Nuclear reprocessing

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5.5–7.9 billion) of the cost of reprocessing ($ 24.7 billion). At the end of the year 2011 it became clear that Masaya Yasui, who had been director of the Nuclear Power Policy Planning Division in 2004, had instructed his subordinate in April 2004 to conceal the data. The fact that the data were deliberately concealed obliged the ministry to re-investigate the case and to reconsider whether to punish the officials involved.

3309: 2801: 3614: 3582: 3550: 3517: 3485: 2984: 2951: 2921: 2891: 2859: 2830: 2116:(melting point: 912.5 K (639.4 °C; 1,182.8 °F)), are molten. This could be used to recover a liquid phase, raising proliferation concerns, given that uranium metal remains a solid until 1,405.3 K (1,132.2 °C; 2,069.9 °F). While neptunium and plutonium cannot be easily separated from each other by different melting points, their differing solubility in water can be used to separate them. 8479: 3831: 3155: 3371: 3340: 3280: 3248: 3218: 3186: 8503: 1074: 4698: 4645: 1485:, and volume, of spent fuel comes from actinides, removing the actinides produces waste that is more compact, and not nearly as dangerous over the long term. The radioactivity of this waste will then drop to the level of various naturally occurring minerals and ores within a few hundred, rather than thousands of, years. 1276:

Short lived radionuclides can be recovered from "fresh" spent fuel allowing either their direct use in industry science or medicine or the recovery of their decay products without contamination by other isotopes (for example: ruthenium in spent fuel decays to rhodium all isotopes of which other than

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Law, Jack D.; Herbst, R. Scott; Todd, Terry A.; Romanovskiy, Valeriy N.; Babain, Vasily A.; Esimantovskiy, Vyatcheslav M.; Smirnov, Igor V.; Zaitsev, Boris N. (2001). "The Universal Solvent Extraction (Unex) Process. Ii. Flowsheet Development and Demonstration of the Unex Process for the Separation

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can form volatile fluorides, but these compounds are not stable when the fluorine partial pressure is decreased. Most of the plutonium and some of the uranium will initially remain in ash which drops to the bottom of the flame fluorinator. The plutonium-uranium ratio in the ash may even approximate

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A "third phase recovery" can be added to the process if substances that melt but don't vaporize at the temperatures involved are drained to a container for liquid effluents and allowed to re-solidify. To avoid contamination with low-boiling products which melt at low temperatures, a melt plug could

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volumes decreased. Nuclear fuel reprocessing is performed routinely in Europe, Russia, and Japan. In the United States, the Obama administration stepped back from President Bush's plans for commercial-scale reprocessing and reverted to a program focused on reprocessing-related scientific research.

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a radioisotope with a two year half life will retain 0.5^0.5 or over 70% of its power after a year - all those isotopes have half lives longer than two years and would thus retain even more power. Even if the yearly refueling window were to be missed, over half the power would still remain for the

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Many volatile fluorides and chlorides are volatile at relatively moderate temperatures reducing thermal stress. This is especially important as the boiling point of uranium hexafluoride is below that of water, allowing to conserve energy in the separation of high boiling fission products (or their

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by diversion of plutonium from the civilian fuel cycle, and to encourage other nations to follow the US lead. After that, only countries that already had large investments in reprocessing infrastructure continued to reprocess spent nuclear fuel. President Reagan lifted the ban in 1981, but did not

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as tritiated water vapor before further processing where it would be difficult to retain the tritium. Tritium is a difficult contaminant to remove from aqueous solution, as it cannot be separated from water except by isotope separation. However, tritium is also a valuable product used in industry

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Romanovskiy, Valeriy N.; Smirnov, Igor V.; Babain, Vasily A.; Todd, Terry A.; Herbst, R. Scott; Law, Jack D.; Brewer, Ken N. (2001). "The Universal Solvent Extraction (Unex) Process. I. Development of the Unex Process Solvent for the Separation of Cesium, Strontium, and the Actinides from Acidic

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in off-grid locations where refueling is possible once a year. Antimony would be particularly interesting because it forms a stable alloy with lead and can thus be transformed relatively easily into a partially self-shielding and chemically inert form. Shorter lived RTG fuels present the further

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In July 2004 Japanese newspapers reported that the Japanese Government had estimated the costs of disposing radioactive waste, contradicting claims four months earlier that no such estimates had been made. The cost of non-reprocessing options was estimated to be between a quarter and a third ($

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In the commonly used oxide fuel, some elements will be present both as oxides and as native elements. Depending on their chemical state, they may end up in either the volatalized stream or in the residue stream. If an element is present in both states to a significant degree, separation of that

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by a process such as DIAMEX or TRUEX. To allow the actinides such as americium to be either reused in industrial sources or used as fuel, the lanthanides must be removed. The lanthanides have large neutron cross sections and hence they would poison a neutron driven nuclear reaction. To date the

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On 25 October 2011 a commission of the Japanese Atomic Energy Commission revealed during a meeting calculations about the costs of recycling nuclear fuel for power generation. These costs could be twice the costs of direct geological disposal of spent fuel: the cost of extracting plutonium and

2621:. For the preparation of SIRs for radioanalytical separations, organic Amberlite XAD-4 or XAD-7 can be used. Possible extractants are e.g. trihexyltetradecylphosphonium chloride(CYPHOS IL-101) or N,N0-dialkyl-N,N0-diphenylpyridine-2,6-dicarboxyamides (R-PDA; R = butyl, octy I, decyl, dodecyl). 1064:

As there are some downsides to the PUREX process, there have been efforts to develop alternatives to the process, some of them compatible with PUREX (i.e. the residue from one process could be used as feedstock for the other) and others wholly incompatible. None of these have (as of the 2020s)

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fabrication facility. Site preparation at the Savannah River Site (South Carolina) began in October 2005. In 2011 the New York Times reported "...11 years after the government awarded a construction contract, the cost of the project has soared to nearly $ 5 billion. The vast concrete and steel

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When used on fuel from commercial power reactors the plutonium extracted typically contains too much Pu-240 to be considered "weapons-grade" plutonium, ideal for use in a nuclear weapon. Nevertheless, highly reliable nuclear weapons can be built at all levels of technical sophistication using

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step is used to separate the residual transuranic elements from the fission products and recycle the transuranics to the reactor for fissioning. Newly generated technetium and iodine are extracted for incorporation into transmutation targets, and the other fission products are sent to waste.

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requires large facilities and huge amounts of energy. To process tons of uranium would require similarly large facilities as processing tons of petroleum - however, unlike petroleum refineries, the entire process would have to take place inside radiation shielding and there would have to be

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The relative economics of reprocessing-waste disposal and interim storage-direct disposal was the focus of much debate over the first decade of the 2000s. Studies have modeled the total fuel cycle costs of a reprocessing-recycling system based on one-time recycling of plutonium in existing

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If reprocessing is undertaken only to reduce the radioactivity level of spent fuel it should be taken into account that spent nuclear fuel becomes less radioactive over time. After 40 years its radioactivity drops by 99.9%, though it still takes over a thousand years for the level of

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structure is a half-finished hulk, and the government has yet to find a single customer, despite offers of lucrative subsidies." TVA (currently the most likely customer) said in April 2011 that it would delay a decision until it could see how MOX fuel performed in the nuclear accident at

129:, also known as the spent fuel material, can in principle also be re-used as fuel, but that is only economical when uranium supply is low and prices are high. Nuclear reprocessing may extend beyond fuel and include the reprocessing of other nuclear reactor material, such as 2285:, is also efficiently converted to its volatile hexafluoride. A few other elements also form similarly volatile hexafluorides, pentafluorides, or heptafluorides. The volatile fluorides can be separated from excess fluorine by condensation, then separated from each other by 4291: 2638:

cycle) and compare this to the total costs of an open fuel cycle with direct disposal. The range of results produced by these studies is very wide, but all agreed that under then-current economic conditions the reprocessing-recycle option is the more costly one. While the

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which is immersed in a molten salt electrolyte. An electric current is applied, causing the uranium metal (or sometimes oxide, depending on the spent fuel) to plate out on a solid metal cathode while the other actinides (and the rare earths) can be absorbed into a liquid

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at once and produce highly radioactive fuel which is harder to manipulate for theft or making nuclear weapons. (However, the difficulty has been questioned.) In contrast the PUREX process was designed to separate plutonium only for weapons, and it also leaves the

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Simply heating spent oxide fuel in an inert atmosphere or vacuum at a temperature between 700 °C (1,292 °F) and 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) as a first reprocessing step can remove several volatile elements, including caesium whose isotope

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Blue elements have volatile fluorides or are already volatile; green elements do not but have volatile chlorides; red elements have neither, but the elements themselves or their oxides are volatile at very high temperatures. Yields at 10 years after

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of uranium, plutonium and minor actinides in a molten salt. The standard potential of uranium is the lowest, therefore when a potential is applied, the uranium will be reduced at the cathode out of the molten salt solution before the other elements.

1658:(temperature: 77 K (−196.2 °C; −321.1 °F) or lower). However, this requires significant amounts of cooling to counteract the effect of decay heat from radioactive volatiles like krypton-85. Tritium will be present in the form of 1642:

The resulting product can be further processed by any of the other processes mentioned above and below. Removal of volatile fission products means that transportation becomes slightly easier compared to spent fuel with damaged or removed

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is an obsolete process that adds significant unnecessary material to the final radioactive waste. The bismuth phosphate process has been replaced by solvent extraction processes. The bismuth phosphate process was designed to extract

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boils at 335 K (62 °C; 143 °F) this means that any facility capable of separating uranium hexafluoride from Technetium hexafluoride is capable of separating plutonium hexafluoride from either, raising proliferation

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Reprocessing as a whole is not currently (2005) in favor, and places that do reprocess already have PUREX plants constructed. Consequently, there is little demand for new pyrometallurgical systems, although there could be if the

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fluorides will also form volatile high-valence chlorides. Chlorination and distillation is another possible method for separation. The sequence of separation may differ usefully from the sequence for fluorides; for example,

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have relatively low boiling points of 331 °C (628 °F) and 114.1 °C (237.4 °F). Chlorination has even been proposed as a method for removing zirconium fuel cladding, instead of mechanical decladding.

1269:(even if the recovered short lived radionuclides are "only" sent to storage, that still requires less space as the bulk of the mass, uranium, can be stored separately from them). Uranium – even higher specific activity 1668:

can be removed as a gas by heating above its boiling point of 392.6 K (119.5 °C; 247.0 °F) which reduces the issues presented by Technetium contamination in processes like fluoride volatility or PUREX;

1312:(RTGs) that are mostly decayed in spent fuel, that has significantly aged, can be recovered in sufficient quantities to make their use worthwhile. Examples include materials with half lives around two years such as 2510:

Fluorides and chlorides differ in water solubility depending on the cation. This can be used to separate them by aqueous solution. However, some fluorides violently react with water, which has to be taken into

983:) to increase the nitrate concentration in the aqueous phase to obtain a reasonable distribution ratio (D value). Also, hexone is degraded by concentrated nitric acid. This process was used in 1952-1956 on the 1247:

Most of the radioactivity in roughly 10 to 10 years after the use of the nuclear fuel is produced by the actinides, since there are no fission products with half-lives in this range. These actinides can fuel

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The temperatures involved are much higher than the melting point of lead (600.61 K (327.46 °C; 621.43 °F)) which can present issues with radiation shielding if lead is employed as a shielding

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that small particles of ground oxide fuel will burst into flame when dropped into a chamber full of fluorine. This is known as flame fluorination; the heat produced helps the reaction proceed. Most of the

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fuel. In 1943, several methods were proposed for separating the relatively small quantity of plutonium from the uranium and fission products. The first method selected, a precipitation process called the

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have very similar boiling points (329.6 K (56.5 °C; 133.6 °F) and 328.4 K (55.3 °C; 131.4 °F) respectively), making it hard to completely separate them from one another by

1573:, so recovery of a stream of hydrogen or water with a high tritium content can make targeted recovery economically worthwhile. Other volatile elements leave the fuel and must be recovered, especially 4797: 4693:; Blaedel, Jr., Walter J. & Walling, Matthew T., "Method for separation of plutonium from uranium and fission products by solvent extraction", published 1960-08-23, assigned to 140:

of spent nuclear material means that reprocessing must be highly controlled and carefully executed in advanced facilities by specialized personnel. Numerous processes exist, with the chemical based

716:. The process is sufficiently mature that an industrial plant could be constructed with the existing knowledge of the process. In common with PUREX this process operates by a solvation mechanism. 2647:

significantly affect the economics of nuclear reprocessing. If uranium prices were to rise and remain consistently high, "stretching the fuel supply" via MOX fuel, breeder reactors or even the

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More compact than aqueous methods, allowing on-site reprocessing at the reactor site, which avoids transportation of spent fuel and its security issues, instead storing a much smaller volume of

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Some fluorides and chlorides melt at relatively low temperatures allowing a "liquid phase separation" if desired. Those low melting salts could be further processed by molten salt electrolysis.

