454:, a Belgian physicist, who suggested that the evident expansion of the Universe in time required that the Universe, if contracted backwards in time, would continue to do so until it could contract no further. This would bring all the mass of the Universe to a single point, a "primeval atom", to a state before which time and space did not exist. Hoyle is credited with coining the term "Big Bang" during a 1949 BBC radio broadcast, saying that Lemaître's theory was "based on the hypothesis that all the matter in the universe was created in one big bang at a particular time in the remote past." It is popularly reported that Hoyle intended this to be pejorative, but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models. Lemaître's model was needed to explain the existence of deuterium and nuclides between helium and carbon, as well as the fundamentally high amount of helium present, not only in stars but also in interstellar space. As it happened, both Lemaître and Hoyle's models of nucleosynthesis would be needed to explain the elemental abundances in the universe.
1585:
761:
1580:{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ll}{\ce {n^{0}->p+{}+e^{-}{}+{\overline {\nu }}_{e}}}&{\ce {p+{}+n^{0}->_{1}^{2}D{}+\gamma }}\\{\ce {^{2}_{1}D{}+p+->_{2}^{3}He{}+\gamma }}&{\ce {^{2}_{1}D{}+_{1}^{2}D->_{2}^{3}He{}+n^{0}}}\\{\ce {^{2}_{1}D{}+_{1}^{2}D->_{1}^{3}T{}+p+}}&{\ce {^{3}_{1}T{}+_{1}^{2}D->_{2}^{4}He{}+n^{0}}}\\{\ce {^{3}_{1}T{}+_{2}^{4}He->_{3}^{7}Li{}+\gamma }}&{\ce {^{3}_{2}He{}+n^{0}->_{1}^{3}T{}+p+}}\\{\ce {^{3}_{2}He{}+_{1}^{2}D->_{2}^{4}He{}+p+}}&{\ce {^{3}_{2}He{}+_{2}^{4}He->_{4}^{7}Be{}+\gamma }}\\{\ce {^{7}_{3}Li{}+p+->_{2}^{4}He{}+_{2}^{4}He}}&{\ce {^{7}_{4}Be{}+n^{0}->_{3}^{7}Li{}+p+}}\end{array}}}
246:
471:
1969:
490:
185:
27:
1768:
fuses nuclei that themselves have equal numbers of protons and neutrons to produce nuclides which consist of whole numbers of helium nuclei, up to 15 (representing Ni). Such multiple-alpha-particle nuclides are totally stable up to Ca (made of 10 helium nuclei), but heavier nuclei with equal and even numbers of protons and neutrons are tightly bound but unstable. The quasi-equilibrium produces radioactive
475:
stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance of elements according to whether they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier. Within this trend is a peak at abundances of iron and nickel, which is especially visible on a logarithmic graph spanning fewer powers of ten, say between logA=2 (A=100) and logA=6 (A=1,000,000).
2148:
1740:, which inadvertently obscured Hoyle's 1954 theory. Further nucleosynthesis processes can occur, in particular the r-process (rapid process) described by the BFH paper and first calculated by Seeger, Fowler and Clayton, in which the most neutron-rich isotopes of elements heavier than nickel are produced by rapid absorption of free neutrons. The creation of free neutrons by
75:. Nucleosynthesis in stars and their explosions later produced the variety of elements and isotopes that we have today, in a process called cosmic chemical evolution. The amounts of total mass in elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (called 'metals' by astrophysicists) remains small (few percent), so that the universe still has approximately the same composition.
1775:, Cr, Fe, and Ni, which (except Ti) are created in abundance but decay after the explosion and leave the most stable isotope of the corresponding element at the same atomic weight. The most abundant and extant isotopes of elements produced in this way are Ti, Cr, and Fe. These decays are accompanied by the emission of gamma-rays (radiation from the nucleus), whose
1642:. It is responsible for the galactic abundances of elements from carbon to iron. Stars are thermonuclear furnaces in which H and He are fused into heavier nuclei by increasingly high temperatures as the composition of the core evolves. Of particular importance is carbon because its formation from He is a bottleneck in the entire process. Carbon is produced by the
1927:. These impacts fragment carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen nuclei present. The process results in the light elements beryllium, boron, and lithium in the cosmos at much greater abundances than they are found within solar atmospheres. The quantities of the light elements H and He produced by spallation are negligible relative to their primordial abundance.
1786:. Gamma-ray lines identifying Co and Co nuclei, whose half-lives limit their age to about a year, proved that their radioactive cobalt parents created them. This nuclear astronomy observation was predicted in 1969 as a way to confirm explosive nucleosynthesis of the elements, and that prediction played an important role in the planning for NASA's
358:, and by nucleosynthesis in exotic events such as neutron star collisions. Other nuclides, such as Ar, formed later through radioactive decay. On Earth, mixing and evaporation has altered the primordial composition to what is called the natural terrestrial composition. The heavier elements produced after the Big Bang range in
420:'s original work on nucleosynthesis of heavier elements in stars, occurred just after World War II. His work explained the production of all heavier elements, starting from hydrogen. Hoyle proposed that hydrogen is continuously created in the universe from vacuum and energy, without need for universal beginning.
2312:. He saw an analogy between the plutonium fission reaction and the newly discovered supernovae, and he was able to show that exploding super novae produced all of the elements in the same proportion as existed on Earth. He felt that he had accidentally fallen into a subject that would make his career.
1662:
The first direct proof that nucleosynthesis occurs in stars was the astronomical observation that interstellar gas has become enriched with heavy elements as time passed. As a result, stars that were born from it late in the galaxy, formed with much higher initial heavy element abundances than those
295:
could be formed, as this element requires a far higher product of helium density and time than were present in the short nucleosynthesis period of the Big Bang. That fusion process essentially shut down at about 20 minutes, due to drops in temperature and density as the universe continued to expand.
