Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition

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Hentig. The final draft of ten articles presented on 24 January 1916 included clauses recognising Afghan independence, a declaration of friendship with Germany, and establishment of diplomatic relations. Von Hentig was to be accredited the Embassy Secretary of the German Empire. In addition, the treaty would guarantee German assistance against Russian and British threats if Afghanistan joined the war on the Central side. The Emir's army was to be modernised, with Germany providing 100,000 modern rifles, 300 artillery pieces, and other modern warfare equipment. The Germans were to be responsible for maintaining advisors and engineers, and to maintain an overland supply route through Persia for arms and ammunition. Further, the Emir was to be paid £1,000,000. Both von Hentig and Niedermayer signed this document which created—as von Hentig argued in a telegram to the Foreign Office—an initial basis to prepare for an Afghan invasion of India. Niedermayer explained that the Emir intended to begin his campaign as soon as Germany could make available 20,000 troops to protect the Afghan-Russian front, and asked for urgently for wireless sets, a substantial shipment of arms, and at least a million pounds initial funding. He judged conditions to be ideal for an offensive into India, and informed the general staff to expect the campaign to begin in April.

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Afghanistan's complete independence and sovereignty. The Kaiser's typewritten letter, which he compared to the handsome greeting received from the Ottomans, failed to settle the Emir's suspicions; he doubted its authenticity. Von Hentig's explanation that the Kaiser had written the letter using the only instrument available at his field headquarters before the group's hurried departure may not have entirely convinced him. Passing along the Kaiser's invitation to join the war on the side of the Central Powers, von Hentig described the war situation as favourable and invited the Emir to declare independence. This was followed by a presentation from Kasim Bey explaining the Ottoman Sultan's declaration of jihad and Turkey's desire to avoid a fratricidal war between Islamic peoples. He passed along a message to Afghanistan similar to the Kaiser's. Barkatullah invited Habibullah to declare war against the British Empire and to come to the aid of India's Muslims. He proposed that the Emir should allow Turco-German forces to cross Afghanistan for a campaign towards the Indian frontier, a campaign which he hoped the Emir would join. Barkatullah and Mahendra Pratap, both eloquent speakers, pointed out the rich territorial gains the Emir stood to acquire by joining the Central Powers.

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Next the discussions veered towards Afghanistan's position on the propositions of allowing Central Powers troops the right of passage, breaking with Britain, and declaring independence. The expedition members expected a Persian move to the Central side, and held out on hopes that this would convince the Emir to join as well. Niedermayer argued that German victory was imminent; he outlined the compromised and isolated position Afghanistan would find herself in if she was still allied to Britain. At times the Emir met with the Indian and German delegates separately, promising to consider their propositions, but never committing himself. He sought concrete proof that the Turco-German assurances of military and financial assistance were feasible. In a letter to Prince Henry of Reuss in Tehran (a message that was intercepted and delivered to the Russians instead), von Hentig asked for Turkish troops. Walter Röhr later wrote to the prince that a thousand Turkish troops armed with machine guns—along with another German expedition headed by himself—should be able to draw Afghanistan into the war. Meanwhile, Niedermayer advised Habibullah on how to reform his army with mobile units and modern weaponry.

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residence, he encouraged the mission. Amanullah Khan gave the group reasons to feel confident, even as rumours of these meetings reached the Emir. Messages from von Hentig to Prince Henry, intercepted by British and Russian intelligence, were subsequently passed on to Emir Habibullah. These suggested that to draw Afghanistan into the war, von Hentig was prepared to organise "internal revulsions" in Afghanistan if necessary. Habibullah found these reports concerning, and discouraged expedition members from meeting with his sons except in his presence. All of Afghanistan's immediate preceding rulers save Habibullah's father had died of unnatural causes. The fact that his immediate relatives were pro-German, while he was allied with Britain, gave him justifiable grounds to fear for his safety and his kingdom. Von Hentig described one audience with Habibullah where von Hentig set off his pocket alarm clock. The action, designed to impress Habibullah, instead frightened him; he may have believed it was a bomb about to go off. Despite von Hentig's reassurances and explanations, the meeting was a short one.

793:(later known as the Seistan Force) and Russian patrols. By September, the German codebook lost by Wassmuss had been deciphered, which further compromised the situation. Niedermayer, now in charge, proved to be a brilliant tactician. He sent three feint patrols, one to north-east to draw away the Russian troops and one to the south-east to draw away the British, while a third patrol of thirty armed Persians, led by a German officer—Lieutenant Wagner—was sent ahead to scout the route. After leading the Russians astray, the first group was to remain in Persia to establish a secret desert base as a refuge for the main party. After luring away the British, the second group was to fall back to Kermanshah and link with a separate German force under Lieutenants Zugmayer and Griesinger. All three parties were ordered to spread misleading information about their movements to any nomads or villagers they met. Meanwhile, the main body headed through Chehar Deh for the region of 809:

could not send any reconnaissance. His Persian escort's advice that the desert north of Birjand was notoriously harsh convinced him that this would be the route his enemies would least expect him to take. Sending a small decoy party south-east to spread the rumour that the main body would soon follow, Niedermayer headed for the north. His feints and disinformation were taking effect. The pursuing forces were spread thin, hunting for what they believed at times to be a large force. At other times they looked for a second, non-existent German force heading east from Kermanshah. The group now moved both day and night. From nomads, Niedermayer learnt the whereabouts of the British patrols. He lost men through exhaustion, defection, and desertion. On occasions, deserters would take the party's spare water and horses at gunpoint. Nonetheless, by the second week of August the forced march had brought the expedition close to the Birjand-

835:, an Islamic scholar of some fame, to advise the governor that the expedition had arrived and was bearing the Kaiser's message and gifts for the Emir. The governor sent a grand welcome, with noblemen bearing cloths and gifts, a caravan of servants, and a column of hundred armed escorts. The expedition was invited into the city as guests of the Afghan government. With von Hentig in the lead in his Cuirassiers uniform, they entered Herat on 24 August, in a procession welcomed by Turkish troops. They were housed at the Emir's provincial palace. They were officially met by the governor a few days later when, according to British agents, von Hentig showed him the Turkish Sultan's proclamation of jihad and announced the Kaiser's promise to recognise Afghan sovereignty and provide German assistance. The Kaiser also promised to grant territory to Afghanistan as far north as 1225:, British intelligence officers in Persia intercepted communications between the expedition and Prince Reuss in Tehran through various means. Among these were letters captured in November 1915 in which von Hentig gave details of the meetings with the Emir, and messages from Walter Röhr outlining the requirements for arms, ammunition, and men. The most dramatic intelligence coup was a message from von Hentig asking for a thousand Turkish troops and the necessity for "internal revulsions" in Afghanistan if need be. This message found its way to Russian intelligence and thence to the Viceroy, who passed on an exaggerated summary, warning the Emir of a possible coup funded by the Germans and a threat to his life. In mid-1916, intelligence officers in Punjab captured letters sent by the Indian provisional government's 797:, close to the Afghan frontier. The party covered forty miles before it reached the next village, where Niedermayer halted to await word from Wagner's patrol. The villagers were meanwhile barred from leaving. The report from Wagner was bad: His patrol had run into a Russian ambush and the desert refuge had been eliminated. The expedition proceeded towards Birjand using forced marches to keep a day ahead of the British and Russian patrols. Other problems still confronted Niedermayer, among them the opium addiction of his Persian camel drivers. Fearful of being spotted, he had to stop the Persians a number of times from lighting up their pipes. Men who fell behind were abandoned. Some of the Persian drivers attempted to defect. On one occasion, a driver was shot while he attempted to flee and betray the group. 937:

Further, he was financially vulnerable, dependent on British subsidies and institutions for his fortune and the financial welfare of his army and kingdom. The members of the mission had no immediate answers to his questions regarding strategic assistance, arms, and funds. Merely tasked to entreat the Emir to join a holy war, they did not have the authority to promise anything. Nonetheless, they expressed hopes of an alliance with Persia in the near future (a task Prince Henry of Reuss and Wilhelm Wassmuss worked on), which would help meet the Emir's needs. Although it reached no firm outcome, this first meeting has been noted by historians as being cordial, helping open communications with the Emir and allowing the mission to hope for success.

771: 22: 1104:. Following the American declaration of war, he was exchanged as a diplomat. Travelling via San Francisco, Halifax, and Bergen, he finally reached Berlin on 9 June 1917. Meanwhile, Niedermayer escaped towards Persia through Russian Turkestan. Robbed and left for dead, a wounded Niedermayer was at times reduced to begging before he finally reached friendly lines, arriving in Tehran on 20 July 1916. Wagner left Herat on 25 October 1917, making his way through northern Persia to reach Turkey on 30 January 1918. At Chorasan, he tried to rally Persian democratic and nationalist leaders, who promised to raise an army of 12,000 if Germany provided military assistance. 758:. Throughout the march, efforts were made to throw off the British and Russian patrols. False dispatches spread disinformation on the group's numbers, destination, and intention. To avoid the extreme daytime heat, they travelled by night. Food was found or bought by Persian messengers sent ahead of the party. These scouts also helped identify hostile villages and helped find water. The group crossed the Persian desert in forty nights. Dysentery and delirium plagued the party. Some Persian guides attempted to defect, and camel drivers had to be constantly vigilant for robbers. On 23 July, the group reached Tebbes – the first Europeans after 1059:, a grand meeting where a jihad was expected to be called. Instead, Habibullah reaffirmed his neutrality, explaining that the war's outcome was still unpredictable and that he stood for national unity. Throughout the spring of 1916, he continuously deflected the mission's overtures and gradually increased the stakes, demanding that India rise in revolution before he began his campaign. It was clear to Habibullah that for the treaty to hold any value, it required the Kaiser's signature, and that for Germany to even attempt to honour the treaty, she would have to be in a strong position in the war. It was a good insurance policy for Habibullah. 1316:

Afghanistan by 1919. Habibullah's steadfast neutrality alienated a substantial proportion of his family members and council advisors and fed discontent among his subjects. His communication to the Viceroy in early February 1919 demanding complete sovereignty and independence regarding foreign policy was rebuffed. Habibullah was assassinated while on a hunting trip two weeks later. The Afghan crown passed first to Nasrullah Khan before Habibullah's younger son, Amanullah Khan, assumed power. Both had been staunch supporters of the expedition. The immediate effect of this upheaval was the precipitation of the

268: 1131:. He and Barkatullah remained in touch with the German government and with the Berlin Committee through the latter's secret office in Stockholm. After Lenin's coup, Pratap at times acted as liaison between the Afghan government and the Germans, hoping to revive the Indian cause. In 1918, Pratap suggested to Trotsky a joint German-Russian invasion of the Indian frontiers. He recommended a similar plan to Lenin in 1919. He was accompanied in Moscow by Indian revolutionaries of the Berlin Committee, who were at the time turning to communism. 801: 1263:

requests. He told the Viceroy that he intended to remain neutral and could not take any actions that were overtly pro-British. Indian intelligence became aware—after the expedition had already been in Kabul for some time—that they carried with them highly inflammatory letters from the Kaiser and the Turkish Sultan. Through British channels, the Russians voiced their concerns about the Emir's tolerance of the German presence and their intrigues with Pro-German Afghan counsellors.

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patrol reported seeing British columns. With scouts on the lookout, the expedition crossed under the cover of night. Only one obstacle, the so-called "Mountain Path", remained before they were clear of the Anglo-Russian cordon. This heavily patrolled path, thirty miles further east, was the site of Entente telegraph lines for maintaining communication with remote posts. However, even here, Niedermayer escaped. His group had covered 255 miles in seven days, through the barren

1374:, N.Z. Bravin. Among other works, this expedition established links with the Austrian and German remnants of the Niedermayer-Hentig expedition at Herat and liaised with Indian revolutionaries in Kabul. Bravin proposed to Amanullah a military alliance against British India and a military campaign, with Soviet Turkestan bearing the costs. These negotiations failed to reach a concrete conclusion before the Soviet advances were detected by British Indian intelligence. 1389:. The intention was to use these places as a staging ground for revolution in India, as they offered the shortest route to the revolutionary heartland of Bengal. Historians suggest that the plan may have been prompted by Mahendra Pratap's efforts and advice to the Soviet leadership in 1919 when—along with other Indian revolutionaries—he pressed for a joint Soviet-Afghan campaign into India. Under the cover of a scientific expedition to Tibet headed by Indologist 444:

sticking out through the packaging of the "tent poles". Replacements could not be arranged for weeks; the delegation waited at Constantinople. To reinforce the Islamic identity of the expedition, it was suggested that the Germans wear Turkish army uniforms, but they refused. Differences between Turkish and German officers, including the reluctance of the Germans to accept Turkish control, further compromised the effort. Eventually, the expedition was aborted.

