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Open-field system

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England were actually highly managed; they were considered to be privately owned by the village as a whole, which led to a communal sense of responsibility to maintaining the land. Managerial practices such as stinting, or limiting the amount of cattle permitted, required weed removal, removal of straw, cutting thistles, ringing swine, and knobbing cow's horns to prevent grubbing were common. The commons were regularly inspected by the villagers and sometimes by a delegation from the manorial court. It is even argued that the commons that Hardin was referring to in "The Tragedy of the Commons" were actually pre-enclosure commons, which were not true commons, but rather left over lands that were misused by the poor, displaced, and criminals.
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prices in fifteenth century England gave a competitive advantage to the production of wool, meat, and milk. The shift away from grain to livestock accelerated enclosure of fields. The steadily increasing number of formerly open fields converted to enclosed (fenced) fields caused social and economic stress among small farmers who lost their access to communal grazing lands. Many tenants were forced off the lands their families may have cultivated for centuries to work for wages in towns and cities. The number of large and middle-sized estates grew in number while small land-holders decreased in number. In the 16th and early 17th centuries, the practice of enclosure (particularly depopulating enclosure) was denounced by the
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More than half the agricultural land of England was still not enclosed in 1700, after which the government discouraged the continuation of the open-field system. It was finally laid to rest in England about 1850 after more than 5,000 Acts of Parliament and just as many voluntary agreements over several centuries had transformed the "scattered plots in the open fields" into unambiguous private and enclosed properties free of village and communal control and use. Over half of all agricultural land in England was enclosed during the 18th and 19th centuries. Other European countries also began to pass legislation to eliminate the scattering of farm land, the
408: 227:, a rich farmer who cultivated one hide of land and had tenants of his own. The tenants' houses lined a road rather than being grouped in a cluster. Some of the village houses were fairly large, 50 feet (15 m) long by 14 feet (4.3 m) wide. Others were only 20 feet (6 m) long and 10 feet (3 m) wide. All were insubstantial and required frequent reconstruction. Most of the tenants' houses had outbuildings and an animal pen with a larger area, called a 22: 254:
the church. A family might possess about 70 selions totalling about 20 acres (8 ha) scattered around the fields. The scattered nature of family holdings ensured that families each received a ration of both good and poor land and minimised risk. If some selions were unproductive, others might be productive. Ploughing techniques created a landscape of ridge and furrow, with furrows between ridges dividing holdings and aiding drainage.
489: 445:" and assert that private ownership is a better steward of resources than common or public ownership. "Tragedy of the commons" refers to the alleged destruction of common pastures in England as a result of overgrazing, each tenant maximizing his gain by grazing as many animals as possible and ignoring the long-term impact of overgrazing. The author of the term "tragedy of the commons", 235:
acres (1 ha). To survive, they also had to work for larger landowners. 22 percent of tenants had a virgate of land (which varied in size between 24 acres (10 ha) and 32 acres (13 ha) and 31 percent had one-half virgate. To rely on the land for a livelihood a tenant family needed at least 10 acres (4 ha).
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and the government, and legislation was drawn up against it. The dispossession of tenants from their land created an "epidemic of vagrancy" in England in the late 16th and early 17th century. The tide of elite opinion began to turn towards support for enclosure, and the rate of enclosure increased in
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The population in Europe grew in the early centuries of the open-field system, doubling in Britain between 1086 and 1300, which required increased agricultural production and more intensive cultivation of farmland. The open-field system was generally not practised in marginal agricultural areas or in
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The tenants on the manor did not have equal holdings of land. About one-half of adults living on a manor had no land at all and had to work for larger landholders for their livelihood. A survey of 104 13th-century manors in England found that, among the landholding tenants, 45 percent had less than 3
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per acre harvested. Battle Abbey may have been atypical, with better management and soils than typical of demesnes in open-field areas. Barley was used in making beer – consumed in large quantities – and mixed with other grains to produce bread that was a dietary staple for the poorer farmers. Wheat
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One of the two or three fields was fallowed each year to recover soil fertility. The fields were divided into parcels called furlongs. The furlong was further subdivided into long, thin strips of land called selions or ridges. Selions were distributed among the farmers of the village, the manor, and
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each. The acreage of a hide and virgate varied; but at Elton, a hide was 144 acres (58 ha) and a virgate was 24 acres (10 ha). Thus, the total of arable land amounted to 1,872 acres (758 ha). The abbot's demesne land consisted of three hides plus 16 acres (6.5 ha) of meadow and 3
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Whilst the stitches (strips) to the west of track across the open field were arable at the time of this visit (early May 2009), on the east side they are covered in grass. This illustrates the system whereby the stitches were cultivated by their owners during the Summer, but grazed in common during
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of the open field system, calling it a "robbery of the common lands". The "brave new world" of a harsher, more competitive and capitalistic society from the 16th century onward destroyed the securities and certainties of land tenure in the open-field system. The open field system died only slowly.
