161:
453:
England were actually highly managed; they were considered to be privately owned by the village as a whole, which led to a communal sense of responsibility to maintaining the land. Managerial practices such as stinting, or limiting the amount of cattle permitted, required weed removal, removal of straw, cutting thistles, ringing swine, and knobbing cow's horns to prevent grubbing were common. The commons were regularly inspected by the villagers and sometimes by a delegation from the manorial court. It is even argued that the commons that Hardin was referring to in "The
Tragedy of the Commons" were actually pre-enclosure commons, which were not true commons, but rather left over lands that were misused by the poor, displaced, and criminals.
424:
prices in fifteenth century
England gave a competitive advantage to the production of wool, meat, and milk. The shift away from grain to livestock accelerated enclosure of fields. The steadily increasing number of formerly open fields converted to enclosed (fenced) fields caused social and economic stress among small farmers who lost their access to communal grazing lands. Many tenants were forced off the lands their families may have cultivated for centuries to work for wages in towns and cities. The number of large and middle-sized estates grew in number while small land-holders decreased in number. In the 16th and early 17th centuries, the practice of enclosure (particularly depopulating enclosure) was denounced by the
397:
270:
461:
More than half the agricultural land of
England was still not enclosed in 1700, after which the government discouraged the continuation of the open-field system. It was finally laid to rest in England about 1850 after more than 5,000 Acts of Parliament and just as many voluntary agreements over several centuries had transformed the "scattered plots in the open fields" into unambiguous private and enclosed properties free of village and communal control and use. Over half of all agricultural land in England was enclosed during the 18th and 19th centuries. Other European countries also began to pass legislation to eliminate the scattering of farm land, the
408:
227:, a rich farmer who cultivated one hide of land and had tenants of his own. The tenants' houses lined a road rather than being grouped in a cluster. Some of the village houses were fairly large, 50 feet (15 m) long by 14 feet (4.3 m) wide. Others were only 20 feet (6 m) long and 10 feet (3 m) wide. All were insubstantial and required frequent reconstruction. Most of the tenants' houses had outbuildings and an animal pen with a larger area, called a
22:
254:
the church. A family might possess about 70 selions totalling about 20 acres (8 ha) scattered around the fields. The scattered nature of family holdings ensured that families each received a ration of both good and poor land and minimised risk. If some selions were unproductive, others might be productive. Ploughing techniques created a landscape of ridge and furrow, with furrows between ridges dividing holdings and aiding drainage.
489:
445:" and assert that private ownership is a better steward of resources than common or public ownership. "Tragedy of the commons" refers to the alleged destruction of common pastures in England as a result of overgrazing, each tenant maximizing his gain by grazing as many animals as possible and ignoring the long-term impact of overgrazing. The author of the term "tragedy of the commons",
235:
acres (1 ha). To survive, they also had to work for larger landowners. 22 percent of tenants had a virgate of land (which varied in size between 24 acres (10 ha) and 32 acres (13 ha) and 31 percent had one-half virgate. To rely on the land for a livelihood a tenant family needed at least 10 acres (4 ha).