148: 1145: 3998: 1499:. Pillai was killed in 1934. At the invitation of the Soviet leadership, Ubaidullah proceeded to Soviet Russia, where he spent seven months as a guest of the state. During his stay, he studied the ideology of socialism and was impressed by Communist ideals. He left for Turkey, where he initiated the third phase of the Waliullah Movement in 1924. He issued the charter for the independence of India from 349:. His hope was to provoke and aid a vast Muslim revolution, particularly in India. Translations of the proclamation were sent to Berlin for propaganda purposes, for distribution to Muslim troops of the Entente Powers. However, while widely heard, the proclamation did not have the intended effect of mobilising global Muslim opinion on behalf of Turkey or the Central Powers. 1491:

Pratap travelled under an Afghan nationality for a number of years before returning to India after 1947. He was subsequently elected to the Indian parliament. Barkatullah and C.R. Pillai returned to Germany after a brief period in Russia. Barkatullah later moved back to the United States, where he died in San Francisco in 1927. Pillai was associated with the

1458:—during his journeys to and from Germany and Bolshevik Russia. The Third Anglo-Afghan war began in 1919 in the wake of Amir Habibullah's assassination and institution of Amanullah, in a system blatantly influenced by the Kabul mission. When news of the outbreak of war reached Pratap in Berlin, he returned to Kabul, using air transport provided by Germany. 962:

asserting his willingness to lead an army into India—if and when Turco-German troops were able to offer support. Hints that the mission would leave if nothing could be achieved were placated with flattery and invitations to stay on. Meanwhile, expedition members were allowed to freely venture into Kabul, a liberty which was put to good use on a successful

818:. On 19 August 1915 the expedition reached the Afghan frontier. Mahendra Pratap's memoirs describe the group as left with approximately fifty men, less than half the number who had set out from Isfahan seven weeks earlier. Dr. Becker's camel caravan was lost and he was later captured by Russians. Only 70 of the 170 horses and baggage animals survived. 1332:, devoted to postgraduate study in Germany. Medical services were reformed and a number of hospitals were built. Amanullah Khan also embarked on an industrialisation drive and nation-building projects, which received substantial German collaboration. By 1929, Germans were the largest group of Europeans in Afghanistan. German corporations like 290:. Reports from 1910 indicate that Germany was already contemplating efforts to threaten India through Turkey, Persia, and Afghanistan. Germany had built close diplomatic and economic relationships with Turkey and Persia from the late 19th century. Von Oppenheim had mapped Turkey and Persia while working as a secret agent. The Kaiser toured 880:, responded with only polite noncommittal replies to requests for an audience. An astute politician, he was in no hurry to receive his guests; he used the time to find out as much as he could about the expedition members and liaised with British authorities at New Delhi. It was only after Niedermayer and von Hentig threatened to launch a 876:. Despite the comfort and the welcome, it was soon clear that they were all but confined. Armed guards were stationed around the palace, ostensibly for "the group's own danger from British secret agents", and armed guides escorted them on their journeys. For nearly three weeks, Emir Habibullah, reportedly in his summer palace at 1272:

was intended to encourage Habibullah and make him feel an equal partner in the Empire. It had the intended effect: Habibullah sent verbal communication through British agents in Kabul that he could not formally acknowledge the letter because of political pressure, but he nonetheless sent reassurances he would remain neutral.

975:—had accepted Barkatullah as an officiating editor in early 1916. Tarzi published a series of inflammatory articles by Raja Mahendra Pratap and printed anti-British and pro-Central articles and propaganda. By May 1916, the tone in the paper was deemed serious enough for the Raj to intercept the copies intended for India. 762:. They were soon followed by Niedermayer's party, which now included explorer Wilhelm Paschen and six Austrian and Hungarian soldiers who had escaped from Russian prisoner of war camps in Turkestan. The arrival was marked by a grand welcome by the town's mayor. However, the welcome meant the party had been spotted. 1466:

disruptions of rail, telegraph, and communication systems. The movement peaked in the first week of April, with some recording that "practically the whole of Lahore was on the streets; the immense crowd that passed through Anarkali was estimated to be around 20,000." In Amritsar, over 5,000 people gathered at

1470:. The situation deteriorated perceptibly over the next few days. The British feared that a more sinister conspiracy for rebellion was brewing under the veneer of peaceful protests. O'Dwyer is said to have believed that these were the early and ill-concealed signs of a coordinated uprising—on the lines of the 528:, Niedermayer had travelled in Persia and India in the two years preceding the war. He returned to Persia to await further orders after the first Afghan expedition was aborted. Niedermayer was tasked with the military aspect of this new expedition as it proceeded through the dangerous Persian desert between 1245:, had returned to Switzerland after a visit to India, at which time he had carried messages to various Indian princes. He was captured in Europe in October 1915. Chandra divulged details of the Provisional Government of India and of the expedition. He also gave to British intelligence officers letters from 1190:

in February 1916. The cordon's task was to "intercept, capture or destroy any German parties attempting to enter Sistan or Afghanistan", to establish an intelligence system, and to watch the Birjand-Merked road. Persian subjects were not to be targeted as long as they were not accompanying Germans or

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could lead a Persian volunteer division into Afghanistan. The mission came to realise that the Emir deeply mistrusted them. A further attempt by British intelligence to feed false information to the mission, purportedly originating from Goltz Pasha, convinced von Hentig of the Emir's lack of trust. A

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Meanwhile, he had received worrying British intelligence reports that said he was in danger of being assassinated and his country may face a coup d'état. His tribesmen were unhappy at Habibullah's perceived subservience to the British, and his council and relatives openly spoke of their suspicions at

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The Viceroy of India had already warned the Emir of approaching "German agents and hired assassins", and the Emir had promised he would arrest the expedition if it managed to reach Afghanistan. However, under a close watch, the expedition members were given the freedom of Herat. The governor promised

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road, eighty miles from Afghanistan. Here the Kaiser's bulkier and heavier gifts to the Emir, including the German wireless sets, were buried in the desert for later retrieval. Since all caravans entering Afghanistan must cross the road, Niedermayer assumed it was watched by British spies. An advance

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of the Berlin Committee. Chattopadhyaya's efforts—along with a letter from the Kaiser—convinced Pratap to lend his support to the Indian nationalist cause, on the condition that the arrangements were made with the Kaiser himself. A private audience with the Kaiser was arranged, at which Pratap agreed

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The expedition greatly disturbed Russian and British influence in Central and South Asia, raising concerns about the security of their interests in the region. Further, it nearly succeeded in propelling Afghanistan into the war. The offers and liaisons made between the mission and figures in Afghani

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During the months that the expedition remained in Kabul, Habibullah fended off pressure to commit to the Central war effort with what has been described as "masterly inactivity". He waited for the outcome of the war to be predictable, announcing to the mission his sympathy for the Central Powers and

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This conference was followed by an eight-hour meeting in October 1915 at Paghman and more audiences at Kabul. The message was the same as at the first audience. The meetings would typically begin with Habibullah describing his daily routine, followed by words from von Hentig on politics and history.

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The attempted expedition had a significant consequence. Wassmuss left Constantinople to organise the tribes in south Persia to act against British interests. While evading British capture in Persia, Wassmuss inadvertently abandoned his codebook. Its recovery by Britain allowed the Allies to decipher

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might help Habibullah maintain his neutrality. Accordingly, George V personally sent a handwritten letter on Buckingham Palace stationery to Habibullah, praising the Emir for his steadfast neutrality and promising an increase to his subsidy. The letter, which addressed Habibullah as "Your Majesty",

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and Mahedra Pratap addressed to Indian princes. Subsequently, Chandra was sent as a double agent to the United States in 1917 to investigate and report on the revolutionary movement in Washington and the finances of the Ghadar Party. Also used as a double agent was a man by the name of Sissodia who

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Though ancient rules of hospitality had protected the expedition, they knew that once they were out of the Emir's lands, the Anglo-Russian forces as well as the marauding tribesmen of Persia would chase them mercilessly. The party split up into several groups, each independently making its way back

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In November, the Indian members decided to take a political initiative which they believed would convince the Emir to declare jihad, and if that proved unlikely, to have his hand forced by his advisors. On 1 December 1915, the Provisional Government of India was founded at Habibullah's Bagh-e-Babur

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Although the town of Birjand was small, it had a Russian consulate. Niedermayer correctly guessed additional British forces were present. He therefore had to decide whether to bypass the town by the northern route, patrolled by Russians, or the southern route, where British patrols were present. He

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By December 1915, New Delhi felt it necessary to put more pressure on the Afghans. Communications between the British Empire and Kabul had been hitherto through the Viceroy at Delhi. Acutely aware of the pressure on Habibullah from his pro-German relatives and the strong anti-British feeling among

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While the Emir vacillated, the mission found a more sympathetic and ready audience in the Emir's brother, Prime Minister Nasrullah Khan, and the Emir's younger son, Amanullah Khan. Nasrullah Khan had been present at the first meeting at Paghman. In secret meetings with the "Amanullah party" at his

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since the beginning of the war, was expanded in July 1915 and became the East Persia Cordon, with troops stationed from Russian Turkestan to Baluchistan. A similar Russian cordon was established to prevent infiltration into north-west Afghanistan. From March 1916 the force was renamed the Seistan

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campaign, with expedition members spending freely on local goods and paying cash. Two dozen Austrian prisoners of war who had escaped from Russian camps were recruited by Niedermayer to construct a hospital. Meanwhile, Kasim Bey acquainted himself with the local Turkish community, spreading Enver

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Throughout the next decade, Amanullah Khan instituted a number of social and constitutional reforms which had first been advocated by the Niedermayer-Hentig expedition. The reforms were instituted under a ministerial cabinet. An initial step was made towards female emancipation when women of the

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December 1915 also saw concrete progress on the mission's Turco-German objective. The Emir informed von Hentig he was ready to discuss a treaty of Afghan-German friendship, but said it would take time and require extensive historical research. Work on the treaty began with drafts proposed by von

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In an ineffective ruse, the Germans attempted to reach Turkey by travelling overland through Austria-Hungary in the guise of a travelling circus, eventually reaching neutral Romania. Their equipment, arms, and mobile radios were confiscated when Romanian officials discovered the wireless aerials

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After 1919, members of the Provisional Government of India, as well as Indian revolutionaries of the Berlin Committee, sought Lenin's help for the Indian independence movement. Some of these revolutionaries were involved in the early Indian communist movement. With a price on his head, Mahendra

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that meetings began. In the meantime, von Hentig learnt as much as he could about his eccentric host. Emir Habibullah was, by all measures, the lord of Afghanistan. He considered it his divine right to rule and the land his property. He owned the only newspaper, the only drug store, and all the

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Historians have pointed out that in its political objectives, the expedition was three years premature. However, it planted the seeds of sovereignty and reform in Afghanistan, and its main themes of encouraging Afghan independence and breaking away from British influence were gaining ground in

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while he was on his way to Geneva to invite Pratap to Berlin. British agents were present in Constantinople, Cairo, and Persia. Their main efforts were directed at intercepting the expedition before it could reach Afghanistan, and thence to exert pressure to ensure that the Emir maintained his

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The Emir's reply was shrewd but frank. He noted Afghanistan's vulnerable strategic position between the two allied nations of Russia and Britain, and the difficulties of any possible Turco-German assistance to Afghanistan, especially given the presence of the Anglo-Russian East Persian Cordon.

555:, he visited Constantinople in 1911. However, his Tokyo tenure was terminated under diplomatic pressure from Britain. He returned to the United States in 1914, later proceeding to Berlin, where he joined the efforts of the Berlin Committee. Barkatullah had as early as 1895 been acquainted with 236:

Germany began by nurturing its pre-war links with Indian nationalists, who had for years used Germany, Turkey, Persia, the United States, and other countries as bases for anti-colonial work directed against Britain. As early as 1913, revolutionary publications in Germany began referring to the

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The Afghan Emir was warned by New Delhi of the approach of the expedition even while efforts were underway to intercept it in the Persian desert. After it crossed into Afghanistan, the Emir was asked to arrest the members. However, Habibullah humoured the British without obeying the Viceroy's

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Palace, in the presence of the Indian, German, and Turkish members of the expedition. This revolutionary government-in-exile was to take charge of an independent India when the British authority had been overthrown. Mahendra Pratap was proclaimed president, Barkatullah the prime minister, the

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began in India. Gandhi, until then relatively unknown on the Indian political scene, began emerging as a mass leader. His call for protests against the Rowlatt Act achieved an unprecedented response of furious unrest and protests. The situation—especially in Punjab—deteriorated rapidly, with

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He expressed surprise that a task as important as the expedition's was entrusted to such young men. Von Hentig had to convince the Emir that the mission did not consider themselves merchants, but instead brought word from the Kaiser, the Ottoman Sultan, and from India, wishing to recognise

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last offer was made by Nasrullah in May 1916 to remove Habibullah from power and lead the frontier tribes in a campaign against British India. However, von Hentig knew it would come to nothing, and the Germans left Kabul on 21 May 1916. Niedermayer instructed Wagner to stay in Herat as a

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his inactivity. Habibullah began purging his court of officials who were known to be close to Nasrullah and Amanullah. He recalled emissaries he had sent to Persia for talks with Germany and Turkey for military aid. Meanwhile, the war took a turn for the worse for the Central Powers. The

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To evade British and Russian intelligence, the group split up, beginning their journeys on different days and separately making their way to Constantinople. Accompanied by a German orderly and an Indian cook, Pratap and von Hentig began their journey in early spring 1915, travelling via

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in Peshawar, where aerial bombing displays were held; Hardinge demonstrated the Empire's goodwill by increasing British subsidies to the chiefs. These measures helped convince the frontier tribes that Britain's wartime position remained strong and that Indian defences were impregnable.

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before retiring in 1933 and joining the University of Berlin. He was recalled to active duty during World War II, serving in Ukraine. He was taken prisoner at the end of the war and died in a Soviet prisoner of war camp in 1948. Werner von Hentig was honoured with the

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province of south-east Persia to prevent the Germans from crossing into Afghanistan and to protect British supply caravans in Sarhad from Damani, Reki, and Kurdish Balushi tribes who might be tempted by German gold. The 2nd Quetta Brigade, a small force maintained in

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approaching war between Germany and Britain and the possibility of German support for Indian nationalists. During the early months of the war, German newspaper devoted considerable coverage to social problems in India and instances of British economic exploitation.