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Much of the land in the open-field system during medieval times had been cultivated for hundreds of years earlier on Roman estates or by farmers belonging to one of the ethnic groups of Europe. There are hints of a proto-open-field system going back to AD 98 among the Germanic tribes. Germanic and
559:. In many towns and cities there are areas of land of one or two acres (up to about one hectare) interspersed between the buildings. These areas are usually owned by local authorities, or by allotment associations. Small patches of the land are allocated at a low rent to people for growing food. 452:
The fact that the open-field system endured for roughly a thousand years over a large part of Europe and provided a livelihood to a growing population indicates that there might not have been a better way of organizing agriculture during that time period. However, some argue that the pastures of
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and those rights were passed down from generation to generation. A medieval lord could not evict a tenant nor hire labour to replace him without legal cause. Most tenants likewise were not free without penalty to depart the manor for other locations or occupations. The rise of capitalism and the
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of 1348–1350 killed 30–60% of Europe's population. As a consequence the surviving population had access to larger tracts of empty farmland and wages increased due to a shortage of labour. Richer farmers began to acquire land and remove it from communal usage. An economic recession and low grain
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in the second field in the fall and the third field would be left fallow. The following year, the planting in the fields would be rotated. Pasturage was held in common. The tenants pastured their livestock on the fallow field and on the planted fields after harvest. An elaborate set of laws and
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The open-field system is considered by many economists to have been inefficient for agricultural production and resistant to technological innovation. "Everyone was forced to conform to village norms of cropping, harvesting, and building." The communal institutions, the manorial court, and the
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tenants regulated agricultural practices and economic behaviour. The manorial lord exercised control over the tenants by extracting rent for land or labour to cultivate his demesne lands. The scattered holdings of each farmer increased the time needed to travel to and from fields.
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in Sussex in the late 14th century ranged from 2.26 to 5.22 seeds harvested for every seed planted, averaging 4.34 seeds harvested for every seed planted. Barley production averaged 4.01 and oats 2.87 seeds harvested for seeds planted. This translates into yields of 7 to 17
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acres (1 ha) of pasture. The remainder of the land was cultivated by 113 tenants who lived in a village on the manor. Counting spouses, children, and other dependents, plus landless people, the total population resident in the manor village was probably 500 to 600.
507:, North Devon. It is still farmed with due regard to its ancient origins and is conserved by those who recognise its importance although the number of owners has fallen dramatically throughout the years and this has resulted in the amalgamation of some of the strips. 331:, and poultry. Pork was the principal meat eaten; sheep were primarily raised for their wool, a cash crop. Only a few rich landholders had enough horses and oxen to make up a ploughing-team of six to eight oxen or horses, so sharing among neighbours was essential. 340:
Anglo-Saxon invaders and settlers possibly brought the open-field system to France and England after the 5th century AD. The open-field system appears to have developed to maturity between AD 850 and 1150 in England, although documentation is scarce prior to the
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system of farming in small, square, enclosed fields. In much of eastern and western England, fields were similarly either never open or were enclosed earlier. The primary area of open fields was in the lowland areas of England in a broad swathe from
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and France passing laws making land consolidation compulsory in the 1930s and 1950s respectively. In Russia, the open-field system, called "cherespolositsa" ("alternating ribbons (of land)") and administered by the
500:. It is thought that its anomalous survival is due to the inability of two early 19th-century landowners to agree on how the land was to be enclosed, thus resulting in the perpetuation of the existing system. 128:
led to the gradual demise of the open-field system. The open-field system was gradually replaced over several centuries by private ownership of land, especially after the 15th century in the process known as
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The open-field system was never practiced in all regions and countries in Europe. It was most common in heavily populated and productive agricultural regions. In England, the south-east, notably parts of
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in Cambridgeshire in 1286, perhaps typical of that time in England, the tenants harvested about twice as much barley as wheat with lesser amounts of oats, peas, beans, rye, flax, apples, and vegetables.