537:, where long strips, of an average size of half an acre, curve to follow the gently sloping ground and are used for growing vegetables or cereal crops. The boundaries are mostly unmarked, although where several strips have been amalgamated a deep furrow is sometimes used to divide them. The ancient village game of
428:
and the government, and legislation was drawn up against it. The dispossession of tenants from their land created an "epidemic of vagrancy" in
England in the late 16th and early 17th century. The tide of elite opinion began to turn towards support for enclosure, and the rate of enclosure increased in
388:
The population in Europe grew in the early centuries of the open-field system, doubling in
Britain between 1086 and 1300, which required increased agricultural production and more intensive cultivation of farmland. The open-field system was generally not practised in marginal agricultural areas or in
234:
The tenants on the manor did not have equal holdings of land. About one-half of adults living on a manor had no land at all and had to work for larger landholders for their livelihood. A survey of 104 13th-century manors in
England found that, among the landholding tenants, 45 percent had less than 3
314:
per acre harvested. Battle Abbey may have been atypical, with better management and soils than typical of demesnes in open-field areas. Barley was used in making beer – consumed in large quantities – and mixed with other grains to produce bread that was a dietary staple for the poorer farmers. Wheat
253:
One of the two or three fields was fallowed each year to recover soil fertility. The fields were divided into parcels called furlongs. The furlong was further subdivided into long, thin strips of land called selions or ridges. Selions were distributed among the farmers of the village, the manor, and
203:
each. The acreage of a hide and virgate varied; but at Elton, a hide was 144 acres (58 ha) and a virgate was 24 acres (10 ha). Thus, the total of arable land amounted to 1,872 acres (758 ha). The abbot's demesne land consisted of three hides plus 16 acres (6.5 ha) of meadow and 3
774:
Whilst the stitches (strips) to the west of track across the open field were arable at the time of this visit (early May 2009), on the east side they are covered in grass. This illustrates the system whereby the stitches were cultivated by their owners during the Summer, but grazed in common during
460:
of the open field system, calling it a "robbery of the common lands". The "brave new world" of a harsher, more competitive and capitalistic society from the 16th century onward destroyed the securities and certainties of land tenure in the open-field system. The open field system died only slowly.
339:
Much of the land in the open-field system during medieval times had been cultivated for hundreds of years earlier on Roman estates or by farmers belonging to one of the ethnic groups of Europe. There are hints of a proto-open-field system going back to AD 98 among the
Germanic tribes. Germanic and
559:. In many towns and cities there are areas of land of one or two acres (up to about one hectare) interspersed between the buildings. These areas are usually owned by local authorities, or by allotment associations. Small patches of the land are allocated at a low rent to people for growing food.
452:
The fact that the open-field system endured for roughly a thousand years over a large part of Europe and provided a livelihood to a growing population indicates that there might not have been a better way of organizing agriculture during that time period. However, some argue that the pastures of
123:
and those rights were passed down from generation to generation. A medieval lord could not evict a tenant nor hire labour to replace him without legal cause. Most tenants likewise were not free without penalty to depart the manor for other locations or occupations. The rise of capitalism and the
423:
of 1348–1350 killed 30–60% of Europe's population. As a consequence the surviving population had access to larger tracts of empty farmland and wages increased due to a shortage of labour. Richer farmers began to acquire land and remove it from communal usage. An economic recession and low grain
301:
in the second field in the fall and the third field would be left fallow. The following year, the planting in the fields would be rotated. Pasturage was held in common. The tenants pastured their livestock on the fallow field and on the planted fields after harvest. An elaborate set of laws and
437:
The open-field system is considered by many economists to have been inefficient for agricultural production and resistant to technological innovation. "Everyone was forced to conform to village norms of cropping, harvesting, and building." The communal institutions, the manorial court, and the
438:
tenants regulated agricultural practices and economic behaviour. The manorial lord exercised control over the tenants by extracting rent for land or labour to cultivate his demesne lands. The scattered holdings of each farmer increased the time needed to travel to and from fields.
309:
in Sussex in the late 14th century ranged from 2.26 to 5.22 seeds harvested for every seed planted, averaging 4.34 seeds harvested for every seed planted. Barley production averaged 4.01 and oats 2.87 seeds harvested for seeds planted. This translates into yields of 7 to 17
204:
acres (1 ha) of pasture. The remainder of the land was cultivated by 113 tenants who lived in a village on the manor. Counting spouses, children, and other dependents, plus landless people, the total population resident in the manor village was probably 500 to 600.
507:, North Devon. It is still farmed with due regard to its ancient origins and is conserved by those who recognise its importance although the number of owners has fallen dramatically throughout the years and this has resulted in the amalgamation of some of the strips.
331:, and poultry. Pork was the principal meat eaten; sheep were primarily raised for their wool, a cash crop. Only a few rich landholders had enough horses and oxen to make up a ploughing-team of six to eight oxen or horses, so sharing among neighbours was essential.
340:
Anglo-Saxon invaders and settlers possibly brought the open-field system to France and
England after the 5th century AD. The open-field system appears to have developed to maturity between AD 850 and 1150 in England, although documentation is scarce prior to the
360:
system of farming in small, square, enclosed fields. In much of eastern and western
England, fields were similarly either never open or were enclosed earlier. The primary area of open fields was in the lowland areas of England in a broad swathe from
449:, pointed out that the pastures of England were "protected from ruin by limiting each tenant to a fixed number of animals". Thus, Hardin says the commons were "managed...which may be good or bad depending on the quality of the management".