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Working with "fresh" spent fuel requires more shielding and better ways to deal with heat production than working with "aged" spent fuel does. If the facilities are built in such a way as to

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Adding a second extraction agent, octyl(phenyl)-N, N-dibutyl carbamoylmethyl phosphine oxide (CMPO) in combination with tributylphosphate, (TBP), the PUREX process can be turned into the

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A process based on a solvation extraction process using the triether extractant named above. This process has the disadvantage of requiring the use of a salting-out reagent (aluminium

7254: 1512:) can become quite high, creating fuel that is substantially different from the usual uranium or mixed uranium-plutonium oxides (MOX) that most current reactors were designed to use. 408:, in the later part of 1944. It was successful for plutonium separation in the emergency situation existing then, but it had a significant weakness: the inability to recover uranium. 2671:

handling spent fuel was estimated at 1.98 to 2.14 yen per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated. Discarding the spent fuel as waste would cost only 1 to 1.35 yen per kilowatt-hour.

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Radioactive material is not chemically mobilized beyond what should be accounted for in long-term storage anyway. Substances that are inert as native elements or oxides remain so

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on the one hand and alpha particles on the other are of lesser concern as they do not have as high a cross section and do not produce neutrons or long lived radionuclides.

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whose ruthenate ion is particularly troublesome in PUREX and which has no isotopes significantly longer lived than a year, allowing possible recovery of the metal for use

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In October 1976, concern of nuclear weapons proliferation (especially after India demonstrated nuclear weapons capabilities using reprocessing technology) led President

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can be used. SIRs are porous particles, which contain an extractant inside their pores. This approach avoids the liquid-liquid separation step required in conventional

8034: 4569:"Flowsheet testing of the universal solvent extraction process for the simultaneous separation of caesium, strontium, and the actinides from dissolved INEEL calcine" 1292:. Palladium derived from the decay of fission ruthenium and rhodium will be nonradioactive, but fission Palladium contains significant contamination with long-lived 752:

extraction system for the SANEX process has not been defined, but currently several different research groups are working towards a process. For instance the French

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process was used by the early Soviet nuclear industry to recover plutonium from irradiated fuel. It was never used in the West; the idea is to dissolve the fuel in

2123:, heat production and radiation release. If an external heat source is used, significant amounts of external power are needed, which mostly go to heat the uranium. 4991:

Tulackova, R., et al. "Development of Pyrochemical Reprocessing of the Spent Nuclear Fuel and Prospects of Closed Fuel Cycle." Atom Indonesia 33.1 (2007): 47–59.

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and neutrons. This effect can be reduced by separating alpha emitters and fluorine as fast as feasible. Interactions between chlorine's two stable isotopes

5198: 5096: 2643:- particularly its short term fluctuations - has only a minor impact on the cost of electricity from nuclear power, long-term trends in the uranium market 4413:

Modelling and achievement of a SANEX process flowsheet for trivalent actinides/lanthanides separation using BTP extractant (bis-1,2,4-triazinyl-pyridine).

6969: 6675: 1252:, so extracting and reusing (fissioning) them increases energy production per kg of fuel, as well as reducing the long-term radioactivity of the wastes. 863:

has been reported. Other methods for the extraction of uranium using ion exchange in alkaline carbonate and "fumed" lead oxide have also been reported.

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If the goal is to reduce the longevity of spent nuclear fuel in burner reactors, then better recovery rates of the minor actinides need to be achieved.

4415: 4376: 5692: 5665: 5645: 1305:. Ruthenium-107 and rhodium-107 both have half lives on the order of minutes and decay to palladium-107 before reprocessing under most circumstances) 6429: 5169:. Proceedings of the 6th information exchange meeting on actinide and fission product partitioning and transmutation (Madrid, Spain). Archived from 4640:, Gardner, Harry E., "Recovery of uranium from uranium bearing solutions containing molybdenum", published 1982-12-28, assigned to 4395: 2083:

remains solid below 2,804 K (2,531 °C; 4,588 °F) and if strontium oxide is to be recovered with other liquid effluents, it has to be

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Kabay, N.; Cortina, J.L.; Trochimczuk, A.; Streat, M. (2010). "Solvent-impregnated resins (SIRs) – Methods of preparation and their applications".

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The UREX process is a PUREX process which has been modified to prevent the plutonium from being extracted. This can be done by adding a plutonium

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Many compounds of fluorine or chlorine as well as the native elements themselves are toxic, corrosive and react violently with air, water or both

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reached widespread commercial use, but some have seen large scale tests or firm commitments towards their future larger scale implementation.

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designed to convert transuranic nuclear waste into fission products ). A typical transmuter fuel is free from uranium and contains recovered

5508: 5019: 4253: 7271: 6702: 1741:, which has a similar half-life). The estimated overall mass balance for 20,000 g of processed fuel with 2,000 g of cladding is: 167:

Relatively high cost is associated with spent fuel reprocessing compared to the once-through fuel cycle, but fuel use can be increased and

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National Research Council, "Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separation and Transmutation", National Academy Press, Washington D.C. 1996.

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emits about half of the heat produced by the spent fuel over the following 100 years of cooling (however, most of the other half is from

1673:(gaseous above 313.1 K (40.0 °C; 103.9 °F)) can likewise be removed from the spent fuel and recovered for sale or disposal 1585:. Voloxidation also breaks up the fuel or increases its surface area to enhance penetration of reagents in following reprocessing steps. 5318: 5130: 4325: 7037: 6271: 6062: 5090:"Limited Proliferation-Resistance Benefits from Recycling Unseparated Transuranics and Lanthanides from Light-Water Reactor Spent Fuel" 4134: 4110: 3319: 1199:) can remove 99% of the tritium from used fuel and recover it in the form of a strong solution suitable for use as a supply of tritium. 6214: 5934: 5120:

Morss, L. R. The chemistry of the actinide and transactinide elements. Eds. Lester R. Morss, et al. Vol. 1. Dordrecht: Springer, 2006.

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Fractional distillation allows many elements to be separated from each other in a single step or iterative repetition of the same step

636:(AHA) to the extraction and scrub sections of the process. The addition of AHA greatly diminishes the extractability of plutonium and 7540: 753: 713: 7779: 4351: 2387:

fluorides. The temperatures involved are much higher, but can be lowered somewhat by distilling in a vacuum. If a carrier salt like

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The used salt from pyroprocessing is less suitable for conversion into glass than the waste materials produced by the PUREX process.

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of the waste, the majority of the waste can then be disposed of with greater ease. In common with PUREX this process operates by a

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As there are little to no chemical changes in the spent fuel, any chemical reprocessing methods can be used following this process

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in 1951-1964. This process has been replaced by PUREX, which was shown to be a superior technology for larger scale reprocessing.

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produced an oxide. The combined lanthanum plutonium oxide was collected and extracted with nitric acid to form plutonium nitrate.

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The first successful solvent extraction process for the recovery of pure uranium and plutonium was developed at ORNL in 1949. The

7990: 7830: 7769: 6485: 6029: 1025:) to increase the nitrate concentration in the aqueous phase to obtain a reasonable distribution ratio. This process was used at 610: 7910: 5402:"Neutron and gamma-ray signatures for the control of alpha-emitting materials in uranium production: A Nedis2m-MCNP6 simulation" 5000:

Nagarajan, K., et al. "Current status of pyrochemical reprocessing research in India." Nuclear Technology 162.2 (2008): 259–263.

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I. Hensing and W Schultz, Economic Comparison of Nuclear Fuel Cycle Options, Energiewirtschaftlichen Instituts, Cologne, 1995.

6964: 5312: 4568: 3350: 3130: 2663:, remains high for over 100,000 years, so if not reused as nuclear fuel, then those elements need secure disposal because of 2007: 1309: 6178: 5629: 1488:

The mixed actinides produced by pyrometallic processing can be used again as nuclear fuel, as they are virtually all either

1093:, consisting largely of plutonium and uranium though with important minor constituents, are extracted using electrorefining/ 712:(although the acidic gases could be recovered by a scrubber). The DIAMEX process is being worked on in Europe by the French 7786: 5604: 2441:

Chlorides remaining after volatilization may also be separated by solubility in water. Chlorides of alkaline elements like

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reactor or even downblended with similarly treated spent CANDU fuel if too much fissile material is left in the spent fuel.

1552:) involves heating oxide fuel with oxygen, sometimes with alternating oxidation and reduction, or alternating oxidation by 5578: 4055: 4029: 3926: 900:

The plutonium at this point is in the +4 oxidation state. It was then precipitated out of the solution by the addition of

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Chemical Combine in Russia, and at sites such as the Tokai plant in Japan, the Tarapur plant in India, and briefly at the

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The process is simple and requires no complex machinery or chemicals above and beyond that required in all reprocessing (

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Cogema, Reprocessing-Recycling: the Industrial Stakes, presentation to the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Bonn, 9 May 1995.

4664: 2413:, or that can be more securely stored outside the reactor core while awaiting eventual transfer to permanent storage. 453:

to indefinitely suspend the commercial reprocessing and recycling of plutonium in the U.S. On 7 April 1977, President

7065: 6944: 6647: 6455: 6301: 5284: 4319: 4107:"Plutonium Recovery from Spent Fuel Reprocessing by Nuclear Fuel Services at West Valley, New York from 1966 to 1972" 3883: 2614: 640:, providing somewhat greater proliferation resistance than with the plutonium extraction stage of the PUREX process. 258: 68: 46: 5246: 39: 8295: 8160: 6695: 3873: 2043:

in relatively fresh spent fuel makes the curve of overall radiation and heat output much steeper until most of the

613:, by removing the uranium which makes up the vast majority of the mass and volume of used fuel and recycling it as 2091:

and hydrogen upon contact with water, which can be used to separate them from non-soluble parts of the spent fuel.

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be used to open the container for liquid effluents only once a certain temperature is reached by the liquid phase.

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traction) process has the advantage of avoiding the formation of organic waste which contains elements other than

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fluorides) from one another as this can take place in the absence of uranium, which makes up the bulk of the mass

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All volatile products of concern (while helium will be present in the spent fuel, there won't be any radioactive

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The bismuth phosphate was next re-precipitated, leaving the plutonium in solution, and an iron(II) salt (such as

760:(BTP) based process. Other systems such as the dithiophosphinic acids are being worked on by some other workers. 5195: 5089: 2651:

could become more attractive. However, if uranium prices remain low, reprocessing will remain less attractive.

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designs carry out fluoride volatility reprocessing continuously or at frequent intervals. The goal is to return

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Further processing is needed if the resulting product is to be used for re-enrichment or fabrication of MOX-fuel

8228: 8077: 7535: 6510: 4848: 4661:"The plutonium production story at the Hanford Site: processes and facilities history (WHC-MR-0521) (excerpts)" 3733: 439: 420: 157: 5688: 5657: 5548: 8529: 8002: 7835: 7259: 7187: 5060: 3868: 3196: 1388:

high specific activity material, they cannot handle older "legacy waste" except blended with fresh spent fuel

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Annotated bibliography for reprocessing spent nuclear fuel from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues

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The principles behind it are well understood, and no significant technical barriers exist to their adoption.

947:) was added. The plutonium was again re-precipitated using a bismuth phosphate carrier and a combination of 920:) was separated from the solid. The precipitate was then dissolved in nitric acid before the addition of an 568:

reactor-grade plutonium. Moreover, reactors that are capable of refueling frequently can be used to produce

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process dominating. Alternatives include heating to drive off volatile elements, burning via oxidation, and

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Study of Electrochemical Processes for Separation of the Actinides and Lanthanides in Molten Fluoride Media

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Chlorides are likely to be easier than fluorides to later convert back to other compounds, such as oxides.

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is being used as a solvent, high-temperature distillation is a way to separate the carrier salt for reuse.

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Heating and cooling the vacuum chamber and/or the piping and vessels to collect volatile effluents induces

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volatilized are the same ones volatilized in non-fluorinated, higher-temperature volatilization, such as

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If volatile fission products escape to the environment this presents a radiation hazard, mostly due to

1621: 398: 5214: 5170: 5164:"Development of plutonium recovery process by molten salt electrorefining with liquid cadmium cathode" 4686: 4637: 2301:

have very similar boiling points and vapor pressures, which makes complete separation more difficult.

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has to be used for reduction/oxidation steps whose recovery can be difficult, energy consuming or both

708:. Such an organic waste can be burned without the formation of acidic gases which could contribute to 668:

and is designed to remove the transuranic metals (Am/Cm) from waste. The idea is that by lowering the

401:. ORNL produced the first macroscopic quantities (grams) of separated plutonium with these processes. 8483: 8165: 7774: 7557: 6564: 5574: 5400:

Vlaskin, Gennady N.; Bedenko, Sergey V.; Polozkov, Sergey D.; Ghal-Eh, Nima; Rahmani, Faezeh (2023).

