1001:
862:. By using improvements to electrode separator, positive electrode, and other components, manufacturers claim the cells retain 70–85% of their capacity when stored for one year at 20 °C (68 °F), compared to about half for normal NiMH batteries. They are otherwise similar to standard NiMH batteries, and can be charged in standard NiMH chargers. These cells are marketed as "hybrid", "ready-to-use" or "pre-charged" rechargeables. Retention of charge depends in large part on the battery's
625:
2622:
214:
986:
571:
43:
965:
batteries as a result. Lithium batteries produce a higher voltage (3.2–3.7 V nominal), and are thus not a drop-in replacement for AA (alkaline or NiMh) batteries without circuitry to reduce voltage. Although a single lithium cell will typically provide ideal power to replace 3 NiMH cells, the form factor means that the device still needs modification.
543:/300 can be used for batteries that must be kept in a fully charged state. Some chargers do this after the charge cycle, to offset natural self-discharge. A similar approach is suggested by Energizer, which indicates that self-catalysis can recombine gas formed at the electrodes for charge rates up to C/10. This leads to cell heating. The company recommends
1075:
1546:
946:
NiMH cells are advantageous for high-current-drain applications compared to alkaline batteries, largely due to their lower internal resistance. Typical alkaline AA-size batteries, which offer approximately 2.6 Ah capacity at low current demand (25 mA), provide only 1.3 Ah capacity with
917:
released from MH alloy), Ni–B alloy coating on MH alloy (causing formation of a protection layer), alkaline treatment of negative electrode (causing reduction of leach-out of Mn and Al), addition of LiOH and NaOH into electrolyte (causing reduction in electrolyte corrosion capabilities), and addition
603:
method. Because the charging voltage is nearly constant, constant-current charging delivers energy at a near-constant rate. When the cell is not fully charged, most of this energy is converted to chemical energy. However, when the cell reaches full charge, most of the charging energy is converted to
578:
To prevent cell damage, fast chargers must terminate their charge cycle before overcharging occurs. One method is to monitor the change of voltage with time. When the battery is fully charged, the voltage across its terminals drops slightly. The charger can detect this and stop charging. This method
950:
Devices that were designed to operate using primary alkaline chemistry (or zinc-carbon/chloride) cells may not function with NiMH cells. However, most devices compensate for the voltage drop of an alkaline battery as it discharges down to about 1 volt. Low internal resistance allows NiMH cells
1995:
NiMH batteries self-discharge up to 20% in the first 24 hours after charging, then as much as 15% per month. Self-discharge is highly temperature dependent. NiMH batteries self discharge about three times faster at 40 °C than at 20 °C. Age also affects self-discharge. Older battery packs
783:
A fully charged cell supplies an average 1.25 V/cell during discharge, declining to about 1.0–1.1 V/cell (further discharge may cause permanent damage in the case of multi-cell packs, due to polarity reversal of the weakest cell). Under a light load (0.5 amperes), the starting voltage of a freshly
800:
in one or more cells, which can permanently damage them. This situation can occur in the common arrangement of four AA cells in series, where one cell completely discharges before the others due to small differences in capacity among the cells. When this happens, the good cells start to drive the
964:
can deliver extremely high power and have a higher specific energy than nickel–metal hydride batteries, but they were originally significantly more expensive. The cost of lithium batteries fell drastically during the 2010s and many small consumer devices now have non-consumer-replaceable lithium
908:
MH alloy, (causing reduction in debris formation in separator), increase of the amount of electrolyte (causing reduction in the hydrogen diffusion in electrolyte), removal of Cu-containing components (causing reduction in micro-short), PTFE coating on positive electrode (causing suppression of
1082:
NiMH batteries were frequently used in prior-generation electric and hybrid-electric vehicles; as of 2020 they have been superseded almost entirely by lithium-ion batteries in all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, but they remain in use in some hybrid vehicles (2020 Toyota
Highlander, for
812:
Irreversible damage from polarity reversal is a particular danger, even when a low voltage-threshold cutout is employed, when the cells vary in temperature. This is because capacity significantly declines as the cells are cooled. This results in a lower voltage under load of the colder cells.
951:
to deliver a nearly constant voltage until they are almost completely discharged. Thus battery-level indicators designed to read alkaline cells overstate the remaining charge when used with NiMH cells, as the voltage of alkaline cells decreases steadily during most of the discharge cycle.
1463:
973:
NiMH batteries can easily be made smaller and lighter than lead-acid batteries and have completely replaced them in small devices. However, lead-acid batteries can deliver huge current at low cost, making lead-acid batteries more suitable for starter motors in combustion vehicles.
895:
Low-self-discharge cells have somewhat lower capacity than otherwise equivalent NiMH cells because of the larger volume of the separator. The highest-capacity low-self-discharge AA cells have 2500 mAh capacity, compared to 2700 mAh for high-capacity AA NiMH cells.
587:. At this charge rate, Panasonic recommends to terminate charging when the voltage drops 5–10 mV per cell from the peak voltage. Since this method measures the voltage across the battery, a constant-current (rather than a constant-voltage) charging circuit is used.
2157:
Shinyama, Katsuhiko; Harada, Yasuyuki; Maeda, Reizo; Nakamura, Hiroshi; Matsuta, Shigeki; Nohma, Toshiyuki; Yonezu, Ikuo (May 2006). "Suppression mechanism of the self-discharge reaction in nickel-metal hydride batteries using a sulfonated polyolefin separator".