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As Baghdad raised the spectre of an extensive network of British spies, the group again split. Pratap and von Hentig's party left on 1 June 1915 to make their way towards the Persian border. Eight days later they were received by the Turkish military commander

742:, was already receiving reports of pro-German sympathies among Persian and Afghan tribes. Details of the progress of the expedition were being keenly sought by British intelligence. By now, British and Russian columns close to the Afghan border, including the 586:

The titular head of the expedition was Mahendra Pratap, while von Hentig was the Kaiser's representative. He was to accompany and introduce Mahendra Pratap and was responsible for the German diplomatic representations to the Emir. To fund the mission, 100,000

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royal family removed their veils; educational institutions were opened to women. The education system was reformed with a secular emphasis and with teachers arriving from outside Afghanistan. A German school that opened in Kabul at one point offered the

1425:, which had initially led to the conception of the expedition, Pratap's mission in Afghanistan and his overtures to Bolshevik Russia, and the presence of active revolutionary movements in Punjab and Bengal led to the appointment in British India of a 746:, were hunting for the expedition. If the expedition was to reach Afghanistan, it would have to outwit and outrun its pursuers over thousands of miles in the extreme heat and natural hazards of the Persian desert, while evading brigands and ambushes. 900:(the local language), dressed in traditional Afghan robes, and interacted more closely with the border tribes. While the Emir favoured British India, Nasrullah Khan was more pro-German in his sympathies. Nasrullah's views were shared by his nephew, 365:

and the Emir received a monetary subsidy from Britain. In reality, however, Britain had almost no effective control over Afghanistan. The British perceived Afghanistan to be the only state capable of invading India, which remained a serious threat.

856:, over the barren mountains of central Afghanistan. En route the expedition was careful to spend enough money and gold to ensure popularity amongst the local people. Finally, on 2 October 1915, the expedition reached Kabul. It was received with a 159:, to the German and Turkish war effort, but it influenced other major events. In Afghanistan, the expedition triggered reforms and drove political turmoil that culminated in the assassination of the Emir in 1919, which in turn precipitated the 1444:

A number of events that followed the passage of the Rowlatt Act were influenced by the conspiracy. At the time, British Indian Army troops were returning from the battlefields of Europe and Mesopotamia to an economic depression in India. The

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were avoided, possibly because Afghan officials wished to prevent fomenting unrest in the Pathan region close to India. On 7 September, the group left Herat for Kabul with Afghan guides on a 24-day trip via the harsher northern route through

1433:, an English judge. In the midst of worsening civil unrest throughout India, it was tasked to evaluate German and Bolshevik links to the Indian militant movement, especially in Punjab and Bengal. On the recommendations of the committee, the 431:

Enver Pasha conceived an expedition to Afghanistan in 1914. He envisioned it as a pan-Islamic venture directed by Turkey, with some German participation. The German delegation to this expedition, chosen by Oppenheim and Zimmermann, included

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were still garnering public attention. News was also beginning to reach India of the Indian Voluntary Corps who, influenced by Ghadarites, fought on behalf of the Turkish Caliphate. Mahendra Pratap was shadowed by British agents—among them

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Crossing into Afghanistan, the group found fresh water in an irrigation channel by a deserted hamlet. Albeit teeming with leeches, the water saved the group from dying of thirst. Marching for another two days, they reached the vicinity of

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In the end, Emir Habibullah returned to his vacillating inactivity. He was aware the mission had found support within his council and had excited his volatile subjects. Four days after the draft treaty was signed, Habibullah called for a

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In the first week of August 1914, the German Foreign Office and members of the military suggested attempting to use the pan-Islamic movement to destabilise the British Empire and begin an Indian revolution. The argument was reinforced by

904:, the youngest and most charismatic of the Emir's sons. The eldest son, Inayatullah Khan, was in charge of the Afghan army. The mission therefore expected more sympathy and consideration from Nasrullah and Amanullah than from the emir. 356:

declared neutrality. The Emir feared the Sultan's call to jihad would have a destabilising influence on his subjects. Turkey's entry into the war aroused widespread nationalist and pan-Islamic sentiments in Afghanistan and Persia. The

749:

By early July, the sick at Kermanshah had recovered and rejoined the expedition. Camels and water bags were purchased, and the parties left Isfahan separately on 3 July 1915 for the journey through the desert, hoping to rendezvous at

4397: 387:

With the outbreak of war, revolutionary unrest increased in India. Some Hindu and Muslim leaders secretly left to seek the help of the Central Powers in fomenting revolution. The pan-Islamic movement in India, particularly the

508:

Prominent among the German members of the delegation were Niedermayer and von Hentig. Von Hentig was a Prussian military officer who had served as the military attaché to Beijing in 1910 and Constantinople in 1912. Fluent in

603:, but as he was ill, his functions were delegated to Prince zu Hohenlohe-Langenburg. Following Wangenheim's death in 1915, Count von Wolff-Metternich was designated his successor. He had little contact with the expedition. 1396:

Pratap, obsessed with Tibet, made efforts as early as 1916 to penetrate the kingdom to cultivate anti-British propaganda. He resumed his efforts after his return from Moscow in 1919. Pratap was close to Shcherbatskoy and

1010:

the minister for India, Maulavi Bashir the war minister, and Champakaran Pillai the foreign minister. Support was obtained from Galib Pasha for proclaiming jihad against Britain, while recognition was sought from Russia,

595:

in Constantinople. The expedition was also provided with gold and other gifts for the Emir, including jewelled watches, gold fountain pens, ornamental rifles, binoculars, cameras, cinema projectors, and an alarm clock.

306:

Wilhelm, the Intelligence Bureau for the East spread propaganda throughout the region, fostering rumours that the Kaiser had converted to Islam following a secret trip to Mecca and portraying him as a saviour of Islam.

734:. The local populace and the clergy, opposed to Russian and British semi-colonial designs on Persia, offered support to the mission. Niedermayer and von Hentig's groups reconnoitred Isfahan until the end of June. The 578:. Before the mission left Berlin, two more Germans joined the group: Major Dr. Karl Becker, who was familiar with tropical diseases and spoke Persian, and Walter Röhr, a young merchant fluent in Turkish and Persian. 847:

to arrange for the 400-mile trip east to Kabul in another two weeks. Suits were tailored and horses given new saddles to make everything presentable for the meeting with the Emir. The southern route and the city of

924:, which provided privacy from British secret agents. The meeting, which lasted the entire day, began on an uncomfortable note, with Habibullah summing up his views on the expedition in a prolonged opening address: 1529:

by the German Foreign Office, but his superior officer, Bothmann-Hollweg, was not eligible to recommend him since the latter did not hold the honour himself. Von Hentig embarked on a diplomatic career, serving as

660:, was deputed to the expedition as the Turkish representative, bearing official letters addressed to the Afghan Emir and the Indian princely states. Two Afghans from the United States also joined the expedition. 229:. In response to the war with Russia and Britain, and further motivated by its alliance with Turkey, Germany accelerated its plans to weaken its enemies by targeting their colonial empires, including Russia in 1203:

and the Seistan Force became the main line of communication for the mission. With the withdrawal of the force from Trans-Caspia, the troops in Persia were withdrawn; the last elements left in November 1920.

383:

in Berlin two weeks later. General Staff memoranda in the last weeks of August confirmed the perceived feasibility of the plan, predicting that an invasion by Afghanistan could cause a revolution in India.

1304: 302:

in 1898 to bolster the Turkish relationship and to portray solidarity with Islam, a religion professed by millions of subjects of the British Empire in India and elsewhere. Referring to the Kaiser as

1482:

is said to have ascribed a direct relationship between the fear of a Ghadarite uprising in the midst of an increasingly tense situation in Punjab and the British response that ended in the massacre.

928:

I regard you as merchants who will spread out your wares before me. Of these goods, I shall choose according to my pleasure and my fancy, taking what I like and rejecting what I do not need.

1370:

As part of their anti-British policies, the Soviet Union planned to foment political upheaval in British India. In 1919, the Soviet government sent a diplomatic mission headed by a Russian

440:. An escort of nearly a thousand Turkish troops and German advisers was to accompany the delegation through Persia into Afghanistan, where they hoped to rally local tribes to jihad. 524:

Like von Hentig, Niedermayer had served in Constantinople before the war and spoke fluent Persian and other regional languages. A Bavarian artillery officer and a graduate from the

264:

in North America. The planners hoped to trigger a nationalist rebellion using clandestine shipments of men and arms sent to India from elsewhere in Asia and from the United States.

1324:, in which Britain finally recognised Afghan independence. Amanullah proclaimed himself king. Germany was among the first countries to recognise the independent Afghan government. 950: 460:

In 1915, a second expedition was organised, mainly through the German Foreign Office and the Indian leadership of the Berlin Committee. Germany was now extensively involved in the

6063: 1478:—as well as responses to other events that preceded and succeeded it—was the result of a concerted plan of response from the Punjab administration to suppress such a conspiracy. 1279:. That spring, Indian intelligence received rumours of letters from Habibullah to his tribal chiefs exhorting holy jihad. Alarmed, Hardinge called 3,000 tribal chiefs to a grand 6078: 1356: 6262: 3517: 1507:. After he was allowed back in 1936, he undertook considerable work in the interpretation of Islamic teachings. Ubaidullah died on 22 August 1944 at Deen Pur, near Lahore. 1534:

to a number of countries. He influenced the decision to limit the German war effort in the Middle East during World War II. In 1969, von Hentig was invited by Afghan King

1510:

Both Niedermayer and von Hentig returned to Germany, where they enjoyed celebrated careers. On von Hentig's recommendation, Niedermayer was knighted and bestowed with the

1405:' designs in the region, he intended to participate in the Kalmyk Project to Tibet in the summer of 1919. The planned expedition was ultimately shelved following the 6160: 345:

Once at war, Turkey joined Germany in taking aim at the opposing Entente Powers and their extensive empires in the Muslim world. Enver Pasha had the Sultan proclaim

1115:

refused a visa to Pratap, aware that he was considered a "dangerous seditionist" by the British government. Pratap was able to correspond more closely with Lenin's

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Political events and progress attained during December 1915 allowed the mission to celebrate at Kabul on Christmas Day with wine and cognac left behind by the

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to be guest of honour at celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of Afghan independence. Von Hentig later penned (in German) his memoirs of the expedition.

6562: 1474:—that he expected to take place in May, when British troops would have withdrawn to the hills for the summer. Contrary to being an isolated incident, the 1071:

to the Russians ended the hopes of sending a Turkish division to Afghanistan. The German influence in Persia also declined rapidly, ending the hopes that

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to Germany. Niedermayer headed west, attempting to run the Anglo-Russian Cordon and escape through Persia, while von Hentig made for the route over the

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Pasha's message of unity and Pan-Turanian jihad. Habibullah tolerated the increasingly anti-British and pro-Central tone being taken by his newspaper,

6309: 3917: 739: 137: 420:, with an Indian contingent at Kabul. Mahmud al Hasan was to command this army. While at Kabul, Maulana came to the conclusion that focusing on the 1212:

British efforts against the conspiracy and the expedition began in Europe. Even before Mahendra Pratap met with the Kaiser, attempts were made by

468:, prominent among the Indian radicals liaising with Germany, was expected to lead the expedition. When he declined, the exiled Indian prince Raja 171:

to propagate socialist revolution in Asia, with one goal being the overthrow of the British Raj. Other consequences included the formation of the

6150: 5515: 1092:

a base from which to make a last attempt to create local Muslim unrest against Anglo-Russian interests in the region. He later escaped over the

6705: 3944: 1237:. The letters, written in Persian on silk cloth, were sewn into a messenger's clothing when he was betrayed in Punjab. The event was named the 1012: 176: 4946: 547:

in London and New York from 1903. In 1909, he moved to Japan, where he continued his anti-British activities. Taking the post of Professor of

5008: 6210: 6140: 5779: 4998: 4909: 1402: 1363: 1276: 393: 6234: 5132: 4586: 1393:, the plan was to arm the indigenous people in the North-East Indian region with modern weaponry. The project had the approval of Lenin. 496:

in the 1900s, attending the Congress session of 1906. He toured the world in 1907 and 1911, and in 1912 contributed substantial funds to

4809: 3626:

Seidt, Hans-Ulrich (February 2001), "From Palestine to the Caucasus-Oskar Niedermayer and Germany's Middle Eastern Strategy in 1918",

864:

from Afghan troops in Turkish uniform. Von Hentig later described receiving cheers and a grand welcome from the inhabitants of Kabul.

5139: 4791: 6460: 1088:

towards Chinese Central Asia. Having served in Peking before the war, von Hentig was familiar with the region and planned to make

6392: 6230: 6217: 6174: 6083: 5809: 5618: 5525: 5427: 5185: 4832: 3752: 998:

that month and a shift from the Emir's usual aversive stance to an offer of discussions on a German-Afghan treaty of friendship.

133:

during the summer of 1915. Britain waged a covert intelligence and diplomatic offensive, including personal interventions by the

6730: 6700: 6584: 6574: 6442: 730:, with a neutral zone in between. Germany exercised influence over the central parts of the country through their consulate in 6720: 6356: 6290: 6127: 6006: 5679: 4705: 4561: 3910: 3672: 3616: 3515:

Reetz, Dietrich (2007), "The Deoband Universe: What Makes a Transcultural and Transnational Educational Movement of Islam?",

256:, which was later renamed the Indian Independence Committee. The Berlin Committee offered money, arms, and military advisors 6725: 6531: 5951: 4743: 4435: 4415: 4385: 4314: 4166: 1213: 6302: 5261: 4766: 6516: 3236:

Fisher, Margaret W.; Kumar, R. (1972), "Essays on Gandhian Politics. the Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 (in Book Reviews)",

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Still 200 miles from the Afghan border, the expedition now had to race against time. Ahead were British patrols of the

6715: 6376: 6070: 5886: 5165: 4636: 4457: 4380: 3880: 3861: 3741: 3720: 3505: 3486: 3467: 3449: 3322: 3226: 3207: 3188: 3104: 3049: 1406: 424:

would best serve the pan-Islamic cause. Ubaidullah proposed to the Afghan Emir that he declare war against Britain.