465:
and France passing laws making land consolidation compulsory in the 1930s and 1950s respectively. In Russia, the open-field system, called "cherespolositsa" ("alternating ribbons (of land)") and administered by the
500:. It is thought that its anomalous survival is due to the inability of two early 19th-century landowners to agree on how the land was to be enclosed, thus resulting in the perpetuation of the existing system.
128:
led to the gradual demise of the open-field system. The open-field system was gradually replaced over several centuries by private ownership of land, especially after the 15th century in the process known as
347:
The open-field system was never practiced in all regions and countries in Europe. It was most common in heavily populated and productive agricultural regions. In
England, the south-east, notably parts of
323:
in Cambridgeshire in 1286, perhaps typical of that time in England, the tenants harvested about twice as much barley as wheat with lesser amounts of oats, peas, beans, rye, flax, apples, and vegetables.
393:
were needed to cut through the soil and the ox or horse teams which pulled the ploughs were expensive, and thus both animals and ploughs were often shared by necessity among farm families.
115:
In medieval times, little land was owned outright. Instead, generally the lord had rights given to him by the king, and the tenant rented land from the lord. Lords demanded rents and
242:, where the villagers would graze their livestock throughout the year, woodland for pigs and timber, and also some private fenced land (paddocks, orchards and gardens), called
89:. The holdings of a manor also included woodland and pasture areas for common usage and fields belonging to the lord of the manor and the religious authorities, usually
133:
in England. France, Germany, and other northern European countries had systems similar to England, although open fields generally endured longer on the continent.
238:
The land of a typical manor in England and other countries was subdivided into two or three large fields. Non-arable land was allocated to common pasture land or
456:
The replacement of the open-field system by privately owned property was fiercely resisted by many elements of society. Karl Marx was extremely opposed to the
108:
administered the manor and exercised jurisdiction over the peasantry. The Lord levied rents and required the peasantry to work on his personal lands, called a
634:
224:
77:
or village had two or three large fields, usually several hundred acres each, which were divided into many narrow strips of land. The strips or
1247:
441:
The open-field system, especially its characteristic of common grazing lands, has often been used as an example by economists to illustrate "
180:
The most visible characteristic of the open-field system was that the arable land belonging to a manor was divided into many long narrow
305:
Wheat and barley were the most important crops with roughly equal amounts planted on the average in England. Annual wheat production at
257:
The right of pasture on fallowed fields, land unsuitable for cultivation, and harvested fields was held in common with rules to prevent
965:
694:
Issue no. 33, April 1998; Ault, W. O. "Open-Field Farming in Medieval England" London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1972, pp. 15–16
97:
with a much larger manor house and church nearby. The open-field system necessitated co-operation among the residents of the manor.
1095:"The Enclosure of Open Fields: Preface to a Study of Its Impact on the Efficiency of English Agriculture in the Eighteenth Century"
1019:"The Enclosure of Open Fields: Preface to a Study of Its Impact on the Efficiency of English Agriculture in the Eighteenth Century"
195:, is representative of a medieval open-field manor in England. The manor, whose Lord was an abbot from a nearby monastery, had 13 "
302:
controls, partly set by the Lord of the Manor and partly by the tenants themselves regulated planting, harvest, and pasturing.
1214:
800:
176:. The outlines of the medieval strips of cultivation, called selions, are still clearly visible in these now enclosed fields.
1094:
1018:
403:
in Dorset, England, a manor house built about 1370. The part of the house in the background was added in the 16th century.
160:
950:<81::AID-JCOP2290140108>3.0.CO;2-G "The Tragedy of the Commons and the Comedy of Community: The Commons in History"
389:
hilly and mountainous regions. Open fields were well suited to the dense clay soils common in northwestern Europe. Heavy
1281:
1173:
644:
476:
process that started in 1905, but generally continued for many years, finally ending only with the Soviet policy of
1286:
1276:
934:
792:
58:
1232:
472:(the general village community), remained as the main system of peasant land ownership in Russia until the
396:
1071:
534:
442:
677:
McCloskey, Donald N. "The open fields of England: rent, risk, and the rate of interest, 1300–1815" in
188:-field system. Each tenant of the manor cultivated several strips of land scattered around the manor.
