition for food.
3549:
3329:
3208:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.
2559:"Niche differentiation and mechanisms of exploitation"
2268:
Letten, Andrew D.; Ke, Po-Ju; Fukami, Tadashi (2017).
639:
Current competition (The Ghost of Competition Present)
530:
The requirement niches of both consumers must overlap.
3092:
205:
independently of each other and resulted in the same
3651:
2872:
2426:
Funk, Jennifer L.; Vitousek, Peter M. (April 2007).
1472:"The niche-relationships of the California Thrasher"
1204:
Three variants of ecological niche are described by
1094:
648:
Via past extinctions (The Ghost of Competition Past)
3231:
3229:
2023:. In Evelyn Fox Keller; Elisabeth A. Lloyd (eds.).
1902:
1830:
Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology
1277:"The geographic range as a reflection of the niche"
335:The niche concept was popularized by the zoologist
2931:"Plant Communication from Biosemiotic Perspective"
2024:
2018:
1964:
1617:
1448:. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.
1205:
785:
514:the impact of a given species on its environment.
2591:
2152:Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. and Ferry, P.A. (2010).
1816:
1814:
1317:"Areography: Sizes, shapes and overlap of ranges"
1177:Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences
1075:of that species. Some plants and animals, called
1006:An early study on ecological niches conducted by
794:
287:Eltonian niches focus on biotic interactions and
7141:
3712:. West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell. p. 81.
3294:
3226:
2675:
1820:
1774:
1166:
1164:
1162:
316:is complementary to the shape of the flower and
247:, while in the open grassland it is occupied by
3605:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3598:
3242:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2315:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2003:. Cambridge: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
1994:
1992:
1715:"Niche conservatism: which niche matters most?"
1469:
1465:
1463:
597:
3947:. New York: Academic Press. pp. 117–141.
3710:An Introduction to Human-Environment Geography
3323:
2881:
2812:
2713:
2267:
2087:
2055:
1811:
1270:
1268:
1259:See also Chapter 2: Concepts of niches, pp. 7
757:
74:in which a species lives and its accompanying
6338:
5591:
4047:
3599:Scheffer, Marten; van Nes, Egbert H. (2006).
3288:
3051:
3049:
2882:Biedrzycki, M. L.; Bais, H. P. (2010-08-08).
2837:
2748:
1876:Jonathan M. Chase; Mathew A. Leibold (2003).
1683:Jonathan M. Chase; Mathew A. Leibold (2003).
1159:
959:
936:species coexistence, thus promoting the high
811:, can feed in slightly deeper water than the
589:As an example of niche partitioning, several
3994:
3901:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3858:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3797:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3584:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3098:
2823:(1st ed.). London: Chapman & Hall.
2783:
2777:
2661:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2425:
2200:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2014:
2012:
2010:
1989:
1643:
1641:
1460:
754:represents a form of predator partitioning.
499:
3195:
2709:
2707:
1882:. University of Chicago Press. p. 11.
1654:. University of Chicago Press. p. 64.
1265:
522:Coexistence under contemporary niche theory
466:grasslands, exhibit similar modes of life.
6559:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
6345:
6331:
5598:
5584:
4054:
4040:
3909:
3046:
2544:Khan Academy. "Niches & Competition".
2495:
2226:
1971:. University of California Press. p.
1689:. University of Chicago Press. p. 7.
1435:
1360:. Princeton University Press. p. 11.
1247:. Princeton University Press. p. 82.
1170:
1067:), and geographic range. According to the
932:, though this has not been demonstrated.
680:on a pond. Niche differentiation by size:
3943:. In Grace, James; Tilman, David (eds.).
3750:
3634:
3624:
3344:
3271:
3261:
3178:
3029:
2964:
2946:
2843:
2352:
2334:
2285:
2177:
2083:
2081:
2007:
1896:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1638:
1594:
1214:. Princeton University Press. pp. 3
1179:. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 547–586.
510:that could exist between the two groups.
128:. The term was coined by the naturalist
70:A Grinnellian niche is determined by the
6457:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
6096:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
3592:
2704:
2227:Smith, Barry; Varzi, Achille C. (1999).
2049:
1998:
1959:Rory Putman; Stephen D. Wratten (1984).
1712:
1383:
1381:
982:
963:
798:
737:
695:
672:
553:
400:
350:
303:
254:
185:, respectively. As another example, the
158:
29:
6489:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
3660:
3201:
2928:
2064:. Oxford University Press. p. 69.
1611:
1521:
1441:
1345:
1308:
1232:
1200:
1198:
1196:
892:Relative significance of the mechanisms
656:
177:found in American and African deserts,
143:in which it lives and its accompanying
14:
7142:
6297:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
3938:
3392:http://www.cambridge.org/9780521674553
3055:
2818:
2501:
2078:
1952:
1862:
1409:
1143:Unified neutral theory of biodiversity
885:reinforcement of reproductive barriers
299:
6326:
5579:
4035:
2374:
2372:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2090:"The competitive exclusion principle"
1708:
1706:
1675:
1517:
1515:
1378:
235:Elton classified niches according to
6312:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
5550:
2031:. Harvard University Press. p.
1193:
111:
6762:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
5560:
1342:via Amazon's 'look-inside' feature.
