777:
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710:) in which he explored reflection and refraction and proposed a new system for explaining vision and light based on observation and experiment. He rejected the "emission theory" of Ptolemaic optics with its rays being emitted by the eye, and instead put forward the idea that light reflected in all directions in straight lines from all points of the objects being viewed and then entered the eye, although he was unable to correctly explain how the eye captured the rays. Alhazen's work was largely ignored in the Arabic world but it was anonymously translated into Latin around 1200 A.D. and further summarised and expanded on by the Polish monk
4075:
at its focal point which is adjusted to be at the focal point of an eyepiece of a much smaller focal length. The main goal of a telescope is not necessarily magnification, but rather the collection of light which is determined by the physical size of the objective lens. Thus, telescopes are normally indicated by the diameters of their objectives rather than by the magnification which can be changed by switching eyepieces. Because the magnification of a telescope is equal to the focal length of the objective divided by the focal length of the eyepiece, smaller focal-length eyepieces cause greater magnification.
4010:
807:
3702:
2865:
2850:
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2334:
2835:
4084:, that is, telescopes that use a primary mirror rather than an objective lens. The same general optical considerations apply to reflecting telescopes that applied to refracting telescopes, namely, the larger the primary mirror, the more light collected, and the magnification is still equal to the focal length of the primary mirror divided by the focal length of the eyepiece. Professional telescopes generally do not have eyepieces and instead place an instrument (often a charge-coupled device) at the focal point instead.
3648:
1934:
1027:
463:
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2044:
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4114:
244:
655:
1199:
1710:
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1000:
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765:
Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision based more on empirical knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses rather than using the rudimentary optical theory of the day (theory which for the most part could not even adequately explain how spectacles worked). This practical development, mastery, and experimentation with lenses led directly to the invention of the compound
2005:
reflected wave from the film/material interface are then exactly 180° out of phase, causing destructive interference. The waves are only exactly out of phase for one wavelength, which would typically be chosen to be near the centre of the visible spectrum, around 550 nm. More complex designs using multiple layers can achieve low reflectivity over a broad band, or extremely low reflectivity at a single wavelength.
1973:
1290:
2994:
44:
1550:
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1680:
639:, held an extramission-intromission theory of vision: the rays (or flux) from the eye formed a cone, the vertex being within the eye, and the base defining the visual field. The rays were sensitive, and conveyed information back to the observer's intellect about the distance and orientation of surfaces. He summarized much of Euclid and went on to describe a way to measure the
3766:. Rod cells are not present on the fovea, the area of the retina responsible for central vision, and are not as responsive as cone cells to spatial and temporal changes in light. There are, however, twenty times more rod cells than cone cells in the retina because the rod cells are present across a wider area. Because of their wider distribution, rods are responsible for
2447:. Both kinds of dispersion cause changes in the group characteristics of the wave, the features of the wave packet that change with the same frequency as the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave. "Group velocity dispersion" manifests as a spreading-out of the signal "envelope" of the radiation and can be quantified with a group dispersion delay parameter:
2737:, increasing in frequency with time. This causes the spectrum coming out of a prism to appear with red light the least refracted and blue/violet light the most refracted. Conversely, if a pulse travels through an anomalously (negatively) dispersive medium, high-frequency components travel faster than the lower ones, and the pulse becomes
1222:) location in space. Diffuse reflection describes non-glossy materials, such as paper or rock. The reflections from these surfaces can only be described statistically, with the exact distribution of the reflected light depending on the microscopic structure of the material. Many diffuse reflectors are described or can be approximated by
4052:. The objective lens is essentially a magnifying glass and was designed with a very small focal length while the eyepiece generally has a longer focal length. This has the effect of producing magnified images of close objects. Generally, an additional source of illumination is used since magnified images are dimmer due to the
3419:. Some of these fields overlap, with nebulous boundaries between the subjects' terms that mean slightly different things in different parts of the world and in different areas of industry. A professional community of researchers in nonlinear optics has developed in the last several decades due to advances in laser technology.