883:
The self-discharge rate depends upon separator thickness; thicker separators reduce self-discharge, but also reduce capacity as they leave less space for active components, and thin separators lead to higher self-discharge. Some batteries may have overcome this
899:
Common methods to improve self-discharge include: use of a sulfonated separator (causing removal of N-containing compounds), use of an acrylic acid grafted PP separator (causing reduction in Al- and Mn-debris formation in separator), removal of Co and Mn in
551:/40 for indefinite applications where long life is important. This is the approach taken in emergency lighting applications, where the design remains essentially the same as in older NiCd units, except for an increase in the trickle-charging resistor value.
1040:(full discharge in 1 hour), it does not differ significantly from the nominal capacity. NiMH batteries nominally operate at 1.2 V per cell, somewhat lower than conventional 1.5 V cells, but can operate many devices designed for that
535:
is the current equivalent to the capacity of the battery divided by one hour). The
Panasonic NiMH charging manual warns that overcharging for long enough can damage a battery and suggests limiting the total charging time to 10–20 hours.
579:
is often used with nickel-cadmium cells, which display a large voltage drop at full charge. However, the voltage drop is much less pronounced for NiMH and can be non-existent at low charge rates, which can make the approach unreliable.
582:
Another option is to monitor the change of voltage with respect to time and stop when this becomes zero, but this risks premature cutoffs. With this method, a much higher charging rate can be used than with a trickle charge, up to
364:
About 22% of portable rechargeable batteries sold in Japan in 2010 were NiMH. In
Switzerland in 2009, the equivalent statistic was approximately 60%. This percentage has fallen over time due to the increase in manufacture of
376:
produced a modified microstructure that helped make NiMH batteries more durable, in turn allowing changes to the cell design that saved considerable weight, allowing the specific energy to reach 140 watt-hours per kilogram.
608:. Both Panasonic and Duracell suggest a maximal rate of temperature increase of 1 °C per minute. Using a temperature sensor allows an absolute temperature cutoff, which Duracell suggests at 60 °C. With both the Δ
825:
rate (equivalent to internal leakage) than NiCd cells. The self-discharge rate varies greatly with temperature, where lower storage temperature leads to slower discharge and longer battery life. The self-discharge is
756:
One inherent risk with NiMH chemistry is that overcharging causes hydrogen gas to form, potentially rupturing the cell. Therefore, cells have a vent to release the gas in the event of serious overcharging.
1036:) of 1.1–2.8 Ah at 1.2 V, measured at the rate that discharges the cell in 5 hours. Useful discharge capacity is a decreasing function of the discharge rate, but up to a rate of around 1×
2487:
947:
a 500 mA load. Digital cameras with LCDs and flashlights can draw over 1 A, quickly depleting them. NiMH cells can deliver these current levels without similar loss of capacity.
2364:
729:
523:
The simplest of the safe charging methods is with a fixed low current, with or without a timer. Most manufacturers claim that overcharging is safe at very low currents, below 0.1
943:
NiMH cells are often used in digital cameras and other high-drain devices, where over the duration of single-charge use they outperform primary (such as alkaline) batteries.
1773:
2059:
1176:, citing lack of battery availability as a chief obstacle. Cobasys control of NiMH batteries created a patent encumbrance for large automotive NiMH batteries.
558:
approach, where a pulse of a higher current is used whenever the battery's voltage drops below 1.3 V. This can extend battery life and use less energy.
1570:"Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of the 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and repealing Directive 91/157/EEC"
1251:
1069:
930:
into electrolyte (causing reduction in MH alloy corrosion). Most of these improvements have no or negligible effect on cost; some increase cost modestly.
1628:
2457:
2491:
312:
and consequently insufficient cycle life. In 1987, Willems and
Buschow demonstrated a successful battery based on this approach (using a mixture of La
888:
by using more precisely manufactured thin separators, and a sulfonated polyolefin separator, an improvement over the hydrophilic polyolefin based on
1687:
2103:
18. What is the self-discharge rate of NiMH batteries? In general, the rate of self-discharge ranges from 15% to 20% per month at room temperature.
417:
compound. Many different compounds have been developed for this application, but those in current use fall into two classes. The most common is AB
2346:
809:
detect the safe end-of-discharge voltage of the series cells and perform an auto-shutdown, but devices such as flashlights and some toys do not.
2313:
413:
The reactions proceed left to right during charge and the opposite during discharge. The metal M in the negative electrode of a NiMH cell is an
351:, which had been working on MH-NiOOH batteries since mid-1980, improved the Ti–Ni alloy structure and composition and patented its innovations.
1146:
purchased
Ovonics' patent in 1994. By the late 1990s, NiMH batteries were being used successfully in many fully electric vehicles, such as the
495:. The positive electrode is nickel hydroxide, and the negative electrode is hydrogen in the form of an interstitial metal hydride. Hydrophilic
298:
286:
applications were filed in
European countries (priority: Switzerland), the United States, and Japan. The patents transferred to Daimler-Benz.
340:
were soon developed. Modern NiMH cells were based on this design. The first consumer-grade NiMH cells became commercially available in 1989.