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nuclides. This process happens when an energetic particle from radioactive decay, often an alpha particle, reacts with a nucleus of another atom to change the nucleus into another nuclide. This process may also cause the production of further subatomic particles, such as neutrons. Neutrons can also
398:
were created at the beginning of the universe, but no rational physical scenario for this could be identified. Gradually it became clear that hydrogen and helium are much more abundant than any of the other elements. All the rest constitute less than 2% of the mass of the Solar System, and of other
1767:
Explosive nucleosynthesis occurs too rapidly for radioactive decay to decrease the number of neutrons, so that many abundant isotopes with equal and even numbers of protons and neutrons are synthesized by the silicon quasi-equilibrium process. During this process, the burning of oxygen and silicon
1756:
was still small, that nonetheless contain their complement of r-process nuclei; thereby demonstrating that the metallicity is a product of an internal process. The r-process is responsible for our natural cohort of radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, as well as the most neutron-rich
1671:
star in 1952, by spectroscopy, provided the first evidence of nuclear activity within stars. Because technetium is radioactive, with a half-life much less than the age of the star, its abundance must reflect its recent creation within that star. Equally convincing evidence of the stellar origin of
466:
that was based on the unfractionated abundances of the non-volatile elements found within unevolved meteorites. Such a graph of the abundances is displayed on a logarithmic scale below, where the dramatically jagged structure is visually suppressed by the many powers of ten spanned in the vertical
457:
The goal of the theory of nucleosynthesis is to explain the vastly differing abundances of the chemical elements and their several isotopes from the perspective of natural processes. The primary stimulus to the development of this theory was the shape of a plot of the abundances versus the atomic
1793:
Other proofs of explosive nucleosynthesis are found within the stardust grains that condensed within the interiors of supernovae as they expanded and cooled. Stardust grains are one component of cosmic dust. In particular, radioactive Ti was measured to be very abundant within supernova stardust
1723:
except for a high abundance of the Si nuclei in the feverishly burning mix. This concept was the most important discovery in nucleosynthesis theory of the intermediate-mass elements since Hoyle's 1954 paper because it provided an overarching understanding of the abundant and chemically important
474:
Abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar System. Hydrogen and helium are most common, residuals within the paradigm of the Big Bang. The next three elements (Li, Be, B) are rare because they are poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining
2029:
Tiny amounts of certain nuclides are produced on Earth by artificial means. Those are our primary source, for example, of technetium. However, some nuclides are also produced by a number of natural means that have continued after primordial elements were in place. These often act to create new
323:. These lighter elements in the present universe are therefore thought to have been produced through thousands of millions of years of cosmic ray (mostly high-energy proton) mediated breakup of heavier elements in interstellar gas and dust. The fragments of these cosmic-ray collisions include
409:
first suggested in 1920 that stars obtain their energy by fusing hydrogen into helium and raised the possibility that the heavier elements may also form in stars. This idea was not generally accepted, as the nuclear mechanism was not understood. In the years immediately before World War II,
249:
Periodic table showing the currently believed origins of each element. Elements from carbon up to sulfur may be made in stars of all masses by charged-particle fusion reactions. Iron group elements originate mostly from the nuclear-statistical equilibrium process in thermonuclear supernova
319:, and boron – which were found in the initial composition of the interstellar medium and hence the star. Interstellar gas therefore contains declining abundances of these light elements, which are present only by virtue of their nucleosynthesis during the Big Bang, and also
1810:
of binary neutron stars (BNSs) is now believed to be the main source of r-process elements. Being neutron-rich by definition, mergers of this type had been suspected of being a source of such elements, but definitive evidence was difficult to obtain. In 2017 strong evidence emerged, when
399:
star systems as well. At the same time it was clear that oxygen and carbon were the next two most common elements, and also that there was a general trend toward high abundance of the light elements, especially those with isotopes composed of whole numbers of helium-4 nuclei (
382:. The stability of atomic nuclei of different sizes and composition (i.e. numbers of neutrons and protons) plays an important role in the possible reactions among nuclei. Cosmic nucleosynthesis, therefore, is studied among researchers of astrophysics and nuclear physics ("
1718:
occurs in the energetic environment in supernovae, in which the elements between silicon and nickel are synthesized in quasiequilibrium established during fast fusion that attaches by reciprocating balanced nuclear reactions to Si. Quasiequilibrium can be thought of as
1954:
abundances and comparing those results with observed abundances. Isotope abundances are typically calculated from the transition rates between isotopes in a network. Often these calculations can be simplified as a few key reactions control the rate of other reactions.
458:
number of the elements. Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of atomic number, have a jagged sawtooth structure that varies by factors up to ten million. A very influential stimulus to nucleosynthesis research was an abundance table created by
2030:
elements in ways that can be used to date rocks or to trace the source of geological processes. Although these processes do not produce the nuclides in abundance, they are assumed to be the entire source of the existing natural supply of those nuclides.
1752:. This promising scenario, though generally supported by supernova experts, has yet to achieve a satisfactory calculation of r-process abundances. The primary r-process has been confirmed by astronomers who had observed old stars born when galactic
254:), and by rapid neutron capture in the r-process, with origins being debated among rare supernova variants and compact-star collisions. Note that this graphic is a first-order simplification of an active research field with many open questions.
346:. These processes began as hydrogen and helium from the Big Bang collapsed into the first stars after about 500 million years. Star formation has been occurring continuously in galaxies since that time. The primordial nuclides were created by
447:, Fowler and Hoyle is a well-known summary of the state of the field in 1957. That paper defined new processes for the transformation of one heavy nucleus into others within stars, processes that could be documented by astronomers.
1646:
in all stars. Carbon is also the main element that causes the release of free neutrons within stars, giving rise to the s-process, in which the slow absorption of neutrons converts iron into elements heavier than iron and nickel.
1676:
stars. Observation of barium abundances some 20–50 times greater than found in unevolved stars is evidence of the operation of the s-process within such stars. Many modern proofs of stellar nucleosynthesis are provided by the
1839:
decays and cools. The first detection of the merger of a neutron star and black hole (NSBHs) came in July 2021 and more after but analysis seem to favor BNSs over NSBHs as the main contributors to heavy metal production.