3511:. When first invented, they were called "a solution looking for a problem". Since then, lasers have become a multibillion-dollar industry, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications. The first application of lasers visible in the daily lives of the general population was the supermarket
4074:
The first telescopes, called refracting telescopes, were also developed with a single objective and eyepiece lens. In contrast to the microscope, the objective lens of the telescope was designed with a large focal length to avoid optical aberrations. The objective focuses an image of a distant object
3246:
Light reflected by shiny transparent materials is partly or fully polarised, except when the light is normal (perpendicular) to the surface. It was this effect that allowed the mathematician Étienne-Louis Malus to make the measurements that allowed for his development of the first mathematical models
2093:
The first physical optics model of diffraction that relied on the
Huygens–Fresnel principle was developed in 1803 by Thomas Young in his interference experiments with the interference patterns of two closely spaced slits. Young showed that his results could only be explained if the two slits acted as
1902:
effects, the superposition principle can be used to predict the shape of interacting waveforms through the simple addition of the disturbances. This interaction of waves to produce a resulting pattern is generally termed "interference" and can result in a variety of outcomes. If two waves of the same
1838:
More rigorous models, involving the modelling of both electric and magnetic fields of the light wave, are required when dealing with materials whose electric and magnetic properties affect the interaction of light with the material. For instance, the behaviour of a light wave interacting with a metal
1505:
seen on hot days: a change in index of refraction air with height causes light rays to bend, creating the appearance of specular reflections in the distance (as if on the surface of a pool of water). Optical materials with varying indexes of refraction are called gradient-index (GRIN) materials. Such
4400:
The unique optical properties of the atmosphere cause a wide range of spectacular optical phenomena. The blue colour of the sky is a direct result of
Rayleigh scattering which redirects higher frequency (blue) sunlight back into the field of view of the observer. Because blue light is scattered more
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of the focal length measured in metres; with a positive focal length corresponding to a converging lens and a negative focal length corresponding to a diverging lens. For lenses that correct for astigmatism as well, three numbers are given: one for the spherical power, one for the cylindrical power,
1690:
With diverging lenses, incoming parallel rays diverge after going through the lens, in such a way that they seem to have originated at a spot one focal length in front of the lens. This is the lens's front focal point. Rays from an object at a finite distance are associated with a virtual image that
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of light in terms of "rays" which travel in straight lines, and whose paths are governed by the laws of reflection and refraction at interfaces between different media. These laws were discovered empirically as far back as 984 AD and have been used in the design of optical components and instruments
764:
The first wearable eyeglasses were invented in Italy around 1286. This was the start of the optical industry of grinding and polishing lenses for these "spectacles", first in Venice and
Florence in the thirteenth century, and later in the spectacle making centres in both the Netherlands and Germany.
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that differs from the object being imaged. Optical illusions can be the result of a variety of phenomena including physical effects that create images that are different from the objects that make them, the physiological effects on the eyes and brain of excessive stimulation (e.g. brightness, tilt,
1879:
is a simple paraxial physical optics model for the propagation of coherent radiation such as laser beams. This technique partially accounts for diffraction, allowing accurate calculations of the rate at which a laser beam expands with distance, and the minimum size to which the beam can be focused.
1793:
The wave model can be used to make predictions about how an optical system will behave without requiring an explanation of what is "waving" in what medium. Until the middle of the 19th century, most physicists believed in an "ethereal" medium in which the light disturbance propagated. The existence
1686:
Incoming parallel rays are focused by a converging lens onto a spot one focal length from the lens, on the far side of the lens. This is called the rear focal point of the lens. Rays from an object at a finite distance are focused further from the lens than the focal distance; the closer the object
1275:. Curved mirrors can form images with a magnification greater than or less than one, and the magnification can be negative, indicating that the image is inverted. An upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen.
3801:
define the nearest and farthest distances from the eye at which an object can be brought into sharp focus. For a person with normal vision, the far point is located at infinity. The near point's location depends on how much the muscles can increase the curvature of the lens, and how inflexible the
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called the retina, which forms the inner lining of the back of the eye. The focusing is accomplished by a series of transparent media. Light entering the eye passes first through the cornea, which provides much of the eye's optical power. The light then continues through the fluid just behind the
1914:
and an increase in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a brightening of the waveform in that location. Alternatively, if the two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are out of phase, then the wave crests will align with wave troughs and vice versa. This results in
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Snell's Law can be used to predict the deflection of light rays as they pass through linear media as long as the indexes of refraction and the geometry of the media are known. For example, the propagation of light through a prism results in the light ray being deflected depending on the shape and
838:
as the actual organ that recorded images, finally being able to scientifically quantify the effects of different types of lenses that spectacle makers had been observing over the previous 300 years. After the invention of the telescope, Kepler set out the theoretical basis on how they worked and
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Rainbows are the result of a combination of internal reflection and dispersive refraction of light in raindrops. A single reflection off the backs of an array of raindrops produces a rainbow with an angular size on the sky that ranges from 40° to 42° with red on the outside. Double rainbows are
2004:
use destructive interference to reduce the reflectivity of the surfaces they coat, and can be used to minimise glare and unwanted reflections. The simplest case is a single layer with a thickness of one-fourth the wavelength of incident light. The reflected wave from the top of the film and the
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components of the light wave are in phase. In this case, the ratio of their strengths is constant, so the direction of the electric vector (the vector sum of these two components) is constant. Since the tip of the vector traces out a single line in the plane, this special case is called linear
2435:. In this case, the phase velocity is twice the group velocity. The red dot overtakes two green dots, when moving from the left to the right of the figure. In effect, the individual waves (which travel with the phase velocity) escape from the wave packet (which travels with the group velocity).