4203:"Proving a Negative – Why Modern Used Nuclear Fuel Cannot Be Used to Make a Weapon – Atomic Insights" 4025: 3836: 3803: 3067: 1460:) remain in the salt. As alternatives to the molten cadmium electrode it is possible to use a molten 877: 684:

As an alternative to TRUEX, an extraction process using a malondiamide has been devised. The DIAMEX (

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plutonium, which can later be recovered using PUREX. Because of this, PUREX chemicals are monitored.

470: 390: 5340: 1351:. While those would perhaps not be suitable for lengthy space missions, they can be used to replace 466:

provide the substantial subsidy that would have been necessary to start up commercial reprocessing.

8413: 8255: 8155: 8067: 7276: 7162: 7122: 6934: 5820: 5789: 5278:"Removal of caesium from spent nuclear fuel destined for the electrorefiner fuel treatment process" 4967: 2618: 2597: 545: 277: 33: 6664: 6391: 5215:

Electrochemical Behaviours of Lanthanide Fluorides in the Electrolysis System with LiF-NaF-KF Salt

4874: 2068:

Strontium, which is present in the form of the particularly troublesome mid-lived fission product

624:

before the first metal extraction step. In the UREX process, ~99.9% of the uranium and >95% of

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At temperatures above 1,000 K (730 °C; 1,340 °F) the native metal form of several

1213: 984: 223: 8243: 5990: 4458: 1127:

These processes are not currently in significant use worldwide, but they have been pioneered at

1116:) and molten metals (e.g. cadmium, bismuth, magnesium) rather than water and organic compounds. 8150: 7437: 6981: 2543: 2361: 1089:

concept of the 1990s. After the spent fuel is dissolved in molten salt, all of the recyclable

968: 925: 757: 450: 50: 6297: 6121: 6088: 5959: 397:(ORNL) between 1943 and 1945 to produce quantities of plutonium for evaluation and use in the 8444: 8180: 8135: 7597: 7525: 7452: 7447: 7412: 7199: 7167: 6954: 6881: 5302: 5137: 4309: 4106: 3922:

MOX fuel can extend the energy extracted by about 12% but slightly reduces plutonium stocks.

3878: 2664: 2131: 2087:

to the native metal before the heating step. Both Strontium and Strontium oxide form soluble

2084: 1626: 1423: 1372: 1289: 1217: 1164: 1082: 462: 297: 293: 161: 16:

Chemical operations that separate fissile material from spent fuel to be recycled as new fuel

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may not form volatile fluorides and instead remain with the alkaline fission products. Some

1262:) produces salts that can readily be used in molten salt reprocessing such as pyroprocessing 8355: 8130: 8115: 7432: 7226: 7132: 7060: 6602: 6245: 5930: 5923: 5835: 5474: 5413: 5064: 4832: 4078: 3985: 2994: 2961: 2872: 2524: 2497: 2380: 2345: 2294: 2270: 1665: 1524: 1497: 1175: 633: 427: 6206: 5486: 4924:"Pyroprocessing Technologies: Recycling used nuclear fuel for a sustainable energy future" 8: 8454: 8265: 8050: 7644: 7512: 7490: 7315: 7172: 6939: 6901: 6734: 4601: 3697: 3463: 2656: 2487: 2422: 2398: 2167: 2088: 1670: 1561: 1436:

family, generally heavier than U-235) from non-actinides. The spent fuel is placed in an

1270: 1255: 1221: 1086: 816:(known as chlorinated cobalt dicarbollide). The actinides are extracted by CMPO, and the 803: 614: 564:

products. This is the most developed and widely used process in the industry at present.

416: 262: 245: 219: 145: 126: 6606: 6369: 6249: 5478: 5417: 4836: 4435: 4269: 4185:"Depleted Cranium » Blog Archive » Why You Can't Build a Bomb from Spent Fuel" 3989: 415:

process is the current method of extraction. Separation plants were also constructed at

8434: 8170: 8007: 7934: 7745: 7395: 7365: 7349: 7332: 6976: 6866: 6814: 6764: 6711: 5851: 5429: 4713: 4538: 4502: 3858: 3657: 3426: 3168: 2648: 2536: 2274: 1647: 1617:, or quickly decay), can be recovered and sold for use in industry, science or medicine 1520: 1398: 1186: 1077:

The most developed, though commercially unfielded, alternative reprocessing method, is

790:) from the raffinate remaining after the extraction of uranium and plutonium from used 486: 458: 288: 202:

The potentially useful components dealt with in nuclear reprocessing comprise specific

197: 181: 106: 6593:

Till, C.E.; Chang, Y.I; Hannum, W.H. (1997). "The integral fast reactor-an overview".

6478: 6033: 5658:"Cover-up of estimated costs to dispose of radioactive waste raises serious questions" 5425: 4844: 2146:

element may be impossible without converting it all to one chemical state or the other

1052:

Explosion of the crystallized acetates-nitrates in a non-cooled waste tank caused the

7502: 7295: 7182: 7157: 7095: 7052: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6729: 6614: 6479:"Savannah River Site Canyons—Nimble Behemoths of the Atomic Age (WSRC-MS-2000-00061)" 5433: 5308: 4315: 4003: 2431: 2120: 1620:

Driving off volatile fission products allows for safer storage in interim storage or

1405: 1171: 1098: 980: 739:

traction. As part of the management of minor actinides it has been proposed that the

495: 168: 153: 5855: 4871:"APS - Physics and Society Newsletter - July 2004 - PUREX AND PYRO ARE NOT THE SAME" 4542: 4506: 4083:

Other Information: Decl. with deletions Apr. 18, 1960. Orig. Receipt Date: 31-DEC-60

955:

added, forming a solid lanthanum fluoride carrier for the plutonium. Addition of an

8350: 7405: 7370: 7127: 7117: 7005: 6993: 6834: 6829: 6819: 6809: 6804: 6610: 6579: 6253: 6002: 5843: 5816: 5570: 5490: 5482: 5421: 4840: 4773: 4690: 4617: 4530: 4494: 4086: 3993: 2388: 2368: 2003: 1557: 1493: 1352: 1209: 1053: 917: 886: 849: 423:

which closed by 1972 because of its inability to meet new regulatory requirements.

317: 215: 211: 118: 98: 4778: 4761: 4575: 1049:

and base. This would convert the uranium and plutonium into a solid acetate salt.

669: 8248: 8208: 7662: 7476: 7400: 7375: 7221: 7014: 6916: 6906: 6871: 6749: 6739: 6425: 6395: 6338: 6210: 6189: 6160: 6125: 6092: 5963: 5891: 5633: 5626: 5221: 5202: 5009:

Lee, Hansoo, et al. "Development of Pyro-processing Technology at KAERI." (2009).

4419: 4399: 4380: 4295: 4276: 4257: 4238: 4138: 3930: 3910: 3863: 2635: 2631: 2540:

provisions made to prevent leaks of volatile, poisonous and radioactive fluorides

2406: 2392: 2353: 2305: 2182: 2178: 2154: 2139: 2080: 1716: 1659: 1655: 1599: 1570: 1536: 1501: 1475: 1467:

As an alternative to electrowinning, the wanted metal can be isolated by using a

1266: 1205: 1179: 1117: 944: 933: 909: 905: 901: 787: 561: 385: 381: 325: 250: 207: 185: 176:

is not restricted to using recycled plutonium and uranium. It can employ all the

173: 122: 7740: 5600: 8203: 8198: 8193: 7943: 7850: 7819: 7801: 7325: 7231: 7177: 7142: 7075: 7022: 6876: 6769: 6754: 6744: 5514:. Idaho National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy. Archived from 4459:"INTEC High-Level Waste Studies Universal Solvent Extraction Feasibility Study" 4051: 3923: 3798: 3764: 3728: 3692: 3125: 3094: 3058: 3022: 2640: 2601: 2410: 2135: 2127: 1720: 1340: 1233: 1105: 1094: 1078: 779: 569: 373: 241: 110: 8223: 6584: 2367:

Distillation of the residue at higher temperatures can separate lower-boiling

1360:

as the activity will decline relatively quickly if no refueling is undertaken.

109:. Originally, reprocessing was used solely to extract plutonium for producing 8523: 8388: 7679: 7085: 6926: 4641: 3850: 3794: 3760: 3724: 3688: 3653: 2660: 2613:

To determine the distribution of radioactive metals for analytical purposes,

1509: 1482: 1357: 1294: 783: 606: 137: 114: 4897: 4606:

pellet containing simulated fission products in ammonium carbonate solution"

2119:

If "nuclear self heating" is employed, the spent fuel with have much higher

1519:

process, has been developed for the processing and recycling of fuel from a

1097:. The resulting mixture keeps the plutonium at all times in an unseparated 7954: 7090: 7032: 6959: 6911: 6781: 5847: 4660: 4485:

of Cesium, Strontium, and Actinides from Actual Acidic Radioactive Waste".

4231: 4021: 4007: 3903: 3662: 2372: 2357: 2172: 1738: 1327: 1249: 1121: 890: 853: 825: 791: 549: 454: 405: 369: 311: 254: 6622: 4534: 4498: 372:. These reactors were designed for the production of plutonium for use in 8365: 8012: 7602: 7109: 7080: 6451: 5991:"Status of the French Research Program on Partitioning and Transmutation" 5885:

All Things Nuclear • China and Reprocessing: Separating Fact from Fiction

5540: 5254: 2582: 2569: 2551: 2450: 1999: 1734: 1528: 1314: 1109: 1046: 1042: 976: 913: 894: 478: 446: 404:

The bismuth phosphate process was first operated on a large scale at the

337: 333: 6007: 4622: 2655:

radioactivity to approach that of natural uranium. However the level of

7718: 6634:

OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, Plutonium Fuel: An Assessment, Paris, 1989.

3416: 3063: 2376: 2321: 2317: 2278: 2249: 2186: 2153:

If filters are used to recover volatile fission products, those become

1993: 1814: 1701: 1688: 1606: 1578: 975:

mechanism. This process has the disadvantage of requiring the use of a

937: 740: 625: 575: 474: 431: 376:. The only reprocessing required, therefore, was the extraction of the 321: 307: 87: 6257: 5494: 4556:

https://archivedproceedings.econference.io/wmsym/2014/papers/14154.pdf

2260:

is reacted with the fuel. Fluorine is so much more reactive than even

605:

traction) process which could be used to save space inside high level

152:). Each process results in some form of refined nuclear product, with 8360: 7723: 7713: 6841: 6794: 6759: 6680: 5894:. Allthingsnuclear.org (11 January 2011). Retrieved 10 December 2011. 5194:

R. Tulackova (Zvejskova), K. Chuchvalcova Bimova, P. Soucek, F. Lisy

4164:

Symposium on the Technology of Peaceful Nuclear Energy, Irbid, Jordan

4152: 3944:"Managing nuclear spent fuel: Policy lessons from a 10-country study" 3258: 2556: 2554:

induces some (α,n) reactions in fluorine, producing both radioactive

2474: 2470: 2466: 2454: 2442: 2349: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2313: 2233: 2217: 2209: 2201: 2113: 2109: 2058: 1794: 1774: 1651: 1614: 1582: 1532: 1457: 1453: 1237: 1189: 1090: 1026: 948: 882: 860: 810: 799: 748: 709: 673: 637: 621: 557: 377: 354: 348: 8218: 6236:

Kramer, D. (2012). "Is Japan ready to forgo nuclear reprocessing?".