1305:via Amazon's 'look-inside' feature.
1241:"Species-environment relationships"
803:Shorebirds with long legs and long
24:
6515:Ecological effects of biodiversity
4475:Evolutionary developmental biology
3729:
2369:
2254:
2215:Glossary for the Nature of Alberta
1703:
1648:Elton, Charles Sutherland (2001).
1512:
940:often seen in many of the world's
25:
7176:
5851:Generalist and specialist species
4500:Post-transcriptional modification
3980:Niche restriction and segregation
3963:
3945:Perspectives on Plant Competition
2062:The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation
1063:, trophic position (place in the
1047:, of a niche represent different
828:as an explanation for evolution.
282:affect resource density over time
230:its relations to food and enemies
212:
6574:Occupancy–abundance relationship
5559:
5549:
5540:
5539:
5527:
4876:
3355:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00315.x
2397:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01514.x
2027:Keywords in Evolutionary Biology
2021:"Niche: Historical perspectives"
1624:. Psychology Press. p. 76.
1540:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01107.x
1354:"Major themes in niche concepts"
1097:
815:at the water's edge (lower left)
6594:Relative abundance distribution
6307:Plant defense against herbivory
6174:Competitive exclusion principle
5886:Mesopredator release hypothesis
3990:Latitude-niche width hypothesis
3701:
3543:
3534:
3525:
3516:
3506:
3497:
3488:
3479:
3470:
3461:
3451:
3442:
3433:
3424:
3415:
3405:
3396:
3370:
3361:
3143:
2989:
2922:
2742:
2669:
2620:
2569:
2551:
2538:
2482:
2419:
2381:"Plant invasions and the niche"
2302:
2219:
2208:
1768:
1731:
1562:
1138:Phylogenetic niche conservatism
1118:Marginal distribution (biology)
1069:competitive exclusion principle
786:Competition-predation trade-off
580:competitive exclusion principle
455:competitive exclusion principle
384:of the niche correspond to the
324:The Hutchinsonian niche is an "
6179:Consumer–resource interactions
2935:Plant Signaling & Behavior
2929:Witzany, GĂĽnther (July 2006).
2888:Journal of Experimental Botany
1961:"§5.2 Parameters of the niche"
1746:. Springer. pp. 117–126.
1212:The Princeton Guide to Ecology
795:Segregation versus restriction
626:
13:
1:
7025:Biological data visualization
6852:Environmental niche modelling
6579:Population viability analysis
4017:10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80327-3
2524:10.1126/science.131.3409.1292
2117:10.1126/science.131.3409.1292
2058:"§4.2: The ecological theory"
1153:
1043:The different dimensions, or
1038:
6510:Density-dependent inhibition
1903:Robert H. MacArthur (1958).
1752:10.1007/978-1-4615-1773-3_12
1621:Fundamentals of Biogeography
997:fundamental geographic range
924:resources and high rates of
598:Detection and quantification
507:Lotka-Volterra relationships
239:activities ("food habits"):
7:
6979:Liebig's law of the minimum
6814:Resource selection function
5705:Metabolic theory of ecology
4061:
3970:Concept of ecological niche
3661:Connell, Joseph H. (1961).
2019:James R. Griesemer (1994).
1842:10.1101/sqb.1957.022.01.039
1618:Richard J. Huggett (2004).
1206:Thomas W. Schoener (2009).
1171:Pocheville, Arnaud (2015).
1090:
767:temporal niche partitioning
763:Conditional differentiation
758:Conditional differentiation
10:
7181:
6879:Niche apportionment models
6599:Relative species abundance
5803:Primary nutritional groups
5700:List of feeding behaviours
3769:10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.02.005
1421:Merriam-Webster Dictionary
1393:Oxford English Dictionary
960:Niche and Geographic Range
289:consumer–resource dynamics
7128:
7060:Ecosystem based fisheries
7002:
6902:
6827:
6700:
6672:Interspecific competition
6637:
6564:Minimum viable population
6497:
6422:Maximum sustainable yield
6407:Intraspecific competition
6402:Effective population size
6365:
6282:Anti-predator adaptations
6267:
6146:
6073:
6030:
5952:
5919:
5816:
5793:Photosynthetic efficiency
5728:
5622:
5521:
5490:
5050:
5020:
4986:Polymerase chain reaction
4946:Green fluorescent protein
4896:
4885:
4874:
4782:
4714:
4646:
4586:
4523:Earliest known life forms
4508:
4455:
4372:
4279:
4119:
4110:
4069:
2819:Grover, James P. (1997).
1821:Hutchinson, G.E. (1957).
1442:Johnson, Roswell (1910).
1001:realized geographic range
899:interspecific competition
752:Janzen–Connell hypothesis
662:difficult or impossible.
500:Contemporary niche theory
209:across all four islands.
7050:Ecological stoichiometry
7015:Alternative stable state
1470:Joseph Grinnell (1917).