2283:
of the lens aperture. If the angular separation of the two points is significantly less than the Airy disk angular radius, then the two points cannot be resolved in the image, but if their angular separation is much greater than this, distinct images of the two points are formed and they can
1980:
Since the
Huygens–Fresnel principle states that every point of a wavefront is associated with the production of a new disturbance, it is possible for a wavefront to interfere with itself constructively or destructively at different locations producing bright and dark fringes in regular and
3892:
2292:" that two points whose angular separation is equal to the Airy disk radius (measured to first null, that is, to the first place where no light is seen) can be considered to be resolved. It can be seen that the greater the diameter of the lens or its aperture, the finer the resolution.
1237:, a line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray hits. The incident and reflected rays and the normal lie in a single plane, and the angle between the reflected ray and the surface normal is the same as that between the incident ray and the normal. This is known as the
371:
that cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the ray-based model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that light waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation.
2890:
In the middle figure, the two orthogonal components have the same amplitudes and are 90° out of phase. In this case, one component is zero when the other component is at maximum or minimum amplitude. There are two possible phase relationships that satisfy this requirement: the
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is closer to the lens than the focal point, and on the same side of the lens as the object. The closer the object is to the lens, the closer the virtual image is to the lens. As with mirrors, upright images produced by a single lens are virtual, while inverted images are real.
1857:
can be used to model the propagation of light in systems which cannot be solved analytically. Such models are computationally demanding and are normally only used to solve small-scale problems that require accuracy beyond that which can be achieved with analytical solutions.
628:
qualitatively, although he questioned that a beam of light from the eye could instantaneously light up the stars every time someone blinked. Euclid stated the principle of shortest trajectory of light, and considered multiple reflections on flat and spherical mirrors.
2190:. To see diffraction patterns, x-rays with similar wavelengths to that spacing are passed through the crystal. Since crystals are three-dimensional objects rather than two-dimensional gratings, the associated diffraction pattern varies in two directions according to
3304:
encompasses the areas of optical science and engineering that became popular in the 20th century. These areas of optical science typically relate to the electromagnetic or quantum properties of light but do include other topics. A major subfield of modern optics,
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components (red/left and green/right), and the path traced by the vector in the plane (purple): The same evolution would occur when looking at the electric field at a particular time while evolving the point in space, along the direction opposite to propagation.
1798:. These waves propagate at the speed of light and have varying electric and magnetic fields which are orthogonal to one another, and also to the direction of propagation of the waves. Light waves are now generally treated as electromagnetic waves except when
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cannot decrease the focal length of their lens enough to allow for nearby objects to be imaged on their retina. Conversely, people who cannot increase the focal length of their lens enough to allow for distant objects to be imaged on the retina suffer from
1007:
Classical optics is divided into two main branches: geometrical (or ray) optics and physical (or wave) optics. In geometrical optics, light is considered to travel in straight lines, while in physical optics, light is considered as an electromagnetic wave.
856:, which explained a variety of optical phenomena including reflection and refraction by assuming that light was emitted by objects which produced it. This differed substantively from the ancient Greek emission theory. In the late 1660s and early 1670s,
3239:. If the polarisation is consistent across the spectrum of the source, partially polarised light can be described as a superposition of a completely unpolarised component, and a completely polarised one. One may then describe the light in terms of the
2903:
component. In this special case, the electric vector traces out a circle in the plane, so this polarisation is called circular polarisation. The rotation direction in the circle depends on which of the two-phase relationships exists and corresponds to
4432:
Mirages are optical phenomena in which light rays are bent due to thermal variations in the refraction index of air, producing displaced or heavily distorted images of distant objects. Other dramatic optical phenomena associated with this include the
4148:
In other words, the smaller the aperture (giving greater depth of focus), the less light coming in, so the length of time has to be increased (leading to possible blurriness if motion occurs). An example of the use of the law of reciprocity is the
4316:
The field of view that the lens will provide changes with the focal length of the lens. There are three basic classifications based on the relationship to the diagonal size of the film or sensor size of the camera to the focal length of the lens:
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produced by two internal reflections with angular size of 50.5° to 54° with violet on the outside. Because rainbows are seen with the sun 180° away from the centre of the rainbow, rainbows are more prominent the closer the sun is to the horizon.
2958:(circular modes). If the path length in the birefringent medium is sufficient, plane waves will exit the material with a significantly different propagation direction, due to refraction. For example, this is the case with macroscopic crystals of
2915:
In all other cases, where the two components either do not have the same amplitudes and/or their phase difference is neither zero nor a multiple of 90°, the polarisation is called elliptical polarisation because the electric vector traces out an
1565:: a converging lens has positive focal length, while a diverging lens has negative focal length. Smaller focal length indicates that the lens has a stronger converging or diverging effect. The focal length of a simple lens in air is given by the
3190:
In practice, some light is lost in the polariser and the actual transmission of unpolarised light will be somewhat lower than this, around 38% for
Polaroid-type polarisers but considerably higher (>49.9%) for some birefringent prism types.
3834:
results when the cornea is not spherical but instead is more curved in one direction. This causes horizontally extended objects to be focused on different parts of the retina than vertically extended objects, and results in distorted images.