1291:
1196:
407:
1251:
1165:
1149:
979:
169:
716:
Brandon, P. F. "Cereal Yields on the Sussex Estates of Battle Abby during the Later Middle Ages,"
497:
1060:
1007:, ed. by Rosemary Horrox and W. Mark Ormrod. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 237
381:, and most of south central England. This area was the main grain-growing region (as opposed to
907:
1184:
786:
629:
556:
550:
530:
320:
192:
1296:
873:
8:
877:
496:
One place in England where the open-field system continues to be used is the village of
833:
522:
510:
There is also a surviving medieval open strip field system in Wales in the township of
1210:
1189:
1169:
1114:
1056:
1038:
889:
864:
796:
640:
425:
278:
101:
94:
327:
The land-holding tenants also had livestock, including sheep, pigs, cattle, horses,
281:
to cut through the heavy soils. A team could plough about one acre (0.4 ha) per day.
1106:
1030:
961:
881:
587:
477:
400:
378:
165:
885:
231:, of about one-half acre (0.2 ha), enclosed for a garden and grazing for animals.
93:
in medieval Western Europe. The farmers customarily lived in separate houses in a
518:
473:
173:
90:
949:
1157:
859:
446:
212:
148:
Some elements of the open-field system were practised by early settlers in the
105:
1110:
1034:
1270:
1118:
1042:
468:
357:
341:
220:
184:
for cultivation. The fields of cultivated land were unfenced, hence the name
125:
116:
681:, ed. David W. Galenson, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 6–7
1237:
966:
10.1002/1520-6629(198601)14:1<81::AID-JCOP2290140108>3.0.CO;2-G
707:
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 17–20; Astill and Grant, p. 27
503:
The only other surviving medieval open strip field system in England is in
366:
306:
246:. The ploughed fields and the meadows were used for livestock grazing when
228:
893:
514:, which is also the last town in the UK with an intact medieval charter.
462:
420:
269:
258:
196:
149:
120:
74:
62:
26:
1068:
European Peasants and Their Markets: Essays in Agrarian Economic History
538:
208:
119:
from the tenants, but the tenants had firm user rights to cropland and
21:
1245:
511:
457:
412:
362:
316:
130:
775:
the winter. This grazing adds manure to the soil to keep it fertile.
720:, New Series, Vol. 25, No. 8 (Aug 1972), pp. 405, 412, 417, 419–420
504:
382:
216:
36:
29:, showing strip farming. The mustard-colored areas are part of the
555:
A similar system to open fields survives in the United Kingdom as
16:
Prevalent ownership and land use structure in medieval agriculture
488:
374:
370:
200:
181:
109:
86:
82:
31:
788:
A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective
390:
311:
294:
286:
247:
219:
on the manor. The village contained a church, a manor house, a
78:
70:
1201:(On the expansion of the open-field system into the New World)
705:
Regions, Institutions, and Agrarian Change in European History
980:"Economic Manuscripts: Capital Vol. I - Chapter Twenty-Seven"
526:
349:
285:
The typical planting scheme in a three-field system was that
41:
607:
Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000, p. 11
369:
diagonally across England to the south, taking in parts of
353:
290:
66:
298:
164:
The method of ploughing the fields created a distinctive
328:
576:
Iran. Religion, Politics and Society: Collected Essays
517:
Vestiges of an open-field system also persist in the
1191:
Puritan Village: The Formation of a New England Town
635:
Puritan Village: The Formation of a New England Town
620:
London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1972, pp. 77–78
126:
concept of land as a commodity to be bought and sold
432:
1188:
862:(13 December 1968). "The Tragedy of the Commons".
605:From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers
297:would be planted in one field in spring, wheat or
639:Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT 215pp.
1268:
679:Markets in History: Economic Studies of the Past
168:pattern in open-field agriculture, seen here at
1066:. In Parker, William N.; Jones, Eric L (eds.).