5304:

The radiochemistry of nuclear power plants with light water reactors

4820: 4091: 3998: 3973: 2604:, and hard to chemically decompose. Some of those are toxic as well. 2360:

may not form fluorides at all, but remain in metallic form; however

2079:

is liquid above 1,050 K (780 °C; 1,430 °F). However,

8449: 8092: 8087: 8027: 7696: 7624: 7607: 7592: 7567: 7310: 6799: 5234:

Ionic Liquids/Molten Salts and Lanthanides/Actinides Reference List

5025:. Idaho National Laboratory article. September 2007. Archived from 3449: 3407: 3099: 2402: 2257: 2241: 2193: 2105: 1852: 1595: 1433: 1409:

Experimental electro refinement cell at Argonne National Laboratory

1228: 1136: 952: 857: 833: 821: 744: 701: 697: 629: 490: 482: 266: 203: 177: 149: 130: 102: 2486:

Chlorine (and to a lesser extent fluorine) is a readily available

2348:

fuel. Further fluorination of the ash can remove all the uranium,

8418: 8370: 8233: 8213: 7612: 7587: 7027: 6858: 6846: 6824: 6789: 4599: 4434:. U.S. embassy press release(?). 19 December 2001. Archived from 3844: 3560: 3467: 2806: 2718: 2462: 2458: 2384: 2325: 2266: 1924: 1833: 1755: 1565: 1489: 1461: 1449: 1445: 1182: 1038: 1022: 921: 837: 817: 795: 628:

are separated from each other and the other fission products and

553: 2405:

to the molten fuel mixture for eventual fission, while removing

1265:

The ability to process "fresh" spent fuel reduces the needs for

1170:

Does not use solvents containing hydrogen and carbon, which are

8022: 8017: 7997: 7977: 7962: 7845: 7582: 7562: 7530: 6366:"Modernization and Enhancement of NMAC at the Mayak RT-1 Plant" 5050:"Advanced Head-End Processing of Spent Fuel: A Progress Report" 4391:

C. Hill, L. Berthon, P. Bros, J-P. Dancausse and D. Guillaneux

3619: 3587: 3555: 3522: 3490: 3314: 3033: 2989: 2956: 2926: 2896: 2864: 2835: 2446: 2309: 2261: 2245: 2237: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2213: 2205: 2130:. This combines with radiation damage to material and possibly 1888: 1574: 1505: 1468: 1440: 1241: 1160: 956: 807: 705: 693: 5205:(PPT file). Nuclear Research Institute Rez plc, Czech Republic 1073: 889:, containing uranium. The fuel was decladded by boiling it in 8439: 8396: 8059: 7915: 7708: 7572: 5464: 5399: 4821:"Thirty years of fuels and materials information from EBR-II" 3527: 3495: 3376: 3345: 3285: 3253: 3223: 3191: 3160: 2778: 2750: 2290: 2197: 2189: 2112:(melting point: 912 K (639 °C; 1,182 °F)) and 1712:. Their safe recovery and storage requires further equipment. 1636: 1610: 1553: 1471: 1437: 1244:) behind, producing waste with more long-lived radioactivity. 1108:

is a generic term for high-temperature methods. Solvents are

1101:

form, that is also mildly self-protecting in theft scenarios.

813: 517: 435: 412: 141: 4519: 1397:

The electrolysis methods are based on the difference in the

426:

Reprocessing of civilian fuel has long been employed at the

7920: 7809: 7619: 7577: 6565:"Pyroprocessing Flowsheets for Recycling Used Nuclear Fuel" 4372:

C. Hill, D. Guillaneux, X. Hérès, N. Boubals and L. Ramain

4251:

Duke, Cogema, Stone & Webster (DCS) Reports sent to NRC

3630: 2352:, and plutonium as volatile fluorides; however, some other 1045:, alter the oxidation state of the plutonium, and then add 971:

codenamed hexone as the extractant. The extraction is by a

843: 782:; it is designed to completely remove the most troublesome 4685: 525:, the current standard method, is an acronym standing for 7893: 7757: 4887:

PUREX and PYRO are not the same, Hannum, Marsh, Stanford.

2726: 2032:

reduces efficiency of such uses while contamination with

1662:, which is a solid at the temperature of liquid nitrogen. 1504:

spectrum, the concentrations of several heavy actinides (

368:

The first large-scale nuclear reactors were built during

5821:"Estimating China's Production of Plutonium for Weapons" 4483: 4289:

U.S. Program for Disposition of Excess Weapons Plutonium

3924:

Information from the World Nuclear Association about MOX

1432:

is a means of separating actinides (elements within the

6154:

PM to dedicate Tarapur nuke reprocessing unit next week

4132:

Gerald Ford 28 October 1976 Statement on Nuclear Policy

2269:, which makes up the bulk of the fuel, is converted to 1163:

spent fuel and requires little cooling time, since the

893:. After decladding, the uranium metal was dissolved in 473:(DOE) reversed its policy and signed a contract with a 191: 5689:"Japanese mislead about spent fuel reprocessing costs" 5020:"PYROPROCESSING PROGRESS AT IDAHO NATIONAL LABORATORY" 4432:"U.S.-Russia Team Makes Treating Nuclear Waste Easier" 2515: 967:

This is a liquid-liquid extraction process which uses

184:

and potentially multiplying the energy extracted from

6665:

Disposal Options for Surplus Weapons-Usable Plutonium

6116: 6114: 5283:. University of Idaho (dissertation?). Archived from 2416: 1081:, suggested as part of the depicted metallic-fueled, 1016: 6667:– Congressional Research Service Report for Congress 6272:"Further delay to completion of Rokkasho facilities" 6163:. Business-standard.com. Retrieved 10 December 2011. 6122:"Kalpakkam Atomic Reprocessing Plant [KARP]" 3826: 1192:

in dilute solutions that cannot be separated later.