4040:
is simply two plane mirrors aligned to allow for viewing around obstructions. The most famous compound optical instruments in science are the microscope and the telescope which were both invented by the Dutch in the late 16th century.
4409:. Additional particulate matter in the sky can scatter different colours at different angles creating colourful glowing skies at dusk and dawn. Scattering off of ice crystals and other particles in the atmosphere are responsible for
2523:
3309:, deals with specifically quantum mechanical properties of light. Quantum optics is not just theoretical; some modern devices, such as lasers, have principles of operation that depend on quantum mechanics. Light detectors, such as
2620:
4367:). Early photography used media that had very low light sensitivity, and so exposure times had to be long even for very bright shots. As technology has improved, so has the sensitivity through film cameras and digital cameras.
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is limited to rod cells. Likewise, since cone cells are in the fovea, central vision (including the vision needed to do most reading, fine detail work such as sewing, or careful examination of objects) is done by cone cells.
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which occurs when electromagnetic waves are deflected by single particles. In the limit of
Thomson scattering, in which the wavelike nature of light is evident, light is dispersed independent of the frequency, in contrast to
1822:
equation is one such model. This was derived empirically by
Fresnel in 1815, based on Huygens' hypothesis that each point on a wavefront generates a secondary spherical wavefront, which Fresnel combined with the principle of
905:, which is a wave-like property not predicted by Newton's corpuscle theory. This work led to a theory of diffraction for light and opened an entire area of study in physical optics. Wave optics was successfully unified with
1248:, the law of reflection implies that images of objects are upright and the same distance behind the mirror as the objects are in front of the mirror. The image size is the same as the object size. The law also implies that
2397:, in wavelength ranges where the material does not absorb light. In wavelength ranges where a medium has significant absorption, the index of refraction can increase with wavelength. This is called "anomalous dispersion".
1498:. Taking this into account, Snell's Law can be used to predict how a prism will disperse light into a spectrum. The discovery of this phenomenon when passing light through a prism is famously attributed to Isaac Newton.
1313:
Refraction occurs when light travels through an area of space that has a changing index of refraction; this principle allows for lenses and the focusing of light. The simplest case of refraction occurs when there is an
1831:, which is derived using Maxwell's equations, puts the Huygens-Fresnel equation on a firmer physical foundation. Examples of the application of Huygens–Fresnel principle can be found in the articles on diffraction and
3781:. Cone cells are highly concentrated in the fovea and have a high visual acuity meaning that they are better at spatial resolution than rod cells. Since cone cells are not as sensitive to dim light as rod cells, most
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3761:
There are two types of photoreceptor cells, rods and cones, which are sensitive to different aspects of light. Rod cells are sensitive to the intensity of light over a wide frequency range, thus are responsible for
3194:
In addition to birefringence and dichroism in extended media, polarisation effects can also occur at the (reflective) interface between two materials of different refractive index. These effects are treated by the
2748:
The result of group velocity dispersion, whether negative or positive, is ultimately temporal spreading of the pulse. This makes dispersion management extremely important in optical communications systems based on
1646:
1214:. Specular reflection describes the gloss of surfaces such as mirrors, which reflect light in a simple, predictable way. This allows for the production of reflected images that can be associated with an actual (
1124:
1011:
Geometrical optics can be viewed as an approximation of physical optics that applies when the wavelength of the light used is much smaller than the size of the optical elements in the system being modelled.
2008:
Constructive interference in thin films can create a strong reflection of light in a range of wavelengths, which can be narrow or broad depending on the design of the coating. These films are used to make
3899:
Optical illusions (also called visual illusions) are characterized by visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a
2393:). The most familiar form of dispersion is a decrease in index of refraction with increasing wavelength, which is seen in most transparent materials. This is called "normal dispersion". It occurs in all
346:
description of light, however complete electromagnetic descriptions of light are often difficult to apply in practice. Practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most common of these,
2771:
such as many electromagnetic waves, it describes the orientation of the oscillations in the plane perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel. The oscillations may be oriented in a single direction
1412:
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all rely on the suggestion of the appearance of distance by using converging and diverging lines, in the same way that parallel light rays (or indeed any set of parallel lines) appear to converge at a
3105:
2726:. If a light pulse is propagated through a normally dispersive medium, the result is the higher frequency components slow down more than the lower frequency components. The pulse therefore becomes
2265:
3186:
2354:
process, involving the nature of light as particles. In a statistical sense, elastic scattering of light by numerous particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light is a process known as
3773:
In contrast, cone cells are less sensitive to the overall intensity of light, but come in three varieties that are sensitive to different frequency-ranges and thus are used in the perception of
1535:
and allows for fibre optics technology. As light travels down an optical fibre, it undergoes total internal reflection allowing for essentially no light to be lost over the length of the cable.
2978:, are frequently exploited for the purpose of identifying minerals using polarisation microscopes. Additionally, many plastics that are not normally birefringent will become so when subject to
1165:, or "small angle approximation". The mathematical behaviour then becomes linear, allowing optical components and systems to be described by simple matrices. This leads to the techniques of
3223:
on the sky in a photograph. Left picture is taken without polariser. For the right picture, filter was adjusted to eliminate certain polarisations of the scattered blue light from the sky.