2093:. This is not cluster decay, as the fission products may be split among nearly any type of atom. Thorium-232, uranium-235, and uranium-238 are primordial isotopes that undergo spontaneous fission. Natural technetium and
56:. After about 20 minutes, the universe had expanded and cooled to a point at which these high-energy collisions among nucleons ended, so only the fastest and simplest reactions occurred, leaving our universe containing
124:: from the ejection of elements produced during stellar nucleosynthesis; through explosive nucleosynthesis during the supernova explosion; and from the r-process (absorption of multiple neutrons) during the explosion.
1870:
Cosmic ray spallation process reduces the atomic weight of interstellar matter by the impact with cosmic rays, to produce some of the lightest elements present in the universe (though not a significant amount of
130:
are a recently discovered major source of elements produced in the r-process. When two neutron stars collide, a significant amount of neutron-rich matter may be ejected which then quickly forms heavy elements.
1650:
The products of stellar nucleosynthesis are generally dispersed into the interstellar gas through mass loss episodes and the stellar winds of low mass stars. The mass loss events can be witnessed today in the
745:
froze out to form protons and neutrons. Because of the very short period in which nucleosynthesis occurred before it was stopped by expansion and cooling (about 20 minutes), no elements heavier than
141:
impact nuclei and fragment them. It is a significant source of the lighter nuclei, particularly He, Be and B, that are not created by stellar nucleosynthesis. Cosmic ray spallation can occur in the
1693:. The measured isotopic compositions in stardust grains demonstrate many aspects of nucleosynthesis within the stars from which the grains condensed during the star's late-life mass-loss episodes.
554:
processes which are believed to be responsible for nucleosynthesis. The majority of these occur within stars, and the chain of those nuclear fusion processes are known as hydrogen burning (via the
1794:
grains at the time they condensed during the supernova expansion. This confirmed a 1975 prediction of the identification of supernova stardust (SUNOCONs), which became part of the pantheon of
719:
and certain types of radioactive decay, most of the mass of the isotopes in the universe are thought to have been produced in the Big Bang. The nuclei of these elements, along with some
2127:
nuclides. Cosmic rays continue to produce new elements on Earth by the same cosmogenic processes discussed above that produce primordial beryllium and boron. One important example is
423:
Hoyle's work explained how the abundances of the elements increased with time as the galaxy aged. Subsequently, Hoyle's picture was expanded during the 1960s by contributions from
2985:
Chakrabarti, S. K.; Jin, L.; Arnett, W. D. (1987). "Nucleosynthesis Inside Thick
Accretion Disks Around Black Holes. I – Thermodynamic Conditions and Preliminary Analysis".
2837:
2120:. For example, some stable isotopes such as neon-21 and neon-22 are produced by several routes of nucleogenic synthesis, and thus only part of their abundance is primordial.
98:
in the most massive stars. Products of stellar nucleosynthesis remain trapped in stellar cores and remnants except if ejected through stellar winds and explosions. The
3478:
Meneguzzi, M.; Audouze, J.; Reeves, H. (1971). "The
Production of the Elements Li, Be, B by Galactic Cosmic Rays in Space and Its Relation with Stellar Observations".
3272:
582:. These processes are able to create elements up to and including iron and nickel. This is the region of nucleosynthesis within which the isotopes with the highest
3642:
2454:
327:
and the stable isotopes of the light elements lithium, beryllium, and boron. Carbon was not made in the Big Bang, but was produced later in larger stars via the
1779:
can be used to identify the isotope created by the decay. The detection of these emission lines were an important early product of gamma-ray astronomy.
3379:
3152:
Arai, K.; Matsuba, R.; Fujimoto, S.; Koike, O.; Hashimoto, M. (2003). "Nucleosynthesis Inside
Accretion Disks Around Intermediate-mass Black Holes".
3041:
1685:, solid grains that have condensed from the gases of individual stars and which have been extracted from meteorites. Stardust is one component of
629:
Big Bang nucleosynthesis occurred within the first three minutes of the beginning of the universe and is responsible for much of the abundance of
3076:
2079:
is produced by alpha-decay, and the helium trapped in Earth's crust is also mostly non-primordial. In other types of radioactive decay, such as
753:) could be formed. Elements formed during this time were in the plasma state, and did not cool to the state of neutral atoms until much later.
3329:"A New Approach for Calculating the Alpha-Decay Half-Life for the Heavy and Super-heavy Elements and an Exact A Priori Result for Beyllium-8"
3097:; Ruffert, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Hix, W. R. (2008). "Process Nucleosynthesis in Hot Accretion Disk Flows from Black Hole-Neutron Star Mergers".
1782:
The most convincing proof of explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovae occurred in 1987 when those gamma-ray lines were detected emerging from
2059:
produce many intermediate daughter nuclides before they too finally decay to isotopes of lead. The Earth's natural supply of elements like
3670:
3412:
2757:
2671:
2627:
374:). Synthesis of these elements occurred through nuclear reactions involving the strong and weak interactions among nuclei, and called
1764:(rapid proton) involves the rapid absorption of free protons as well as neutrons, but its role and its existence are less certain.
1744:
during the rapid compression of the supernova core along with the assembly of some neutron-rich seed nuclei makes the r-process a
2161:
2123:
Nuclear reactions due to cosmic rays. By convention, these reaction-products are not termed "nucleogenic" nuclides, but rather
2796:
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3587:
3564:
3541:
3518:
2752:
2569:
2492:
2895:"The Relative Contribution to Heavy Metals Production from Binary Neutron Star Mergers and Neutron Star–Black Hole Mergers"
3410:
Hoyle, F. (1954). "On
Nuclear Reactions Occurring in Very Hot STARS. I. The Synthesis of Elements from Carbon to Nickel".
2508:
Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A.; Hull, T. E.; Zimmerman, B. A. (1961). "Neutron
Capture Chains in Heavy Element Synthesis".
378:(including both rapid and slow multiple neutron capture), and include also nuclear fission and radioactive decays such as
1748:, and one that can occur even in a star of pure H and He. This is in contrast to the BFH designation of the process as a
598:, by a number of other processes. Some of those others include the r-process, which involves rapid neutron captures, the
1590:
48:(protons and neutrons) and nuclei. According to current theories, the first nuclei were formed a few minutes after the
2437:
3242:
2420:
2083:, larger species of nuclei are ejected (for example, neon-20), and these eventually become newly formed stable atoms.