2372:
3032:
1905:
1461:, Dr. Klaus Beccu, "Negative electrode of titanium-nickel alloy hydride phases", assigned to Battelle-Geneva R&D Center
1973:
2147:
Flaim, Tony, Yubao Wang, and Ramil
Mercado. "High Refractive Index Polymer Coatings". SPIE Proceedings of Optical Systems Design. Web.
760:
NiMH batteries are made of environmentally friendly materials. The batteries contain only mildly toxic substances and are recyclable.
293:
for satellite applications. Hydride technology promised an alternative, less bulky way to store the hydrogen. Research carried out by
1333:
1028:
NiMH batteries have replaced NiCd for many roles, notably small rechargeable batteries. NiMH batteries are commonly available in AA (
2551:
2115:
1351:
1405:
274:. The batteries' specific energy reached 50 W·h/kg (180 kJ/kg), specific power up to 1000 W/kg and a life of 500
1577:
1196:
913:), CMC solution dipping (causing suppression of oxygen evolution), micro-encapsulation of Cu on MH alloy (causing decrease in H
1544:, "High power nickel metal hydride batteries and high power alloys/electrodes for use therein", published July 2, 2002
2440:
2409:
1861:
2087:
1662:
2287:
2031:
616:
charging methods, both manufacturers recommend a further period of trickle charging to follow the initial rapid charge.
186:. NiMH batteries can have two to three times the capacity of NiCd batteries of the same size, with significantly higher
2822:
2709:
2321:. The 11th International Power Supply Conference and Exhibition – Avicenne 2009. Ovonic Battery Company. Archived from
1569:
753:
involves an internal pressure switch in the cell, which disconnects the charging current in the event of overpressure.
2063:
1960:
732:
512:
332:), which kept 84% of its charge capacity after 4000 charge-discharge cycles. More economically viable alloys using
1748:
3047:
2872:
2514:
1380:
2800:
1886:
1231:
646:
2882:
2465:
1061:
2515:"Bipolar Nickel Metal Hydride Battery" by Martin G. Klein, Michael Eskra, Robert Plivelich and Paula Ralston
604:
heat. This increases the rate of change of battery temperature, which can be detected by a sensor such as a
2544:
1636:
2847:
2714:
1698:
251:
27:
775:) from repeated partial discharge can occur, but is reversible with a few full discharge/charge cycles.
2887:
2857:
2842:
2810:
1458:
806:
1541:
2902:
2649:
2322:
1635:(in German). INOBAT (the Swiss interest organisation for battery disposal). p. 2. Archived from
1527:
1139:
802:
348:
1843:
1173:
2917:
2815:
1057:
3037:
2922:
2867:
2852:
2805:
2785:
2744:
2719:
2699:
2679:
2537:
1236:
1201:
1120:
872:
keep the two electrodes apart to slow electrical discharge while allowing the transport of ionic
869:
290:
2519:
2432:
2426:
1151:
801:
discharged cell into reverse polarity (i.e. positive anode and negative cathode). Some cameras,
640:
type, increases safety. This fuse opens if either the current or the temperature gets too high.
369:
batteries: in 2000, almost half of all portable rechargeable batteries sold in Japan were NiMH.
3011:
2912:
1729:
889:
245:
201:, as they feature a slightly lower but generally compatible cell voltage and are less prone to
175:
171:
1917:
1508:
2877:
2773:
2694:
1256:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1135:
961:
955:
877:
863:
854:) has a significantly lower rate of self-discharge. The innovation was introduced in 2005 by
735:
92:
20:
1980:
977:
As of 2005, nickel–metal hydride batteries constituted three percent of the battery market.
746:
divided by ten hours). This reaction causes batteries to heat, ending the charging process.
354:
In 2008, more than two million hybrid cars worldwide were manufactured with NiMH batteries.
262:
Ni+TiNi+x alloys and NiOOH electrodes. Development was sponsored over nearly two decades by
2755:
2739:
2724:
2560:
1241:
1206:
1157:
This generation of electric cars, although successful, was abruptly pulled off the market.
167:
8:
2907:
2892:
2827:
2795:
2790:
2606:
2488:"The Edison of our Age: Stan Ovshinsky and the Future of Energy (Video Interview Part 1)"
1913:
1479:
1431:
1308:
1226:
1165:
492:
366:
191:
2193:
2127:
2897:
2768:
2579:
2175:
1831:
1186:
1147:
1124:
1116:
1084:
768:
422:
344:
279:
2621:
1359:
1295:"Energy efficiency and capacity retention of Ni–MH batteries for storage applications"
1074:
254:-Geneva Research Center following the technology's invention in 1967. It was based on
2971:
2659:
2436:
2405:
2398:
2236:
1956:
1882:
1857:
1294:
1246:
1191:
1009:
554:
Panasonic's handbook recommends that NiMH batteries on standby be charged by a lower
361:, nickel–metal hydride batteries replaced Ni–Cd batteries for portable consumer use.
358:
2689:
2179:
2837:
2832:
2644:
2584:
2524:
2226:
2167:
1053:
835:
797:
743:
637:
302:
198:
118:
2008:
866:
resistance (the higher the better), and on its physical size and charge capacity.