4714:
Adamson, Peter (2006). "Al-Kindi¯ and the reception of Greek philosophy". In
Adamson, Peter; Taylor, R.. The Cambridge companion to Arabic philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 45.
4340:: angle of view narrower than a normal lens. This is any lens with a focal length longer than the diagonal measure of the film or sensor. The most common type of long focus lens is the
2962:, which present the viewer with two offset, orthogonally polarised images of whatever is viewed through them. It was this effect that provided the first discovery of polarisation, by
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Refractive processes take place in the physical optics limit, where the wavelength of light is similar to other distances, as a kind of scattering. The simplest type of scattering is
2168:
This equation is modified slightly to take into account a variety of situations such as diffraction through a single gap, diffraction through multiple slits, or diffraction through a
1056:
The law of refraction says that the refracted ray lies in the plane of incidence, and the sine of the angle of incidence divided by the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant:
4242:
2137:
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Most sources of electromagnetic radiation contain a large number of atoms or molecules that emit light. The orientation of the electric fields produced by these emitters may not be
2094:
two unique sources of waves rather than corpuscles. In 1815 and 1818, Augustin-Jean
Fresnel firmly established the mathematics of how wave interference can account for diffraction.
1271:. Other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the diverging shape causing the focus to be smeared out in space. In particular, spherical mirrors exhibit
5843:
1774:
In physical optics, light is considered to propagate as waves. This model predicts phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which are not explained by geometric optics. The
647:(1st–2nd century AD) described multiple reflections on spherical mirrors and discussed the creation of magnified and reduced images, both real and imaginary, including the case of
696:
wrote the treatise "On burning mirrors and lenses", correctly describing a law of refraction equivalent to Snell's law. He used this law to compute optimum shapes for lenses and
578:
and their followers, this theory seems to have some contact with modern theories of what vision really is, but it remained only speculation lacking any experimental foundation.
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of visible light waves varies between 400 and 700 nm, but the term "light" is also often applied to infrared (0.7–300 μm) and ultraviolet radiation (10–400 nm).
7077:
3199:. Part of the wave is transmitted and part is reflected, with the ratio depending on the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction. In this way, physical optics recovers
2821:. The following figures show some examples of the evolution of the electric field vector (blue), with time (the vertical axes), at a particular point in space, along with its
2452:
948:. The understanding of the interaction between light and matter that followed from these developments not only formed the basis of quantum optics but also was crucial for the
2424:
566:. The intromission approach saw vision as coming from objects casting off copies of themselves (called eidola) that were captured by the eye. With many propagators including
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Other results from physical and geometrical optics apply to camera optics. For example, the maximum resolution capability of a particular camera set-up is determined by the
4015:
2541:
1919:
and a decrease in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a dimming of the waveform at that location. See below for an illustration of this effect.
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Defects in vision can be explained using optical principles. As people age, the lens becomes less flexible and the near point recedes from the eye, a condition known as
688:–873) who wrote on the merits of Aristotelian and Euclidean ideas of optics, favouring the emission theory since it could better quantify optical phenomena. In 984, the
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due to the lens approaching the limit of a pinhole camera which is able to focus all images perfectly, regardless of distance, but requires very long exposure times.
2784:). Circularly polarised waves can rotate rightward or leftward in the direction of travel, and which of those two rotations is present in a wave is called the wave's
7760:
2051:. The bright fringes occur along lines where black lines intersect with black lines and white lines intersect with white lines. These fringes are separated by angle
1478:
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with the value. The two ways to increase the f-stop are to either decrease the diameter of the entrance pupil or change to a longer focal length (in the case of a
3240:
2097:
The simplest physical models of diffraction use equations that describe the angular separation of light and dark fringes due to light of a particular wavelength (
3969:
Another type of optical illusion exploits broken patterns to trick the mind into perceiving symmetries or asymmetries that are not present. Examples include the
1501:
Some media have an index of refraction which varies gradually with position and, therefore, light rays in the medium are curved. This effect is responsible for
4285:
4265:
4189:
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are parity inverted, which we perceive as a left-right inversion. Images formed from reflection in two (or any even number of) mirrors are not parity inverted.
882:
and, at the time, partly because of his success in other areas of physics, he was generally considered to be the victor in the debate over the nature of light.
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where objects on the horizon or even beyond the horizon, such as islands, cliffs, ships or icebergs, appear elongated and elevated, like "fairy tale castles".
2753:, since if dispersion is too high, a group of pulses representing information will each spread in time and merge, making it impossible to extract the signal.