2016:
537:
232:
1998:
519:
214:
1990:
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206:
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per nucleon are created. Heavier elements can be assembled within stars by a neutron capture process known as the
3663:
2960:
1875:). Most notably spallation is believed to be responsible for the generation of almost all of He and the elements
1820:
2313:
1994:
1798:. Other unusual isotopic ratios within these grains reveal many specific aspects of explosive nucleosynthesis.
515:
307:
A star formed in the early universe produces heavier elements by combining its lighter nuclei –
210:
1787:
1638:
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the nuclear process by which new nuclei are produced. It occurs in stars during
338: ≥ 6, carbon and heavier elements) requires the extreme temperatures and pressures found within
3556:
3510:
3034:
2557:
2480:
1836:
3656:
3533:
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3059:
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heavy elements is the large overabundances of specific stable elements found in stellar atmospheres of
741:
are considered to have been formed between 100 and 300 seconds after the Big Bang when the primordial
3447:
3099:
2987:
2801:
2587:
2370:
2331:
2211:
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are thought to have been produced in the Big Bang. The spallation process results from the impact of
1715:
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113:
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2449:
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1979:
624:
500:
406:
347:
297:
195:
53:
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3787:
3767:
3722:
3268:"Light element variations in globular clusters via nucleosynthesis in black hole accretion discs"
1983:
1673:
1613:
1609:
579:
555:
504:
351:
199:
87:
16:
Process that creates new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons, primarily protons and neutrons
3817:
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3220:
3190:
2842:
2444:
1807:
742:
575:
567:
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264:
153:, or on Earth in the atmosphere or in the ground. This contributes to the presence on Earth of
3938:
2561:
2550:
2484:
2473:
2181:
2116:. These neutrons can then go on to produce other nuclides via neutron-induced fission, or by
2075:
in the time since the formation of the Earth. Little of the atmospheric argon is primordial.
1865:
320:
134:
3493:
2640:
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3421:
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2810:
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2680:
2648:
2636:
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2379:
2340:
2269:
2220:
1835:, and subsequently detected signals of numerous heavy elements such as gold as the ejected
1816:
1643:
1617:
571:
563:
383:
328:
8:
3866:
3757:
3737:
3732:
2090:
1924:
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607:
595:
142:
127:
3638:
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3425:
3392:
3295:
3216:
3167:
3122:
3000:
2920:
2814:
2770:
2684:
2600:
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explosions. Elements beyond iron are made in high-mass stars with slow neutron capture (
3503:
3309:
3281:
3248:
3202:
3134:
3108:
2942:
2906:
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Actually, before the war ended, he learned about the problem of spherical implosion of
1828:
301:
300:, was the first type of nucleogenesis to occur in the universe, creating the so-called
165:
154:
3175:
1930:
Beryllium and boron are not significantly produced by stellar fusion processes, since
271:
as it cooled below two trillion degrees. A few minutes afterwards, starting with only
3747:
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3687:
3620:
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2104:
2100:
2086:
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1639:
444:
440:
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3138:
90:. Nuclear fusion reactions create many of the lighter elements, up to and including
3777:
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3727:
3679:
3610:
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3429:
3396:
3336:
3299:
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3198:
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3068:
3004:
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2774:
2717:
2688:
2644:
2604:
2527:
2387:
2348:
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2228:
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1827:, along with a collaboration of many observatories around the world, detected both
1769:
1741:
1652:
1682:
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first elucidated those nuclear mechanisms by which hydrogen is fused into helium.
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245:
99:
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583:
375:
79:
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3401:
3374:
2838:"All the Gold in the Universe Could Come from the Collisions of Neutron Stars"
2625:
Clayton, D. D.; Nittler, L. R. (2004). "Astrophysics with
Presolar Stardust".
2353:
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may have been formed at this time, but the process stopped before significant
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3797:
3712:
3624:
3328:
2938:
2391:
2080:
1733:
551:
400:
359:
41:
31:
3335:. U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information.
3304:
3267:
2721:
1655:
phase of low-mass star evolution, and the explosive ending of stars, called
3871:
2729:
2291:
2240:
2072:
450:
The Big Bang itself had been proposed in 1931, long before this period, by
287:(both with mass number 7) were formed, but hardly any other elements. Some
263:
It is thought that the primordial nucleons themselves were formed from the
168:
161:
83:
2585:
Merrill, S. P. W. (1952). "Spectroscopic
Observations of Stars of Class".
3697:
3207:
2961:"Neutron star collisions are a "goldmine" of heavy elements, study finds"
2153:
2108:
2056:
2052:
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1931:
1920:
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701:
463:
138:
20:
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3702:
3195:
Proceedings of the Ninth Marcel
Grossmann Meeting on General Relavitity
2132:
2124:
2094:
2047:. The nuclear decay of many long-lived primordial isotopes, especially
2041:
1853:
1761:
1737:
1706:
1664:
716:
641:
599:
459:
436:
417:
411:
379:
116:
within exploding stars is largely responsible for the elements between
3348:
3016:
2368:
Suess, Hans E.; Urey, Harold C. (1956). "Abundances of the
Elements".
3843:
3835:
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3707:
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371:
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316:
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251:
150:
146:
107:
103:
72:
3648:
3340:
3191:"Nucleonsynthesis in Advective Accretion Disk Around Compact Object"
2206:
1968:
489:
184:
3441:
Burbidge, E. M.; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, W. A.; Hoyle, F. (1957).
3433:
3286:
3130:
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2911:
2822:
2778:
2692:
2608:
2325:
Burbidge, E. M.; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, W. A.; Hoyle, F. (1957).
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671:
324:
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268:
121:
57:
49:
26:
3113:
2893:
Chen, Hsin-Yu; Vitale, Salvatore; Foucart, Francois (2021-10-01).