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were needed to cut through the soil and the ox or horse teams which pulled the ploughs were expensive, and thus both animals and ploughs were often shared by necessity among farm families.
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In medieval times, little land was owned outright. Instead, generally the lord had rights given to him by the king, and the tenant rented land from the lord. Lords demanded rents and
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in England. France, Germany, and other northern European countries had systems similar to England, although open fields generally endured longer on the continent.
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The land of a typical manor in England and other countries was subdivided into two or three large fields. Non-arable land was allocated to common pasture land or
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The replacement of the open-field system by privately owned property was fiercely resisted by many elements of society. Karl Marx was extremely opposed to the
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administered the manor and exercised jurisdiction over the peasantry. The Lord levied rents and required the peasantry to work on his personal lands, called a
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or village had two or three large fields, usually several hundred acres each, which were divided into many narrow strips of land. The strips or
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The open-field system, especially its characteristic of common grazing lands, has often been used as an example by economists to illustrate "
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The most visible characteristic of the open-field system was that the arable land belonging to a manor was divided into many long narrow
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Wheat and barley were the most important crops with roughly equal amounts planted on the average in England. Annual wheat production at
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The right of pasture on fallowed fields, land unsuitable for cultivation, and harvested fields was held in common with rules to prevent
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Issue no. 33, April 1998; Ault, W. O. "Open-Field Farming in Medieval England" London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1972, pp. 15–16
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with a much larger manor house and church nearby. The open-field system necessitated co-operation among the residents of the manor.
1095:"The Enclosure of Open Fields: Preface to a Study of Its Impact on the Efficiency of English Agriculture in the Eighteenth Century" 1019:"The Enclosure of Open Fields: Preface to a Study of Its Impact on the Efficiency of English Agriculture in the Eighteenth Century" 195:, is representative of a medieval open-field manor in England. The manor, whose Lord was an abbot from a nearby monastery, had 13 " 302:
controls, partly set by the Lord of the Manor and partly by the tenants themselves regulated planting, harvest, and pasturing.
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in Dorset, England, a manor house built about 1370. The part of the house in the background was added in the 16th century.
160: 950:<81::AID-JCOP2290140108>3.0.CO;2-G "The Tragedy of the Commons and the Comedy of Community: The Commons in History" 389:
hilly and mountainous regions. Open fields were well suited to the dense clay soils common in northwestern Europe. Heavy
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process that started in 1905, but generally continued for many years, finally ending only with the Soviet policy of
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McCloskey, Donald N. "The open fields of England: rent, risk, and the rate of interest, 1300–1815" in
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Brandon, P. F. "Cereal Yields on the Sussex Estates of Battle Abby during the Later Middle Ages,"
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One place in England where the open-field system continues to be used is the village of
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There is also a surviving medieval open strip field system in Wales in the township of
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The land-holding tenants also had livestock, including sheep, pigs, cattle, horses,
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to cut through the heavy soils. A team could plough about one acre (0.4 ha) per day.
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in medieval Western Europe. The farmers customarily lived in separate houses in a
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Some elements of the open-field system were practised by early settlers in the
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for cultivation. The fields of cultivated land were unfenced, hence the name
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10.1002/1520-6629(198601)14:1<81::AID-JCOP2290140108>3.0.CO;2-G
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Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 17–20; Astill and Grant, p. 27
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The only other surviving medieval open strip field system in England is in
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European Peasants and Their Markets: Essays in Agrarian Economic History
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from the tenants, but the tenants had firm user rights to cropland and
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the winter. This grazing adds manure to the soil to keep it fertile.