665:
219:Charles Sutherland Elton
6894:Ontogenetic niche shift
6757:Ideal free distribution
6667:Ecological facilitation
6417:Malthusian growth model
6387:Consumer-resource model
6244:Paradox of the plankton
6209:Energy systems language
5929:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
5896:Optimal foraging theory
5871:Heterotrophic nutrition
5038:species discovery curve
4166:Response to environment
3626:10.1073/pnas.0508024103
3297:The American Naturalist
3263:10.1073/pnas.0904512106
3058:The American Naturalist
2336:10.1073/pnas.1405766111
2248:10.1111/0029-4624.00151
2088:Garrett Hardin (1960).
2056:Dolph Schluter (2000).
1777:The American Naturalist
1713:oldenlab (2015-12-19).
1522:SoberĂłn, Jorge (2007).
1454:10.5962/bhl.title.30902
1395:(subscription required)
1208:"§I.1 Ecological niche"
1113:Ontogenetic niche shift
887:”) (e.g., Rohde 2005b).
845:Enterobius vermicularis
690:rootless dwarf duckweed
604:Lotka–Volterra equation
151:is consistent with the
7040:Ecological forecasting
6984:Marginal value theorem
6782:Landscape epidemiology
6717:Cross-boundary subsidy
6652:Biological interaction
6002:Microbial intelligence
5690:Green world hypothesis
5513:Plant morphology terms
5115:Biological engineering
4797:Biological interaction
3939:Tilman, David (1990).
2170:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024
1587:10.1098/rstb.2010.0037
1148:Character displacement
1027:, Connell showed that
988:
980:
816:
813:semipalmated sandpiper
692:
479:non-indigenous species
436:George Gaylord Simpson
414:
356:
321:
260:
253:
193:are a rare example of
165:
145:behavioral adaptations
76:behavioral adaptations
39:
36:flightless dung beetle
7045:Ecological humanities
6944:Ecological energetics
6889:Niche differentiation
6752:Habitat fragmentation
6520:Ecological extinction
6467:Small population size
6219:Feed conversion ratio
6199:Ecological succession
6131:San Francisco Estuary
6045:Ecological efficiency
5987:Microbial cooperation
5200:Developmental biology
5175:Computational biology
5155:Cellular microbiology
4495:Mendelian inheritance
4407:Energy transformation
3975:Ontology of the niche
3830:10.1007/s004420050913
3002:Ecology and Evolution
2274:Ecological Monographs
1967:Principles of ecology
1128:Niche differentiation
1033:competitive exclusion
986:
967:
847:infects only humans.
802:
748:specialist herbivores
738:Predator partitioning
696:Resource partitioning
676:
564:niche differentiation
554:Niche differentiation
425:; this is termed the
404:
354:
314:purple-throated carib
307:
258:
241:
162:
33:
18:Niche differentiation
7070:Evolutionary ecology
7035:Ecological footprint
7030:Ecological economics
6954:Ecological threshold
6949:Ecological indicator
6819:Source–sink dynamics
6772:Land change modeling
6767:Insular biogeography
6619:Species distribution
6358:Modelling ecosystems
6017:Microbial metabolism
5856:Intraguild predation
5645:Biogeochemical cycle
5611:Modelling ecosystems
5420:Reproductive biology
5305:Mathematical biology
5230:Evolutionary biology
5180:Conservation biology
4991:Two-hybrid screening
4961:Protein purification
4792:Biogeochemical cycle
4754:Internal environment
4402:Cellular respiration
2948:10.4161/psb.1.4.3163
2821:Resource competition
1823:"Concluding remarks"
1073:realized niche width
1012:Chthamalus stellatus
970:Chthamalus stellatus
807:, such as these two
657:Evolving differences
346:'niche partitioning'
337:G. Evelyn Hutchinson
195:convergent evolution
130:Roswell Hill Johnson
7120:Theoretical ecology
7095:Natural environment
6959:Ecosystem diversity
6929:Ecological collapse
6919:Bateman's principle
6874:Limiting similarity
6787:Landscape limnology
6609:Species homogeneity
6447:Population modeling
6442:Population dynamics
6259:Trophic state index
5205:Ecological genetics
4916:Gel electrophoresis
4906:Genetic engineering
4859:Population dynamics
4769:Reproductive system
4009:1991JThBi.150..137W
3822:1999Oecol.121..123K
3761:2005JThBi.235..521B
3617:2006PNAS..103.6230S
3254:2009PNAS..10611641A
3248:(28): 11641–11645.
3121:10.1038/nature07248
3113:2008Natur.456..235C
2678:American Naturalist
2629:American Naturalist
2565:. January 27, 2023.
2516:1960Sci...131.1292H
2510:(3409): 1292–1297.
2452:10.1038/nature05719
2444:2007Natur.446.1079F
2438:(7139): 1079–1081.
2327:2014PNAS..11110233T
2321:(28): 10233–10238.
2109:1960Sci...131.1292H
2103:(3409): 1292–1297.
1581:(1549): 2025–2034.