461:. The key issue driving this policy was the risk of 6319:"Pakistan's Indigenous Nuclear Reactor Starts Up". 4719:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory preprint. 2480: 1124:, and solvent-solvent extraction are common steps. 664:traction) process. TRUEX was invented in the US by 117:, the reprocessed plutonium was recycled back into 7443:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 6111: 6024: 6022: 6020: 6018: 5131:"Development of pyro-process fuel cell technology" 5043: 5041: 5039: 4232:Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing: U.S. Policy Development 4079:"PUREX PROCESS FOR PLUTONIUM AND URANIUM RECOVERY" 3913:. CRS Report For Congress. Retrieved 25 March 2011 2596:If carbon is present in the spent fuel it'll form 1629:risks are low as no separation of plutonium occurs 1364: 4961:"An Overview of CRIEPI Pyroprocessing Activities" 3879:Taylor Wilson's nuclear waste-fired small reactor 1496:, though many of these materials would require a 1112:(e.g. LiCl + KCl or LiF + CaF 908:to form the bismuth phosphate. The plutonium was 794:. The chemistry is based upon the interaction of 778:traction process was developed in Russia and the 8521: 6562: 5300: 5275: 5161: 5047: 4747:Reprocessing and Recycling of Spent Nuclear Fuel 4574:. WM 2001 conference proceedings. Archived from 1224:fuel cycles are based on on-site pyroprocessing. 357:cladding or storage as intermediate level waste 6592: 6015: 5988: 5780: 5778: 5776: 5774: 5772: 5770: 5768: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5754: 5752: 5750: 5748: 5746: 5744: 5742: 5740: 5738: 5736: 5734: 5732: 5730: 5036: 4314:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 55. 4077:Lanham, W. B.; Runion, T. C. (1 October 1949). 3941: 1448:cathode. Many of the fission products (such as 1150: 5814: 5728: 5726: 5724: 5722: 5720: 5718: 5716: 5714: 5712: 5710: 4311:Nuclear power : a very short introduction 4270:New Doubts About Turning Plutonium Into a Fuel 2608: 1727: 457:banned the reprocessing of commercial reactor 172:Not all nuclear fuel requires reprocessing; a 8146:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 6696: 6476: 6065:. World Nuclear Association. September 2013. 5276:Wolverton, Daren; et al. (11 May 2005). 4150: 2421:Many of the elements that form volatile high- 1992:Can in theory be done "self heating" via the 506: 156:as a byproduct. Because this could allow for 6264: 6057: 6055: 6053: 6051: 5918: 5916: 5914: 5912: 5910: 5908: 5906: 5904: 5902: 5900: 5691:. International Panel on Fissile Materials. 4818: 4796:. World Nuclear Association. December 2020. 4658: 4109:. U.S. Department of Energy. February 1996. 4076: 1535:. In the PYRO-B processing of such fuel, an 1135:in Japan, the Nuclear Research Institute of 987:and has been replaced by the PUREX process. 593:The PUREX process can be modified to make a 6363: 6173: 6171: 6169: 6030:"BASSE-NORMANDIE- LOWER NORMANDY, La Hague" 5707: 5371:"Chlorine Manufacturing Industry in the US" 4457:J. Banaee; et al. (1 September 2001). 1131:with current research also taking place at 6703: 6689: 6229: 501: 6583: 6470: 6364:S. Guardini; et al. (16 June 2003). 6149: 6147: 6048: 6006: 5995:Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology 5897: 5601:"Radioactive Wastes: Myths and Realities" 4777: 4711: 4621: 4610:Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology 4456: 4090: 3997: 2010:. However, its contamination with stable 1273:– does not need cooling for safe storage. 932:. The plutonium was maintained in the +6 583: 69:Learn how and when to remove this message 8058: 6274:. World Nuclear News. 28 December 2017. 6186:International Panel on Fissile Materials 6166: 5603:. World Nuclear Association. June 2006. 5136:. CRIEPI News. July 2002. Archived from 4566: 2171: 1413: 1404: 1259: 1141:Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research 1072: 1059: 844:Electrochemical and ion exchange methods 574: 160:, nuclear reprocessing is a concern for 82: 32:This article includes a list of general 6654:PUREX Process, European Nuclear Society 6623:The Economics of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle 6563:Williamson, M.A.; Willit, J.L. (2011). 5541:"Recycled Nuclear Fuel Cost Calculator" 5236:. Merck.de. Retrieved 10 December 2011. 4759: 4636: 2375:(Cs, Rb) fluorides from higher-boiling 1464:cathode, or a solid aluminium cathode. 611:Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository 8522: 8073:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 6710: 6235: 6217:from the original on 23 September 2020 6144: 5970:from the original on 23 September 2020 4800:from the original on 28 September 2022 4762:"Reactor accident chemistry an update" 4744: 4695:United States Atomic Energy Commission 4567:J.D. Law; et al. (1 March 2001). 4350:. Princeton University. Archived from 4307: 4298:, IAEA-SM-346/102, Matthew Bunn, 2002. 4260:. Nrc.gov. Retrieved 10 December 2011. 3935: 3904:Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing: U.S. Policy 2277:, which has a very low boiling point. 2161: 2057:Can potentially recover elements like 2008:radioisotope thermoelectric generators 1560:with decomposition by heating back to 1310:radioisotope thermoelectric generators 560:, independent of each other, from the 8315: 8078:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 7487: 7474: 6684: 6345:from the original on 3 September 2010 6278:from the original on 29 December 2017 6179:"Global Fissile Material Report 2010" 5695:from the original on 27 February 2021 5686: 5668:from the original on 27 February 2021 5581:from the original on 27 February 2013 5487:10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2010.01.005 5381:from the original on 23 February 2022 5224:. (PDF) . Retrieved 10 December 2011. 5162:Masatoshi Iizuka (12 December 2001). 4726:from the original on 29 November 2007 4600:Asanuma, Noriko; et al. (2006). 4393:SANEX-BTP PROCESS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES 4374:SANEX-BTP PROCESS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES 4348:"Nuclear Energy: Fuel of the Future?" 4058:from the original on 24 February 2013 4032:from the original on 12 February 2013 3942:Harold Feiveson; et al. (2011). 2667:reasons as well as radiation hazard. 2496:Uranium will be produced directly as 1989:Requires no chemical processes at all 1650:) can in principle be recovered in a 1635:The product can be used as fuel in a 8502: 7475: 6521:from the original on 25 January 2022 6132:from the original on 26 January 2021 6099:from the original on 26 January 2021 6089:"CIRUS and DHRUVA Reactors, Trombay" 6069:from the original on 23 January 2016 5865:from the original on 19 October 2012 5321:from the original on 25 January 2022 4958: 4851:from the original on 31 January 2021 4241:. (PDF). Retrieved 10 December 2011. 2256:In the fluoride volatility process, 2142:are present to a significant extent. 1531:in an inert matrix such as metallic 1481:Since the majority of the long term 871: 192:Separated components and disposition 18: 8083:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 6511:"West Valley Demonstration Project" 5687:Mycle, Schneider (2 January 2012). 4523:Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange 4487:Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange 4402:. Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique 4213:from the original on 7 January 2018 3705:PUREX, REDOX, THOREX, Np separation 2535:Fractional distillation as used in 2516:Disadvantages of halogen volatility 2364:is relatively stable and volatile. 2331:Some transuranium elements such as 866: 13: 7892: 7043:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 6671:Brief History of Fuel Reprocessing 6572:Nuclear Engineering and Technology 6556: 6458:from the original on 18 March 2021 6308:from the original on 4 March 2016. 6032:. France Nucleaire. Archived from 5940:from the original on 2 August 2020 5551:from the original on 16 April 2013 5351:from the original on 25 April 2022 5102:from the original on 26 March 2013 5048:Guillermo D. Del Cul; et al. 4819:L.C. Walters (18 September 1998). 4593: 4328:from the original on 28 March 2020 4113:from the original on 14 March 2021 3954:from the original on 26 April 2012 2417:Chloride volatility and solubility 2098: 1996:of sufficiently "fresh" spent fuel 1613:(whose isotope are either stable, 1515:Another pyrochemical process, the 1418:These processes were developed by 1017:Butex, β,β'-dibutyoxydiethyl ether 962: 393:, was developed and tested at the 38:it lacks sufficient corresponding 14: 8546: 7066:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 6965:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 6641: 6491:from the original on 3 March 2016 6432:from the original on 31 July 2020 6402:from the original on 29 July 2020 6302:Federation of American Scientists 6063:"Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel" 5786:"Reprocessing plants, world-wide" 5607:from the original on 2 March 2013 5426:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2023.110919 4933:. 2012. p. 7. Archived from 4904:from the original on 24 June 2016 4794:"Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel" 3948:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3884:Global Nuclear Energy Partnership 2615:Solvent Impregnated Resins (SIRs) 2490:that is produced in mass quantity 1478:metal and a less reactive metal. 1227:It can separate many or even all 1196: 1195:Alternatively, voloxidation (see 1099:gamma and alpha emitting actinide 1068: 1032: 747:should be removed from the PUREX 8501: 8490: 8489: 8477: 8166:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 6422:"Krasnoyarsk-26 / Zheleznogorsk" 6207:"Tokai Reprocessing Plant (TRP)" 5883:, Jiuquan Atomic Energy Complex 5509:"Advanced Fuel Cycle Cost Basis" 5247:"Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative" 4667:from the original on 11 May 2006 4465:from the original on 13 May 2013 3874:Spent nuclear fuel shipping cask 3843: 3829: 3787: 3753: 3717: 3681: 3646: 3612: 3580: 3548: 3515: 3483: 3442: 3400: 3369: 3338: 3307: 3278: 3246: 3216: 3184: 3153: 3118: 3087: 3051: 3015: 2982: 2949: 2919: 2889: 2857: 2828: 2799: 2771: 2743: 2711: 2678: 2481:Advantages of halogen volatility 1677: 1564:. A major purpose is to capture 1356:benefit of reducing the risk of 434:site in the United Kingdom, the 23: 7255:Historical stockpiles and tests 6648:Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel 6542: 6503: 6444: 6414: 6384: 6357: 6327: 6312: 6290: 6199: 6081: 5982: 5952: 5924:"Civil Reprocessing Facilities" 5877: 5808: 5680: 5650: 5638: 5619: 5593: 5571:"Waste Management and Disposal" 5563: 5533: 5501: 5458: 5447: 5406:Radiation Physics and Chemistry 5393: 5363: 5333: 5294: 5269: 5239: 5227: 5208: 5188: 5155: 5123: 5114: 5082: 5012: 5003: 4994: 4985: 4952: 4916: 4900:. Argonne National Laboratory. 4890: 4863: 4812: 4786: 4760:Foreman, Mark R. St J. (2018). 4753: 4738: 4705: 4679: 4652: 4630: 4560: 4549: 4513: 4477: 4450: 4424: 4405: 4385: 4366: 4340: 4301: 4282: 4263: 4244: 4225: 4195: 4177: 4144: 3670:bismuth phosphate, REDOX, PUREX 2461:are more soluble than those of 2320:; notable differences are that 1983: 1543: 1500:to be burned efficiently. In a 1392: 1365:Disadvantages of pyroprocessing 916:liquid (containing many of the 548:method used to reprocess spent 164:and is thus tightly regulated. 148:(which uses extremely reactive 8156:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 7038:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 4125: 4099: 4070: 4044: 4014: 3966: 3916: 3896: 2273:, the form of uranium used in 489:(DCS) to design and operate a 440:West Valley Reprocessing Plant 421:West Valley Reprocessing Plant 384:contamination) from the spent 206:(plutonium, uranium, and some 158:weapons grade nuclear material 97:is the chemical separation of 1: 8484:Nuclear technology portal 5828:Science & Global Security 5345:essentialchemicalindustry.org 5061:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 4845:10.1016/S0022-3115(98)00760-0 4779:10.1080/23312009.2018.1450944 4054:. World Nuclear Association. 3902:Andrews, A. (27 March 2008). 3890: 3869:Nuclear fusion-fission hybrid 2729:, MTR (Material test reactor) 2500:, the form used in enrichment 2185:, fraction of 100% not 200%. 1588: 840:have been suggested as well. 632:. The key is the addition of 463:nuclear weapons proliferation 395:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 305:medium-lived fission products 90:nuclear reprocessing site, UK 8346:Field-reversed configuration 7956:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 6621:OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, 6615:10.1016/0149-1970(96)00001-7 5646:Nuclear fuel recycling costs 5627:Nuclear fuel recycling costs 5625:NHK-world (26 October 2011) 4898:"Pyroprocessing Development" 4825:Journal of Nuclear Materials 3974:"Adieu to nuclear recycling" 2634:(as opposed to the proposed 2624: 2157:to intermediate level waste. 1151:Advantages of pyroprocessing 609:disposal sites, such as the 342:industrial and medical uses 273:reprocessed uranium, filters 113:. With commercialization of 7: 8303:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 7488: 7250:States with nuclear weapons 6661:– World Nuclear Association 6650:, World Nuclear Association 4931:Argonne National Laboratory 4712:L.W. Gray (15 April 1999). 4602:"Andodic dissociation of UO 4411:Béatrice Rat, Xavier Hérès 3822: 3781:never permitted to operate 2609:Radioanalytical separations 2600:which are extremely potent 2344:the composition needed for 1728:Volatilization in isolation 1420:Argonne National Laboratory 1129:Argonne National Laboratory 836:and phenyl trifluoromethyl 666:Argonne National Laboratory 10: 8551: 8316: 8141:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 7265:Tests in the United States 6595:Progress in Nuclear Energy 5063:, U.S. DOE. Archived from 4461:. INEEL Technical report. 3640:under construction (2030) 3394:under construction (2024) 2283:long-lived fission product 2165: 1622:deep geological repository 515: 507:Water and organic solvents 363: 347:cladding, fission product 276:less stringent storage as 195: 8471: 8427: 8379: 8336: 8326: 8278: 8266:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 8179: 8161:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 8126: 8109: 8049: 7976: 7968:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 7942: 7933: 7885: 7865: 7818: 7800: 7756: 7661: 7643: 7511: 7498: 7483: 7470: 7425: 7358: 7303: 7294: 7242: 7150: 7141: 7108: 7051: 7013: 7004: 6925: 6857: 6780: 6722: 6718: 6585:10.5516/NET.2011.43.4.329 5575:World Nuclear Association 5301:Neeb, Karl-Heinz (1997). 5251:U.S. Department of Energy 4275:11 September 2017 at the 4141:. Retrieved 30 June 2012. 4137:26 September 2018 at the 4026:World Nuclear Association 3837:Nuclear technology portal 3068:Magnox Reprocessing Plant 2006:and can be used to power 878:bismuth phosphate process 828:. Other diluents such as 679: 544:. The PUREX process is a 471:U.S. Department of Energy 391:bismuth phosphate process 324:could be used to drive a 8171:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 7787:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 7123:Electron-beam processing 6535: 6454:. Department of energy. 