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A similar system to open fields survives in the United Kingdom as
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Prevalent ownership and land use structure in medieval agriculture
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A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective
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on the manor. The village contained a church, a manor house, a
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Regions, Institutions, and Agrarian Change in European History
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The typical planting scheme in a three-field system was that
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Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000, p. 11
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diagonally across England to the south, taking in parts of
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The method of ploughing the fields created a distinctive
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Iran. Religion, Politics and Society: Collected Essays
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Vestiges of an open-field system also persist in the
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Puritan Village: The Formation of a New England Town
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Puritan Village: The Formation of a New England Town
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London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1972, pp. 77–78
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concept of land as a commodity to be bought and sold
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(March 1972). 592:The Countryside of Medieval England 13: 1137: 824:Gies, p. 196; Kulikoff, pp. 19, 50 541:is played in this open landscape. 250:or after the grain was harvested. 14: 1308: 1224: 968:– via Wiley Online Library. 921:The Open Field System and Beyond, 433:Controversies and inefficiencies 1231:Smith, Roly (2 December 2000). 1180:(On Britain, primarily England) 1125: 1099:The Journal of Economic History 1086: 1049: 1023:The Journal of Economic History 1010: 997: 972: 954:Journal of Community Psychology 941: 926: 913: 900: 852: 843: 827: 818: 809: 785:Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003). 778: 768: 759: 750: 741: 732: 723: 710: 697: 483: 277:1330. The ploughman is using a 1162:The History of the Countryside 948:Levine, Bruce (January 1986). 793:University of New Mexico Press 684: 671: 662: 649: 623: 610: 597: 581: 568: 155: 1: 886:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 562: 152:region of the United States. 61:in much of Europe during the 908:"The Tragedy of the Commons" 838:The Lost Villages of England 385:farming) in medieval times. 7: 1248:"The Laxton Village Survey" 718:The Economic History Review 261:enforced by the community. 215:for finishing cloth, and a 10: 1313: 1207:The Open Fields of England 1072:Princeton University Press 657:Life in a Medieval Village 548: 443:the tragedy of the commons 334: 85:, often called tenants or 25:Generic map of a medieval 1282:Agricultural soil science 1197:Wesleyan University Press 1166:Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1148:. Cambridge, MA; London: 1146:The English Field Systems 1111:10.1017/S0022050700075379 1070:. Princeton, New Jersey: 1035:10.1017/S0022050700075379 919:Dahlman, Carl J. (1980), 910:, accessed 22 August 2019 655:Gies, Frances and Joseph 525:, around the villages of 207:The abbot also owned two 1150:Harvard University Press 1144:Gray, Howard L (1959) . 199:" of arable land of six 590:and Grant, Annie, eds. 498:Laxton, Nottinghamshire 273:A four-ox-team plough, 223:, and the sub-manor of 104:, his officials, and a 45:. William R. Shepherd, 1287:History of agriculture 1277:Agricultural economics 1185:Powell, Sumner Chilton 703:Hopcroft, Rosemary L. 630:Powell, Sumner Chilton 493: 416: 404: 282: 211:for grinding grain, a 177: 50: 738:Gies, pp. 82, 145–149 551:Allotment (gardening) 491: 410: 399: 272: 193:Elton, Cambridgeshire 163: 24: 1205:Hall, David (2014). 1057:McCloskey, Donald N. 935:Environmental Ethics 315:was often sold as a 265:Crops and production 1254:on 24 December 2019 878:1968Sci...162.1243H 791:. Albuquerque, NM: 692:British Archaeology 81:were cultivated by 59:agricultural system 1195:. Middletown, CT: 834:Beresford, Maurice 815:Hopcroft, pp 70–81 523:North Lincolnshire 494: 417: 405: 283: 178: 57:was the prevalent 51: 39:areas part of the 1216:978-0-19-870295-5 1209:. Oxford: O.U.P. 802:978-0-8263-2871-7 588:Astill, Grenville 574:Keddie, Nicki R. 557:allotment gardens 545:Allotment gardens 356:, retained a pre- 279:mouldboard plough 102:Lord of the Manor 95:nucleated village 55:open-field system 1304: 1292:Medieval society 1263: 1261: 1259: 1250:. Archived from 1242: 1220: 1200: 1194: 1179: 1153: 1132: 1131:McCloskey, p. 11 1129: 1123: 1122: 1090: 1084: 1083: 1081: 1079: 1065: 1053: 1047: 1046: 1014: 1008: 1001: 995: 994: 992: 990: 984:www.marxists.org 976: 970: 969: 945: 939: 930: 924: 917: 911: 906:Hardin, Garret, 904: 898: 897: 872:(3859): 1243–8. 