621:mathematical models
300:Hutchinsonian niche
149:California thrasher
106:Island biogeography
7131:Outline of ecology
7080:Industrial ecology
7075:Functional ecology
6939:Ecological deficit
6884:Niche construction
6847:Ecosystem engineer
6624:Species–area curve
6545:Introduced species
6360:: Other components
6292:Deimatic behaviour
6194:Ecological network
6126:North Pacific Gyre
6111:hydrothermal vents
6050:Ecological pyramid
5997:Microbial food web
5808:Primary production
5753:Foundation species
5534:Biology portal
5430:Structural biology
5415:Relational biology
5240:Generative biology
5235:Freshwater biology
5033:mark and recapture
4981:Restriction enzyme
4774:Respiratory system
4729:Circulatory system
4656:Epidermis (botany)
3564:10.1007/BF00044894
2900:10.1093/jxb/erq250
2385:Journal of Ecology
1740:Johnston, Carol A.
1719:Olden Research Lab
989:
981:
817:
765:(sometimes called
693:
576:niche partitioning
415:
390:standard deviation
357:
322:
261:
199:adaptive radiation
166:
87:niche construction
40:
7165:Landscape ecology
7137:
7136:
7020:Balance of nature
6777:Landscape ecology
6662:Community ecology
6604:Species diversity
6540:Indicator species
6535:Gradient analysis
6412:Logistic function
6320:
6319:
6277:Animal coloration
6254:Trophic mutualism
5992:Microbial ecology
5783:Photoheterotrophs
5768:Myco-heterotrophy
5680:Ecosystem ecology
5665:Carrying capacity
5630:Abiotic component
5573:
5572:
5435:Synthetic biology
5315:Molecular biology
5170:Cognitive biology
5046:
5045:
4872:
4871:
4563:Natural selection
4344:Organic compounds
4241:Scientific method
4231:Emergent property
4172:Hierarchy of life
4142:Energy processing
3954:978-0-323-14810-8
3719:978-1-4051-8932-3
3171:10.1111/ele.12130
3107:(7219): 235–238.
3014:10.1002/ece3.1312
3008:(23): 4454–4466.
2894:(15): 4123–4128.
1761:978-1-4613-5714-8
1534:(12): 1115–1123.
1423:. Merriam-Webster
1186:978-94-017-9014-7
1123:Fitness landscape
1008:Joseph H. Connell
870:Niche segregation
854:Niche restriction
822:natural selection
707:Galapagos Islands
568:niche segregation
419:fundamental niche
308:The shape of the
112:Grinnellian niche
94:functional traits
16:(Redirected from
7172:
7150:Ecological niche
6837:Ecological niche
6809:selection theory
6629:Umbrella species
6614:Species richness
6550:Invasive species
6530:Flagship species
6437:Population cycle
6432:Overexploitation
6397:Ecological yield
6347:
6340:
6333:
6324:
6323:
6229:Mesotrophic soil
6169:Climax community
6101:Marine food webs
6040:Biomagnification
5841:Chemoorganotroph
5695:Keystone species
5655:Biotic component
5600:
5593:
5586:
5577:
5576:
5563:
5562:
5553:
5552:
5543:
5542:
5536:
5532:
5531:
5508:Ecological terms
5160:Chemical biology
5021:Field techniques
4894:
4893:
4880:
4739:Digestive system
4734:Endocrine system
4307:Chemical element
4266:Biology journals
4162:Self-replication
4117:
4116:
4056:
4049:
4042:
4033:
4032:
4028:
3958:
3935:
3906:
3900:
3892:
3863:
3857:
3849:
3802:
3796:
3788:
3754:
3724:
3723:
3705:
3699:
3698:
3658:
3649:
3648:
3638:
3628:
3596:
3590:
3589:
3583:
3575:
3547:
3541:
3538:
3532:
3529:
3523:
3520:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3501:
3495:
3492:
3486:
3483:
3477:
3474:
3468:
3465:
3459:
3455:
3449:
3446:
3440:
3437:
3431:
3428:
3422:
3419:
3413:
3409:
3403:
3400:
3394:
3388:
3377:
3374:
3368:
3365:
3359:
3358:
3348:
3327:
3321:
3320:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3275:
3265:
3233:
3224:
3223:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3182:
3156:
3147:
3141:
3140:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3053:
3044:
3043:
3033:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2968:
2950:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2879:
2870:
2869:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2816:
2810:
2809:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2711:
2702:
2701:
2684:(870): 145–159.