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1951:
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69:
65:
45:
1831:
and electromagnetic signatures of a likely neutron star merger,
312:
292:
272:
117:
95:
61:
3641:– nucleosynthesis explained in terms of the nuclide chart, by
2131:, produced from nitrogen-14 in the atmosphere by cosmic rays.
19:"Nucleogenesis" redirects here. For the song by Vangelis, see
2060:
750:
606:(sometimes known as the gamma process), which results in the
288:
3092:
1843:
3440:
3193:. In Jantzen, R. T.; Ruffini, R.; Gurzadyan, V. G. (eds.).
2869:
2324:
1812:
1659:, of those with more than eight times the mass of the Sun.
339:
91:
3273:
Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters
2507:
2147:
2408:
From First Light to Reionization the End of the Dark Ages
830:
30:
Diagram illustration the creation of new elements by the
3151:
394:
The first ideas on nucleosynthesis were simply that the
2795:
Clayton, D. D.; Colgate, S. A.; Fishman, G. J. (1969).
2436:
Fields, B.D.; Molaro, P.; Sarkar, S. (September 2017).
3477:
2753:"Nucleosynthesis of Heavy Elements by Neutron Capture"
1950:
Theories of nucleosynthesis are tested by calculating
3061:
Nucleosynthesis in Accretion Disks Around Black Holes
2794:
2751:
Seeger, P. A.; Fowler, W. A.; Clayton, D. D. (1965).
2664:
1732:= 60). It replaced the incorrect although much cited
764:
2984:
2665:
Bodansky, D.; Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A. (1968).
2143:
389:
334:
The subsequent nucleosynthesis of heavier elements (
3505:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
2750:
2552:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
2543:
2541:
2475:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
2103:. Naturally occurring nuclear reactions powered by
3502:
2667:"Nuclear Quasi-Equilibrium during Silicon Burning"
2549:
2472:
2435:
2067:is via this mechanism. The atmosphere's supply of
1579:
3596:
3380:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3035:"Nucleosynthesis from Black Hole Accretion Disks"
2892:
1958:
3925:
3029:
2965:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2538:
52:, through nuclear reactions in a process called
2797:"Gamma-Ray Lines from Young Supernova Remnants"
2660:
2658:
700:continues to be produced by stellar fusion and
64:. The rest is traces of other elements such as
2790:
2788:
2624:
2620:
2618:
3664:
3553:Cauldrons in the Cosmos: Nuclear Astrophysics
3375:"The Synthesis of the Elements from Hydrogen"
3326:
3188:
2655:
1696:
1589:Chief nuclear reactions responsible for the
171:such as uranium, thorium, and potassium-40.
110:create heavier elements, from iron upwards.
86:, giving off energy in the process known as
3550:
3413:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2785:
2758:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2706:Clayton, D. D. (2007). "Hoyle's Equation".
2672:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2628:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
2615:
1997:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
618:
518:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
213:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3671:
3657:
2112:be produced in spontaneous fission and by
2071:is due mostly to the radioactive decay of
1663:that had formed earlier. The detection of
1603:
3614:
3468:
3400:
3303:
3285:
3224:
3206:
3112:
2928:
2910:
2835:
2448:
2404:
2367:
2352:
2281:
2253:
2204:
2017:Learn how and when to remove this message
1844:Black hole accretion disk nucleosynthesis
538:Learn how and when to remove this message
267:around 13.8 billion years ago during the
233:Learn how and when to remove this message
160:On Earth new nuclei are also produced by
2256:"The Internal Constitution of the Stars"
2207:"The Internal Constitution of the Stars"
1859:
469:
244:
82:light elements to heavier ones in their
25:
3597:Arcones, A.; Thielemann, F. K. (2022).
3573:
3527:
3500:
3057:
2705:
2584:
2547:
2470:
2162:Extinct isotopes of superheavy elements
1801:
3926:
3327:Surdoval, Wayne; Berry, David (2021).
2649:10.1146/annurev.astro.42.053102.134022
590:or in explosive environments, such as
3678:
3652:
3603:The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review
3409:
3372:
3265:
1945:
3551:Rolfs, C. E.; Rodney, W. S. (2005).
3443:"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars"
2327:"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars"
1995:adding citations to reliable sources
1962:
1934:has an extremely short half-life of
516:adding citations to reliable sources
483:
211:adding citations to reliable sources
178:
2863:
13:
3530:Handbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos
3366:
2836:Stromberg, Joseph (16 July 2013).
1923:(mostly fast protons) against the
14:
3955:
3632:
3509:(Reprint ed.). Chicago, IL:
2899:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
2556:(Reprint ed.). Chicago, IL:
2479:(Reprint ed.). Chicago, IL:
1597:observed throughout the universe.
390:History of nucleosynthesis theory
3082:from the original on 2020-03-24.
3047:from the original on 2016-09-10.
2460:from the original on 2022-04-01.
2182:"DOE Explains...Nucleosynthesis"
2146:
1967:
1757:isotopes of each heavy element.
488:
183:
40:is the process that creates new
3639:The Valley of Stability (video)
3320:
3259:
3182:
3145:
3086:
3051:
3023:
2978:
2953:
2886:
2857:
2829:
2744:
2699:
2578:
2501:
2314:Autobiography William A. Fowler
1821:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
435:, followed by many others. The
2464:
2438:"23. Big-Bang Nucleosynthesis"
2429:
2398:
2361:
2318:
2298:
2247:
2198:
2174:
1959:Minor mechanisms and processes
1848:Nucleosynthesis may happen in
1540:
1469:
1408:
1337:
1264:
1205:
1132:
1061:
988:
924:
863:
780:
613:
1:
3176:10.1016/S0375-9474(03)00856-X
3033:; Surman, R. (2 April 2007).
2167:
1788:Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory
2532:10.1016/0003-4916(61)90067-7
2097:are produced in this manner.
819:
479:
7:
3557:University of Chicago Press
3511:University of Chicago Press
2558:University of Chicago Press
2481:University of Chicago Press
2405:Stiavelli, Massimo (2009).