3042:
2704:
2631:
2393:
2091:
633:
508:
234:
Negative electrode with current collector (metal grid, connected to metal casing)
202:
53:
2940:
2594:
2171:
1939:
1582:
1143:
1104:
1096:
1088:
1000:
873:
822:
643:
Modern NiMH cells contain catalysts to handle gases produced by over-charging (
187:
79:
2291:
305:
for the negative electrode. However, these suffered from alloy instability in
197:
They are typically used as a substitute for similarly shaped non-rechargeable
3026:
2574:
2240:
2231:
2035:
1974:"Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery Charger and Battery Pack. User's Manual"
1513:
1172:
subsidiary provides these batteries only to large OEM orders. General Motors
1112:
1092:
772:
414:
267:
2290:. Yahoo finance, Singapore, quoting Reuters. 23 January 2007. Archived from
2019:
A NiMH battery can lose up to 2% of its charge per day sitting on the shelf.
1606:
1138:
invented and patented a popular improvement of the NiMH battery and founded
838:. But at 45 °C (113 °F) it is approximately three times as high.
624:
170:. The chemical reaction at the positive electrode is similar to that of the
2778:
2734:
2669:
2611:
2589:
2428:
The Car That Could: The Inside Story of GM's
Revolutionary Electric Vehicle
2214:
1108:
1065:
438:
275:
263:
138:
507:
When fast-charging, it is advisable to charge the NiMH cells with a smart
3006:
2991:
2729:
2654:
2255:
1013:
488:
457:. Some cells use higher-capacity negative electrode materials based on AB
309:
2529:
2365:"New Hybrid Reviews, News & Hybrid Mileage (MPG) Info - Hybrid Cars"
2950:
2684:
2664:
785:
605:
555:
496:
333:
271:
218:
1309:"Best rechargeable batteries (10+ charts, overviews and comparisons )"
1276:
2996:
2986:
2976:
2945:
2601:
2520:
Energizer Nickel Metal
Hydride (NiMH) Handbook and Application Manual
2266:
1784:
478:
466:
454:
450:
434:
426:
337:
255:
59:
691:
397:
On the positive electrode, nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO(OH), is formed:
213:
2674:
2215:"Capacity Degradation Mechanisms in Nickel/Metal Hydride Batteries"
1823:
1029:
985:
885:
485:
470:
462:
306:
178:(NiOOH). However, the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing
2047:
NiMh batteries tend to self-discharge at 3–4% of capacity per day.
1955:
Sandeep
Dhameja (2002), Electric Vehicle Battery Systems, Newnes,
2981:
1872:
1870:
1694:
1169:
1100:
1041:
1017:
859:
294:
183:
880:. High-quality separators are critical for battery performance.
1161:
446:
442:
430:
283:
42:
1867:
599:
The temperature-change method is similar in principle to the Δ
570:
2966:
2123:
1856:
Mukund R. Patel (2005), "Spacecraft Power Systems" CRC Press
1005:
994:
990:
855:
289:
Interest grew in the 1970s with the commercialisation of the
179:
85:
385:
The negative electrode reaction occurring in a NiMH cell is
2194:"Rechargeable Batteries — compared and explained in detail"
2156:
1083:
example). Prior all-electric plug-in vehicles included the
750:
474:
373:
270:
within Deutsche Automobilgesellschaft, now a subsidiary of
71:
67:
3001:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
714:
683:
665:
2075:
Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMh) Approx 1% per day if unused.
1406:"What could cause Ni-MH rechargeable batteries to leak?"
1032:-size) batteries. These have nominal charge capacities (
628:
NiMH cell that popped its cap due to failed safety valve
2347:"Highlander Hybrid - Hybrid Vehicle Dismantling Manual"
1468:. For the performance data, see the "Examples" section.
63:
2213:
Young, Kwo-hsiung; Yasuoka, Shigekazu (1 March 2016).
1759:
1737:(NiMH02.01 ed.). Energizer Battery Manufacturing.
301:
developed new high-energy hybrid alloys incorporating
1252:
Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries
1070:
Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries
649:
2400:
Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America
2288:"Mitsubishi Heavy to make lithium-ion car batteries"
1004:
nickel–metal hydride 24 V battery pack made by
821:
Historically, NiMH cells have had a somewhat higher
2404:. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, Canada.
1774:"Charge Methods for Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries"
539:Duracell further suggests that a trickle charge at
2397:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1800:
933:
723:
2479:
1528:"Rechargeable battery and electrode used therein"
1480:"R & D of Hydrogen Absorbing Alloys in Japan"
796:Complete discharge of multi-cell packs can cause
3024:
2449:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1385:Clean Energy Institute, University of Washington
788:NiMH cell in good condition is about 1.4 volts.
2418:
2392:
1797:
848:low–self-discharge nickel–metal hydride battery
1607:"Secondary battery sales statistics by volume"
1559:Avicenne Conf., Nice 2008, M. A. Fetcenko/ECD.