2673:
2667:
2666:
2660:
2652:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2589:
2580:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2555:
2549:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2499:
2493:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2376:
2367:
2366:
2356:
2338:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2289:
2287:10.1002/ecm.1242
2265:
2252:
2251:
2233:
2223:
2217:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2199:
2191:
2181:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2139:
2133:
2127:. Archived from
2094:
2085:
2076:
2075:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2030:
2016:
2005:
2004:
1996:
1987:
1986:
1970:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1940:
1934:. Archived from
1909:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1873:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1856:
1850:
1844:. Archived from
1827:
1818:
1809:
1808:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1726:
1725:
1710:
1701:
1700:
1679:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1645:
1636:
1635:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1598:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1519:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1501:. Archived from
1476:
1467:
1458:
1457:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1396:
1385:
1376:
1375:
1349:
1343:
1340:Viewable on line
1338:
1312:
1306:
1303:Viewable on line
1301:
1272:
1263:
1258:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1202:
1191:
1190:
1168:
1107:
1102:
1101:
1100:
993:geographic range
979:
682:greater duckweed
572:niche separation
487:invasive species
361:Robert MacArthur
191:Greater Antilles
21:
7180:
7179:
7175:
7174:
7173:
7171:
7170:
7169:
7140:
7139:
7138:
7133:
7124:
7110:Systems ecology
6998:
6969:Extinction debt
6934:Ecological debt
6924:Bioluminescence
6905:
6898:
6867:marine habitats
6842:Ecological trap
6823:
6703:
6696:
6639:
6633:
6589:Rapoport's rule
6584:Priority effect
6525:Endemic species
6493:
6452:Population size
6368:
6361:
6351:
6321:
6316:
6269:
6263:
6249:Trophic cascade
6159:Bioaccumulation
6142:
6069:
6026:
5948:
5915:
5812:
5724:
5685:Ecosystem model
5618:
5604:
5574:
5569:
5526:
5525:
5517:
5503:Botanical terms
5486:
5485:
5484:
5445:Systems biology
5410:Quantum biology
5042:
5016:
4898:
4888:
4881:
4868:
4778:
4759:Muscular system
4716:
4710:
4701:Vascular tissue
4648:
4642:
4582:
4543:History of life
4504:
4485:Gene regulation
4480:Gene expression
4451:
4368:
4275:
4106:
4065:
4060:
3966:
3961:
3955:
3924:10.2307/1938970
3894:
3893:
3881:10.2307/1939512
3851:
3850:
3790:
3789:
3732:
3730:Further reading
3727:
3720:
3706:
3702:
3679:10.2307/1933500
3659:
3652:
3597:
3593:
3577:
3576:
3548:
3544:
3539:
3535:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3511:
3507:
3502:
3498:
3493:
3489:
3484:
3480:
3475:
3471:
3466:
3462:
3456:
3452:
3447:
3443:
3438:
3434:
3429:
3425:
3420:
3416:
3410:
3406:
3401:
3397:
3389:
3380:
3375:
3371:
3366:
3362:
3346:10.1.1.361.3087
3333:Ecology Letters
3328:
3324:
3293:
3289:
3234:
3227:
3220:
3200:
3196:
3165:(8): 995–1003.
3159:Ecology Letters
3154:
3148:
3144:
3097:
3093:
3054:
3047:
2994:
2990:
2927:
2923:
2880:
2873:
2858:10.2307/1931600
2842:
2838:
2831:
2817:
2813:
2798:10.2307/3546419
2782:
2778:
2763:10.2307/1938141
2747:
2743:
2728:10.2307/1937243
2712:
2705:
2674:
2670:
2654:
2653:
2625:
2621:
2606:10.2307/1941313
2590:
2583:
2574:
2570:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2543:
2539:
2500:
2496:
2487:
2483:
2424:
2420:
2377:
2370:
2307:
2303:
2266:
2255:
2231:
2224:
2220:
2213:
2209:
2193:
2192:
2158:Biology Letters
2150:
2146:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2092:
2086:
2079:
2072:
2054:
2050:
2043:
2017:
2008:
1997:
1990:
1983:
1957:
1953:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1924:10.2307/1931600
1907:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1874:
1863:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1825:
1819:
1812:
1773:
1769:
1762:
1736:
1732:
1723:
1721:
1711:
1704:
1697:
1680:
1676:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1646:
1639:
1632:
1616:
1612:
1567:
1563:
1528:Ecology Letters
1520:
1513:
1505:
1491:10.2307/4072271
1474:
1468:
1461:
1440:
1436:
1426:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1386:
1379:
1368:
1350:
1346:
1335:
1313:
1309:
1295:
1273:
1266:
1255:
1237:
1233:
1226:
1203:
1194:
1187:
1169:
1160:
1156:
1103:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1041:
1020:intertidal zone
977:
962:
916:
894:
797:
788:
760:
744:natural enemies
740:
698:
686:lesser duckweed
668:
659:
650:
641:
629:
600:
566:(also known as
556:
524:
502:
494:niche modelling
407:parasitic plant
342:'niche breadth'
302:
215:
189:lizards of the
134:Joseph Grinnell
114:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7178:
7168:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7152:
7135:
7134:
7129:
7126:
7125:
7123:
7122:
7117:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7090:Microecosystem
7087:
7082:
7077:
7072:
7067:
7062:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7027:
7022:
7017:
7012:
7006:
7004:
7000:
6999:
6997:
6996:
6991:
6989:Thorson's rule
6986:
6981:
6976:
6971:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6941:
6936:
6931:
6926:
6921:
6916:
6914:Assembly rules
6910:
6908:
6900:
6899:
6897:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6871:
6870:
6869:
6859:
6854:
6849:
6844:
6839:
6833:
6831:
6825:
6824:
6822:
6821:
6816:
6811:
6799:
6797:Patch dynamics
6794:
6792:Metapopulation
6789:
6784:
6779:
6774:
6769:
6764:
6759:
6754:
6749:
6744:
6739:
6734:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6714:
6708:
6706:
6698:
6697:
6695:
6694:
6689:
6687:Storage effect
6684:
6679:
6674:
6669:
6664:
6659:
6654:
6649:
6643:
6641:
6635:
6634:
6632:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6571:
6569:Neutral theory
6566:
6561:
6556:
6554:Native species
6547:
6542:
6537:
6532:
6527:
6522:
6517:
6512:
6507:
6501:
6499:
6495:
6494:
6492:
6491:
6486:
6485:
6484:
6479:
6469:
6464:
6459:
6454:
6449:
6444:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6427:Overpopulation
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6399:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6379:
6373:
6371:
6363:
6362:
6350:
6349:
6342:
6335:
6327:
6318:
6317:
6315:
6314:
6309:
6304:
6299:
6294:
6289:
6284:
6279:
6273:
6271:
6265:
6264:
6262:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6234:Nutrient cycle
6231:
6226:
6224:Feeding frenzy
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6204:Energy quality
6201:
6196:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6164:Cascade effect
6161:
6156:
6150:
6148:
6144:
6143:
6141:
6140:
6139:
6138:
6133:
6128:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6077:
6075:
6071:
6070:
6068:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6036:
6034:
6028:
6027:
6025:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6007:Microbial loop
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5972:Lithoautotroph
5969:
5964:
5958:
5956:
5954:Microorganisms
5950:
5949:
5947:
5946:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5925:
5923:
5917:
5916:
5914:
5913:
5911:Prey switching
5908:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5822:
5820:
5814:
5813:
5811:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5788:Photosynthesis
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5743:Chemosynthesis
5740:
5734:
5732:
5726:
5725:
5723:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5635:Abiotic stress
5632:
5626:
5624:
5620:
5619:
5603:
5602:
5595:
5588:
5580:
5571:
5570:
5568:
5567:
5557:
5547:
5537:
5522:
5519:
5518:
5516:
5515:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5494:
5492:
5488:
5487:
5483:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5467:
5462:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5362:
5357:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5300:Marine biology
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5110:Bioinformatics
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5056:
5055:
5054:
5052:
5048:
5047:
5044:
5043:
5041:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5024:
5022:
5018:
5017:
5015:
5014:
5007:
5000:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4941:DNA microarray
4938:
4936:DNA sequencing
4933:
4928:
4926:Centrifugation
4923:
4921:Chromatography
4918:
4913:
4911:Transformation
4908:
4902:
4900:
4891:
4883:
4882:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4869:
4867:
4866:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4850:
4849:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4822:Climate change
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4788:
4786:
4780:
4779:
4777:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4764:Nervous system
4761:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4720:
4718:
4712:
4711:
4709:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4696:Vascular plant
4693:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4652:
4650:
4644:
4643:
4641:
4640:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4603:
4598:
4592:
4590:
4584:
4583:
4581:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4553:Microevolution
4550:
4548:Macroevolution
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4514:
4512:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4461:
4459:
4453:
4452:
4450:
4449:
4444:
4442:Photosynthesis
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4397:Cell signaling
4394:
4389:
4384:
4378:
4376:
4370:
4369:
4367:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4325:
4324:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4283:
4281:
4280:Chemical basis
4277:
4276:
4274:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4246:Taxonomic rank
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4226:Reductionistic
4223:
4169:
4134:
4129:
4123:
4121:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4104:
4099:
4098:
4097:
4087:
4082:
4073:Introduction (
4070:
4067:
4066:
4059:
4058:
4051:
4044:
4036:
4030:
4029:
3997:J. Theor. Biol
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3965:
3964:External links
3962:
3960:
3959:
3953:
3936:
3918:(2): 555–573.
3907:
3875:(1): 174–182.
3864:
3803:
3739:J. Theor. Biol
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3725:
3718:
3700:
3673:(4): 710–723.
3650:
3611:(16): 6230–5.
3591:
3542:
3533:
3524:
3515:
3505:
3496:
3487:
3478:
3469:
3460:
3450:
3441:
3432:
3423:
3414:
3404:
3395:
3378:
3369:
3360:
3339:(2): 302–315.
3322:
3309:10.1086/285705
3303:(5): 741–771.
3287:
3225:
3218:
3194:
3142:
3091:
3070:10.1086/285603
3045:
2988:
2941:(4): 169–178.
2921:
2871:
2852:(4): 599–619.
2836:
2830:978-0412749308
2829:
2811:
2792:(3): 383–397.
2776:
2757:(5): 1371–82.
2741:
2722:(4): 1039–49.
2703:
2690:10.1086/282070
2668:
2641:10.1086/283553
2635:(2): 151–170.
2619:
2600:(1): 129–141.
2581:
2568:
2563:Ecology Center
2550:
2537:
2494:
2481:
2418:
2391:(4): 609–615.
2368:
2301:
2280:(2): 161–177.
2253:
2242:(2): 214–238.
2218:
2207:
2164:(4): 544–547.
2144:
2077:
2070:
2048:
2041:
2006:
1988:
1981:
1951:
1918:(4): 599–619.
1895:
1888:
1861:
1836:(2): 415–427.
1810:
1789:10.1086/283553
1783:(2): 151–170.
1767:
1760:
1730:
1702:
1695:
1674:
1661:978-0226206394
1660:
1651:Animal Ecology
1637:
1630:
1610:
1561:
1511:
1508:on 2016-03-10.
1485:(4): 427–433.