5628: 5563: 4601: 4279: 4141: 3903: 832: 249: 1096:, avoiding his pursuers for 130 days as he made his way on foot and horseback through Chinese Turkestan, over the 6710: 6695: 6627: 6432: 6412: 6199: 6135: 5958: 5827: 4738: 4658: 4596: 4375: 995: 688: 416:

to seek the support of the Emir of Afghanistan. They initially planned to raise an Islamic army headquartered at

5299: 6735: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6407: 6101: 4753: 4728: 4626: 4294: 1300:

politics influenced the political and social situation in the country, starting a process of political change.

1112: 886: 754:, halfway to the Afghan border. Von Hentig's group travelled with twelve pack horses, twenty-four mules, and a 79:, a series of Indo-German efforts to provoke a nationalist revolution in India. Nominally headed by the exiled 663:

The group, now numbering approximately twenty people, left Constantinople in early May 1915. They crossed the

311: 6402: 6397: 6361: 6295: 6187: 6033: 5623: 5475: 5013: 4941: 4872: 4641: 4611: 4606: 4269: 3777: 1503:. Ubaidullah travelled through the holy lands of Islam before permission for his return was requested by the 1246: 1072: 770: 241: 218: 21: 994:

forty years previously, which Habibullah lay at their disposal. These events included the foundation of the

6690: 6685: 6351: 5978: 5918: 5815: 5720: 5490: 5276: 4980: 4819: 4718: 4355: 4241: 4022: 3940: 1511: 1438: 1186:

in India. The cordon was initially under the command of Colonel J. M. Wilkeley before it was taken over by

893: 600: 556: 180: 1514:. He was asked to lead a third expedition to Afghanistan in 1917, but declined. Niedermayer served in the 1385:

and other Himalayan buffer states such as Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, Thailand, and Burma through the Buddhist

652:

for three weeks while further travel arrangements were made. During this time, Pratap and Hentig met with

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Habibullah Khan, Emir of Afghanistan during World War I. Habibullah was closely allied to British India.

804:

Another map by Reginald Dyer. Birjand is in the periphery of the Lut Desert, in Persia near Afghanistan.

6569: 6526: 5803: 5568: 5553: 5455: 5324: 4892: 4804: 4761: 4209: 1492: 831:, where they made contact with Afghan authorities. Unsure what reception awaited them, von Hentig sent 3479:

Intelligence and Imperial Defence: British Intelligence and the Defence of the Indian Empire 1904–1924

1275:

Following the draft treaty of January 1916, apprehensions grew in Delhi of trouble from tribes in the

543:. Barkatullah had long been associated with the Indian revolutionary movement, having worked with the 6511: 6279: 5863: 5851: 5613: 5598: 5319: 5210: 4904: 4882: 4631: 4621: 4554: 4518: 4498: 3369:

Jalal, Ayesha (2007), "Striking a just balance: Maulana Azad as a theorist of trans-national jihad",

3088: 1455: 978:

Through German links with Ottoman Turkey, the Berlin Committee at this time established contact with

720: 715:

and other tropical diseases. Leaving them under the care of Dr. Becker, von Hentig proceeded towards

513:, he was appointed secretary of the German legation to Tehran in 1913. Von Hentig was serving on the 134: 5465: 6486: 5973: 5963: 5892: 5845: 5833: 5773: 5588: 5583: 5505: 4914: 4887: 4591: 4214: 1504: 775: 493: 225:, Russia declared war on Turkey in November. Turkey then joined the Central Powers in fighting the 6740: 6557: 6549: 6491: 6251: 5946: 5709: 5543: 5538: 5470: 5329: 5314: 5309: 5289: 5170: 5047: 1531: 1450: 425: 421: 5510: 656:

and enjoyed an audience with the Sultan. On Enver Pasha's orders, a Turkish officer, Lieutenant

267: 6324: 6048: 5983: 5839: 5573: 5500: 5450: 5435: 5417: 5390: 5304: 5271: 4936: 4897: 4877: 4688: 4581: 4304: 4060: 3823:

Tuteja, K. L. (1997), "Jallianwala Bagh: A Critical Juncture in the Indian National Movement",

1410: 1317: 1238: 525: 206: 160: 99: 56: 33: 1148:

A column of troops of the Sistan force at Gusht in July 1916. The Force was then commanded by

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made by the German Foreign Office and Indian revolutionaries-in-exile such as members of the

63:

in 1915–1916. The purpose was to encourage Afghanistan to declare full independence from the

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War by Revolution: Germany and Great Britain in the Middle East in the Era of World War I

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at Hijaz, while the expedition itself was now met at Kabul by Ubaidullah Sindhi's group.

680: 540: 449: 389: 353: 214: 107: 29: 6599: 3555: 342:

was recognised as legitimate by most Muslims, including those in Afghanistan and India.

6606: 6521: 5880: 5744: 5726: 5691: 5655: 5495: 5460: 5412: 5397: 5284: 5235: 5074: 5033: 4713: 4440: 4360: 4199: 4017: 3840: 3811: 3651: 3593: 3542: 3394: 3357: 3298: 3261: 3167: 3076: 3059:

Ansari, K. H. (1986), "Pan-Islam and the Making of the Early Indian Muslim Socialist",

1192: 1116: 1024: 953:

Nasrullah Khan, then Prime Minister of Afghanistan. Nasrullah supported the expedition.

168: 102:. Other participants included members of an Indian nationalist organisation called the 52: 1100:, and through China and Shanghai. From there, he stowed away on an American vessel to 244:

encouraged this activity. The effort was led by prominent archaeologist and historian

6639: 6633: 6594: 6496: 6329: 5912: 5767: 5750: 5558: 5380: 5360: 5195: 5180: 5110: 5098: 4799: 4776: 4723: 4513: 4284: 4274: 4236: 4219: 4091: 4054: 3975: 3876: 3857: 3815: 3803: 3771: 3737: 3731: 3716: 3699: 3668: 3643: 3612: 3606: 3585: 3546: 3534: 3501: 3482: 3463: 3445: 3428: 3411: 3398: 3386: 3349: 3318: 3290: 3253: 3222: 3203: 3184: 3159: 3123: 3100: 3080: 3045: 1475: 1462: 1446: 1426: 1226: 1153: 1068: 1007: 649: 637: 433: 409: 361:

of 1907 designated Afghanistan to the British sphere of influence. Britain nominally

283: 245: 172: 95: 4528: 1526: 1381:, a Soviet plan to launch a surprise attack on the north-west frontier of India via 1035:

before meeting the Kaiser in Berlin, urging both to mobilise against British India.

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Hughes, Thomas L. (October 2002), "The German Mission to Afghanistan, 1915–1916",

282:

In Turkey and Persia, nationalist work had begun by 1909, under the leadership of

179:

as influenced by Germany and Bolshevism, and changes in the Raj's approach to the

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Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924

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were crossed on horseback, using—as von Hentig reflected—the same route taken by

668: 588: 560: 469: 397: 210: 156: 25: 3682:

Sims-Williams, Ursula (1980), "The Afghan Newspaper Siraj al-Akhbar. Bulletin",

1191:

acting as their couriers, and as long as Persia remained neutral. Following the

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were amongst the most prominent firms involved in Afghanistan, and the German

6679: 6450: 5738: 5732: 5175: 5092: 5003: 4477: 4452: 4420: 4345: 4299: 4096: 3955: 3807: 3703: 3647: 3589: 3538: 3432: 3390: 3353: 3310: 3294: 3257: 3163: 3127: 3092: 1386: 1254:; he attempted to infiltrate the Germans and the Berlin Committee in Zurich. 1187: 1161: 1149: 1027:

government in an attempt to gain their support. In 1918, Mahendra Pratap met

881: 872:

At Kabul, the group was accommodated as state guests at the Emir's palace at

815: 790: 782: 778: 743: 592: 532:. The delegation also included German officers Günter Voigt and Kurt Wagner. 87: 599:

Supervision of the mission was assigned to the German Ambassador to Turkey,

404:

school, left India to seek the help of Galib Pasha, the Turkish governor of

5900: 5334: 4523: 4131: 3415: 1496: 1341: 1308: 1200: 1144: 972: 873: 376: 323: 261: 3895: 3273:

Hoover, Karl (May 1985), "The Hindu Conspiracy in California, 1913–1918",

535:

Accompanying Pratap were other Indians from the Berlin Committee, notably

322:

of the new government, Turkey retained its traditional influence over the

147: 125:

Britain saw the expedition as a serious threat. Britain and its ally, the

6111: 6016: 5714: 5149: 4570: 4430: 4337: 4184: 3960: 1471: 1434: 1222: 1097: 1064: 920:

On 26 October 1915 the Emir finally granted an audience at his palace at

896:, was a man of religious convictions. Unlike the Emir, he fluently spoke 755: 653: 544: 331: 319: 192: 119: 72: 68: 155:

The mission failed in its main task of rallying Afghanistan, under Emir

4446: 3844: 3786:

Tinker, Hugh (October 1968), "India in the First World War and after",

3655: 3597: 3361: 3302: 3265: 3171: 1516: 1333: 1111:

from February 1916, but his messages remained unacknowledged. The 1917

1093: 759: 708: 700: 629: 380: 1347:

became the first European airline to initiate service to Afghanistan.

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in Russia in 1917, Pratap's government corresponded with the nascent

853: 836: 692: 664: 657: 621: 299: 230: 115: 3836: 3639: 3571: 3345: 3286: 3249: 3155: 3042:

Soviet Russia and Tibet: The Debacle of Secret Diplomacy, 1918–1930s

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to Constantinople. At Vienna, they were met briefly by the deposed

617: 452:

in 1917. Niedermayer led the group following Wassmuss's departure.

401: 315: 295: 271: 141: 3997: 1337: 1128: 1028: 949: 921: 877: 794: 731: 712: 672: 633: 489: 695:

at high flood, finally reaching Baghdad towards the end of May.

4425: 3244:(1), Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia: 128–129, 3122:(3), Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia: 522–523, 1307:

Foremost among Afghan intellectuals who supported the mission,

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was also involved in the movement prior to his arrest in 1916.

417: 339: 275: 130: 4539: 3202:, London; New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 1355: 785:, hunting for infiltrating German agents through much of 1916. 781:

illustrating the Sistan border with Afghanistan. Dyer led the

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Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

1382: 1320:, in which a number of brief skirmishes were followed by the 1281: 912: 828: 751: 648:

Reaching Constantinople on 17 April, the party waited at the

625: 413: 405: 346: 335: 327: 303: 46: 318:

and concentrated power in the hands of a junta. Despite the

548: 1413:. Pratap set out alone to unsuccessfully pursue his goal. 1267:

the tribes, Viceroy Hardinge suggested that a letter from

1119:. At the invitation of Turkestan authorities, he visited 3873:

M.P.T. Acharya: Reminiscences of an Indian Revolutionary

1233:, which were addressed to the Turkish authority and the 1038: 396:, with support from Afghanistan and the Central Powers. 1241:. In August 1915, Mahendra Pratap's private secretary, 217:

directly triggered Britain's entry. After a series of

3114:

Brown, Emily (May 1973), "Book Reviews; South Asia",

728:

divided into British and Russian spheres of influence

1366:

proposed to send a "Scientific expedition" to Tibet.