2545:
1715:
876:that close the circuit during the passage of
636:in series with the cell, particularly of the
2485:
2212:
2032:"Battery Nurse: VCS, Voltage Control System"
1820:Charge Sealed Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries
1979:. Sea-Bird Electronics, Inc. Archived from
1900:
1898:
1457:
228:Outer metal casing (also negative terminal)
19:"NiMH" redirects here. For other uses, see
2552:
2538:
2424:
2386:
2009:"epanorama.net: Battery Power Supply Page"
1601:
1599:
1334:"Eneloop XX Vs Turnigy 2400 Cycle Testing"
1164:, and a week later Texaco was acquired by
41:
2559:
2315:Ovonic NiMH – Strong Now, Room for Growth
2230:
1688:"Inside the Nickel Metal Hydride Battery"
724:{\displaystyle {\ce {2H2{}+O2->2H2O}}}
703:
654:
2311:
1895:
1749:"Japanese Nonwoven Battery Applications"
1631:[Battery Sales Statistics 2008]
1477:
1160:In October 2000, the patent was sold to
1115:, as well as later models including the
1073:
999:
984:
954:
749:A method for very rapid charging called
623:
569:
212:
1876:
1663:"Old Battery Type Gets an Energy Boost"
1596:
1471:
1023:
830:on the first day and stabilizes around
3025:
1906:"Voltage Depression ("Memory Effect")"
1685:
1660:
1578:Official Journal of the European Union
1197:Comparison of commercial battery types
1107:used NIMH batteries, most notably the
123:36.4–97.8% at 45 °C (113 °F)
2533:
2455:
2362:
938:
841:
590:
561:
2490:. The Energy Roadmap. Archived from
1996:self-discharge faster than new ones.
1047:
771:(often mistakenly attributed to the
250:Work on NiMH batteries began at the
2305:
2186:
1661:Bullis, Kevin (February 19, 2015).
763:
518:
499:nonwovens are used for separation.
380:
190:, although only about half that of
13:
2425:Shnayerson, Michael (1996-08-27).
2160:Research on Chemical Intermediates
1940:"Energizer NH15-2300mAh datasheet"
461:compounds, where A is titanium or
14:
3059:
2508:
2458:"Dude, Wheres My Electric Car!?!"
2060:"Choosing the Right Battery Pack"
968:
816:
791:
731:). However, this only works with
357:In the European Union due to its
2620:
2525:NiMH battery charging and safety
2312:Fetcenko, Michael (2009-10-01).
1629:"Batterien-Absatzstatistik 2008"
1509:In search of the perfect battery
1130:
1103:scooter. Every first generation
2356:
2339:
2280:
2248:
2206:
2150:
2141:
2108:
2080:
2052:
2024:
2001:
1966:
1949:
1932:
1850:
1741:
1679:
1654:
1621:
1562:
1553:
1534:
1520:
1502:
1174:shut down production of the EV1
980:
934:Compared to other battery types
47:Modern Ni–MH rechargeable cells
3033:Nickel–metal hydride batteries
2088:"GP Batteries (Hong Kong) FAQ"
1879:Batteries for Portable Devices
1609:. Battery Association of Japan
1450:
1424:
1398:
1373:
1344:
1326:
1301:
1287:
1277:"NiMH Battery Charging Basics"
1269:
1232:Lithium iron phosphate battery
237:Separator (between electrodes)
1:
1781:Nickel Metal Hydride Handbook
1731:Nickel Metal Hydride Handbook
1263:
1078:GM Ovonic NiMH Battery Module
126:Low self-discharge: 0.08–2.9%
1877:Pistoia, Gianfranco (2005).
1432:"Do NiMH Batteries Explode?"
1062:Who Killed the Electric Car?
989:High-power Ni–MH battery of
909:reaction between NiOOH and H
778:
156:nickel–metal hydride battery
36:Nickel–metal hydride battery
16:Type of rechargeable battery
7:
2486:Greenberg J. (2008-10-14).
1686:Kopera, J. (25 June 2004).
1478:Nii, K.; Amano, M. (1997).
1179:
102:Charge/discharge efficiency
10:
3064:
2172:10.1163/156856706777973673
1436:Do NiMH Batteries Explode?
1051:
515:, which can damage cells.
243:
208:
174:(NiCd), with both using
25:
18:
2959:
2931:
2753:
2710:Metal–air electrochemical
2629:
2618:
2567:
2431:. Random House. pp.
619:
502:
469:or nickel, modified with
144:
133:
109:
101:
91:
78:
52:
40:
2456:Coker, M. (2003-05-15).
2232:10.3390/batteries2010003
1484:Acta Metallurgica Sinica
1058:Battery electric vehicle
26:Not to be confused with
1202:Gas diffusion electrode
1121:Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid
291:nickel-hydrogen battery
28:nickel–hydrogen battery
3048:Rechargeable batteries
3012:Semipermeable membrane
2801:Lithium–iron–phosphate
1459:US patent 3824131A
1140:Ovonic Battery Company
1079:
1020:
997:
890:ethylene vinyl alcohol
751:in-cell charge control
725:
629:
575:
246:History of the battery
241:
176:nickel oxide hydroxide
2883:Rechargeable alkaline
2561:Electrochemical cells
2116:"General Description"
1881:. Boston: Amsterdam.