5989:Dominique Warin (2007). 5790:European Nuclear Society 5220:5 September 2009 at the 5201:5 September 2009 at the 4663:. Department of Energy. 4398:5 September 2009 at the 4379:15 November 2012 at the 4308:Irvine, Maxwell (2011). 3702:Military/LWR/HWR/Tritium 2755:intermediate pilot plant 2619:liquid-liquid extraction 2598:halogenated hydrocarbons 2181:, not considering later 1375:programs become reality. 1288:further decay to stable 1159:Readily applied to high- 719: 643: 546:liquid-liquid extraction 511: 278:intermediate-level waste 8286:Organic nuclear reactor 7458:Nuclear power phase-out 7381:Nuclear decommissioning 7321:Reactor-grade plutonium 7071:Targeted alpha-particle 6950:Accidents and incidents 6549:second refueling window 5840:2003S&GS...11...61W 5662:The Mainichi Daily News 5644:JAIF (26 October 2011) 5057:2005 ANS annual meeting 4418:16 October 2005 at the 4052:"Fast Neutron Reactors" 3886:announced February 2006 3459:Atomic City of Pakistan 3455:Khushab Nuclear Complex 2529:Technetium hexafluoride 2428:zirconium tetrachloride 2299:technetium hexafluoride 2287:fractional distillation 1609:or tritium, as well as 848:An exotic method using 763: 588: 502:Separation technologies 419:and a smaller plant at 316:medium-term storage as 53:more precise citations. 6659:Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) 6368:. INMM. Archived from 6298:"Rawalpindi / Nilhore" 6159:9 October 2012 at the 5848:10.1080/08929880309007 5632:10 August 2011 at the 4749:. Woodhead Publishing. 4745:Taylor, Robin (2015). 2544:Plutonium hexafluoride 2362:ruthenium hexafluoride 2253: 1410: 1165:operating temperatures 1102: 969:methyl isobutyl ketone 926:potassium permanganate 758:bis-triazinyl pyridine 584:Modifications of PUREX 580: 491:mixed oxide (MOX) fuel 451:Presidential directive 442:in the United States. 332:useful radionuclides, 91: 7448:Anti-nuclear movement 5890:18 March 2011 at the 5307:. Walter de Gruyter. 4535:10.1081/SEI-100001370 4499:10.1081/SEI-100001371 3536:PUREX + Np separation 3045:1956–1962, 1969-1973 2665:nuclear proliferation 2175: 2132:neutron embrittlement 1627:Nuclear proliferation 1424:Integral Fast Reactor 1414:PYRO-A and -B for IFR 1408: 1373:Generation IV reactor 1290:isotopes of palladium 1218:Integral Fast Reactor 1176:criticality accidents 1083:Integral fast reactor 1076: 1060:Alternatives to PUREX 578: 298:geological repository 294:nuclear transmutation 259:fusion fission hybrid 162:nuclear proliferation 86: 8530:Nuclear reprocessing 8356:Reversed field pinch 8151:Traveling-wave (TWR) 7635:Supercritical (SCWR) 7133:Gemstone irradiation 5931:Princeton University 5545:www.wise-uranium.org 5290:on 29 November 2007. 4581:on 28 September 2007 4521:Radioactive Waste". 4294:8 April 2016 at the 4256:23 June 2017 at the 4237:3 March 2016 at the 4209:. 17 February 2015. 3929:1 March 2013 at the 3909:3 March 2016 at the 2705:or operating period 2657:transuranic elements 2525:Uranium hexafluoride 2498:Uranium hexafluoride 2381:alkaline earth metal 2346:fast neutron reactor 2324:is volatilized, but 2295:Uranium hexafluoride 2271:uranium hexafluoride 1666:Technetium heptoxide 1550:volumetric oxidation 1525:fast breeder reactor 1498:fast breeder reactor 885:from aluminium-clad 743:and trivalent minor 634:acetohydroxamic acid 579:Plutonium Processing 428:COGEMA La Hague site 95:Nuclear reprocessing 7521:Aqueous homogeneous 7316:Reprocessed uranium 6989:Safety and security 6607:1997PNuE...31....3T 6517:, 1 December 2018, 6477:LeVerne Fernandez. 6392:"Tomsk-7 / Seversk" 6250:2012PhT....65c..25K 6008:10.3327/jnst.44.410 5960:"Marcoule – Valrho" 5521:on 28 November 2011 5479:2010RFPol..70..484K 5467:React. Funct. Polym 5418:2023RaPC..20810919V 5347:. 10 October 2016. 5176:on 5 September 2009 5143:on 25 February 2009 4940:on 19 February 2013 4837:1999JNuM..270...39W 4642:Union Carbide Corp. 4623:10.3327/jnst.43.255 4191:on 4 February 2012. 4022:"Supply of Uranium" 3990:2009Natur.460R.152. 3984:(7252): 152. 2009. 3698:Savannah River Site 3563:Radiochemical Plant 2488:industrial chemical 2399:Molten salt reactor 2168:Fluoride volatility 2162:Fluoride volatility 2089:Strontium hydroxide 1671:ruthenium tetroxide 1562:triuranium octoxide 1399:standard potentials 1308:Possible fuels for 1271:reprocessed uranium 1256:Fluoride volatility 1222:Molten Salt Reactor 1216:. For example, the 1178:and can absorb the 1139:in Czech Republic, 1087:sodium fast reactor 804:polyethylene glycol 615:reprocessed uranium 487:Stone & Webster 469:In March 1999, the 417:Savannah River Site 399:US weapons programs 336:(lanthanides), and 289:activation products 263:subcritical reactor 246:reprocessed uranium 220:activation products 214:components include 188:by about 60 times. 146:fluoride volatility 127:reprocessed uranium 8435:Dense plasma focus 7350:Actinide chemistry 6815:Isotope separation 6712:Nuclear technology 6452:"T Plant overview" 5664:. 2 January 2012. 4659:Gerber, Michelle. 3859:Nuclear fuel cycle 2931:La Hague, UP 2–400 2877:PUREX DIAMEX SANEX 2689:Reprocessing site 2649:thorium fuel cycle 2537:petroleum refining 2275:uranium enrichment 2254: 1648:isotopes of helium 1615:very nearly stable 1548:Voloxidation (for 1521:transmuter reactor 1411: 1187:activation product 1172:neutron moderators 1103: 1037:The sodium uranyl 581: 459:spent nuclear fuel 285:long-lived fission 198:Spent nuclear fuel 182:nuclear fuel cycle 107:spent nuclear fuel 92: 8535:Radioactive waste 8517: 8516: 8467: 8466: 8463: 8462: 8414:Magnetized-target 8311: 8310: 8274: 8273: 8105: 8104: 8101: 8100: 8045: 8044: 7929: 7928: 7861: 7860: 7466: 7465: 7421: 7420: 7290: 7289: 7277:Weapon-free zones 7104: 7103: 7096:Radiopharmacology 6258:10.1063/PT.3.1469 6195:on 24 April 2020. 5817:Gronlund, Lisbeth 5314:978-3-11-013242-7 4691:Seaborg, Glenn T. 4354:on 1 October 2012 3820: 3819: 2869:Marcoule, CEA APM 2765:1968-early 1970s 2432:tin tetrachloride 2121:specific activity 1981: 1980: 1605:Products such as 1353:diesel generators 1174:creating risk of 1167:are high already. 1000:+ 2S → [Pu(NO 981:aluminium nitrate 936:by addition of a 887:nuclear fuel rods 872:Bismuth phosphate 496:Fukushima Daiichi 361: 360: 154:radioactive waste 79: 78: 71: 8542: 8505: 8504: 8493: 8492: 8482: 8481: 8480: 8392: 8351:Levitated dipole 8321: 8313: 8312: 8261:Helium gas (GFR) 8124: 8123: 8119: 8056: 8055: 7940: 7939: 7890: 7889: 7883: 7882: 7878: 7877: 7659: 7658: 7655: 7654: 7493: 7485: 7484: 7477:Nuclear reactors 7472: 7471: 7371:High-level (HLW) 7301: 7300: 7148: 7147: 7128:Food irradiation 7118:Atomic gardening 7011: 7010: 6994:Nuclear meltdown 6820:Nuclear material 6810:Fissile material 6805:Fertile material 6720: 6719: 6705: 6698: 6691: 6682: 6681: 6618: 6589: 6587: 6569: 6550: 6546: 6530: 6529: 6528: 6526: 6507: 6501: 6500: 6498: 6496: 6490: 6483: 6474: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6463: 6448: 6442: 6441: 6439: 6437: 6418: 6412: 6411: 6409: 6407: 6388: 6382: 6381: 6379: 6377: 6361: 6355: 6354: 6352: 6350: 6335:"Chelyabinsk-65" 6331: 6325: 6324: 6323:. 13 April 1998. 6316: 6310: 6309: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6285: 6283: 6268: 6262: 6261: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6222: 6203: 6197: 6196: 6194: 6188:. Archived from 6183: 6175: 6164: 6151: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6137: 6118: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6104: 6085: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6074: 6059: 6046: 6045: 6043: 6041: 6026: 6013: 6012: 6010: 5986: 5980: 5979: 5977: 5975: 5956: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5945: 5939: 5928: 5920: 5895: 5881: 5875: 5874: 5872: 5870: 5864: 5825: 5812: 5806: 5805: 5803: 5801: 5792:. Archived from 5782: 5705: 5704: 5702: 5700: 5684: 5678: 5677: 5675: 5673: 5654: 5648: 5642: 5636: 5623: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5586: 5567: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5556: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5526: 5520: 5513: 5505: 5499: 5498: 5462: 5456: 5451: 5445: 5444: 5442: 5440: 5397: 5391: 5390: 5388: 5386: 5377:. 28 June 2022. 5367: 5361: 5360: 5358: 5356: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5298: 5292: 5291: 5289: 5282: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5262: 5253:. Archived from 5243: 5237: 5231: 5225: 5212: 5206: 5192: 5186: 5185: 5183: 5181: 5175: 5168: 5159: 5153: 5152: 5150: 5148: 5142: 5135: 5127: 5121: 5118: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5107: 5101: 5094: 5086: 5080: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5069: 5054: 5045: 5034: 5033: 5032:on 12 June 2011. 5031: 5024: 5016: 5010: 5007: 5001: 4998: 4992: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4978: 4972: 4966:. Archived from 4965: 4956: 4950: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4939: 4928: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4909: 4894: 4888: 4886: 4884: 4882: 4877:on 5 August 2020 4873:. Archived from 4867: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4781: 4766:Cogent Chemistry 4757: 4751: 4750: 4742: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4731: 4725: 4718: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4701: 4697: 4683: 4677: 4676: 4674: 4672: 4656: 4650: 4649: 4648: 4644: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4625: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4586: 4580: 4573: 4564: 4558: 4553: 4547: 4546: 4517: 4511: 4510: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4454: 4448: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4428: 4422: 4409: 4403: 4389: 4383: 4370: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4335: 4333: 4305: 4299: 4286: 4280: 4267: 4261: 4248: 4242: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4199: 4193: 4192: 4187:. Archived from 4181: 4175: 4174: 4172: 4166:. Archived from 4161: 4148: 4142: 4129: 4123: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4039: 4037: 4018: 4012: 4011: 4001: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3939: 3933: 3920: 3914: 3900: 3853: 3848: 3847: 3839: 3834: 3833: 3832: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3759: 3757: 3756: 3723: 3721: 3720: 3687: 3685: 3684: 3652: 3650: 3649: 3618: 3616: 3615: 3595:(Krasnoyarsk-26) 3586: 3584: 3583: 3554: 3552: 3551: 3521: 3519: 3518: 3489: 3487: 3486: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3406: 3404: 3403: 3375: 3373: 3372: 3344: 3342: 3341: 3313: 3311: 3310: 3284: 3282: 3281: 3252: 3250: 3249: 3222: 3220: 3219: 3190: 3188: 3187: 3178:1968 (shutdown) 3159: 3157: 3156: 3124: 3122: 3121: 3093: 3091: 3090: 3072:Magnox, LWR, FBR 3057: 3055: 3054: 3021: 3019: 3018: 2988: 2986: 2985: 2955: 2953: 2952: 2925: 2923: 2922: 2895: 2893: 2892: 2863: 2861: 2860: 2834: 2832: 2831: 2805: 2803: 2802: 2777: 2775: 2774: 2749: 2747: 2746: 2717: 2715: 2714: 2700:capacity tHM/yr 2683: 2682: 2632:thermal reactors 2602:greenhouse gases 2592: 2589: 2588: 2579: 2576: 2575: 2566: 2563: 2562: 2550:The presence of 2407:fission products 2389:lithium fluoride 2369:transition metal 2306:fission products 2078: 2076: 2075: 2053: 2051: 2050: 2042: 2040: 2039: 2031: 2029: 2028: 2020: 2018: 2017: 2004:food irradiation 1744: 1743: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1698: 1695: 1694: 1558:uranium trioxide 1422:and used in the 1350: 1347: 1346: 1337: 1334: 1333: 1324: 1321: 1320: 1304: 1301: 1300: 1287: 1285: 1284: 1267:spent fuel pools 1210:high-level waste 1206:fission products 1147:in South Korea. 1054:Kyshtym disaster 1013: 999: 998: 995: 928:) to produce PuO 918:fission products 867:Obsolete methods 850:electrochemistry 756:is working on a 318:high-level waste 229: 228: 216:fission products 123:thermal reactors 119:MOX nuclear fuel 99:fission products 74: 67: 63: 60: 54: 49:this article by 40:inline citations 27: 26: 19: 8550: 8549: 8545: 8544: 8543: 8541: 8540: 8539: 8520: 8519: 8518: 8513: 8478: 8476: 8459: 8423: 8390: 8375: 8332: 8322: 8317: 8307: 8270: 8175: 8120: 8113: 8112: 8097: 8041: 7972: 7947: 7925: 7897: 7879: 7872: 7871: 7870: 7857: 7823: 7814: 7796: 7761: 7752: 7666: 7649: 7648: 7647: 7639: 7553:Natural fission 7507: 7506: 7494: 7489: 7479: 7462: 7438:Nuclear weapons 7417: 7376:Low-level (LLW) 7354: 7286: 7238: 7137: 7100: 7047: 7000: 6921: 6853: 6776: 6714: 6709: 6644: 6567: 6559: 6557:Further reading 6554: 6553: 6547: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6524: 6522: 6509: 6508: 6504: 6494: 6492: 6488: 6481: 6475: 6471: 6461: 6459: 6450: 6449: 6445: 6435: 6433: 6426:Global Security 6420: 6419: 6415: 6405: 6403: 6396:Global Security 6390: 6389: 6385: 6375: 6373: 6372:on 28 July 2014 6362: 6358: 6348: 6346: 6339:Global Security 6333: 6332: 6328: 6318: 6317: 6313: 6296: 6295: 6291: 6281: 6279: 6270: 6269: 6265: 6234: 6230: 6220: 6218: 6211:Global Security 6205: 6204: 6200: 6192: 6181: 6177: 6176: 6167: 6161:Wayback Machine 6152: 6145: 6135: 6133: 6126:Global Security 6120: 6119: 6112: 6102: 6100: 6093:Global Security 6087: 6086: 6082: 6072: 6070: 6061: 6060: 6049: 6039: 6037: 6036:on 16 July 2011 6028: 6027: 6016: 5987: 5983: 5973: 5971: 5964:Global Security 5958: 5957: 5953: 5943: 5941: 5937: 5926: 5922: 5921: 5898: 5892:Wayback Machine 5882: 5878: 5868: 5866: 5862: 5823: 5815:Wright, David; 5813: 5809: 5799: 5797: 5796:on 22 June 2015 5784: 5783: 5708: 5698: 5696: 5685: 5681: 5671: 5669: 5656: 5655: 5651: 5643: 5639: 5634:Wayback Machine 5624: 5620: 5610: 5608: 5599: 5598: 5594: 5584: 5582: 5569: 5568: 5564: 5554: 5552: 5539: 5538: 5534: 5524: 5522: 5518: 5511: 5507: 5506: 5502: 5463: 5459: 5452: 5448: 5438: 5436: 5398: 5394: 5384: 5382: 5369: 5368: 5364: 5354: 5352: 5339: 5338: 5334: 5324: 5322: 5315: 5299: 5295: 5287: 5280: 5274: 5270: 5260: 5258: 5245: 5244: 5240: 5232: 5228: 5222:Wayback Machine 5213: 5209: 5203:Wayback Machine 5193: 5189: 5179: 5177: 5173: 5166: 5160: 5156: 5146: 5144: 5140: 5133: 5129: 5128: 5124: 5119: 5115: 5105: 5103: 5099: 5092: 5088: 5087: 5083: 5073: 5071: 5070:on 7 March 2006 5067: 5052: 5046: 5037: 5029: 5022: 5018: 5017: 5013: 5008: 5004: 4999: 4995: 4990: 4986: 4976: 4974: 4973:on 13 July 2017 4970: 4963: 4957: 4953: 4943: 4941: 4937: 4926: 4922: 4921: 4917: 4907: 4905: 4896: 4895: 4891: 4880: 4878: 4869: 4868: 4864: 4854: 4852: 4817: 4813: 4803: 4801: 4792: 4791: 4787: 4758: 4754: 4743: 4739: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4716: 4710: 4706: 4699: 4684: 4680: 4670: 4668: 4657: 4653: 4646: 4635: 4631: 4605: 4598: 4594: 4584: 4582: 4578: 4571: 4565: 4561: 4554: 4550: 4518: 4514: 4482: 4478: 4468: 4466: 4455: 4451: 4441: 4439: 4438:on 28 July 2014 4430: 4429: 4425: 4420:Wayback Machine 4410: 4406: 4400:Wayback Machine 4390: 4386: 4381:Wayback Machine 4371: 4367: 4357: 4355: 4346: 4345: 4341: 4331: 4329: 4322: 4306: 4302: 4296:Wayback Machine 4287: 4283: 4279:, 10 April 2011 4277:Wayback Machine 4268: 4264: 4258:Wayback Machine 4249: 4245: 4239:Wayback Machine 4230: 4226: 4216: 4214: 4207:Atomic Insights 4201: 4200: 4196: 4183: 4182: 4178: 4173:on 16 May 2011. 