707:. Leaving Krynd, the party reached Turkish-occupied 3183:, Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2381: 2379: 1107:Mahendra Pratap attempted to seek an alliance with 521:when he was recalled to Berlin for the expedition. 3554:Sarkar, Benoy Kumar; Lovett, Verney (March 1921), 1123:in February 1918. This was followed by a visit to 3181:Hailey: A Study in British Imperialism, 1872–1969 1525:by the Kaiser himself. He was considered for the 274:, the Sultan of Turkey, was then regarded as the 233:and Britain in India, using political agitation. 6677: 3759:, archived from the original on 28 November 2007 3566:(1), The Academy of Political Science: 136–138, 2645: 2643: 2376: 1164:(later called the Seistan Force), consisting of 5516:Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers 3032: 1702: 1700: 1311:later influenced King Amanullah Khan's reforms. 539:and the Islamic scholar and Indian nationalist 334:of 1916 and controlled the Muslim holy city of 3556:"A History of the Indian Nationalist Movement" 3200:The Butcher of Amritsar: General Reginald Dyer 3150:(3), University of California Press: 299–310, 2565: 2563: 2561: 839:in Russian Turkestan and as far into India as 719:to decide on the subsequent plans with Prince 129:, unsuccessfully attempted to intercept it in 71:on the side of the Central Powers, and attack 4555: 3911: 3715:, Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 3681: 3087: 2919: 2907: 2849: 2767: 2765: 2716: 2714: 2672: 2670: 2640: 2628: 2606: 2604: 2602: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2447: 2445: 2443: 2441: 2385: 2310: 2308: 2266: 2264: 2262: 2134: 2132: 2095: 2093: 2091: 2066: 2064: 2062: 2025: 2023: 1832: 711:on 14 June 1915. Some members were sick with 3690:(2), London: Taylor & Francis: 118–122, 3553: 3442:A History of the Indian Nationalist Movement 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2831: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2354: 2352: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2333: 2331: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2216: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1928: 1926: 1913: 1911: 1909: 1907: 1905: 1892: 1890: 1865: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1822: 1820: 1818: 1816: 1791: 1789: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1781: 1768: 1766: 1697: 1687: 1685: 574:volunteers from the prisoner of war camp at 5999: 3925: 3462:, Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 3408:Muslims in India: A Biographical Dictionary 3235: 3016: 2992: 2867: 2558: 1717: 1715: 1672: 1670: 1668: 1595: 1593: 1580: 1578: 1576: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1377:Other options were explored, including the 591:in gold was deposited in an account at the 278:by a substantial part of the Islamic world. 4562: 4548: 3918: 3904: 3684:British Society for Middle Eastern Studies 3476: 3340:(3), German Studies Association: 447–476, 3281:(2), German Studies Association: 245–261, 3067:(3), Cambridge University Press: 509–537, 2855: 2825: 2801: 2789: 2777: 2762: 2750: 2738: 2726: 2711: 2682: 2667: 2649: 2634: 2616: 2599: 2587: 2524: 2438: 2364: 2305: 2259: 2247: 2183: 2144: 2129: 2117: 2105: 2088: 2076: 2059: 2047: 2035: 2020: 2008: 1875: 1838: 1605: 1134: 944: 907: 369: 338:throughout the war. The Sultan's title of 86:, the expedition was a joint operation of 3579: 3377:(1), Cambridge University Press: 95–107, 2973: 2949: 2925: 2913: 2901: 2861: 2694: 2655: 2575: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2503: 2476: 2457: 2403: 2343: 2320: 2276: 2226: 2195: 2156: 1983: 1956: 1944: 1923: 1902: 1887: 1856: 1844: 1813: 1801: 1778: 1763: 1739: 1682: 1461:It was at this time that the pan-Islamic 1403:People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs 1364:People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs 1152:, later notorious for having ordered the 985: 213:brought Germany and Russia to war, while 36:, Kazim Bey, and Walter Röhr. Kabul, 1916 5798:Revolutions and interventions in Hungary 3710: 3662: 3315:On Secret Service East of Constantinople 3039: 3022: 2998: 2961: 2837: 2807: 2795: 2783: 2771: 2756: 2744: 2732: 2720: 2569: 2451: 1712: 1665: 1653: 1629: 1617: 1611: 1590: 1573: 1548: 1354: 1350: 1302: 1143: 948: 911: 799: 769: 408:, while another Deoband leader, Maulana 392:, made plans for an insurrection in the 266: 209:arising from the war between Serbia and 146: 94:and was led by the German Army officers 20: 6175:Occupied Enemy Territory Administration 3729: 3634:(1), German Studies Association: 1–18, 3495: 3317:, Oxford; New York: Oxford Paperbacks, 3309: 3219:Social Background of Indian Nationalism 3197: 3004: 2931: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2688: 2676: 2622: 2610: 2593: 2535: 2370: 2314: 2270: 2253: 2189: 2150: 2138: 2123: 2111: 2099: 2082: 2070: 2053: 2041: 2029: 2014: 1881: 1869: 1807: 1772: 1757: 1745: 1207: 1047: 860:from the local Turkish community and a 480:Mahendra Pratap was head of the Indian 363:controlled Afghanistan's foreign policy 205:In August 1914, World War I began when 6678: 3822: 3785: 3713:The First World War. Volume I: To Arms 3604: 3457: 3439: 3331: 3272: 3058: 2986: 2967: 2879: 2843: 2819: 2813: 2705: 2661: 2581: 2541: 2518: 2497: 2470: 2432: 2420: 2358: 2337: 2299: 2241: 2220: 2177: 2002: 1977: 1950: 1938: 1917: 1896: 1850: 1826: 1795: 1733: 1691: 1676: 1659: 1641: 1623: 1599: 1584: 1567: 1257: 1221:neutrality. Under the efforts of Sir 1178:Force, under the direction of General 765: 530:British and Russian areas of influence 114:, while the Turks were represented by 6706:Campaigns and theatres of World War I 6128:Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia 5471:Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele) 4543: 3899: 3870: 3851: 3750: 3625: 3525:(1), Duke University Press: 139–159, 3514: 3422: 3368: 3216: 3134: 3113: 2955: 2896: 2552: 2397: 1721: 1706: 1647: 1635: 1250:claimed to be from a royal family of 1039:Draft Afghan-German friendship treaty 643: 464:and provided it with arms and funds. 448:German communications, including the 6532:Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne 3405: 3178: 3010: 2943: 2885: 455: 6461:Ottomans against the Triple Entente 5262:Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes 3099:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1495:in Germany, where he witnessed the 892:The Emir's brother, Prime Minister 867: 13: 5201:First Battle of the Masurian Lakes 3751:Swami, Praveen (1 November 1997), 559:, the brother of the Afghan Emir, 505:to nominally head the expedition. 14: 6752: 3891: 3444:, New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 3427:, London: Grayson & Grayson, 3137:"The Hindu Conspiracy, 1914–1917" 1294: 971:, whose editor—his father-in-law 144:, to maintain Afghan neutrality. 75:. The expedition was part of the 5564:Second Battle of the Piave River 5186:Russian invasion of East Prussia 4280:Intelligence Bureau for the East 3996: 3794:(4), Sage Publications: 89–107, 3665:Islam in the Indian Subcontinent 1416: 1139: 885:automobiles in the country (all 492:. He had been involved with the 250:Intelligence Bureau for the East 6628:Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo 5828:Lithuanian Wars of Independence 4569: 4376:Provisional Government of India 3788:Journal of Contemporary History 3477:Popplewell, Richard J. (1995), 3135:Brown, Giles T. (August 1948), 2937: 2873: 2426: 2391: 1751: 1727: 1168:troops, was established in the 1067:against Turkey and the loss of 996:Provisional Government of India 581: 462:Indian revolutionary conspiracy 183:immediately after World War I. 28:, centre, with (left to right) 6451:Austria-Hungary against Serbia 6310:Deportations from East Prussia 6107:1915 typhus epidemic in Serbia 821: 475: 1: 6731:Ottoman Empire in World War I 6701:British Empire in World War I 6362:Ukrainian Canadian internment 4416:Indian Political Intelligence 4381:Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial 4270:Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg 3856:, Stockbridge, Hants: Monks, 3221:, Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1247:Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg 242:Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg 215:Germany's invasion of Belgium 186: 42:Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition 6721:German Empire in World War I 6517:Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement 5816:Estonian War of Independence 5491:Southern Palestine offensive 4504:Ingress into India Ordinance 4356:Lahore Conspiracy Case trial 4242:Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari 3941:Indian independence movement 3753:"Jallianwala Bagh revisited" 3733:The German Empire, 1870–1918 3663:Schimmel, Annemarie (1980), 3040:Andreyev, Alexandre (2003), 3033:General and cited references 1541: 1512:Military Order of Max Joseph 1439:Defence of India act of 1915 1437:(1919), an extension of the 1289: 1277:North-West Frontier Province 394:North-West Frontier Province 181:Indian independence movement 7: 6471:USA against Austria-Hungary 5870:Turkish War of Independence 5822:Latvian War of Independence 5554:Treaty of Bucharest of 1918 5145:Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo 3560:Political Science Quarterly 3440:Lovett, Sir Verney (1920), 3406:Jain, Naresh Kumar (1979), 3371:Modern Intellectual History 1523:House Order of Hohenzollern 1485: 1480:James Houssemayne Du Boulay 1322:Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 1180:George Macaulay Kirkpatrick 502:Virendranath Chattopadhyaya 10: 6757: 6554:Treaties of Brest-Litovsk 6102:1899–1923 cholera pandemic 5569:Second Battle of the Marne 5456:Second battle of the Aisne 5325:Second Battle of Champagne 5166:German invasion of Belgium 3800:10.1177/002200946800300407 3736:, New York: Random House, 3496:Qureshi, M. Naeem (1999), 1493:League against Imperialism 1184:Chief of the General Staff 606: 190: 6660: 6619: 6540: 6479: 6441: 6385: 6374: 6335:Assyrian genocide (Sayfo) 6278: 6250: 6198: 6120: 6094: 6046: 5939: 5932: 5864:Irish War of Independence 5760: 5642: 5614:Armistice of Villa Giusti 5599:Battle of Vittorio Veneto 5524: 5426: 5353: 5254: 5211:First Battle of the Marne 5158: 5120: 5055: 5046: 4989: 4863: 4852: 4818: 4790: 4752: 4704: 4657: 4650: 4577: 4519:Jallianwala Bagh massacre 4499:Defence of India Act 1915 4486: 4396: 4325: 4262: 4177: 4112: 4005: 3994: 3933: 3776:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 3730:Stürmer, Michael (2000), 3696:10.1080/13530198008705294 3531:10.1215/1089201x-2006-049 3500:, Leiden; Boston: Brill, 3458:McKale, Donald M (1998), 3383:10.1017/S1479244306001065 3144:Pacific Historical Review 3073:10.1017/S0026749X00007848 2920:Bailey & Hopkirk 2002 2908:Bailey & Hopkirk 2002 1456:Frederick Marshman Bailey 1441:, was enforced in India. 1008:Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi 517:as a lieutenant with the 314:in 1913 sidelined Sultan 6716:Expeditions from Germany 6487:Constantinople Agreement 5780:Armenian–Azerbaijani War 5643:Co-belligerent conflicts 5619:Second Romanian campaign 5589:Third Transjordan attack 5300:Gorlice–Tarnów offensive 5206:Battle of Grand Couronné 4215:Amarendranath Chatterjee 3116:Journal of Asian Studies 2832:Sarkar & Lovett 1921 1505:Indian National Congress 1451:Lahore conspiracy trials 691:. The group crossed the 566:Pratap chose six Afghan 519:Prussian 3rd Cuirassiers 494:Indian National Congress 118:, a close confidante of 6726:Hindu–German Conspiracy 6550:Modus vivendi of Acroma 6502:Bulgaria–Germany treaty 5810:Greater Poland Uprising 5710:National Protection War 5594:Meuse–Argonne offensive 5544:German spring offensive 5539:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 5315:Siege of Novogeorgievsk 5290:Second Battle of Artois 5171:Battle of the Frontiers 3927:Hindu–German Conspiracy 3608:Modern India, 1885–1947 3581:2027/mdp.39015009367007 3198:Collett, Nigel (2006), 2882:, pp. 169–172, 176 2868:Fisher & Kumar 1972 1423:Hindu–German Conspiracy 1135:British counter efforts 945:Meetings with Nasrullah 908:Meeting Emir Habibullah 726:Persia at the time was 703:at the Persian town of 667:to take the unfinished 426:Maulana Abul Kalam Azad 422:Indian Freedom Movement 400:, the principal of the 370:First Afghan expedition 197:Hindu–German Conspiracy 77:Hindu–German Conspiracy 6711:Emirate of Afghanistan 6696:1910s in British India 6575:Paris Peace Conference 6563:Ukraine–Central Powers 6357:Massacres of Albanians 6325:Late Ottoman genocides 6132:Bulgarian occupations 5840:Third Anglo-Afghan War 5804:Hungarian–Romanian War 5629:Naval Victory Bulletin 5624:Armistice with Germany 5574:Hundred Days Offensive 5501:Battle of La Malmaison 5451:Second battle of Arras 5418:Battle of Transylvania 5272:Second Battle of Ypres 5140:Sarajevo assassination 5029:South African Republic 4366:Silk Letter Conspiracy 3852:Uloth, Gerald (1993), 3711:Strachan, Hew (2001), 3605:Sarkar, Sumit (1983), 3410:, New Delhi: Manohar, 3179:Cell, John W. (2002), 2822:, pp. 94, 187–191 1411:Trans-Siberian Railway 1367: 1318:Third Anglo-Afghan War 1312: 1239:Silk