1542:US patent 6413670
1381:"Lithium-Ion Battery"
1257:Power-to-weight ratio
1222:List of battery types
1217:List of battery sizes
1136:Stanford R. Ovshinsky
1077:
1003:
988:
962:Lithium-ion batteries
956:Lithium-ion batteries
726:
627:
573:
216:
192:lithium-ion batteries
2863:Nickel–metal hydride
1914:Procter & Gamble
1642:on November 14, 2011
1242:Nickel(II) hydroxide
1024:Consumer electronics
647:
295:Philips Laboratories
168:rechargeable battery
145:Nominal cell voltage
2873:Polysulfide–bromide
2715:Nickel oxyhydroxide
2607:Thermogalvanic cell
2294:on January 11, 2008
1704:on 27 February 2009
1410:Panasonic Batteries
1237:Nickel–zinc battery
1227:Lithium-ion battery
1087:, first-generation
716:
697:
685:
667:
493:potassium hydroxide
484:NiMH cells have an
393:O + M + e ⇌ OH + MH
172:nickel-cadmium cell
110:Self-discharge rate
37:
2636:(non-rechargeable)
2580:Concentration cell
2263:data.energizer.com
1753:thefreelibrary.com
1340:. 24 October 2014.
1315:. 14 February 2017
1187:Automotive battery
1152:Dodge Caravan EPIC
1148:General Motors EV1
1125:Honda Civic Hybrid
1117:Ford Escape Hybrid
1085:General Motors EV1
1080:
1021:
998:
991:Toyota NHW20 Prius
939:Alkaline Batteries
842:Low self-discharge
769:Voltage depression
738:of up to 0.1
721:
704:
673:
655:
630:
576:
405:+ OH ⇌ NiO(OH) + H
349:Ovonic Battery Co.
345:Stanford Ovshinsky
280:depth of discharge
242:
231:Positive electrode
217:Disassembled NiMH
199:alkaline batteries
35:
3020:
3019:
2442:978-0-679-42105-4
2411:978-0-86571-571-4
2225:(1). MDPI AG: 3.
1862:978-0-8493-2786-5
1667:Technology Review
1456:The US patent is
1412:. 30 October 2019
1338:CandlePowerForums
1247:Nickel(III) oxide
1212:Lead–acid battery
1192:Battery recycling
1048:Electric vehicles
1010:Museum Autovision
719:
707:
698:
695:
676:
658:
574:NiMH charge curve
359:Battery Directive
303:rare-earth metals
225:Positive terminal
152:
151:
3055:
2816:Lithium–titanate
2761:
2637:
2624:
2585:Electric battery
2554:
2547:
2540:
2531:
2530:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2499:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2464:. Archived from
2453:
2447:
2446:
2433:194–207, 263–264
2422:
2416:
2415:
2403:
2390:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2371:. Archived from
2360:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2327:
2320:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2274:
2260:
2252:
2246:
2244:
2234:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2200:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2154:
2148:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2126:. Archived from
2112:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2090:. Archived from
2084:
2078:
2077:
2072:
2071:
2062:. Archived from
2056:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2043:
2034:. Archived from
2028:
2022:
2021:
2016:
2015:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1985:
1978:
1970:
1964:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1920:on March 3, 2009
1916:. Archived from
1902:
1893:
1892:
1874:
1865:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1841:
1837:
1835:
1827:
1816:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1791:
1778:
1770:
1757:
1756:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1726:
1713:
1712:
1710:
1709:
1703:
1697:. Archived from
1692:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1641:
1634:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1603:
1594:
1593:
1591:
1590:
1574:
1566:
1560:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1524:
1518:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1475:
1469:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1454:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1367:
1358:. Archived from
1352:"Product Lineup"
1348:
1342:
1341:
1330:
1324:
1323:
1321:
1320:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1273:
1054:Electric vehicle
836:room temperature
833:
829:
798:reverse polarity
764:Loss of capacity
744:nominal capacity
730:
728:
727:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
705:
699:
696:
693:
687:
684:
681:
674:
669:
666:
663:
656:
638:bimetallic strip
519:Trickle charging
381:Electrochemistry
134:Cycle durability
119:room temperature
45:
38:
34:
3063:
3062:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3053:
3052:
3023:
3022:
3021:
3016:
2955:
2934:
2927:
2848:Nickel–hydrogen
2806:Lithium–polymer
2762:
2759:
2758:
2749:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2625:
2616:
2563:
2558:
2511:
2506:
2497:
2495:
2484:
2480:
2471:
2469:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2423:
2419:
2412:
2394:Sherry Boschert
2391:
2387:
2378:
2376:
2361:
2357:
2349:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2331:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2310:
2306:
2297:
2295:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2272:
2270:
2258:
2256:"Energizer E91"
2254:
2253:
2249:
2211:
2207:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2133:
2131:
2114:
2113:
2109:
2097:
2095:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2069:
2067:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2041:
2039:
2030:
2029:
2025:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1963:, pp. 118, 123.
1954:
1950:
1942:
1938:
1937:
1933:
1923:
1921:
1904:
1903:
1896:
1889:
1875:
1868:
1855:
1851:
1839:
1838:
1829:
1828:
1818:
1817:
1798:
1789:
1787:
1776:
1772:
1771:
1760:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1716:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1690:
1684:
1680:
1671:
1669:
1659:
1655:
1645:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1612:
1610:
1605:
1604:
1597:
1588:
1586:
1572:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1547:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1526:
1525:
1521:
1517:, 6 March 2008.
1507:
1503:
1493:
1491:
1476:
1472:
1464:
1455:
1451:
1441:
1439:
1430:
1429:
1425:
1415:
1413:
1404:
1403:
1399:
1389:
1387:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1365:
1363:
1350:
1349:
1345:
1332:
1331:
1327:
1318:
1316:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1293:
1292:
1288:
1281:PowerStream.com
1275:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1182:
1133:
1127:also use them.