1246:Trent & Peak Archaeological Trust (1995).
932:Cox, S., (1985). "No tragedy on the commons".
1061:"2: The Persistence of English Common Fields"
840:(Revised ed.) London: Sutton, 1998, p. 102 ff
784:
923:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 95
319:. Richer people ate bread made of wheat. At
65:and lasted into the 20th century in Russia,
429:the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
1092:
1055:
1016:
659:New York: Harper and Row, 1990, pp 31, 42
594:Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988, pp.23, 64
487:
406:
395:
268:
159:
20:
1156:
756:Ault, pp. 15–16, Oosthuizen, p. 165-166
264:
1269:
1183:
1005:A Social History of England, 1200–1500
947:
858:
690:"Medieval fields in their many forms"
618:Open-Field Farming in Medieval England
492:Open-fields in Laxton, Nottinghamshire
1230:
377:, Cambridgeshire, large areas of the
1204:
1143:
1003:Campbell, Bruce M. S. "The Land" in
578:London: Routledge, 1980, pp. 186–187
544:
1093:McCloskey, Donald N. (March 1972).
1017:McCloskey, Donald N. (March 1972).
592:The Countryside of Medieval England
13:
1137:
824:Gies, p. 196; Kulikoff, pp. 19, 50
541:is played in this open landscape.
250:or after the grain was harvested.
14:
1308:
1224:
968:– via Wiley Online Library.
921:The Open Field System and Beyond,
433:Controversies and inefficiencies
1231:Smith, Roly (2 December 2000).
1180:(On Britain, primarily England)
1125:
1099:The Journal of Economic History
1086:
1049:
1023:The Journal of Economic History
1010:
997:
972:
954:Journal of Community Psychology
941:
926:
913:
900:
852:
843:
827:
818:
809:
785:Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003).
778:
768:
759:
750:
741:
732:
723:
710:
697:
483:
277:1330. The ploughman is using a
1162:The History of the Countryside
948:Levine, Bruce (January 1986).
793:University of New Mexico Press
684:
671:
662:
649:
623:
610:
597:
581:
568:
155:
1:
886:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243
562:
152:region of the United States.
61:in much of Europe during the
908:"The Tragedy of the Commons"
838:The Lost Villages of England
385:farming) in medieval times.
7:
1248:"The Laxton Village Survey"
718:The Economic History Review
261:enforced by the community.
215:for finishing cloth, and a
10:
1313:
1207:The Open Fields of England
1072:Princeton University Press
657:Life in a Medieval Village
548:
443:the tragedy of the commons
334:
85:, often called tenants or
25:Generic map of a medieval
1282:Agricultural soil science
1197:Wesleyan University Press
1166:Weidenfeld & Nicolson
1148:. Cambridge, MA; London:
1146:The English Field Systems
1111:10.1017/S0022050700075379
1070:. Princeton, New Jersey:
1035:10.1017/S0022050700075379
919:Dahlman, Carl J. (1980),
910:, accessed 22 August 2019
655:Gies, Frances and Joseph
525:, around the villages of
207:The abbot also owned two
1150:Harvard University Press
1144:Gray, Howard L (1959) .
199:" of arable land of six
590:and Grant, Annie, eds.
498:Laxton, Nottinghamshire
273:A four-ox-team plough,
223:, and the sub-manor of
104:, his officials, and a
45:. William R. Shepherd,
1287:History of agriculture
1277:Agricultural economics
1185:Powell, Sumner Chilton
703:Hopcroft, Rosemary L.
630:Powell, Sumner Chilton
493:
416:
404:
282:
211:for grinding grain, a
177:
50:
738:Gies, pp. 82, 145–149
551:Allotment (gardening)
491:
410:
399:
272:
193:Elton, Cambridgeshire
163:
24:
1205:Hall, David (2014).
1057:McCloskey, Donald N.
935:Environmental Ethics
315:was often sold as a
265:Crops and production
1254:on 24 December 2019
878:1968Sci...162.1243H
791:. Albuquerque, NM:
692:British Archaeology
81:were cultivated by
59:agricultural system
1195:. Middletown, CT:
834:Beresford, Maurice
815:Hopcroft, pp 70–81
523:North Lincolnshire
494:
417:
405:
283:
178:
57:was the prevalent
51:
39:areas part of the
1216:978-0-19-870295-5
1209:. Oxford: O.U.P.