1513:
For light rays travelling from a material with a high index of refraction to a material with a low index of refraction, Snell's law predicts that there is no
5381:
For a solid approach to the complexity of Planck's intellectual motivations for the quantum, for his reluctant acceptance of its implications, see H. Kragh,
5177:
4585:
2400:
The separation of colours by a prism is an example of normal dispersion. At the surfaces of the prism, Snell's law predicts that light incident at an angle
3595:
causes beams of particles to diffract as the result of meeting a standing wave of light. Light can be used to position matter using various phenomena (see
1581:
3128:
A beam of unpolarised light can be thought of as containing a uniform mixture of linear polarisations at all possible angles. Since the average value of
1059:
876:
in 1664. Hooke himself publicly criticised Newton's theories of light and the feud between the two lasted until Hooke's death. In 1704, Newton published
510:
filled glass spheres with water to make lenses. These practical developments were followed by the development of theories of light and vision by ancient
418:, in which it is called physiological optics). Practical applications of optics are found in a variety of technologies and everyday objects, including
2443:, which gives a simple measure of dispersion based on the index of refraction at three specific wavelengths. Waveguide dispersion is dependent on the
1839:
surface is quite different from what happens when it interacts with a dielectric material. A vector model must also be used to model polarised light.
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have many lenses in them (typically four) to optimize the functionality and enhance image stability. A slightly different variety of microscope, the
457:
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5023:(2014). "Seeing Reality in Perspective: 'The Art of Optics' and the 'Science of Painting'". In Lupacchini, Rossella; Angelini, Annarita (eds.).
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because this angle considered roughly equivalent to human vision) and a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the film or sensor.
2337:
Conceptual animation of light dispersion through a prism. High frequency (blue) light is deflected the most, and low frequency (red) the least.
6891:
8680:
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on a surface, interference between the reflections from the film's surfaces can produce polarisation in the reflected and transmitted light.
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in 1669. In addition, the phase shift, and thus the change in polarisation state, is usually frequency dependent, which, in combination with
2228:
1053:
The law of reflection says that the reflected ray lies in the plane of incidence, and the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
6826:
3412:
2087:
987:
applied quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a more detailed understanding of photodetection and the
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Nader El-Bizri (2007). "In
Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrisation of Place".
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101:
7312:
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5211:
5145:
4977:
4644:
2299:
For astronomical imaging, the atmosphere prevents optimal resolution from being achieved in the visible spectrum due to the atmospheric
5583:
5114:
4946:
2172:
that contains a large number of slits at equal spacing. More complicated models of diffraction require working with the mathematics of
275:
3754:, and reaches the retina. The cells in the retina line the back of the eye, except for where the optic nerve exits; this results in a
3750:, which focuses the light further and allows adjustment of focus. The light then passes through the main body of fluid in the eye—the
3477:, or can be converted into one with the help of optical components such as lenses. Because the microwave equivalent of the laser, the
7074:
6296:
5080:
4036:. Combining a number of mirrors, prisms, and lenses produces compound optical instruments which have practical uses. For example, a
2795:
as the electromagnetic wave propagates. The electric field vector of a plane wave may be arbitrarily divided into two perpendicular
1795:
4808:
G. Hatfield (1996). "Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution in Science?". In F.J. Ragep; P. Sally; S.J. Livesey (eds.).
1702:
occur because the geometry of the lens does not perfectly direct rays from each object point to a single point on the image, while
4128:
The optics of photography involves both lenses and the medium in which the electromagnetic radiation is recorded, whether it be a
3912:
Cognitive illusions include some which result from the unconscious misapplication of certain optical principles. For example, the
8232:
4392:
A colourful sky is often due to scattering of light off particulates and pollution, as in this photograph of a sunset during the
745:, wrote works citing a wide range of recently translated optical and philosophical works, including those of Alhazen, Aristotle,
4811:
Tradition, Transmission, Transformation: Proceedings of Two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma
8078:
7841:
6916:
3989:. Related, but not strictly illusions, are patterns that occur due to the superimposition of periodic structures. For example,
3944:
at infinity in two-dimensionally rendered images with artistic perspective. This suggestion is also responsible for the famous
7549:
1263:
Mirrors with curved surfaces can be modelled by ray tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the surface. For
7705:
7686:
7665:
7637:
7608:
7589:
7528:
7497:
7472:
7447:
7420:
7389:
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7306:
7276:
7249:
7134:
7010:
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6731:
6706:
6607:
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6401:
6359:
6325:
6168:
6103:
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5897:
5638:
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5525:
5298:
5205:
5139:
5108:
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5011:
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4940:
4819:
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3535:
relies on lasers to transmit large amounts of information at the speed of light. Other common applications of lasers include
2104:
1049:
When a ray of light hits the boundary between two transparent materials, it is divided into a reflected and a refracted ray.
4534:
4437:
where the sun appears to rise earlier than predicted with a distorted shape. A spectacular form of refraction occurs with a
2063:
Diffraction is the process by which light interference is most commonly observed. The effect was first described in 1665 by
5804:
5385:
214:
6751:
2315:
have been used to eliminate the atmospheric disruption of images and achieve results that approach the diffraction limit.