2233:10.1126/science.52.1341.233
2139:
1883:, and boron, although some
715:continue to be produced by
366: = 6 (carbon) to
258:
164:, the decay of long-lived,
10:
3960:
3616:10.1007/s00159-022-00146-x
3534:Cambridge University Press
3481:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3235:10.1142/9789812777386_0544
2033:These mechanisms include:
1863:
1724:elements between silicon (
1700:
1607:
622:
174:
18:
3901:
3880:
3857:
3766:
3686:
3470:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547
3448:Reviews of Modern Physics
3189:Mukhopadhyay, B. (2018).
3100:The Astrophysical Journal
2988:The Astrophysical Journal
2802:The Astrophysical Journal
2588:The Astrophysical Journal
2371:Reviews of Modern Physics
2354:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547
2332:Reviews of Modern Physics
2254:Eddington, A. S. (1920).
2205:Eddington, A. S. (1920).
1716:Supernova nucleosynthesis
1711:Supernova nucleosynthesis
1697:Explosive nucleosynthesis
1689:and is frequently called
1523:
1452:
1386:
1315:
1247:
1183:
1110:
1039:
966:
907:
437:seminal 1957 review paper
356:supernova nucleosynthesis
114:Supernova nucleosynthesis
3599:"Origin of the elements"
3576:Nuclear Physics of Stars
2930:10.3847/2041-8213/ac26c6
2866:"GW170817 Press Release"
2392:10.1103/RevModPhys.28.53
1516:
1510:
1445:
1439:
1379:
1373:
1308:
1302:
1240:
1234:
1176:
1170:
1103:
1097:
1032:
1026:
959:
953:
900:
894:
625:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
619:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
407:Arthur Stanley Eddington
348:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
298:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
54:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
3723:Double electron capture
3528:Clayton, D. D. (2003).
3501:Clayton, D. D. (1983).
3494:1971A&A....15..337M
3402:10.1093/mnras/106.5.343
2722:10.1126/science.1151167
2641:2004ARA&A..42...39C
2548:Clayton, D. D. (1983).
2471:Clayton, D. D. (1983).
2107:give rise to so-called
1674:asymptotic giant branch
1667:in the atmosphere of a
1610:Stellar nucleosynthesis
1604:Stellar nucleosynthesis
352:stellar nucleosynthesis
88:stellar nucleosynthesis
3201:. pp. 2261–2262.
1581:
550:There are a number of
476:
429:Alastair G. W. Cameron
255:
34:
3578:. Weinheim, Germany:
3305:10.1093/mnrasl/sly169
3266:Breen, P. G. (2018).
2411:. Weinheim, Germany:
1866:Cosmic ray spallation
1860:Cosmic ray spallation
1582:
704:and trace amounts of
473:
467:scale of this graph.
321:cosmic ray spallation
248:
137:is a process wherein
135:Cosmic ray spallation
29:
3574:Iliadis, C. (2007).
3058:Frankel, N. (2017).
1991:improve this section
1802:Neutron star mergers
1644:triple-alpha process
1618:Triple-alpha process
762:
610:of existing nuclei.
596:neutron star mergers
512:improve this section
384:nuclear astrophysics
329:triple-alpha process
296:This first process,
207:improve this section
128:Neutron star mergers
3867:Photodisintegration
3788:Proton–proton chain
3758:Spontaneous fission
3738:Isomeric transition
3733:Internal conversion
3461:1957RvMP...29..547B
3426:1954ApJS....1..121H
3393:1946MNRAS.106..343H
3296:2018MNRAS.481L.110B
3217:2002nmgm.meet.2261M
3168:2003NuPhA.718..572A
3123:2008ApJ...679L.117S
3001:1987ApJ...313..674C
2921:2021ApJ...920L...3C
2815:1969ApJ...155...75C
2771:1965ApJS...11..121S
2716:(5858): 1876–1877.
2685:1968ApJS...16..299B
2601:1952ApJ...116...21M
2524:1961AnPhy..12..331C
2384:1956RvMP...28...53S
2345:1957RvMP...29..547B
2274:1920Natur.106...14E
2225:1920Obs....43..341E
2135:is another example.
2091:spontaneous fission
1925:interstellar medium
1777:spectroscopic lines
1634:photodisintegration
1614:Proton–proton chain
1591:relative abundances
1553:
1502:
1482:
1421:
1403:
1350:
1332:
1277:
1218:
1200:
1145:
1127:
1074:
1056:
1001:
983:
937:
876:
832:
608:photodisintegration
556:proton–proton chain
302:primordial elements
155:cosmogenic nuclides
143:interstellar medium
3373:Hoyle, F. (1946).
1946:Empirical evidence
1829:gravitational wave
1728:= 28) and nickel (
1721:almost equilibrium
1577:
1575:
1539:
1488:
1468:
1407:
1389:
1336:
1318:
1263:
1204:
1186:
1131:
1113:
1060:
1042:
987:
969:
923:
862:
813:
743:quark–gluon plasma
477:
265:quark–gluon plasma
256:
44:from pre-existing
35:
3921:
3920:
3917:
3916:
3748:Positron emission
3718:Double beta decay
3680:Nuclear processes
3589:978-3-527-40602-9
3566:978-0-226-72457-7
3543:978-0-521-82381-4
3532:. Cambridge, UK:
3520:978-0-226-10952-7
3155:Nuclear Physics A
3095:McLaughlin, G. C.