1072:
1052:Main articles:
1050:
1026:
983:
971:
959:
941:
936:
929:
925:
921:
916:
912:
907:
903:
874:charge carriers
844:
831:
827:
819:
794:
781:
766:
713:
708:
692:
686:
682:
677:
668:
664:
659:
650:
648:
645:
644:
634:resettable fuse
622:
597:
595:charging method
568:
566:charging method
521:
509:battery charger
505:
460:
421:, where A is a
420:
408:
404:
392:
383:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
261:
248:
240:
211:
166:) is a type of
129:
54:Specific energy
48:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3061:
3051:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3038:Metal hydrides
3035:
3018:
3017:
3015:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2963:
2961:
2957:
2956:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2941:Atomic battery
2937:
2935:
2932:
2929:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2913:Vanadium redox
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2888:Silver–cadmium
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2858:Nickel–lithium
2855:
2850:
2845:
2843:Nickel–cadmium
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2811:Lithium–sulfur
2808:
2803:
2798:
2788:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2771:
2765:
2763:
2760:(rechargeable)
2756:Secondary cell
2754:
2751:
2750:
2748:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2680:Edison–Lalande
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2641:
2639:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2595:Trough battery
2592:
2582:
2577:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2564:
2557:
2556:
2549:
2542:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2510:
2509:External links
2507:
2505:
2504:
2478:
2448:
2441:
2417:
2410:
2385:
2369:HybridCars.com
2355:
2338:
2304:
2279:
2247:
2205:
2185:
2166:(5): 453–459.
2149:
2140:
2107:
2079:
2051:
2023:
2000:
1965:
1948:
1931:
1894:
1887:
1866:
1849:
1796:
1758:
1740:
1714:
1678:
1653:
1620:
1595:
1583:European Union
1561:
1552:
1533:
1519:
1501:
1470:
1449:
1423:
1397:
1372:
1343:
1325:
1313:eneloop101.com
1300:
1286:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1144:General Motors
1132:
1129:
1105:hybrid vehicle
1097:Ford Ranger EV
1089:Toyota RAV4 EV
1049:
1046:
1025:
1022:
982:
979:
970:
969:Lead Batteries
967:
958:
953:
940:
937:
935:
932:
927:
923:
919:
914:
910:
905:
901:
843:
840:
823:self-discharge
818:
817:Self-discharge
815:
793:
792:Over-discharge
790:
780:
777:
765:
762:
711:
702:
690:
680:
672:
662:
653:
621:
618:
596:
589:
567:
560:
520:
517:
504:
501:
458:
418:
411:
410:
406:
402:
395:
394:
390:
382:
379:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
259:
239:
238:
235:
232:
229:
226:
222:
210:
207:
188:energy density
150:
149:
146:
142:
141:
135:
131:
130:
128:
127:
124:
121:
117:13.9–70.6% at
114:
111:
107:
106:
103:
99:
98:
97:250–1,000 W/kg
95:
93:Specific power
89:
88:
82:
80:Energy density
76:
75:
56:
50:
49:
46:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3060:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2930:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2903:Sodium–sulfur
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2878:Potassium ion
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2757:
2752:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2695:Lithium metal
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2650:Aluminium–air
2648:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2575:Galvanic cell
2573:
2572:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2555:
2550:
2548:
2543:
2541:
2536:
2535:
2532:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2494:on 2017-11-27
2493:
2489:
2482:
2468:on 2009-05-24
2467:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2444:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2421:
2413:
2407:
2402:
2401:
2395:
2389:
2375:on 2016-03-08
2374:
2370:
2366:
2359:
2348:
2342:
2328:on 2010-02-16
2324:
2317:
2316:
2308:
2293:
2289:
2283:
2268:
2264:
2257:
2251:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2195:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2153:
2144:
2130:on 2012-09-02
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2104:
2094:on 2007-12-11
2093:
2089:
2083:
2076:
2066:on 2008-07-04
2065:
2061:
2055:
2048:
2038:on 2009-06-29
2037:
2033:
2027:
2020:
2010:
2004:
1997:
1986:on 2009-02-27
1982:
1975:
1969:
1962:
1961:0-7506-9916-7
1958:
1952:
1941:
1935:
1924:September 15,
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1899:
1890:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1871:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1845:
1833:
1825:
1821:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1733:
1732:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1668:
1664:
1657:
1638:
1630:
1624:
1608:
1602:
1600:
1584:
1580:
1579:
1571:
1565:
1556:
1543:
1537:
1529:
1523:
1516:
1515:
1514:The Economist
1510:
1505:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1474:
1460:
1453:
1438:. 6 June 2020
1437:
1433:
1427:
1411:
1407:
1401:
1386:
1382:
1376:
1362:on 2014-02-03
1361:
1357:
1356:Panasonic.net
1353:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1329:
1314:
1310:
1304:
1296:
1290:
1282:
1278:
1272:
1268:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1177:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1131:Patent issues
1128:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1113:Honda Insight
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1093:Honda EV Plus
1090:
1086:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1002:
996:
992:
987:
978:
975:
966:
963:
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2918:Zinc–bromine
2862:
2725:Silver oxide
2660:Chromic acid
2632:Primary cell
2612:Voltaic pile
2590:Flow battery
2496:. Retrieved
2492:the original
2481:
2470:. Retrieved
2466:the original
2462:OCWeekly.com
2461:
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2128:the original
2120:Eneloop.info
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2026:
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2012:. Retrieved
2003:
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1981:the original
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1918:the original
1910:Duracell.com
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1666:
1656:
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1644:. Retrieved
1637:the original
1623:
1613:10 September
1611:. Retrieved
1587:. Retrieved
1585:. 2006-09-26
1576:
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1494:10 September
1492:. Retrieved
1490:(3): 249–255
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1360:the original
1355:
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1317:. Retrieved
1312:
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1168:. Chevron's
1159:
1156:
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1109:Toyota Prius
1081:
1066:Electric car
1037:
1033:
1027:
981:Applications
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733:overcharging
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439:praseodymium
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264:Daimler-Benz
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163:
159:
155:
153:
84:140–300 W·h/
32:
3007:Salt bridge
2992:Electrolyte
2923:Zinc–cerium
2908:Solid state
2893:Silver–zinc
2868:Nickel–zinc
2853:Nickel–iron
2828:Molten salt
2796:Dual carbon
2791:Lithium ion
2786:Lithium–air
2745:Zinc–carbon
2720:Silicon–air
2700:Lithium–air
2363:Jeff Cobb.