Letter Conspiracy 1157: 986:Political developments 954: 930: 917: 805: 786: 526:University of Erlangen 352:Early in the war, the 310:Led by Enver Pasha, a 279: 161:Third Anglo-Afghan War 152: 100:Werner Otto von Hentig 37: 34:Werner Otto von Hentig 6736:World War I espionage 6585:Treaty of St. Germain 6558:Russia–Central Powers 6512:Sykes–Picot Agreement 6340:Pontic Greek genocide 6315:Destruction of Kalisz 6291:Eastern Mediterranean 5852:Polish–Lithuanian War 5634:Armistice of Belgrade 5604:Armistice of Salonica 5534:Operation Faustschlag 5481:Third Battle of Oituz 5403:Baranovichi offensive 5371:Lake Naroch offensive 5345:Battle of Robat Karim 5320:Vistula–Bug offensive 5295:Battles of the Isonzo 5226:First Battle of Ypres 4152:Abhinash Bhattacharya 3951:Shyamji Krishna Varma 3628:German Studies Review 3423:James, Frank (1934), 3334:German Studies Review 3275:German Studies Review 1358: 1351:Soviet Eastern policy 1330:von Hentig Fellowship 1306: 1147: 952: 926: 915: 803: 773: 359:Anglo-Russian Entente 270: 248:, who headed the new 150: 24: 16:Diplomatic expedition 6580:Treaty of Versailles 6296:Mount Lebanon famine 6211:in the United States 6179:Russian occupations 5893:Turkish–Armenian War 5834:Polish–Ukrainian War 5774:Ukrainian–Soviet War 5721:Central Asian Revolt 5511:Armistice of Focșani 5241:Battle of Sarikamish 5191:Battle of Tannenberg 4587:Military engagements 4398:Counter-intelligence 3875:, New Delhi: Anmol, 3871:Yadav, B.D. (1992), 3611:, Delhi: Macmillan, 3217:Desai, A.R. (2005), 3061:Modern Asian Studies 1429:in 1918, chaired by 1391:Fyodor Shcherbatskoy 1360:Fyodor Shcherbatskoy 1214:British intelligence 1208:Intelligence efforts 1193:Revolution in Russia 1117:Bolshevik government 1048:Mission's conclusion 537:Champakaraman Pillai 207:alliance obligations 163:. It influenced the 112:Chempakaraman Pillai 84:Raja Mahendra Pratap 44:, also known as the 6691:1916 in Afghanistan 6686:1915 in Afghanistan 6647:They shall not pass 6570:Treaty of Bucharest 6527:Treaty of Bucharest 6466:USA against Germany 6443:Declarations of war 6147:German occupations 6060:British casualties 5919:Soviet–Georgian War 5846:Egyptian Revolution 5786:Armeno-Georgian War 5650:Somaliland campaign 5609:Armistice of Mudros 5486:Battle of Caporetto 5476:Battle of Mărășești 5446:Zimmermann telegram 5441:February Revolution 5386:Battle of the Somme 5310:Bug-Narew Offensive 5285:Battle of Gallipoli 5277:Sinking of the RMS 5069:Scramble for Africa 5063:Franco-Prussian War 4719:Sinai and Palestine 4473:W. Somerset Maugham 4147:Bhupendranath Datta 4023:Pandurang Khankhoje 3097:Mission to Tashkent 1536:Mohammed Zahir Shah 1345:Deutsche Luft Hansa 1258:Diplomatic measures 1175:Western Balochistan 1166:British Indian Army 1162:East Persian Cordon 1113:Kerensky government 1021:February Revolution 766:East Persian Cordon 681:Alexander the Great 601:Hans von Wangenheim 541:Maulavi Barkatullah 450:Zimmermann Telegram 390:Darul Uloom Deoband 354:Emir of Afghanistan 223:political intrigues 151:Afghanistan in 1914 108:Maulavi Barkatullah 30:Maulavi Barkatullah 6607:Treaty of Lausanne 6522:Paris Economy Pact 6456:UK against Germany 6386:Entry into the war 6352:Urkun (Kyrgyzstan) 6071:Ottoman casualties 5881:Franco-Turkish War 5761:Post-War conflicts 5745:Russian Revolution 5727:Invasion of Darfur 5692:Kelantan rebellion 5680:Kurdish rebellions 5656:Mexican Revolution 5496:October Revolution 5461:Kerensky offensive 5436:Capture of Baghdad 5413:Monastir offensive 5398:Brusilov offensive 5236:Battle of Kolubara 5075:Russo-Japanese War 4494:Lawrence of Arabia 4478:East Persia Cordon 4361:Christmas Day Plot 4200:Bhavabhushan Mitra 2910:, pp. 224–227 2386:Sims-Williams 1980 1497:Nazi rise to power 1427:sedition committee 1368: 1313: 1158: 955: 918: 806: 791:East Persia Cordon 787: 644:Persia and Isfahan 472:was named leader. 280: 258:according to plans 240:German Chancellor 153: 53:diplomatic mission 38: 6673: 6672: 6656: 6655: 6640:The Golden Virgin 6634:Mutilated victory 6615: 6614: 6595:Treaty of Trianon 6590:Treaty of Neuilly 6497:Damascus Protocol 6370: 6369: 6330:Armenian genocide 6287:Allied blockades 6259:Belgian refugees 6042: 6041: 5952:Strategic bombing 5928: 5927: 5913:Franco-Syrian War 5887:Greco-Turkish War 5875:Anglo-Turkish War 5858:Polish–Soviet War 5792:German Revolution 5768:Russian Civil War 5751:Finnish Civil War 5584:Battle of Megiddo 5559:Battle of Goychay 5506:Battle of Cambrai 5466:Battle of Mărăști 5381:Battle of Jutland 5361:Erzurum offensive 5216:Siege of Przemyśl 5196:Siege of Tsingtao 5181:Battle of Galicia 5111:Second Balkan War 5099:Italo-Turkish War 5056:Pre-War conflicts 5042: 5041: 4932:Portuguese Empire 4848: 4847: 4810:German New Guinea 4792:Asian and Pacific 4537: 4536: 4514:Rowlatt Committee 4285:Max von Oppenheim 4237:Ubaidullah Sindhi 4220:Atulkrishna Ghosh 4055:Baba Gurdit Singh 3976:Alipore Bomb Case 3674:978-90-04-06117-0 3667:, Leiden: Brill, 3618:978-0-333-90425-1 3044:, Boston: Brill, 1476:Amritsar massacre 1463:Khilafat Movement 1447:Ghadar Conspiracy 1362:, under whom the 1227:Ubaidullah Sindhi 1154:Amritsar massacre 723:and Niedermayer. 650:Pera Palace Hotel 456:Second expedition 434:Oskar Niedermayer 410:Ubaidullah Sindhi 284:Sardar Ajit Singh 246:Max von Oppenheim 177:sedition in India 173:Rowlatt Committee 96:Oskar Niedermayer 6748: 6600:Treaty of Sèvres 6492:Treaty of London 6383: 6382: 6161:Northeast France 6092: 6091: 6064:Parliamentarians 5997: 5996: 5959:Chemical weapons 5937: 5936: 5698:Senussi campaign 5668:Muscat rebellion 5662:Maritz rebellion 5579:Vardar offensive 5408:Battle of Romani 5376:Battle of Asiago 5366:Battle of Verdun 5330:Kosovo offensive 5105:First Balkan War 5053: 5052: 4952:Russian Republic 4861: 4860: 4655: 4654: 4597:Economic history 4564: 4557: 4550: 4541: 4540: 4351:Singapore mutiny 4247:Sufi Amba Prasad 4162:Herambalal Gupta 4137:M. P. T. Acharya 4114:Berlin Committee 4029:Hindustan Ghadar 4000: 3981:Delhi Conspiracy 3966:Anushilan Samiti 3920: 3913: 3906: 3897: 3896: 3885: 3866: 3847: 3825:Social Scientist 3818: 3781: 3775: 3767: 3766: 3764: 3746: 3725: 3706: 3677: 3658: 3621: 3600: 3583: 3549: 3510: 3491: 3472: 3454: 3435: 3425:Faraway Campaign 3418: 3401: 3364: 3327: 3305: 3268: 3231: 3212: 3193: 3174: 3141: 3130: 3109: 3083: 3054: 3026: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2984: 2971: 2970:, pp. 26–27 2965: 2959: 2953: 2947: 2941: 2935: 2929: 2923: 2917: 2911: 2905: 2899: 2894: 2883: 2877: 2871: 2865: 2859: 2853: 2847: 2841: 2835: 2829: 2823: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2787: 2781: 2775: 2769: 2760: 2754: 2748: 2742: 2736: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2709: 2703: 2692: 2686: 2680: 2674: 2665: 2659: 2653: 2647: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2620: 2614: 2608: 2597: 2591: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2567: 2556: 2550: 2539: 2533: 2522: 2516: 2501: 2495: 2474: 2468: 2455: 2449: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2418: 2401: 2395: 2389: 2383: 2374: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2341: 2335: 2318: 2312: 2303: 2297: 2274: 2268: 2257: 2251: 2245: 2239: 2224: 2218: 2193: 2187: 2181: 2175: 2154: 2148: 2142: 2136: 2127: 2121: 2115: 2109: 2103: 2097: 2086: 2080: 2074: 2068: 2057: 2051: 2045: 2039: 2033: 2027: 2018: 2012: 2006: 2000: 1981: 1975: 1954: 1948: 1942: 1936: 1921: 1915: 1900: 1894: 1885: 1879: 1873: 1867: 1854: 1848: 1842: 1836: 1830: 1824: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1793: 1776: 1770: 1761: 1760:, pp. 77–82 1755: 1749: 1743: 1737: 1731: 1725: 1719: 1710: 1704: 1695: 1689: 1680: 1674: 1663: 1657: 1651: 1645: 1639: 1633: 1627: 1621: 1615: 1609: 1603: 1597: 1588: 1582: 1571: 1565: 1468:Jallianwala Bagh 1449:of 1915 and the 1399:Sergey Oldenburg 1197:Malleson Mission 1109:Tsar Nicholas II 1013:Republican China 964:hearts and minds 868:Afghan intrigues 736:Viceroy of India 685:Paul the Apostle 677:Taurus Mountains 553:Tokyo University 438:Wilhelm Wassmuss 288:Sufi Amba Prasad 254:Berlin Committee 201:Drang nach Osten 169:Bolshevik Russia 104:Berlin Committee 6756: 6755: 6751: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6746: 6745: 6676: 6675: 6674: 6669: 6652: 6611: 6543: 6536: 6507:Treaty of Darin 6475: 6437: 6393:Austria-Hungary 6379: 6366: 6347:Rape of Belgium 6274: 6246: 6194: 6188:Western Armenia 6183:Eastern Galicia 6116: 6090: 6054: 6053:Civilian impact 6052: 6038: 5995: 5924: 5756: 5686:Ovambo Uprising 5638: 5520: 5422: 5349: 5267:Battle of Łomża 5250: 5246:Christmas truce 5221:Race to the Sea 5154: 5116: 5038: 5009:Austria-Hungary 4985: 4920:Empire of Japan 4857: 4855: 4844: 4828:U-boat campaign 4814: 4786: 4748: 4700: 4646: 4627:Popular culture 4573: 4568: 4538: 4533: 4482: 4458:William Wiseman 4406:W. C. Hopkinson 4392: 4321: 4258: 4232:Mahmud al-Hasan 4173: 4157:Mahendra Pratap 4108: 4040:Ghadar Movement 4001: 3992: 3929: 3924: 3894: 3889: 3883: 3864: 3837:10.2307/3517759 3769: 3768: 3762: 3760: 3744: 3723: 3675: 3640:10.2307/1433153 3619: 3572:10.2307/2142669 3508: 3489: 3470: 3452: 3346:10.2307/1432596 3325: 3287:10.2307/1428642 3250:10.2307/2755297 3238:Pacific Affairs 3229: 3210: 3191: 3156:10.2307/3634258 3139: 3107: 3052: 3035: 3030: 3029: 3021: 3017: 3009: 3005: 2997: 2993: 2985: 2974: 2966: 2962: 2954: 2950: 2942: 2938: 2930: 2926: 2918: 2914: 2906: 2902: 2895: 2886: 2878: 2874: 2866: 2862: 2856:Popplewell 1995 2854: 2850: 2842: 2838: 2830: 2826: 2818: 2814: 2806: 2802: 2794: 2790: 2782: 2778: 2770: 2763: 2755: 2751: 2743: 2739: 2731: 2727: 2719: 2712: 2704: 2695: 2687: 2683: 2675: 2668: 2660: 2656: 2650:Popplewell 1995 2648: 2641: 2635:Popplewell 1995 2633: 2629: 2621: 2617: 2609: 2600: 2592: 2588: 2580: 2576: 2568: 2559: 2551: 2542: 2534: 2525: 2517: 2504: 2496: 2477: 2469: 2458: 2450: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2419: 2404: 2396: 2392: 2384: 2377: 2369: 2365: 2357: 2344: 2336: 2321: 2313: 2306: 2298: 2277: 2269: 2260: 2252: 2248: 2240: 2227: 2219: 2196: 2188: 2184: 2176: 2157: 2149: 2145: 2137: 2130: 2122: 2118: 2110: 2106: 2098: 2089: 2081: 2077: 2069: 2060: 2052: 2048: 2040: 2036: 2028: 2021: 2013: 2009: 2001: 1984: 1976: 1957: 1949: 1945: 1937: 1924: 1916: 1903: 1895: 1888: 1880: 1876: 1868: 1857: 1849: 1845: 1839:Popplewell 1995 1837: 1833: 1825: 1814: 1806: 1802: 1794: 1779: 1771: 1764: 1756: 1752: 1744: 1740: 1732: 1728: 1720: 1713: 1705: 1698: 1690: 1683: 1675: 1666: 1658: 1654: 1646: 1642: 1634: 1630: 1622: 1618: 1610: 1606: 1598: 1591: 1583: 1574: 1566: 1549: 1544: 1488: 1419: 1401:. Privy to the 1353: 1297: 1292: 1260: 1235:Sharif of Mecca 1231:Mahmud al-Hasan 1218:V.N. Chatterjee 1216:to assassinate 1210: 1142: 1137: 1127:, where he met 1086:Pamir Mountains 1078:liaison officer 1050: 1041: 988: 980:Mahmud al Hasan 969:Siraj al Akhbar 947: 910: 870: 862:Guard of honour 824: 768: 669:Baghdad Railway 646: 609: 589:pounds sterling 584: 561:Habibullah Khan 482:princely states 478: 470:Mahendra Pratap 458: 412:, travelled to 398:Mahmud al Hasan 372: 326:. Turkey ruled 252:and formed the 219:military events 211:Austria-Hungary 203: 191:Main articles: 189: 175:to investigate 157:Habibullah Khan 26:Mahendra Pratap 17: 12: 11: 5: 6754: 6744: 6743: 6741:Central Powers 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6671: 6670: 6668: 6667: 6661: 6658: 6657: 6654: 6653: 6651: 6650: 6643: 6636: 6631: 6623: 6621: 6617: 6616: 6613: 6612: 6610: 6609: 6604: 6603: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6572: 6567: 6566: 6565: 6560: 6552: 6546: 6544: 6542:Peace treaties 6541: 6538: 6537: 6535: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6483: 6481: 6477: 6476: 6474: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6447: 6445: 6439: 6438: 6436: 6435: 6430: 6428:United Kingdom 6425: 6420: 6418:Ottoman Empire 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6389: 6387: 6380: 6375: 6372: 6371: 6368: 6367: 6365: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6343: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6322: 6320:Sack of Dinant 6317: 6312: 6307: 6306: 6305: 6300: 6299: 6298: 6284: 6282: 6276: 6275: 6273: 6272: 6271: 6270: 6268:United Kingdom 6265: 6256: 6254: 6248: 6247: 6245: 6244: 6243: 6242: 6237: 6228: 6222:POW locations 6220: 6215: 6214: 6213: 6204: 6202: 6196: 6195: 6193: 6192: 6191: 6190: 6185: 6177: 6172: 6171: 6170: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6145: 6144: 6143: 6138: 6130: 6124: 6122: 6118: 6117: 6115: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6098: 6096: 6089: 6088: 6087: 6086: 6081: 6073: 6068: 6067: 6066: 6057: 6055: 6047: 6044: 6043: 6040: 6039: 6037: 6036: 6031: 6030: 6029: 6022:United Kingdom 6019: 6017:Ottoman Empire 6014: 6009: 6003: 6001: 5994: 5993: 5991:Trench warfare 5988: 5987: 5986: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5955: 5954: 5943: 5941: 5934: 5930: 5929: 5926: 5925: 5923: 5922: 5916: 5910: 5904: 5898: 5897: 5896: 5890: 5884: 5878: 5867: 5861: 5855: 5849: 5843: 5837: 5831: 5825: 5819: 5813: 5807: 5801: 5795: 5789: 5783: 5777: 5771: 5764: 5762: 5758: 5757: 5755: 5754: 5748: 5742: 5736: 5730: 5724: 5718: 5712: 5707: 5704:Volta-Bani War 5701: 5695: 5689: 5683: 5677: 5671: 5665: 