2967:. 25 October 2021
2571:978-0-226-10952-7
2511:Annals of Physics
2494:978-0-226-10952-7
2310:Manhattan project
2105:radioactive decay
2101:Nuclear reactions
2087:Radioactive decay
2045:daughter nuclides
2038:Radioactive decay
2027:
2026:
2019:
1837:degenerate matter
1750:secondary process
1653:planetary nebulae
1640:stellar evolution
1565:
1556:
1532:
1515:
1514:
1513:
1505:
1485:
1461:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1424:
1406:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1362:
1353:
1335:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1289:
1280:
1256:
1239:
1238:
1237:
1221:
1203:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1157:
1148:
1130:
1102:
1101:
1100:
1086:
1077:
1059:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1013:
1004:
986:
958:
957:
956:
940:
916:
899:
898:
897:
879:
855:
840:
827:
822:
801:
786:
773:
548:
547:
540:
433:Donald D. Clayton
425:William A. Fowler
396:chemical elements
370: = 94 (
243:
242:
235:
102:reactions of the
68:and the hydrogen
3951:
3878:
3877:
3778:Deuterium fusion
3743:Neutron emission
3728:Electron capture
3673:
3666:
3659:
3650:
3649:
3628:
3618:
3593:
3570:
3547:
3524:
3508:
3497:
3474:
3472:
3437:
3406:
3404:
3360:
3359:
3357:
3355:
3324:
3318:
3317:
3307:
3289:
3263:
3257:
3256:
3228:
3210:
3208:astro-ph/0103162
3199:World Scientific
3186:
3180:
3179:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3116:
3107:(2): L117–L120.
3090:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3069:Lund Observatory
3066:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3039:
3027:
3021:
3020:
2982:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2957:
2951:
2950:
2932:
2914:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2864:Chu, J. (n.d.).
2861:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2792:
2783:
2782:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2703:
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2696:
2662:
2653:
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2613:
2612:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2555:
2545:
2536:
2535:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2478:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2459:
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2442:
2433:
2427:
2426:
2402:
2396:
2395:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2322:
2316:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2285:
2283:10.1038/106014a0
2251:
2245:
2244:
2219:(1341): 233–40.
2202:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2178:
2156:
2151:
2150:
2114:neutron emission
2022:
2015:
2011:
2008:
2002:
1971:
1963:
1941:
1939:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1909:
1908:
1900:
1899:
1898:
1891:
1890:
1742:electron capture
1681:compositions of
1586:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1552:
1547:
1538:
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1506:
1503:
1501:
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1402:
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1368:
1367:
1360:
1355:
1351:
1349:
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1303:
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1219:
1217:
1212:
1201:
1199:
1194:
1185:
1171:
1164:
1163:
1162:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1144:
1139:
1128:
1126:
1121:
1112:
1098:
1093:
1092:
1091:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1073:
1068:
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1050:
1041:
1027:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1011:
1006:
1002:
1000:
995:
984:
982:
977:
968:
954:
949:
942:
938:
936:
931:
922:
921:
914:
909:
895:
888:
881:
877:
875:
870:
861:
860:
853:
848:
846:
845:
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833:
831:
828:
825:
823:
815:
809:
807:
806:
799:
794:
792:
791:
784:
779:
778:
771:
740:
738:
737:
729:
727:
726:
714:
712:
711:
699:
697:
696:
684:
682:
681:
669:
667:
666:
654:
652:
651:
639:
637:
636:
543:
536:
532:
529:
523:
492:
484:
452:Georges Lemaître
238:
231:
227:
224:
218:
187:
179:
3959:
3958:
3954:
3953:
3952:
3950:
3949:
3948:
3944:Nuclear physics
3934:Nucleosynthesis
3924:
3923:
3922:
3913:
3897:
3888:Neutron capture
3876:
3859:
3853:
3770:nucleosynthesis
3769:
3762:
3753:Proton emission
3708:Gamma radiation
3689:
3682:
3677:
3635:
3590:
3567:
3555:. Chicago, IL:
3544:
3521:
3369:
3367:Further reading
3364:
3363:
3353:
3351:
3341:10.2172/1773479
3325:
3321:
3280:(1): L110–114.
3264:
3260:
3245:
3226:10.1.1.254.7490
3187:
3183:
3150:
3146:
3091:
3087:
3079:
3073:Lund University
3064:
3056:
3052:
3044:
3037:
3028:
3024:
2983:
2979:
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2959:
2958:
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2862:
2858:
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2793:
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2700:
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2656:
2623:
2616:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2546:
2539:
2506:
2502:
2495:
2469:
2465:
2457:
2450:10.1.1.729.1183
2440:
2434:
2430:
2423:
2403:
2399:
2366:
2362:
2323:
2319:
2303:
2299:
2268:(2653): 14–20.
2252:
2248:
2212:The Observatory
2203:
2199:
2190:
2188:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2170:
2152:
2145:
2142:
2118:neutron capture
2023:
2012:
2006:
2003:
1988:
1972:
1961:
1948:
1937:
1935:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1905:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1868:
1862:
1850:accretion disks
1846:
1804:
1796:presolar grains
1784:supernova 1987A
1746:primary process
1713:
1701:Main articles:
1699:
1691:presolar grains
1636:
1608:Main articles:
1606:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1598:
1587:
1574:
1573:
1566:
1562:
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1111:
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1022:
1021:
1014:
1010:
1005:
996:
991:
978:
973:
967:
952:
950:
941:
932:
927:
917:
913:
908:
893:
890:
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841:
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580:silicon burning
544:
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279:, nuclei up to
261:
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100:neutron capture
38:Nucleosynthesis
24:
17:
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11:
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3909:(n-p) reaction
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3085:
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623:Main article:
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584:binding energy
576:oxygen burning
568:carbon burning
564:helium burning
546:
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496:
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487:
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445:G. R. Burbidge
441:E. M. Burbidge
401:alpha nuclides
391:
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376:nuclear fusion
360:atomic numbers
260:
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2422:9783527627370
2418:
2415:. p. 8.