4170: 4159: 4149: 4145: 4139:Wayback Machine 4130: 4126: 4116: 4114: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4092:10.2172/4165457 4075: 4071: 4061: 4059: 4050: 4049: 4045: 4035: 4033: 4020: 4019: 4015: 3999:10.1038/460152b 3972: 3971: 3967: 3957: 3955: 3940: 3936: 3931:Wayback Machine 3921: 3917: 3911:Wayback Machine 3901: 3897: 3893: 3864:Breeder reactor 3849: 3842: 3835: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3788: 3786: 3754: 3752: 3718: 3716: 3682: 3680: 3647: 3645: 3613: 3611: 3581: 3579: 3549: 3547: 3516: 3514: 3484: 3482: 3443: 3441: 3401: 3399: 3370: 3368: 3339: 3337: 3308: 3306: 3279: 3277: 3247: 3245: 3217: 3215: 3185: 3183: 3154: 3152: 3119: 3117: 3088: 3086: 3052: 3050: 3016: 3014: 2983: 2981: 2950: 2948: 2920: 2918: 2890: 2888: 2858: 2856: 2829: 2827: 2800: 2798: 2772: 2770: 2744: 2742: 2712: 2710: 2704: 2699: 2681: 2636:breeder reactor 2627: 2611: 2587: 2585: 2584: 2583: 2581: 2574: 2572: 2571: 2570: 2568: 2561: 2559: 2558: 2557: 2555: 2518: 2483: 2419: 2411:neutron poisons 2393:sodium fluoride 2354:minor actinides 2183:neutron capture 2170: 2164: 2140:californium-252 2136:neutron sources 2101: 2081:Strontium oxide 2074: 2072: 2071: 2070: 2069: 2049: 2047: 2046: 2045: 2044: 2038: 2036: 2035: 2034: 2033: 2027: 2025: 2024: 2023: 2022: 2021:and long lived 2016: 2014: 2013: 2012: 2011: 1986: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1730: 1717:oxidizing agent 1706: 1704: 1703: 1702: 1700: 1693: 1691: 1690: 1689: 1687: 1680: 1660:tritiated water 1656:liquid nitrogen 1600:remote handling 1591: 1571:nuclear weapons 1546: 1537:electrorefining 1502:thermal neutron 1476:electropositive 1416: 1395: 1367: 1345: 1343: 1342: 1341: 1339: 1332: 1330: 1329: 1328: 1326: 1319: 1317: 1316: 1315: 1313: 1299: 1297: 1296: 1295: 1293: 1283: 1281: 1280: 1279: 1278: 1234:minor actinides 1214:decommissioning 1180:fission product 1153: 1118:Electrorefining 1115: 1071: 1062: 1035: 1019: 1011: 1007: 1003: 996: 993: 992: 990: 985:Hanford plant T 965: 963:Hexone or REDOX 945:ferrous sulfate 934:oxidation state 931: 912:with this. The 906:phosphoric acid 902:bismuth nitrate 874: 869: 846: 788:minor actinides 766: 722: 682: 646: 591: 586: 520: 514: 509: 504: 430:in France, the 386:natural uranium 382:fission-product 374:nuclear weapons 366: 326:Stirling engine 242:minor actinides 210:). The lighter 208:minor actinides 200: 194: 186:natural uranium 174:breeder reactor 111:nuclear weapons 75: 64: 58: 55: 45:Please help to 44: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8548: 8538: 8537: 8532: 8515: 8514: 8512: 8511: 8499: 8487: 8472: 8469: 8468: 8465: 8464: 8461: 8460: 8458: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8445:Muon-catalyzed 8442: 8437: 8431: 8429: 8425: 8424: 8422: 8421: 8416: 8411: 8406: 8405: 8404: 8394: 8385: 8383: 8377: 8376: 8374: 8373: 8368: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8342: 8340: 8334: 8333: 8327: 8324: 8323: 8309: 8308: 8306: 8305: 8300: 8299: 8298: 8293: 8282: 8280: 8276: 8275: 8272: 8271: 8269: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8252: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8236: 8231: 8226: 8221: 8216: 8211: 8206: 8201: 8196: 8185: 8183: 8177: 8176: 8174: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8136:Integral (IFR) 8133: 8127: 8121: 8110: 8107: 8106: 8103: 8102: 8099: 8098: 8096: 8095: 8090: 8085: 8080: 8075: 8070: 8064: 8062: 8053: 8047: 8046: 8043: 8042: 8040: 8039: 8038: 8037: 8032: 8031: 8030: 8025: 8020: 8015: 8000: 7995: 7994: 7993: 7982: 7980: 7974: 7973: 7971: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7951: 7949: 7945: 7937: 7931: 7930: 7927: 7926: 7924: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7902: 7900: 7895: 7887: 7880: 7866: 7863: 7862: 7859: 7858: 7856: 7855: 7854: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7827: 7825: 7821: 7816: 7815: 7813: 7812: 7806: 7804: 7798: 7797: 7795: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7783: 7782: 7777: 7766: 7764: 7759: 7754: 7753: 7751: 7750: 7749: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7727: 7726: 7721: 7716: 7706: 7701: 7700: 7699: 7694: 7691: 7688: 7685: 7671: 7669: 7664: 7656: 7641: 7640: 7638: 7637: 7632: 7631: 7630: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7616: 7615: 7610: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7555: 7550: 7549: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7533: 7523: 7517: 7515: 7509: 7508: 7500: 7499: 7496: 7495: 7481: 7480: 7468: 7467: 7464: 7463: 7461: 7460: 7455: 7453:Uranium mining 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7429: 7427: 7423: 7422: 7419: 7418: 7416: 7415: 7410: 7409: 7408: 7403: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7362: 7360: 7356: 7355: 7353: 7352: 7347: 7346: 7345: 7335: 7330: 7329: 7328: 7326:Minor actinide 7323: 7318: 7307: 7305: 7298: 7292: 7291: 7288: 7287: 7285: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7268: 7267: 7262: 7252: 7246: 7244: 7240: 7239: 7237: 7236: 7235: 7234: 7224: 7219: 7218: 7217: 7212: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7191: 7190: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7154: 7152: 7145: 7139: 7138: 7136: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7114: 7112: 7106: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7099: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7057: 7055: 7049: 7048: 7046: 7045: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7023:Autoradiograph 7019: 7017: 7008: 7002: 7001: 6999: 6998: 6997: 6996: 6986: 6985: 6984: 6974: 6973: 6972: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6931: 6929: 6923: 6922: 6920: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6863: 6861: 6855: 6854: 6852: 6851: 6850: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6838: 6837: 6832: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6786: 6784: 6778: 6777: 6775: 6774: 6773: 6772: 6767: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6745:Atomic nucleus 6742: 6737: 6732: 6726: 6724: 6716: 6715: 6708: 6707: 6700: 6693: 6685: 6679: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6662: 6656: 6651: 6643: 6642:External links 6640: 6639: 6638: 6635: 6632: 6629: 6626: 6619: 6590: 6578:(4): 329–334. 6558: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6540: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6531: 6502: 6469: 6443: 6413: 6383: 6356: 6326: 6311: 6289: 6263: 6228: 6198: 6165: 6143: 6110: 6080: 6047: 6014: 5981: 5951: 5896: 5876: 5807: 5706: 5679: 5649: 5637: 5618: 5592: 5562: 5532: 5500: 5473:(8): 484–496. 5457: 5446: 5392: 5362: 5332: 5313: 5293: 5268: 5257:on 10 May 2012 5238: 5226: 5207: 5187: 5154: 5122: 5113: 5081: 5035: 5011: 5002: 4993: 4984: 4951: 4915: 4889: 4862: 4811: 4785: 4752: 4737: 4704: 4678: 4651: 4629: 4616:(3): 255–262. 4603: 4592: 4559: 4548: 4512: 4476: 4449: 4423: 4404: 4384: 4365: 4339: 4320: 4300: 4281: 4262: 4243: 4224: 4194: 4176: 4143: 4124: 4098: 4069: 4043: 4013: 3965: 3934: 3915: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3888: 3887: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3840: 3824: 3821: 3818: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3809: 3806: 3801: 3783: 3782: 3779: 3776: 3773: 3770: 3767: 3749: 3748: 3745: 3742: 3739: 3736: 3731: 3713: 3712: 3709: 3706: 3703: 3700: 3695: 3677: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3665: 3660: 3642: 3641: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3628: 3622: 3608: 3607: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3590: 3576: 3575: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3558: 3544: 3543: 3540: 3537: 3534: 3531: 3530:Plant BB, RT-1 3525: 3511: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3493: 3479: 3478: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3461: 3452: 3438: 3437: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3419: 3410: 3396: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3387: 3384: 3379: 3365: 3364: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3353: 3348: 3334: 3333: 3332:~1960–present 3330: 3327: 3325: 3322: 3317: 3303: 3302: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3288: 3274: 3273: 3270: 3267: 3264: 3261: 3256: 3242: 3241: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3229: 3226: 3212: 3211: 3208: 3205: 3202: 3199: 3194: 3180: 3179: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3166: 3163: 3149: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3139: 3133: 3128: 3114: 3113: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3097: 3083: 3082: 3079: 3076: 3073: 3070: 3061: 3047: 3046: 3043: 3040: 3037: 3031: 3025: 3011: 3010: 3007: 3004: 3001: 2998: 2992: 2978: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2965: 2959: 2945: 2944: 2941: 2938: 2935: 2932: 2929: 2915: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2901:La Hague, UP 2 2899: 2885: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2870: 2867: 2853: 2852: 2849: 2846: 2844: 2841: 2840:Marcoule, UP 1 2838: 2824: 2823: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2811:Karlsruhe, WAK 2809: 2795: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2767: 2766: 2763: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2739: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2724: 2721: 2707: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2680: 2677: 2641:uranium market 2626: 2623: 2610: 2607: 2606: 2605: 2594: 2586: 2573: 2560: 2552:alpha emitters 2548: 2541: 2533: 2522: 2517: 2514: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2505: 2501: 2494: 2491: 2482: 2479: 2418: 2415: 2371:fluorides and 2166:Main article: 2163: 2160: 2159: 2158: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2128:thermal stress 2124: 2117: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2095: 2092: 2073: 2066: 2062: 2055: 2048: 2037: 2026: 2015: 1997: 1990: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1978: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1966: 1963: 1959: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1941: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1930: 1927: 1921: 1920: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1911: 1908: 1904: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1894: 1891: 1885: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1868: 1867: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1849: 1848: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1830: 1829: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1811: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1797: 1791: 1790: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1777: 1771: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1753: 1750: 1747: 1729: 1726: 1725: 1724: 1721:reducing agent 1713: 1705: 1699:, Tritium and 1692: 1684: 1679: 1676: 1675: 1674: 1663: 1644: 1640: 1633: 1630: 1624: 1618: 1603: 1590: 1587: 1545: 1542: 1415: 1412: 1394: 1391: 1390: 1389: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1366: 1363: 1362: 1361: 1358:orphan sources 1344: 1331: 1318: 1306: 1298: 1282: 1274: 1263: 1253: 1245: 1225: 1202: 1201: 1200: 1168: 1157: 1152: 1149: 1113: 1106:Pyroprocessing 1095:electrowinning 1079:Pyroprocessing 1070: 1069:Pyroprocessing 1067: 1061: 1058: 1034: 1033:Sodium acetate 1031: 1018: 1015: 1009: 1005: 1001: 964: 961: 929: 910:coprecipitated 873: 870: 868: 865: 845: 842: 832:-nitrobenzotri 780:Czech Republic 765: 762: 721: 718: 681: 678: 670:alpha activity 645: 642: 590: 587: 585: 582: 516:Main article: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 365: 362: 359: 358: 351: 344: 343: 340: 329: 328: 314: 301: 300: 291: 281: 280: 274: 270: 269: 248: 237: 236: 233: 193: 190: 180:, closing the 77: 76: 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8547: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8528: 8527: 8525: 8510: 8509: 8500: 8498: 8497: 8488: 8486: 8485: 8474: 8473: 8470: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8436: 8433: 8432: 8430: 8426: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8407: 8403: 8402:electrostatic 8400: 8399: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8387: 8386: 8384: 8382: 8378: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8343: 8341: 8339: 8335: 8331: 8325: 8320: 8314: 8304: 8301: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8288: 8287: 8284: 8283: 8281: 8277: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8240: 8237: 8235: 8232: 8230: 8227: 8225: 8222: 8220: 8217: 8215: 8212: 8210: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8191: 8190: 8187: 8186: 8184: 8182: 8181:Generation IV 8178: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8131:Breeder (FBR) 8129: 8128: 8125: 8122: 8117: 8108: 8094: 8091: 8089: 8086: 8084: 8081: 8079: 8076: 8074: 8071: 8069: 8066: 8065: 8063: 8061: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8048: 8036: 8033: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8010: 8009: 8006: 8005: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7992: 7989: 7988: 7987: 7984: 7983: 7981: 7979: 7975: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7957: 7953: 7952: 7950: 7948: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7932: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7903: 7901: 7899: 7891: 7888: 7884: 7881: 7876: 7869: 7864: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7833: 7832: 7829: 7828: 7826: 7824: 7817: 7811: 7808: 7807: 7805: 7803: 7799: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7772: 7771: 7768: 7767: 7765: 7763: 7755: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7711: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7698: 7695: 7692: 7689: 7686: 7683: 7682: 7681: 7678: 7677: 7676: 7673: 7672: 7670: 7668: 7660: 7657: 7653: 7646: 7642: 7636: 7633: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7605: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7560: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7528: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7518: 7516: 7514: 7510: 7505: 7504: 7497: 7492: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7473: 7469: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7433:Nuclear power 7431: 7430: 7428: 7424: 7414: 7413:Transmutation 7411: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7398: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7363: 7361: 7357: 7351: 7348: 7344: 7341: 7340: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7309: 7308: 7306: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7293: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7257: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7247: 7245: 7241: 7233: 7230: 7229: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7210:high-altitude 7208: 7207: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7200:Proliferation 7198: 7196: 7193: 7189: 7186: 7185: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7155: 7153: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7140: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7113: 7111: 7107: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7086:Brachytherapy 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7058: 7056: 7054: 7050: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7020: 7018: 7016: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7003: 6995: 6992: 6991: 6990: 6987: 6983: 6980: 6979: 6978: 6975: 6971: 6968: 6967: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6932: 6930: 6928: 6924: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6882:Cross section 6880: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6864: 6862: 6860: 6856: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6827: 6826: 6823: 6822: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6787: 6785: 6783: 6779: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6762: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6727: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6706: 6701: 6699: 6694: 6692: 6687: 6686: 6683: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6666: 6663: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6649: 6646: 6645: 6636: 6633: 6630: 6627: 6625:, Paris, 1994 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6601:(1–2): 3–11. 