802:978-0-8263-2871-7
588:Astill, Grenville
574:Keddie, Nicki R.
557:allotment gardens
545:Allotment gardens
356:, retained a pre-
279:mouldboard plough
102:Lord of the Manor
95:nucleated village
55:open-field system
1304:
1292:Medieval society
1263:
1261:
1259:
1250:. Archived from
1242:
1220:
1200:
1194:
1179:
1153:
1132:
1131:McCloskey, p. 11
1129:
1123:
1122:
1090:
1084:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1065:
1053:
1047:
1046:
1014:
1008:
1001:
995:
994:
992:
990:
984:www.marxists.org
976:
970:
969:
945:
939:
930:
924:
917:
911:
906:Hardin, Garret,
904:
898:
897:
872:(3859): 1243–8.
856:
850:
847:
841:
831:
825:
822:
816:
813:
807:
806:
782:
776:
772:
766:
763:
757:
754:
748:
745:
739:
736:
730:
727:
721:
714:
708:
701:
695:
688:
682:
675:
669:
666:
660:
653:
647:
627:
621:
614:
608:
603:Kulikoff, Allan
601:
595:
585:
579:
572:
478:collectivisation
401:Fiddleford Manor
166:ridge and furrow
47:Historical Atlas
1312:
1311:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1267:
1266:
1257:
1255:
1227:
1217:
1176:
1158:Rackham, Oliver
1152:; Merlin Press.
1140:
1138:Further reading
1135:
1130:
1126:
1091:
1087:
1077:
1075:
1063:
1054:
1050:
1015:
1011:
1002:
998:
988:
986:
978:
977:
973:
946:
942:
931:
927:
918:
914:
905:
901:
860:Hardin, Garrett
857:
853:
849:Hopcroft, p. 48
848:
844:
832:
828:
823:
819:
814:
810:
803:
783:
779:
773:
769:
764:
760:
755:
751:
747:Hopcroft, p. 40
746:
742:
737:
733:
729:Gies, pp. 60–62
728:
724:
715:
711:
702:
698:
689:
685:
676:
672:
668:Gies, pp. 34–36
667:
663:
654:
650:
628:
624:
615:
611:
602:
598:
586:
582:
573:
569:
565:
553:
547:
519:Isle of Axholme
486:
474:Stolypin reform
469:obshchina / mir
435:
411:Strip field at
337:
267:
191:The village of
174:Gloucestershire
158:
145:
142:
139:
136:
91:Roman Catholics
17:
12:
11:
5:
1310:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1265:
1264:
1243:
1233:"Open Society"
1226:
1225:External links
1223:
1222:
1221:
1215:
1202:
1181:
1175:978-0460044493
1174:
1154:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1124:
1085:
1048:
1009:
996:
971:
940:
925:
912:
899:
851:
842:
826:
817:
808:
801:
795:. p. 21.
777:
767:
758:
749:
740:
731:
722:
709:
696:
683:
670:
661:
648:
622:
609:
596:
580:
566:
564:
561:
549:Main article:
546:
543:
485:
482:
480:in the 1930s.