856: 850: 847: 841: 831: 825: 822: 816: 813: 807: 806: 782: 776: 772: 766: 763: 757: 754: 748: 745: 739: 736: 730: 727: 721: 714: 708: 701: 695: 688: 682: 675: 669: 666: 660: 653: 647: 627: 621: 614: 608: 603:Kulikoff, Allan 601: 595: 585: 579: 572: 478:collectivisation 401:Fiddleford Manor 166:ridge and furrow 47:Historical Atlas 1312: 1311: 1307: 1306: 1305: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1267: 1266: 1257: 1255: 1227: 1217: 1176: 1158:Rackham, Oliver 1152:; Merlin Press. 1140: 1138:Further reading 1135: 1130: 1126: 1091: 1087: 1077: 1075: 1063: 1054: 1050: 1015: 1011: 1002: 998: 988: 986: 978: 977: 973: 946: 942: 931: 927: 918: 914: 905: 901: 860:Hardin, Garrett 857: 853: 849:Hopcroft, p. 48 848: 844: 832: 828: 823: 819: 814: 810: 803: 783: 779: 773: 769: 764: 760: 755: 751: 747:Hopcroft, p. 40 746: 742: 737: 733: 729:Gies, pp. 60–62 728: 724: 715: 711: 702: 698: 689: 685: 676: 672: 668:Gies, pp. 34–36 667: 663: 654: 650: 628: 624: 615: 611: 602: 598: 586: 582: 573: 569: 565: 553: 547: 519:Isle of Axholme 486: 474:Stolypin reform 469:obshchina / mir 435: 411:Strip field at 337: 267: 191:The village of 174:Gloucestershire 158: 145: 142: 139: 136: 91:Roman Catholics 17: 12: 11: 5: 1310: 1300: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1265: 1264: 1243: 1233:"Open Society" 1226: 1225:External links 1223: 1222: 1221: 1215: 1202: 1181: 1175:978-0460044493 1174: 1154: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1133: 1124: 1085: 1048: 1009: 996: 971: 940: 925: 912: 899: 851: 842: 826: 817: 808: 801: 795:. p. 21. 777: 767: 758: 749: 740: 731: 722: 709: 696: 683: 670: 661: 648: 622: 609: 596: 580: 566: 564: 561: 549:Main article: 546: 543: 485: 482: 480:in the 1930s. 447:Garrett Hardin 434: 431: 336: 333: 266: 263: 157: 154: 106:manorial court 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 1309: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1272: 1253: 1249: 1244: 1240: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1228: 1218: 1212: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1192: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1142: 1141: 1128: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1089: 1073: 1069: 1062: 1058: 1052: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1013: 1006: 1000: 985: 981: 975: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 944: 937: 936: 929: 922: 916: 909: 903: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 866: 861: 855: 846: 839: 835: 830: 821: 812: 804: 798: 794: 790: 789: 781: 771: 762: 753: 744: 735: 726: 719: 713: 706: 700: 693: 687: 680: 674: 665: 658: 652: 646: 645:0-8195-6014-6 642: 638: 636: 631: 626: 619: 613: 606: 600: 593: 589: 584: 577: 571: 567: 560: 558: 552: 542: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 515: 513: 508: 506: 501: 499: 490: 481: 479: 475: 471: 470: 464: 459: 454: 450: 448: 444: 439: 430: 427: 422: 414: 409: 402: 398: 394: 392: 386: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 359: 355: 351: 345: 343: 342:Domesday Book 332: 330: 325: 322: 318: 313: 308: 303: 300: 296: 292: 288: 280: 276: 271: 262: 260: 255: 251: 249: 245: 241: 236: 232: 230: 226: 225:John of Elton 222: 221:village green 218: 214: 210: 205: 202: 198: 194: 189: 187: 183: 175: 171: 167: 162: 153: 151: 146: 143: 140: 137: 134: 132: 127: 122: 118: 113: 111: 107: 103: 98: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 48: 44: 43: 38: 34: 33: 28: 23: 19: 1256:. 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(1963). 563:References 539:Haxey Hood 415:, Cornwall 1119:0022-0507 1043:0022-0507 960:: 81–99. 512:Laugharne 458:enclosure 413:Forrabury 363:Yorkshire 344:of 1086. 317:cash crop 131:enclosure 1187:(1963). 1160:(1986). 1059:(1975). 938:7:49–61. 505:Braunton 383:pastoral 379:Midlands 248:fallowed 217:millpond 201:virgates 182:furlongs 83:peasants 1078:16 June 894:5699198 874:Bibcode 865:Science 531:Epworth 391:ploughs 375:Suffolk 371:Norfolk 335:History 312:bushels 295:legumes 110:demesne 79:selions 73:. 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Index


manor
demesne
hatched
glebe
agricultural system
Middle Ages
Iran
Turkey
manor
selions
peasants
serfs
Roman Catholics
nucleated village
Lord of the Manor
manorial court
demesne
labour
common land
concept of land as a commodity to be bought and sold
enclosure
New England

ridge and furrow
Wood Stanway
Gloucestershire
furlongs
Elton, Cambridgeshire
hides

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