6600: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6566: 6561: 6560: 6545: 6541: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6506: 6487: 6480: 6473: 6457: 6453: 6447: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6417: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6387: 6371: 6367: 6360: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6330: 6322: 6315: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6293: 6277: 6273: 6267: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6238:Physics Today 6232: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6202: 6191: 6187: 6180: 6174: 6172: 6170: 6162: 6158: 6155: 6150: 6148: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6117: 6115: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6084: 6068: 6064: 6058: 6056: 6054: 6052: 6035: 6031: 6025: 6023: 6021: 6019: 6009: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5985: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5955: 5936: 5932: 5925: 5919: 5917: 5915: 5913: 5911: 5909: 5907: 5905: 5903: 5901: 5893: 5889: 5886: 5880: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5822: 5818: 5811: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5781: 5779: 5777: 5775: 5773: 5771: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5763: 5761: 5759: 5757: 5755: 5753: 5751: 5749: 5747: 5745: 5743: 5741: 5739: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5729: 5727: 5725: 5723: 5721: 5719: 5717: 5715: 5713: 5711: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5653: 5647: 5641: 5635: 5631: 5628: 5622: 5606: 5602: 5596: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5566: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5536: 5517: 5510: 5504: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5461: 5455: 5450: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5396: 5380: 5376: 5375:ibisworld.com 5372: 5366: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5336: 5320: 5316: 5310: 5306: 5305: 5297: 5286: 5279: 5272: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5242: 5235: 5230: 5223: 5219: 5216: 5211: 5204: 5200: 5197: 5191: 5172: 5165: 5158: 5139: 5132: 5126: 5117: 5098: 5095:. p. 4. 5091: 5085: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5051: 5044: 5042: 5040: 5028: 5021: 5015: 5006: 4997: 4988: 4969: 4962: 4955: 4936: 4932: 4925: 4919: 4903: 4899: 4893: 4876: 4872: 4866: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4815: 4799: 4795: 4789: 4780: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4756: 4748: 4741: 4722: 4715: 4708: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4682: 4666: 4662: 4655: 4643: 4639: 4633: 4624: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4596: 4577: 4570: 4563: 4557: 4552: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4516: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4480: 4464: 4460: 4453: 4437: 4433: 4427: 4421: 4417: 4414: 4408: 4401: 4397: 4394: 4388: 4382: 4378: 4375: 4369: 4353: 4349: 4343: 4327: 4323: 4321:9780199584970 4317: 4313: 4312: 4304: 4297: 4293: 4290: 4285: 4278: 4274: 4271: 4266: 4259: 4255: 4252: 4247: 4240: 4236: 4233: 4228: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4198: 4190: 4186: 4180: 4169: 4165: 4158: 4154: 4147: 4140: 4136: 4133: 4128: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4093: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4073: 4057: 4053: 4047: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4017: 4009: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3969: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3938: 3932: 3928: 3925: 3919: 3912: 3908: 3905: 3899: 3895: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3856: 3852: 3851:Energy portal 3846: 3841: 3838: 3827: 3816: 3813: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3785: 3784: 3780: 3777: 3774: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3762: 3751: 3750: 3746: 3743: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3715: 3714: 3710: 3707: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3690: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3655: 3644: 3643: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3626: 3625:Zheleznogorsk 3623: 3621: 3610: 3609: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3594: 3593:Zheleznogorsk 3591: 3589: 3578: 3577: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3538: 3535: 3532: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3513: 3512: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3500: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3481: 3480: 3477:1986–present 3476: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3456: 3453: 3451: 3440: 3439: 3436:1982–present 3435: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3418: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3398: 3397: 3393: 3390: 3388: 3385: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3367: 3366: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3336: 3335: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3305: 3304: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3276: 3275: 3271: 3268: 3265: 3263:PHWR and FBTR 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3244: 3243: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3214: 3213: 3209: 3206: 3203: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3193: 3182: 3181: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3151: 3150: 3146: 3143: 3140: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3116: 3115: 3111: 3108: 3106: 3103: 3101: 3098: 3096: 3085: 3084: 3080: 3077: 3074: 3071: 3069: 3065: 3062: 3060: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3041: 3038: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3026: 3024: 3013: 3012: 3008: 3005: 3002: 2999: 2996: 2993: 2991: 2980: 2979: 2975: 2972: 2969: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2958: 2947: 2946: 2942: 2939: 2936: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2917: 2916: 2912: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2887: 2886: 2883:1988–present 2882: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2868: 2866: 2855: 2854: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2826: 2825: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2810: 2808: 2797: 2796: 2792: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2782: 2780: 2769: 2768: 2764: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2752: 2741: 2740: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2725: 2722: 2720: 2709: 2708: 2703:Commissioning 2702: 2697: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2685: 2684: 2679:List of sites 2676: 2672: 2668: 2666: 2662: 2661:plutonium-239 2658: 2652: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2637: 2633: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2578: 2565: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2532:distillation. 2530: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2519: 2509: 2506: 2502: 2499: 2495: 2492: 2489: 2485: 2484: 2478: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2436: 2433: 2429: 2424: 2414: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2383:(Sr, Ba) and 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2365: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2329: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2289:or selective 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2263: 2259: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2174: 2169: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2122: 2118: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2102: 2099:Disadvantages 2093: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2067: 2063: 2060: 2056: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1991: 1988: 1987: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1960: 1956: 1954: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1942: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1922: 1919: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1906: 1905: 1902: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1870: 1869: 1866: 1864: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1831: 1828: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1772: 1766: 1761: 1757: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1697: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1678:Disadvantages 1672: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1638: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1592: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1541: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1511: 1510:plutonium-240 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1486: 1484: 1483:radioactivity 1479: 1477: 1473: 1470: 1465: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1442: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1425: 1421: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1387: 1383: 1380: 1377: 1374: 1369: 1368: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1336: 1323: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1291: 1275: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1261: 1257: 1254: 1251: 1250:fast reactors 1246: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1230: 1226: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1198: 1194: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1148: 1146: 1143:in India and 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1111: 1107: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1075: 1066: 1057: 1055: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1030: 1028: 1024: 1014: 988: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 960: 958: 954: 950: 946: 941: 939: 935: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 898: 896: 892: 888: 884: 879: 864: 862: 859: 855: 851: 841: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 812: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 784:radioisotopes 781: 777: 774: 772: 761: 759: 755: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 717: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 677: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 641: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 618: 616: 612: 608: 607:nuclear waste 604: 600: 596: 577: 573: 571: 565: 563: 559: 555: 552:, to extract 551: 547: 543: 541: 537: 533: 530:lutonium and 529: 524: 519: 499: 497: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 467: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 443: 441: 437: 433: 429: 424: 422: 418: 414: 409: 407: 402: 400: 396: 392: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 356: 352: 350: 346: 345: 341: 339: 335: 331: 330: 327: 323: 319: 315: 313: 309: 306: 303: 302: 299: 295: 292: 290: 286: 283: 282: 279: 275: 272: 271: 268: 264: 260: 256: 252: 249: 247: 243: 239: 238: 234: 231: 230: 227: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 199: 189: 187: 183: 179: 175: 170: 165: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 138:radioactivity 134: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 115:nuclear power 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 89: 85: 81: 73: 70: 62: 52: 48: 42: 41: 35: 30: 21: 20: 8506: 8494: 8475: 8455:Pyroelectric 8409:Laser-driven 8189:Sodium (SFR) 8116:fast-neutron 7955: 7501: 7391:Reprocessing 7390: 7272:WMD treaties 7091:Radiosurgery 7061:Fast-neutron 7033:Scintigraphy 6598: 6594: 6575: 6571: 6544: 6523:, retrieved 6514: 6505: 6493:. Retrieved 6472: 6460:. Retrieved 6446: 6434:. Retrieved 6416: 6404:. Retrieved 6386: 6374:. Retrieved 6370:the original 6359: 6347:. Retrieved 6329: 6320: 6314: 6292: 6280:. Retrieved 6266: 6244:(3): 25–42. 6241: 6237: 6231: 6219:. Retrieved 6201: 6190:the original 6134:. Retrieved 6101:. Retrieved 6083: 6071:. Retrieved 6038:. Retrieved 6034:the original 5998: 5994: 5984: 5972:. Retrieved 5954: 5942:. Retrieved 5879: 5867:. Retrieved 5834:(1): 61–80. 5831: 5827: 5810: 5798:. Retrieved 5794:the original 5697:. Retrieved 5682: 5670:. Retrieved 5661: 5652: 5640: 5621: 5609:. Retrieved 5595: 5583:. Retrieved 5565: 5553:. Retrieved 5544: 5535: 5523:. Retrieved 5516:the original 5503: 5470: 5466: 5460: 5449: 5437:. Retrieved 5409: 5405: 5395: 5383:. Retrieved 5374: 5365: 5353:. Retrieved 5344: 5335: 5323:. Retrieved 5303: 5296: 5285:the original 5271: 5259:. Retrieved 5255:the original 5241: 5229: 5210: 5190: 5178:. Retrieved 5171:the original 5157: 5145:. 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Retrieved 3947: 3937: 3918: 3898: 3663:Hanford Site 2698:Reprocessing 2673: 2669: 2659:, including 2653: 2644: 2628: 2612: 2440: 2437: 2420: 2397: 2373:alkali metal 2366: 2358:noble metals 2330: 2304:Many of the 2303: 2255: 2108:, including 2002:has uses in 1739:strontium-90 1731: 1569:science and 1549: 1547: 1544:Voloxidation 1529:transuranics 1516: 1514: 1487: 1480: 1466: 1429: 1428: 1417: 1396: 1393:Electrolysis 1385: 1126: 1122:distillation 1110:molten salts 1104: 1063: 1051: 1036: 1020: 989: 972: 966: 942: 899: 891:caustic soda 875: 854:ion exchange 847: 829: 826:nitrobenzene 792:nuclear fuel 786:(Sr, Cs and 775: 770: 769: 767: 736: 732: 728: 724: 723: 689: 685: 683: 661: 657: 653: 649: 647: 619: 602: 598: 594: 592: 570:weapon-grade 566: 550:nuclear fuel 539: 535: 531: 527: 526: 522: 521: 468: 455:Jimmy Carter 444: 425: 410: 406:Hanford Site 403: 370:World War II 367: 338:noble metals 235:disposition 201: 166: 135: 94: 93: 80: 65: 56: 37: 8366:Stellarator 8330:confinement 8224:Superphénix 8051:Molten-salt 8003:VHTR (HTGR) 7780:HW BLWR 250 7746:R4 Marviken 7675:Pressurized 7645:Heavy water 7629:many others 7558:Pressurized 7513:Light water 7215:underground 7173:Disarmament 7081:Tomotherapy 7076:Proton-beam 6940:Power plant 6902:Temperature 6735:Engineering 6282:28 December 5525:19 December 5325:29 November 4332:22 February 3734:West Valley 3606:1964–~2010 3027:Windscale, 2451:lanthanides 2281:, the main 2054:has decayed 2000:Caesium-137 1735:caesium-137 1208:on site as 1047:acetic acid 1043:nitric acid 977:salting-out 914:supernatant 895:nitric acid 820:is a polar 741:lanthanides 676:mechanism. 538:ecovery by 479:Duke Energy 449:to issue a 447:Gerald Ford 353:re-use for 334:rare earths 240:plutonium, 51:introducing 8524:Categories 8391:(acoustic) 8008:PBR (PBMR) 7396:Spent fuel 7386:Repository 7366:Fuel cycle 7333:Activation 7110:Processing 6977:Propulsion 6935:by country 6867:Activation 6321:The Nation 6073:5 December 6001:(3): 410. 5869:14 January 5495:2117/10365 5412:: 110919. 5341:"Fluorine" 4959:T. 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