447:Garrett Hardin
434:
431:
336:
333:
266:
263:
157:
154:
106:manorial court
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1309:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1272:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1228:
1218:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1192:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1142:
1141:
1128:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1089:
1073:
1069:
1062:
1058:
1052:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1013:
1006:
1000:
985:
981:
975:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
944:
937:
936:
929:
922:
916:
909:
903:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
866:
861:
855:
846:
839:
835:
830:
821:
812:
804:
798:
794:
790:
789:
781:
771:
762:
753:
744:
735:
726:
719:
713:
706:
700:
693:
687:
680:
674:
665:
658:
652:
646:
645:0-8195-6014-6
642:
638:
636:
631:
626:
619:
613:
606:
600:
593:
589:
584:
577:
571:
567:
560:
558:
552:
542:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
515:
513:
508:
506:
501:
499:
490:
481:
479:
475:
471:
470:
464:
459:
454:
450:
448:
444:
439:
430:
427:
422:
414:
409:
402:
398:
394:
392:
386:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
359:
355:
351:
345:
343:
342:Domesday Book
332:
330:
325:
322:
318:
313:
308:
303:
300:
296:
292:
288:
280:
276:
271:
262:
260:
255:
251:
249:
245:
241:
236:
232:
230:
226:
225:John of Elton
222:
221:village green
218:
214:
210:
205:
202:
198:
194:
189:
187:
183:
175:
171:
167:
162:
153:
151:
146:
143:
140:
137:
134:
132:
127:
122:
118:
113:
111:
107:
103:
98:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
48:
44:
43:
38:
34:
33:
28:
23:
19:
1256:. Retrieved
1252:the original
1238:The Guardian
1236:
1206:
1190:
1161:
1145:
1127:
1105:(1): 15–35.
1102:
1098:
1088:
1076:. Retrieved
1074:. p. 73
1067:
1051:
1029:(1): 15–35.
1026:
1022:
1012:
1004:
999:
987:. Retrieved
983:
974:
957:
953:
943:
933:
928:
920:
915:
902:
869:
863:
854:
845:
837:
829:
820:
811:
787:
780:
770:
761:
752:
743:
734:
725:
717:
712:
704:
699:
691:
686:
678:
673:
664:
656:
651:
633:
625:
617:
616:Ault, W. O.
612:
604:
599:
591:
583:
575:
570:
554:
516:
509:
502:
495:
484:Modern usage
467:
455:
451:
440:
436:
418:
387:
367:Lincolnshire
346:
338:
326:
307:Battle Abbey
304:
284:
274:
256:
252:
243:
239:
237:
233:
213:fulling mill
206:
190:
185:
179:
170:Wood Stanway
147:
144:
141:
138:
135:
114:
99:
54:
52:
46:
40:
30:
18:
1297:Land tenure
765:Ault, 20–21
463:Netherlands
421:Black Death
259:overgrazing
209:water mills
156:Description
150:New England
121:common land
63:Middle Ages
1271:Categories
1164:. London:
989:15 October
632:. (1963).
563:References
539:Haxey Hood
415:, Cornwall
1119:0022-0507
1043:0022-0507
960:: 81–99.
512:Laugharne
458:enclosure
413:Forrabury
363:Yorkshire
344:of 1086.
317:cash crop
131:enclosure
1187:(1963).
1160:(1986).
1059:(1975).
938:7:49–61.
505:Braunton
383:pastoral
379:Midlands
248:fallowed
217:millpond
201:virgates
182:furlongs
83:peasants
1078:16 June
894:5699198
874:Bibcode
865:Science
531:Epworth
391:ploughs
375:Suffolk
371:Norfolk
335:History
312:bushels
295:legumes
110:demesne
79:selions
73:. Each
37:hatched
32:demesne
1258:8 June
1213:
1172:
1117:
1041:
892:
799:
643:
535:Belton
426:Church
287:barley
244:closes
117:labour
71:Turkey
69:, and
49:, 1923
35:, the
1064:(PDF)
527:Haxey
358:Roman
350:Essex
321:Elton
293:, or
275:circa
240:waste
229:croft
197:hides
87:serfs
75:manor
42:glebe
27:manor
1260:2004
1211:ISBN
1170:ISBN
1115:ISSN
1080:2013
1039:ISSN
991:2022
890:PMID
797:ISBN
641:ISBN
533:and
419:The
373:and
365:and
354:Kent
352:and
329:oxen
291:oats
186:open
100:The
67:Iran
53:The
1107:doi
1031:doi
962:doi
882:doi
870:162
299:rye
1273::
1235:.
1168:.
1113:.
1103:32
1101:.
1097:.
1037:.
1027:32
1025:.
1021:.
982:.
958:14
956:.
952:.
888:.
880:.
868:.
836:.
529:,
521:,
289:,
172:,
112:.
1262:.
1241:.
1219:.
1199:.
1178:.
1121:.
1109::
1082:.
1045:.
1033::
993:.
964::
896:.
884::
876::
805:.
637:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.