5659: 5653: 5646: 5644: 5640: 5639: 5637: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5549:Zeebrugge Raid 5546: 5541: 5536: 5530: 5528: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5432: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5394: 5393: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5357: 5355: 5351: 5350: 5348: 5347: 5342: 5340:Battle of Loos 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5258: 5256: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5231:Black Sea raid 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5162: 5160: 5156: 5155: 5153: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5136: 5135: 5133:Historiography 5124: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5108: 5102: 5096: 5090: 5087:Bosnian Crisis 5084: 5081:Tangier Crisis 5078: 5072: 5066: 5059: 5057: 5050: 5044: 5043: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5014:Ottoman Empire 5011: 5006: 5001: 4995: 4993: 4991:Central Powers 4987: 4986: 4984: 4983: 4978: 4977: 4976: 4974:British Empire 4969:United Kingdom 4966: 4961: 4956: 4955: 4954: 4949: 4947:Russian Empire 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4923: 4922: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4901: 4900: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4869: 4867: 4865:Entente Powers 4858: 4853: 4850: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4842: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4833:North Atlantic 4824: 4822: 4816: 4815: 4813: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4796: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4785: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4758: 4756: 4750: 4749: 4747: 4746: 4744:Central Arabia 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4710: 4708: 4706:Middle Eastern 4702: 4701: 4699: 4698: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4681: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4663: 4661: 4652: 4648: 4647: 4645: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4607:Historiography 4604: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4578: 4575: 4574: 4567: 4566: 4559: 4552: 4544: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4531: 4529:Tōyama Mitsuru 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4509:Sidney Rowlatt 4506: 4501: 4496: 4490: 4488: 4487:Related topics 4484: 4483: 4481: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4463:Charles Tegart 4460: 4455: 4450: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4411:John Wallinger 4408: 4402: 4400: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4390: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4335: 4329: 4327: 4323: 4322: 4320: 4319: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4295:von Bernstorff 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4266: 4264: 4263:German figures 4260: 4259: 4257: 4256: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4181: 4179: 4178:Indian figures 4175: 4174: 4172: 4171: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4118: 4116: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4106: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4072:Bhai Parmanand 4069: 4064: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4035:Ghadar di gunj 4032: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4009: 4007: 4003: 4002: 3995: 3993: 3991: 3990: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3937: 3935: 3931: 3930: 3923: 3922: 3915: 3908: 3900: 3893: 3892:External links 3890: 3888: 3887: 3881: 3868: 3862: 3849: 3831:(1/2): 25–61, 3820: 3783: 3748: 3742: 3727: 3721: 3708: 3679: 3673: 3660: 3623: 3617: 3602: 3551: 3512: 3506: 3493: 3487: 3474: 3468: 3455: 3450: 3437: 3420: 3403: 3366: 3329: 3323: 3311:Hopkirk, Peter 3307: 3270: 3233: 3227: 3214: 3208: 3195: 3189: 3176: 3132: 3111: 3105: 3093:Hopkirk, Peter 3085: 3056: 3050: 3036: 3034: 3031: 3028: 3027: 3015: 3003: 2991: 2972: 2960: 2948: 2936: 2924: 2912: 2900: 2884: 2872: 2860: 2848: 2836: 2824: 2812: 2800: 2788: 2776: 2761: 2749: 2737: 2725: 2710: 2693: 2681: 2666: 2654: 2639: 2627: 2615: 2598: 2586: 2574: 2557: 2540: 2523: 2502: 2475: 2456: 2437: 2425: 2402: 2390: 2375: 2363: 2342: 2319: 2304: 2275: 2258: 2246: 2225: 2194: 2182: 2155: 2143: 2128: 2116: 2104: 2087: 2075: 2058: 2046: 2034: 2019: 2007: 1982: 1955: 1943: 1922: 1901: 1886: 1874: 1855: 1843: 1831: 1812: 1800: 1777: 1762: 1750: 1738: 1726: 1711: 1696: 1681: 1664: 1652: 1640: 1628: 1616: 1604: 1589: 1572: 1546: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1532:consul general 1527:Pour le Mérite 1487: 1484: 1431:Sydney Rowlatt 1418: 1415: 1407:Czech uprising 1379:Kalmyk Project 1352: 1349: 1296: 1295:On Afghanistan 1293: 1291: 1288: 1259: 1256: 1243:Harish Chandra 1209: 1206: 1141: 1138: 1136: 1133: 1049: 1046: 1040: 1037: 992:Durand mission 987: 984: 946: 943: 909: 906: 902:Amanullah Khan 894:Nasrullah Khan 869: 866: 823: 820: 767: 764: 721:Heinrich Reuss 645: 642: 608: 605: 583: 580: 557:Nasrullah Khan 477: 474: 466:Lala Har Dayal 457: 454: 371: 368: 320:secular nature 312:coup in Turkey 292:Constantinople 227:Entente Powers 188: 185: 165:Kalmyk Project 127:Russian Empire 65:British Empire 61:Central Powers 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6753: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6683: 6681: 6666: 6663: 6662: 6659: 6649: 6648: 6644: 6642: 6641: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6629: 6625: 6624: 6622: 6618: 6608: 6605: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6577: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6555: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6547: 6545: 6539: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6484: 6482: 6478: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6444: 6440: 6434: 6433:United States 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6384: 6381: 6378: 6373: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6327: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6304: 6301: 6297: 6294: 6293: 6292: 6289: 6288: 6286: 6285: 6283: 6281: 6277: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6260: 6258: 6257: 6255: 6253: 6249: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6223: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6212: 6209: 6208: 6206: 6205: 6203: 6201: 6197: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6180: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6169: 6168: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6148: 6146: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6125: 6123: 6119: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6093: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6065: 6062: 6061: 6059: 6058: 6056: 6050: 6045: 6035: 6034:United States 6032: 6028: 6025: 6024: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6004: 6002: 5998: 5992: 5989: 5985: 5984:Convoy system 5982: 5981: 5980: 5979:Naval warfare 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5953: 5950: 5949: 5948: 5945: 5944: 5942: 5938: 5935: 5931: 5920: 5917: 5914: 5911: 5908: 5905: 5902: 5899: 5894: 5891: 5888: 5885: 5882: 5879: 5876: 5873: 5872: 5871: 5868: 5865: 5862: 5859: 5856: 5853: 5850: 5847: 5844: 5841: 5838: 5835: 5832: 5829: 5826: 5823: 5820: 5817: 5814: 5811: 5808: 5805: 5802: 5799: 5796: 5793: 5790: 5787: 5784: 5781: 5778: 5775: 5772: 5769: 5766: 5765: 5763: 5759: 5752: 5749: 5746: 5743: 5740: 5739:Kaocen revolt 5737: 5734: 5733:Easter Rising 5731: 5728: 5725: 5722: 5719: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5705: 5702: 5699: 5696: 5693: 5690: 5687: 5684: 5681: 5678: 5675: 5672: 5669: 5666: 5663: 5660: 5657: 5654: 5651: 5648: 5647: 5645: 5641: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5531: 5529: 5527: 5523: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5429: 5425: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5352: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5305:Great Retreat 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5280: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5253: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5176:Battle of Cer 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5157: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5134: 5131: 5130: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5119: 5112: 5109: 5106: 5103: 5100: 5097: 5094: 5093:Agadir Crisis 5091: 5088: 5085: 5082: 5079: 5076: 5073: 5070: 5067: 5064: 5061: 5060: 5058: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5045: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4992: 4988: 4982: 4981:United States 4979: 4975: 4972: 4971: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4944: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4921: 4918: 4917: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4899: 4898:French Empire 4896: 4895: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4866: 4862: 4859: 4851: 4841: 4840:Mediterranean 4838: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4829: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4821: 4820:Naval warfare 4817: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4789: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4759: 4757: 4755: 4751: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4707: 4703: 4697: 4696:Italian Front 4694: 4690: 4687: 4686: 4685: 4684:Eastern Front 4682: 4680: 4679:Western Front 4677: 4673: 4670: 4669: 4668: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4660: 4656: 4653: 4649: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4637:Puppet states 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4579: 4576: 4572: 4565: 4560: 4558: 4553: 4551: 4546: 4545: 4542: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4491: 4489: 4485: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4453:Vincent Kraft 4451: 4449: 4448: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4436:Robert Nathan 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4421:Basil Thomson 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4399: 4395: 4389: 4388: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4371:Kabul Mission 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4346:February plot 4344: 4342: 4341: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4324: 4318: 4317: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4300:George Rodiek 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4261: 4255: 4254: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4227: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4195:Sachin Sanyal 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4182: 4180: 4176: 4170: 4169: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4098: 4097:Agnes Smedley 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4087:Vishnu Pingle 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4067:Bhagwan Singh 4065: 4063: 4062: 4061:Komagata Maru 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4030: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4004: 3999: 3989: 3988: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3956:Bhikaiji Cama 3954: 3952: 3949: 3946: 3942: 3939: 3938: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3921: 3916: 3914: 3909: 3907: 3902: 3901: 3898: 3884: 3882:81-7041-470-9 3878: 3874: 3869: 3865: 3863:0-9522900-0-6 3859: 3855: 3854:Riding to War 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3773: 3758: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3743:0-679-64090-8 3739: 3735: 3734: 3728: 3724: 3722:0-19-926191-1 3718: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3680: 3676: 3670: 3666: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3624: 3620: 3614: 3610: 3609: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3519: 3513: 3509: 3507:90-04-11371-1 3503: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3488:0-7146-4580-X 3484: 3481:, Routledge, 3480: 3475: 3471: 3469:0-87338-602-7 3465: 3461: 3456: 3453: 3451:81-7536-249-9 3447: 3443: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3330: 3326: 3324:0-19-280230-5 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3228:81-7154-667-6 3224: 3220: 3215: 3211: 3209:1-85285-575-4 3205: 3201: 3196: 3192: 3190:0-521-52117-3 3186: 3182: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3112: 3108: 3106:0-19-280387-5 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3053: 3051:90-04-12952-9 3047: 3043: 3038: 3037: 3025:, p. 236 3024: 3023:Schimmel 1980 3019: 3013:, p. 198 3012: 3007: 3001:, p. 235 3000: 2999:Schimmel 1980 2995: 2989:, p. 475 2988: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2969: 2964: 2958:, p. 523 2957: 2952: 2945: 2940: 2934:, p. 222 2933: 2928: 2922:, p. 223 2921: 2916: 2909: 2904: 2898: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2881: 2876: 2870:, p. 129 2869: 2864: 2858:, p. 175 2857: 2852: 2845: 2840: 2834:, p. 137 2833: 2828: 2821: 2816: 2809: 2808:Andreyev 2003 2804: 2797: 2796:Andreyev 2003 2792: 2785: 2784:Andreyev 2003 2780: 2773: 2772:Andreyev 2003 2768: 2766: 2758: 2757:Andreyev 2003 2753: 2746: 2745:Andreyev 2003 2741: 2734: 2733:Andreyev 2003 2729: 2722: 2721:Andreyev 2003 2717: 2715: 2708:, p. 473 