6799:
3337:, too, cannot be understood without quantum mechanics. In the study of these devices, quantum optics often overlaps with
2427:
Dispersion: two sinusoids propagating at different speeds make a moving interference pattern. The red dot moves with the
4479:
2416:. Thus, blue light, with its higher refractive index, is bent more strongly than red light, resulting in the well-known
818:
expanded on geometric optics in his writings, covering lenses, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, the principles of
8791:
3255:. This partial polarisation of scattered light can be taken advantage of using polarising filters to darken the sky in
1828:
898:
849:
1494:
orientation of the prism. In most materials, the index of refraction varies with the frequency of the light, known as
1233:
In specular reflection, the direction of the reflected ray is determined by the angle the incident ray makes with the
822:, inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, and the optical explanations of astronomical phenomena such as
7873:
5873:
5787:
5238:
4393:
2296:, with its ability to mimic extremely large baseline apertures, allows for the greatest angular resolution possible.
1810:
Many simplified approximations are available for analysing and designing optical systems. Most of these use a single
7381:
Applied Photographic Optics: Lenses and Optical Systems for Photography, Film, Video, Electronic and Digital Imaging
5263:
3854:
lens that curves more strongly in one direction than in another, compensating for the non-uniformity of the cornea.
2864:
864:, famously determining that white light was a mix of colours that can be separated into its component parts with a
7088:
5174:
4582:
4460:
4401:
easily than red light, the sun takes on a reddish hue when it is observed through a thick atmosphere, as during a
1676:
used here, the object and image distances are positive if the object and image are on opposite sides of the lens.
230:
67:
8705:
8501:
6613:
5409:(1967). "On a heuristic viewpoint concerning the production and transformation of light". In Ter Haar, D. (ed.).
5247:
5152:
3997:, while the superimposition of periodic transparent patterns comprising parallel opaque lines or curves produces
2285:
1854:
894:
3523:
player was the first laser-equipped device to become truly common in consumers' homes, beginning in 1982. These
2849:
1985:
is the science of measuring these patterns, usually as a means of making precise determinations of distances or
383:. When considering light's particle-like properties, the light is modelled as a collection of particles called "
8026:
7106:
3814:
usually consider an appropriate near point to be closer than normal reading distance—approximately 25 cm.
2217:) appear as a central spot with surrounding bright rings, separated by dark nulls; this pattern is known as an
268:
2289:
8617:
8594:
4197:
3552:
2813:
indicating the direction of travel). The shape traced out in the x-y plane by the electric field vector is a
2374:
occurs when the frequency of light changes due to local changes with time and movements of a dense material.
2366:
being a commonly observed result. A small proportion of light scattering from atoms or molecules may undergo
2186:
makes use of the fact that atoms in a crystal have regular spacing at distances that are on the order of one
1819:
924:
by assuming that the exchange of energy between light and matter only occurred in discrete amounts he called
4692:
Ptolemy's theory of visual perception: an English translation of the Optics with introduction and commentary
2834:
2082:. Later that century, Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton also described phenomena now known to be diffraction in
1446:
8450:
7866:
4078:
Since crafting large lenses is much more difficult than crafting large mirrors, most modern telescopes are
3508:
2986:. Non-birefringent methods, to rotate the linear polarisation of light beams, include the use of prismatic
2358:
while the similar process for scattering by particles that are similar or larger in wavelength is known as
1256:
produce reflected rays that travel back in the direction from which the incident rays came. This is called
949:
3344:
Specialty areas of optics research include the study of how light interacts with specific materials as in
8806:
8225:
8163:
5983:
2293:
2025:
cameras. This interference effect is also what causes the colourful rainbow patterns seen in oil slicks.
1434:
are the angles between the normal (to the interface) and the incident and refracted waves, respectively.
1132:
is a constant for any two materials and a given colour of light. If the first material is air or vacuum,
956:, explains all optics and electromagnetic processes in general as the result of the exchange of real and
940:
showed that atoms could only emit discrete amounts of energy, thus explaining the discrete lines seen in
7175:
5490:
1152:
the path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time.
7994:
7967:
7730:
3895:
The Ponzo Illusion relies on the fact that parallel lines appear to converge as they approach infinity.
2214:
343:
8521:
4032:, corrective lenses, and magnifying glasses while single mirrors are used in parabolic reflectors and
2924:). This is shown in the above figure on the right. Detailed mathematics of polarisation is done using
2767:
Polarisation is a general property of waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations. For
1531:
is large. In this case, no transmission occurs; all the light is reflected. This phenomenon is called
8481:
8402:
8292:
4410:
4137:
3532:
2304:
1911:
1532:
861:
721:
wrote on a wide range of scientific topics, and discussed light from four different perspectives: an
324:
261:
78:
7057:
5851:
This article accompanied a December 8, 1864, presentation by Maxwell to the Royal Society. See also
3850:
provides the curvature necessary to send the far point to infinity. Astigmatism is corrected with a
3846:
provides the extra curvature necessary to bring the near point closer to the eye while for myopia a
3445:
A laser is a device that emits light, a kind of electromagnetic radiation, through a process called
8750:
8382:
8100:
7810:
7770:
6888:
6057:
3592:
3220:
3040:, says that when a perfect polariser is placed in a linear polarised beam of light, the intensity,
2887:
polarisation. The direction of this line depends on the relative amplitudes of the two components.