2269:. p. 1
1840:|work=
1442:3 September
1014:Altlussheim
834:per day at
489:electrolyte
465:, and B is
441:, and B is
425:mixture of
367:lithium-ion
336:instead of
310:electrolyte
182:instead of
3027:Categories
2960:Cell parts
2951:Solar cell
2933:Other cell
2898:Sodium ion
2769:Automotive
2498:2009-10-08
2472:2009-10-08
2379:2010-03-25
2332:2015-06-25
2298:2017-11-03
2273:2015-11-05
2199:2016-02-28
2134:2015-08-06
2098:2009-07-10
2070:2009-07-10
2042:2009-07-10
2014:2009-07-10
1990:2009-07-10
1888:0080455565
1790:2021-09-02
1708:2011-09-10
1672:2023-11-13
1589:2015-11-13
1366:2014-01-26
1319:2019-02-09
1264:References
1207:Jelly roll
870:Separators
858:, branded
742:(that is,
606:thermistor
556:duty cycle
497:polyolefin
491:, usually
473:, cobalt,
423:rare-earth
334:mischmetal
272:Daimler AG
244:See also:
219:AA battery
113:Per month:
58:0.22-0.43
2997:Half-cell
2987:Electrode
2946:Fuel cell
2823:Metal–air
2774:Lead–acid
2690:Leclanché
2602:Fuel cell
2267:Energizer
2241:2313-0105
2219:Batteries
1842:ignored (
1832:cite book
1785:Panasonic
1581:(L 266).
1390:8 January
1154:minivan.
1142:in 1982.
779:Discharge
612:and the Δ
511:to avoid
479:manganese
467:zirconium
455:aluminium
451:manganese
435:neodymium
427:lanthanum
343:In 1998,
338:lanthanum
278:(at 100%
137:180–2000
2977:Catalyst
2838:Nanowire
2833:Nanopore
2779:gel–VRLA
2740:Zinc–air
2645:Alkaline
2396:(2006).
2180:86865358
1824:Duracell
1416:8 August
1180:See also
1030:penlight
886:tradeoff
852:LSD NiMH
784:charged
736:currents
694:catalyst
689:→
486:alkaline
471:chromium
463:vanadium
372:In 2015
307:alkaline
256:sintered
252:Battelle
66:(60–120
2982:Cathode
2735:Zamboni
2705:Mercury
2670:Daniell
2245:Table 3
1864:p. 209.
1695:Cobasys
1170:Cobasys
1166:Chevron
1101:Vectrix
1042:voltage
1018:Germany
878:current
864:leakage
860:Eneloop
583:1
547:/30 or
266:and by
209:History
203:leaking
184:cadmium
105:66%–92%
3043:Nickel
2972:Binder
2730:Weston
2655:Bunsen
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1885:
1860:
1548:
1465:
1162:Texaco
1068:, and
832:0.5–4%
620:Safety
503:Charge
447:cobalt
443:nickel
431:cerium
401:Ni(OH)
284:Patent
139:cycles
2967:Anode
2685:Grove
2665:Clark
2568:Types
2350:(PDF)
2326:(PDF)
2319:(PDF)
2259:(PDF)
2176:S2CID
2124:Sanyo
1984:(PDF)
1977:(PDF)
1943:(PDF)
1777:(PDF)
1735:(PDF)
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1691:(PDF)
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1633:(PDF)
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1006:VARTA
995:Japan
918:of Al
856:Sanyo
828:5–20%
477:, or
453:, or
409:O + e
180:alloy
164:Ni–MH
148:1.2 V
3002:Ions
2437:ISBN
2406:ISBN
2237:ISSN
1957:ISBN
1926:2015
1883:ISBN
1858:ISBN
1844:help
1648:2011
1615:2011
1496:2011
1444:2021
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1392:2021
1150:and
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1111:and
1099:and
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475:iron
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160:NiMH
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