1459:
1434:
1408:
1377:
1366:
1344:
1334:978-0878934867
1333:
1307:
1294:978-0878934867
1293:
1264:
1253:
1231:
1224:
1192:
1185:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1133:Overpopulation
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1105:Ecology portal
1092:
1089:
1040:
1037:
961:
958:
949:Willow warbler
921:hispine beetle
915:
912:
893:
890:
889:
888:
880:
877:
867:
866:
862:
824:introduced by
796:
793:
787:
784:
780:storage effect
771:Sonoran Desert
759:
756:
739:
736:
697:
694:
667:
664:
658:
655:
649:
646:
640:
637:
628:
625:
599:
596:
555:
552:
539:
538:
535:
531:
523:
520:
501:
498:
481:to non-native
428:realized niche
365:Richard Levins
301:
298:
214:
213:Eltonian niche
211:
113:
110:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7177:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7147:
7145:
7132:
7127:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7115:Urban ecology
7113:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7081:
7078:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7068:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7018:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7007:
7005:
7001:
6995:
6992:
6990:
6987:
6985:
6982:
6980:
6977:
6975:
6974:Kleiber's law
6972:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6932:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6920:
6917:
6915:
6912:
6911:
6909:
6907:
6901:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6868:
6865:
6864:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6853:
6850:
6848:
6845:
6843:
6840:
6838:
6835:
6834:
6832:
6830:
6826:
6820:
6817:
6815:
6812:
6810:
6808:
6804:
6800:
6798:
6795:
6793:
6790:
6788:
6785:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6748:
6747:Foster's rule
6745:
6743:
6740:
6738:
6735:
6733:
6730:
6728:
6725:
6723:
6720:
6718:
6715:
6713:
6710:
6709:
6707:
6705:
6699:
6693:
6690:
6688:
6685:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6663:
6660:
6658:
6655:
6653:
6650:
6648:
6645:
6644:
6642:
6636:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6521:
6518:
6516:
6513:
6511:
6508:
6506:
6503:
6502:
6500:
6496:
6490:
6487:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6474:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6458:
6455:
6453:
6450:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6374:
6372:
6370:
6364:
6359:
6355:
6348:
6343:
6341:
6336:
6334:
6329:
6328:
6325:
6313:
6310:
6308:
6305:
6303:
6300:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6275:
6274:
6272:
6266:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6172:
6170:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6160:
6157:
6155:
6152:
6151:
6149:
6145:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6127:
6124:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6104:
6103:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6078:
6076:
6072:
6066:
6065:Trophic level
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6037:
6035:
6033:
6029:
6023:
6022:Phage ecology
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6012:Microbial mat
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5967:Bacteriophage
5965:
5963:
5960:
5959:
5957:
5955:
5951:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5934:Decomposition
5932:
5930:
5927:
5926:
5924:
5922:
5918:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5881:Mesopredators
5879:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5826:Apex predator
5824:
5823:
5821:
5819:
5815:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5735:
5733:
5731:
5727:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5660:Biotic stress
5658:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5627:
5625:
5621:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5601:
5596:
5594:
5589:
5587:
5582:
5581:
5578:
5566:
5558:
5556:
5548:
5546:
5538:
5535:
5530:
5524:
5523:
5520:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5495:
5493:
5489:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5380:Phylogenetics
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5275:Human biology
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5228:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5165:Chronobiology
5163:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5140:Biotechnology
5138:
5136:
5135:Biostatistics
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5053:
5049:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5028:Belt transect
5026:
5025:
5023:
5019:
5013:
5012:
5008:
5006:
5005:
5001:
4999:
4998:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4976:Southern blot
4974:
4972:
4971:Northern blot
4969:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4901:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4884:
4879:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4848:
4845:
4844:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4789:
4787:
4785:
4781:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4749:Immune system
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4719:
4713:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4666:Ground tissue
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4653:
4651:
4645:
4639:
4636:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4608:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4593:
4591:
4589:
4585:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4568:Phylogenetics
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4533:Genetic drift
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4511:
4507:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4454:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4379:
4377:
4375:
4371:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4339:Nucleic acids
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4302:Chemical bond
4300:
4298:
4297:Carbohydrates
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4284:
4282:
4278:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4170:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4109:
4103:
4100:
4096:
4093:
4092:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4071:
4068:
4064:
4057:
4052:
4050:
4045:
4043:
4038:
4037:
4034:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4003:(2): 137–43.
4002:
3998:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3967:
3956:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3908:
3904:
3898:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3865:
3861:
3855:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3810:
3804:
3800:
3794:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3753:
3752:q-bio/0502021
3748:
3745:(4): 521–30.
3744:
3740:
3735:
3734:
3721:
3715:
3711:
3704:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3657:
3655:
3646:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3595:
3587:
3581:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3546:
3537:
3528:
3519:
3509:
3500:
3491:
3482:
3473:
3464:
3454:
3445:
3436:
3427:
3418:
3408:
3399:
3393:
3387:
3385:
3383:
3373:
3364:
3356:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3326:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3291:
3283:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3232:
3230:
3221:
3219:9780521609852
3215:
3211:
3207:
3206:
3198:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3180:2027.42/99082
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3153:
3146:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3095:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3064:(2): 258–82.