2707: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2691:, p. 158 2690: 2685: 2679:, p. 157 2678: 2673: 2671: 2664:, p. 127 2663: 2658: 2652:, p. 230 2651: 2646: 2644: 2637:, p. 227 2636: 2631: 2625:, p. 210 2624: 2619: 2613:, p. 145 2612: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2596:, p. 144 2595: 2590: 2584:, p. 275 2583: 2578: 2572:, p. 791 2571: 2570:Strachan 2001 2566: 2564: 2562: 2554: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2538:, p. 217 2537: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2521:, p. 472 2520: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2500:, p. 471 2499: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2473:, p. 474 2472: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2453: 2452:Andreyev 2003 2448: 2446: 2444: 2442: 2435:, p. 516 2434: 2429: 2423:, p. 470 2422: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2411: 2409: 2407: 2400:, p. 1,3 2399: 2394: 2388:, p. 120 2387: 2382: 2380: 2373:, p. 165 2372: 2367: 2361:, p. 469 2360: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2347: 2340:, p. 468 2339: 2334: 2332: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2317:, p. 162 2316: 2311: 2309: 2302:, p. 467 2301: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2284: 2282: 2280: 2273:, p. 161 2272: 2267: 2265: 2263: 2256:, p. 160 2255: 2250: 2244:, p. 466 2243: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2223:, p. 465 2222: 2217: 2215: 2213: 2211: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2192:, p. 154 2191: 2186: 2180:, p. 464 2179: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2153:, p. 151 2152: 2147: 2141:, p. 150 2140: 2135: 2133: 2126:, p. 125 2125: 2120: 2114:, p. 144 2113: 2108: 2102:, p. 143 2101: 2096: 2094: 2092: 2085:, p. 142 2084: 2079: 2073:, p. 141 2072: 2067: 2065: 2063: 2056:, p. 139 2055: 2050: 2044:, p. 138 2043: 2038: 2032:, p. 137 2031: 2026: 2024: 2017:, p. 136 2016: 2011: 2005:, p. 463 2004: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1987: 1980:, p. 462 1979: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1953:, p. 461 1952: 1947: 1941:, p. 460 1940: 1935: 1933: 1931: 1929: 1927: 1920:, p. 459 1919: 1914: 1912: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1899:, p. 458 1898: 1893: 1891: 1884:, p. 121 1883: 1878: 1871: 1866: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1853:, p. 457 1852: 1847: 1841:, p. 234 1840: 1835: 1829:, p. 456 1828: 1823: 1821: 1819: 1817: 1809: 1804: 1798:, p. 455 1797: 1792: 1790: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1774: 1769: 1767: 1759: 1754: 1747: 1742: 1736:, p. 515 1735: 1730: 1724:, p. 142 1723: 1718: 1716: 1709:, p. 105 1708: 1703: 1701: 1694:, p. 453 1693: 1688: 1686: 1679:, p. 451 1678: 1673: 1671: 1669: 1662:, p. 449 1661: 1656: 1649: 1644: 1638:, p. 300 1637: 1632: 1626:, p. 252 1625: 1620: 1614:, p. 798 1613: 1612:Strachan 2001 1608: 1602:, p. 251 1601: 1596: 1594: 1587:, p. 452 1586: 1581: 1579: 1577: 1570:, p. 450 1569: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1547: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1519: 1518: 1513: 1508: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1483: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1457: 1452: 1448: 1442: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1417:British India 1414: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1387:Kalmyk people 1384: 1380: 1375: 1373: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1310: 1305: 1301: 1287: 1284: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1270: 1264: 1255: 1253: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1219: 1215: 1205: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1189: 1188:Reginald Dyer 1185: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1155: 1151: 1150:Reginald Dyer 1146: 1140:Seistan Force 1132: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1081: 1079: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1060: 1058: 1057: 1045: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1009: 1005: 999: 997: 993: 983: 981: 976: 974: 970: 965: 959: 951: 942: 938: 934: 929: 925: 923: 914: 905: 903: 899: 895: 890: 888: 883: 882:hunger strike 879: 875: 865: 863: 859: 855: 850: 844: 842: 838: 834: 830: 819: 817: 816:Dasht-e Kavir 812: 802: 798: 796: 792: 784: 783:Seistan Force 780: 779:Reginald Dyer 777: 772: 763: 761: 757: 756:camel caravan 753: 747: 745: 744:Seistan Force 741: 740:Lord Hardinge 737: 733: 729: 724: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 696: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 661: 659: 655: 651: 641: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 604: 602: 597: 594: 593:Deutsche Bank 590: 579: 577: 573: 569: 564: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 533: 531: 527: 522: 520: 516: 515:Eastern front 512: 506: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 473: 471: 467: 463: 453: 451: 445: 441: 439: 435: 429: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 385: 382: 378: 367: 364: 360: 355: 350: 348: 343: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 308: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 277: 273: 269: 265: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 238: 234: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 202: 198: 194: 184: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 149: 145: 143: 142:King George V 139: 138:Lord Hardinge 136: 132: 128: 123: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 82: 81:Indian prince 78: 74: 73:British India 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 48: 43: 35: 31: 27: 23: 19: 6645: 6638: 6626: 6233: / 6165: 6000:Conscription 5964:Cryptography 5901:Iraqi Revolt 5335:Siege of Kut 5278: 4856:participants 4805:German Samoa 4739:South Arabia 4524:Pan-Asianism 4445: 4441:Kirpal Singh 4386: 4370: 4339: 4333:Annie Larsen 4315: 4252: 4224: 4210:Pritam Singh 4167: 4132:A. R. Pillai 4102: 4082:Kartar Singh 4059: 4027: 3986: 3872: 3853: 3828: 3824: 3791: 3787: 3761:, retrieved 3756: 3732: 3712: 3687: 3683: 3664: 3631: 3627: 3607: 3563: 3559: 3522: 3516: 3497: 3478: 3459: 3441: 3424: 3407: 3374: 3370: 3337: 3333: 3314: 3278: 3274: 3241: 3237: 3218: 3199: 3180: 3147: 3143: 3119: 3115: 3096: 3089:Bailey, F.M. 3064: 3060: 3041: 3018: 3006: 2994: 2963: 2951: 2946:, p. 67 2939: 2932:Collett 2006 2927: 2915: 2903: 2875: 2863: 2851: 2846:, p. 92 2839: 2827: 2815: 2810:, p. 97 2803: 2798:, p. 92 2791: 2786:, p. 91 2779: 2774:, p. 96 2759:, p. 88 2752: 2747:, p. 87 2740: 2735:, p. 86 2728: 2723:, p. 83 2689:Hopkirk 2001 2684: 2677:Hopkirk 2001 2657: 2630: 2623:Collett 2006 2618: 2611:Collett 2006 2594:Collett 2006 2589: 2577: 2536:Hopkirk 2001 2454:, p. 95 2428: 2393: 2371:Hopkirk 2001 2366: 2315:Hopkirk 2001 2271:Hopkirk 2001 2254:Hopkirk 2001 2249: 2190:Hopkirk 2001 2185: 2151:Hopkirk 2001 2146: 2139:Hopkirk 2001 2124:Hopkirk 2001 2119: 2112:Hopkirk 2001 2107: 2100:Hopkirk 2001 2083:Hopkirk 2001 2078: 2071:Hopkirk 2001 2054:Hopkirk 2001 2049: 2042:Hopkirk 2001 2037: 2030:Hopkirk 2001 2015:Hopkirk 2001 2010: 1946: 1882:Hopkirk 2001 1877: 1872:, p. 99 1870:Hopkirk 2001 1846: 1834: 1810:, p. 98 1808:Hopkirk 2001 1803: 1775:, p. 85 1773:Hopkirk 2001 1758:Qureshi 1999 1753: 1748:, p. 78 1746:Qureshi 1999 1741: 1729: 1655: 1650:, p. 29 1643: 1631: 1619: 1607: 1515: 1509: 1489: 1460: 1443: 1420: 1395: 1376: 1369: 1342:flag carrier 1329: 1326: 1314: 1309:Mahmud Tarzi 1298: 1280: 1274: 1265: 1261: 1211: 1201:Trans-Caspia 1199:was sent to 1159: 1106: 1082: 1061: 1054: 1051: 1042: 1019:. After the 1000: 989: 977: 973:Mahmud Tarzi 968: 960: 956: 939: 935: 931: 927: 919: 891: 887:Rolls-Royces 874:Bagh-e Babur 871: 857: 845: 825: 807: 788: 748: 725: 697: 662: 647: 610: 598: 585: 582:Organisation 565: 534: 523: 507: 479: 459: 446: 442: 430: 386: 377:Germanophile 373: 351: 344: 324:Muslim world 309: 281: 262:Ghadar Party 239: 235: 204: 154: 124: 106:, including 59:sent by the 45: 41: 39: 18: 6263:Netherlands 6240:Switzerland 6121:Occupations 6112:Spanish flu 5889:(1919–1922) 5883:(1918–1921) 5877:(1918–1923) 5866:(1919–1921) 5860:(1919–1921) 5854:(1919–1920) 5830:(1918–1920) 5824:(1918–1920) 5818:(1918–1920) 5800:(1918–1920) 5782:(1918–1920) 5776:(1917–1921) 5770:(1917–1921) 5717:(1916-1918) 5715:Arab Revolt 5706:(1915–1917) 5700:(1915–1917) 5688:(1914-1917) 5682:(1914–1917) 5676:(1914–1921) 5670:(1913–1920) 5658:(1910–1920) 5652:(1900–1920) 5150:July Crisis 5071:(1880–1914) 4734:Mesopotamia 4612:Home fronts 4571:World War I 4431:Vernon Kell 4310:Niedermayer 4190:Rash Behari 4185:Bagha Jatin 4142:Barkatullah 4077:Ram Chandra 4018:Sohan Singh 3961:India House 2987:Hughes 2002 2968:Tuteja 1997 2880:Sarkar 1983 2844:Tinker 1968 2820:Lovett 1920 2706:Hughes 2002 2662:McKale 1998 2582:Hughes 2002 2555:, p. 4 2519:Hughes 2002 2498:Hughes 2002 2471:Hughes 2002 2433:Ansari 1986 2421:Hughes 2002 2359:Hughes 2002 2338:Hughes 2002 2300:Hughes 2002 2242:Hughes 2002 2221:Hughes 2002 2178:Hughes 2002 2003:Hughes 2002 1978:Hughes 2002 1951:Hughes 2002 1939:Hughes 2002 1918:Hughes 2002 1897:Hughes 2002 1851:Hughes 2002 1827:Hughes 2002 1796:Hughes 2002 1734:Ansari 1986 1692:Hughes 2002 1677:Hughes 2002 1660:Hughes 2002 1624:Hoover 1985 1600:Hoover 1985 1585:Hughes 2002 1568:Hughes 2002 1472:1857 revolt 1435:Rowlatt Act 1372:orientalist 1269:King George 1223:Percy Sykes 1098:Gobi Desert 1073:Goltz Pasha 1065:Arab revolt 833:Barkatullah 822:Afghanistan 689:Frederick I 654:Enver Pasha 638:Abbas Hilmi 545:India House 476:Composition 332:Arab Revolt 193:World War I 167:of nascent 120:Enver Pasha 69:World War I 57:Afghanistan 6680:Categories 6480:Agreements 6280:War crimes 6156:Luxembourg 6049:Casualties 4927:Montenegro 4762:South West 4642:Technology 4632:Propaganda 4622:Opposition 4326:Conspiracy 4275:Zimmermann 4092:Kanshi Ram 4050:Guran Ditt 4045:Tarak Nath 3934:Background 3763:10 January 2956:Brown 1973 2897:Swami 1997 2553:Seidt 2001 2398:Seidt 2001 1722:Reetz 2007 1707:Jalal 2007 1648:Yadav 1992 1636:Brown 1948 1517:Reichswehr 1334:Telefunken 1094:Hindu Kush 760:Sven Hedin 709:Kermanshah 701:Rauf Orbay 636:of Egypt, 630:Adrianople 381:Sven Hedin 330:until the 187:Background 6377:Diplomacy 6084:Olympians 6007:Australia 5974:Logistics 5907:Vlora War 5836:(1918–19) 5812:(1918–19) 5806:(1918–19) 5794:(1918–19) 5741:(1916–17) 5723:(1916–17) 5674:Zaian War 5664:(1914–15) 5391:first day 5279:Lusitania 5107:(1912–13) 5101:(1911–12) 5089:(1908–09) 5083:(1905–06) 5065:(1870–71) 4854:Principal 4714:Gallipoli 4617:Memorials 4602:Geography 4592:Aftermath 4468:Guy Gaunt 4205:M. N. Roy 3816:150456443 3808:0022-0094 3757:The Hindu 3704:0305-6139 3648:0149-7952 3590:0032-3195 3547:143345615 3539:1089-201X 3433:565328342 3399:146697647 3391:1479-2443 3354:0149-7952 3295:0149-7952 3258:0030-851X 3164:0030-8684 3128:0030-851X 3081:145177112 3011:Jain 1979 2944:Cell 2002 1542:Citations 1290:Influence 1252:Rajputana 1125:Petrograd 1033:Petrograd 1025:Bolshevik 854:Hazarajat 837:Samarkand 774:A map by 693:Euphrates 665:Bosphorus 658:Kasim Bey 622:Bucharest 379:explorer 300:Jerusalem 231:Turkestan 116:Kazim Bey 6665:Category 6252:Refugees 6218:Italians 6207:Germans 6167:Ober Ost 5947:Aviation 5048:Timeline 5019:Bulgaria 4800:Tsingtao 4777:Togoland 4724:Caucasus 4659:European 4651:Theatres 4340:Maverick 4226:Deobandi 4013:Hardayal 3971:Jugantar 3945:militant 3772:citation 3313:(2001), 3095:(2002), 1501:Istanbul 1486:Epilogue 1121:Tashkent 1102:Honolulu 1004:Deobandi 849:Kandahar 618:Budapest 402:Deobandi 316:Mehmed V 296:Damascus 272:Mehmed V 67:, enter 51:, was a 6403:Germany 6303:Germany 6231:Germany 6151:Belgium 6136:Albania 6095:Disease 6075:Sports 6027:Ireland 5940:Warfare 5933:Aspects 5128:Origins 5121:Prelude 5024:Senussi 5004:Germany 4999:Leaders 4937:Romania 4878:Belgium 4873:Leaders 4772:Kamerun 4754:African 4689:Romania 4667:Balkans 4582:Outline 4127:Champak 3845:3517759 3656:1433153 3598:2142669 3416:6858745 3362:1432596 3303:1428642 3266:2755297 3172:3634258 1409:on the 1338:Siemens 1129:Trotsky 1090:Yarkand 1069:Erzurum 1029:Trotsky 1006:leader 922:Paghman 878:Paghman 795:Birjand 776:Colonel 732:Isfahan 713:malaria 673:Baghdad 634:Khedive 607:Journey 511:Persian 490:Hathras 135:Viceroy 88:Germany 49:Mission 6423:Russia 6398:France 6226:Canada 6141:Serbia 6012:Canada 5969:Horses 5921:(1921) 5915:(1920) 5909:(1920) 5903:(1920) 5895:(1920) 5848:(1919) 5842:(1919) 5788:(1918) 5753:(1918) 5747:(1917) 5735:(1916) 5729:(1916) 5694:(1915) 5113:(1913) 5095:(1911) 5077:(1905) 5034:Darfur 4959:Serbia 4942:Russia 4905:Greece 4893:France 4883:Brazil 4729:Persia 4672:Serbia 4426:MI5(g) 4305:Hentig 4122:Chatto 4006:Ghadar 3879: 3860: 3843: 3814: 3806: 3740: 3719: 3702: 3671: 3654: 3646: 3615: 3596: 3588: 3545: 3537: 3504: 3485: 3466: 3448: 3431: 3414: 3397: 3389: 3360: 3352: 3321: 3301: 3293: 3264: 3256: 3225: 3206: 3187: 3170: 3162: 3126: 3103: 3079: 3048: 1195:, the 1182:, the 1170:Sistan 1056:durbar 1015:, and 898:Pashto 858:salaam 841:Bombay 811:Meshed 752:Tebbes 717:Tehran 687:, and 675:. 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Knowledge

Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition

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