2414:
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2081:cluster decay
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2018:
2010:
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1996:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1976:This section
1974:
1970:
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1964:
1956:
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1734:alpha process
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1596:
1595:atomic nuclei
1592:
1567:
1559:
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1177:
1159:
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1141:
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1123:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1104:
1088:
1080:
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1036:
1033:
1015:
1007:
997:
992:
979:
974:
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963:
960:
946:
943:
933:
928:
918:
910:
904:
901:
885:
882:
872:
867:
857:
849:
842:
816:
810:
803:
795:
788:
775:
754:
752:
749:(or possibly
748:
744:
718:
703:
688:
673:
658:
643:
626:
611:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
552:astrophysical
542:
539:
531:
521:
517:
513:
507:
506:
502:
497:This section
495:
491:
486:
485:
472:
468:
465:
461:
455:
453:
448:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
421:
419:
415:
413:
408:
404:
402:
397:
387:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
332:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
305:
303:
299:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
253:
247:
237:
234:
226:
216:
212:
208:
202:
201:
197:
192:This section
190:
186:
181:
180:
172:
170:
169:radionuclides
167:
163:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
129:
125:
123:
119:
115:
111:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
76:
74:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
42:atomic nuclei
39:
33:
32:alpha process
28:
22:
3939:Astrophysics
3872:Photofission
3836:
3828:
3606:
3602:
3575:
3552:
3529:
3504:
3485:
3479:
3452:
3446:
3417:
3411:
3384:
3378:
3352:. Retrieved
3332:
3322:
3277:
3271:
3261:
3194:
3184:
3159:
3153:
3147:
3104:
3098:
3093:Surman, R.;
3088:
3060:
3053:
3025:
2992:
2986:
2980:
2969:. Retrieved
2964:
2955:
2902:
2898:
2888:
2877:. Retrieved
2859:
2847:. Retrieved
2841:
2831:
2806:
2800:
2762:
2756:
2746:
2713:
2707:
2701:
2676:
2670:
2635:(1): 39–78.
2632:
2626:
2592:
2586:
2580:
2551:
2515:
2509:
2503:
2474:
2466:
2431:
2407:
2400:
2378:(1): 53–74.
2375:
2369:
2363:
2336:
2330:
2320:
2300:
2265:
2259:
2249:
2216:
2210:
2200:
2189:. Retrieved
2185:
2176:
2089:may lead to
2073:potassium-40
2040:may lead to
2032:
2028:
2013:
2004:
1989:Please help
1977:
1949:
1929:
1869:
1847:
1805:
1792:
1781:
1766:
1759:
1749:
1745:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1714:
1661:
1649:
1637:
702:alpha decays
689:). Although
628:
572:neon burning
549:
534:
525:
510:Please help
498:
456:
449:
422:
416:
405:
393:
367:
363:
335:
333:
306:
262:
229:
220:
205:Please help
193:
162:radiogenesis
159:
133:
126:
112:
77:
37:
36:
3698:Alpha decay
3688:Radioactive
3488:: 337–359.
3162:: 572–574.
2843:Smithsonian
2154:Star portal
2109:nucleogenic
2057:thorium-232
2053:uranium-238
2049:uranium-235
1921:cosmic rays
1854:black holes
1754:metallicity
1687:cosmic dust
614:Major types
464:Harold Urey
315:, lithium,
139:cosmic rays
21:Albedo 0.39
3928:Categories
3849:rp-process
3823:Si burning
3813:Ne burning
3783:Li burning
3703:Beta decay
3287:1804.08877
2971:2021-12-23
2912:2107.02714
2879:2018-07-04
2191:2022-03-22
2186:Energy.gov
2168:References
2133:Iodine-129
2125:cosmogenic
2095:promethium
2042:radiogenic
2007:April 2021
1762:rp-process
1707:rp-process
1665:technetium
1657:supernovae
717:spallation
602:, and the
600:rp-process
592:supernovae
528:April 2021
460:Hans Suess
418:Fred Hoyle
412:Hans Bethe
380:beta decay
344:supernovae
223:April 2021
166:primordial
151:meteoroids
3860:processes
3844:p-process
3818:O burning
3808:C burning
3798:α process
3793:CNO cycle
3625:1432-0754
3580:Wiley-VCH
3253:118008078
3221:CiteSeerX
3114:0803.1785
2947:238198587
2939:2041-8205
2905:(1): L3.
2738:118423007
2562:Chapter 7
2485:Chapter 5
2445:CiteSeerX
2413:Wiley-VCH
2306:plutonium
2129:carbon-14
1978:does not
1942:seconds.
1881:beryllium
1873:deuterium
1738:BFH paper
1703:r-process
1669:red giant
1630:p-process
1626:s-process
1622:CNO cycle
1593:of light
1541:⟶
1470:⟶
1431:γ
1409:⟶
1338:⟶
1265:⟶
1228:γ
1206:⟶
1133:⟶
1062:⟶
989:⟶
947:γ
925:⟶
886:γ
864:⟶
820:¯
817:ν
804:−
781:⟶
747:beryllium
657:deuterium
604:p-process
588:s-process
560:CNO cycle
499:does not
480:Processes
372:plutonium
317:beryllium
285:beryllium
252:s-process
194:does not
147:asteroids
108:s-process
104:r-process
73:deuterium
3902:Exchange
3839:-process
3831:-process
3803:Triple-α
3645:(France)
3609:(1): 1.
3354:17 April
3333:osti.gov
3314:54001706
3139:17114805
3077:Archived
3042:Archived
2849:27 April
2730:18096793
2455:Archived
2292:17747682
2241:17747682
2140:See also
2077:Helium-4
2069:argon-40
2065:polonium
1833:GW170817
1825:INTEGRAL
1683:stardust
1679:isotopic
687:helium-4
672:helium-3
325:helium-3
309:hydrogen
277:neutrons
269:Big Bang
259:Timeline
122:rubidium
58:hydrogen
50:Big Bang
46:nucleons
3881:Capture
3768:Stellar
3490:Bibcode
3457:Bibcode
3422:Bibcode
3420:: 121.
3389:Bibcode
3349:1773479
3292:Bibcode
3213:Bibcode
3164:Bibcode
3119:Bibcode
3067:(MSc).
3017:6468841
2997:Bibcode
2995:: 674.
2917:Bibcode
2874:Caltech
2811:Bibcode
2767:Bibcode
2765:: 121.
2709:Science
2681:Bibcode
2679:: 299.
2637:Bibcode
2597:Bibcode
2520:Bibcode
2380:Bibcode
2341:Bibcode
2308:in the
2270:Bibcode
2221:Bibcode
1999:removed
1984:sources
1952:isotope
1877:lithium
1770:isobars
1736:of the
674:), and
642:protium
558:or the
520:removed
505:sources
281:lithium
273:protons
215:removed
200:sources
175:History
70:isotope
66:lithium
3623:
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