3063:
3059:
3052:
3050:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2925:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2878:
2876:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2840:
2832:
2826:
2822:
2815:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2780:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2745:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2708:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2672:
2664:
2658:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2623:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2588:
2586:
2578:
2572:
2564:
2560:
2554:
2547:
2541:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2498:
2491:
2485:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2375:
2373:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2305:
2297:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2230:
2222:
2216:
2211:
2203:
2197:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2134:on 2017-11-17
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2084:
2082:
2073:
2071:9780191588327
2067:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2044:
2042:9780674503137
2038:
2034:
2029:
2028:
2022:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2002:
1995:
1993:
1984:
1982:9780520052543
1978:
1974:
1969:
1968:
1962:
1955:
1941:on 2014-05-19
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1906:
1899:
1891:
1889:9780226101804
1885:
1881:
1880:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1851:on 2007-09-26
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1817:
1815:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1763:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1734:
1720:
1716:
1709:
1707:
1698:
1696:9780226101804
1692:
1688:
1687:
1678:
1663:
1657:
1653:
1652:
1644:
1642:
1633:
1631:9780415323475
1627:
1623:
1622:
1614:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1565:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1516:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1466:
1464:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1446:
1438:
1422:
1418:
1412:
1397:
1390:
1384:
1382:
1374:
1373:construction.
1369:
1367:9780691136882
1363:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1341:
1336:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1311:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1269:
1262:
1256:
1254:9780691136882
1250:
1246:
1242:
1235:
1227:
1225:9781400833023
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1188:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1158:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1106:
1095:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1025:B. balanoides
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1004:
1002:
998:
994:
985:
975:
971:
966:
957:
954:
950:
945:
943:
939:
933:
931:
927:
922:
911:
908:
905:
900:
886:
881:
878:
875:
874:
873:
871:
863:
859:
858:
857:
855:
851:
848:
846:
842:
836:
834:
833:vacant niches
829:
827:
823:
814:
810:
806:
801:
792:
783:
781:
776:
775:annual plants
772:
768:
764:
755:
753:
749:
745:
735:
731:
727:
725:
720:
715:
712:
708:
704:
703:phytoplankton
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
663:
654:
645:
636:
634:
624:
622:
618:
612:
608:
605:
595:
592:
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6712:Biogeography
6657:Commensalism
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6121:kelp forests
6074:Example webs
5939:Detritivores
5778:Organotrophs
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5710:Productivity
5425:Sociobiology
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5370:Photobiology
5365:Pharmacology
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5350:Paleontology
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5220:Epidemiology
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5977:Lithotrophy
5921:Decomposers
5901:Planktivore
5876:Insectivore
5866:Heterotroph
5831:Bacterivore
5798:Phototrophs
5748:Chemotrophs
5720:Restoration
5670:Competition
5565:WikiProject
5475:Xenobiology
5470:Virophysics
5440:Systematics
5395:Primatology
5340:Ornithology
5280:Ichthyology
5265:Herpetology
5260:Gerontology
5225:Epigenetics
5185:Cryobiology
5075:Agrostology
5065:Aerobiology
5060:Abiogenesis
4897:Laboratory
4744:Homeostasis
4647:Plant form
4470:Epigenetics
4392:Cell theory
4292:Amino acids
4271:Common name
4261:Peer review
4236:Mechanistic
2229:"The Niche"
1081:spotted owl
1077:specialists
978:(in Basque)
627:Development
7144:Categories
7105:Sexecology
6682:Parasitism
6647:Antibiosis
6482:Resistance
6477:Resilience
6367:Population
6287:Camouflage
6239:Oligotroph
6154:Ascendency
6116:intertidal
6106:cold seeps
6060:Food chain
5861:Herbivores
5836:Carnivores
5763:Mixotrophs
5738:Autotrophs
5617:components
5491:Glossaries
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5455:Teratology
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5385:Physiology
5325:Neontology
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5285:Immunology
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5125:Biophysics
5105:Biogeology
4899:techniques
4854:Microbiome
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4573:Speciation
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4427:Metabolism
4387:Cell cycle
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1945:2014-05-18
1855:2007-07-24
1724:2021-02-20
1427:30 October
1154:References
1065:food chain
1039:Parameters
953:chiffchaff
930:parasitism
904:Drosophila
841:Toxoplasma
809:dowitchers
617:ecological
544:introduced
440:food chain
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175:succulents
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6032:Food webs
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4887:Research
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4588:Diversity
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4510:Evolution
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4329:Molecules
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3809:Oecologia
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1548:1461-0248
1085:dandelion
1045:plot axes
926:predation
411:mistletoe
330:resources
318:coevolved
272:effect on
226:ecologist
207:ecomorphs
183:euphorbia
164:exposure.
153:chaparral
98:taxonomic
64:pathogens
60:parasites
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7065:Endolith
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6906:networks
6722:Ecocline
6268:Defense,
5944:Detritus
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5545:Category
5465:Virology
5450:Taxonomy
5390:Pomology
5320:Mycology
5250:Genomics
5245:Genetics
5070:Agronomy
5051:Branches
5004:in vitro
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4578:Taxonomy
4558:Mutation
4528:Function
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3273:2710622
3250:Bibcode
3210:141–164
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2097:Science
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1667:May 14,
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560:ecology
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