2791:
The typical way to consider polarisation is to keep track of the orientation of the electric field
2064:
1990:
1916:
1487:
886:
693:
659:
585:
563:
209:
7698:
Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics
7224:
7124:
6771:
6078:
3960:
that he incorrectly attributed it to atmospheric refraction when he described it in his treatise,
3519:
player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser, but the
2990:
which use total internal reflection in a prism set designed for efficient collinear transmission.
1993:
was a famous instrument which used interference effects to accurately measure the speed of light.
8745:
8612:
8486:
5612:
5321:
4438:
3879:
3228:
2781:
2632:
is the speed of light in a vacuum. This gives a simpler form for the dispersion delay parameter:
1889:
1850:
1824:
1566:
1223:
953:
902:
754:
741:
of light, basing it on the works of Aristotle and Platonism. Grosseteste's most famous disciple,
621:
17:
7776:
6851:
6822:
6699:
Optical Computer Architectures: The Application of Optical Concepts to Next Generation Computers
6351:
6345:
3921:
8218:
8184:
8046:
5496:
5443:"Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt"
5418:
4484:
4429:. The variation in these kinds of phenomena is due to different particle sizes and geometries.
4154:
4093:
4053:
3978:
3948:
where the moon, despite having essentially the same angular size, appears much larger near the
3862:
3789:
Ciliary muscles around the lens allow the eye's focus to be adjusted. This process is known as
3576:
3256:
3125:
is the angle between the light's initial polarisation direction and the axis of the polariser.
2195:
2177:
2144:
2001:
1832:
1162:
906:
643:, though he failed to notice the empirical relationship between it and the angle of incidence.
204:
37:
7437:
7410:
7379:
7327:
7239:
6865:
6859:
4809:
3037:
620:. He based his work on Plato's emission theory wherein he described the mathematical rules of
8554:
8362:
8189:
8158:
8021:
7942:
7520:
7514:
7296:
6095:
Micrographia: or, Some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses
5567:
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5195:
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988:
890:
376:
368:
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5162:
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3970:
3701:
2940:
Media that have different indexes of refraction for different polarisation modes are called
2143:
is the separation between two wavefront sources (in the case of Young's experiments, it was
1706:
occurs because the index of refraction of the lens varies with the wavelength of the light.
8710:
8584:
8496:
8332:
8322:
8148:
7972:
7932:
7789:
7628:
6233:
5819:
5454:
5431:
The chapter is an English translation of Einstein's 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect.
5348:
4995:
4735:
Rashed, Roshdi (1990). "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses".
4434:
4418:
4080:
3982:
3496:
3330:
2987:
2762:
2444:
2371:
1866:
1703:
1272:
1230:
when viewed from any angle. Glossy surfaces can give both specular and diffuse reflection.
1193:
972:
933:
770:
558:
Greek philosophy on optics broke down into two opposing theories on how vision worked, the
8622:
7002:
6996:
6939:
Lasers: Principles and Applications, Prentice Hall International Series in Optoelectronics
5445:[On a heuristic viewpoint concerning the production and transformation of light].
4009:
1557:
A device that produces converging or diverging light rays due to refraction is known as a
806:
8:
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8657:
8652:
8574:
8549:
8516:
8377:
8123:
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5077:
4994:(2010). "Classical Optics and the Perspectiva Traditions Leading to the Renaissance". In
4129:
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and the spreading of light rays over a larger surface area. Modern microscopes, known as
4023:
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3790:
3755:
3696:
3528:
3470:
3447:
3408:
3392:
3338:
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2773:
2518:{\displaystyle D={\frac {1}{v_{\mathrm {g} }^{2}}}{\frac {dv_{\mathrm {g} }}{d\lambda }}}
2355:
2324:
2308:
2173:
2169:
2014:
1842:
1495:
1264:
1207:
945:
921:
910:
841:
640:
559:
304:
114:
88:
7218:
6237:
6072:
5823:
5606:
5458:
5352:
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1267:, parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that converge at a common
355:
that travel in straight lines and bend when they pass through or reflect from surfaces.
8637:
8559:
8307:
8297:
8179:
8056:
8051:
8004:
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6121:"Early Scottish Relations with the Royal Society: I. James Gregory, F.R.S. (1638–1675)"
5835:
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1211:
1021:
869:
766:
718:
598:
519:
198:
97:
83:
4309:, this can be done by simply adjusting the lens). Higher f-numbers also have a larger
1880:
Gaussian beam propagation thus bridges the gap between geometric and physical optics.
761:
to demonstrate that light reflects from objects rather than being released from them.
8715:
8685:
8642:
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8476:
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3830:
and have a far point that is considerably closer than infinity. A condition known as
3767:
3548:
3544:
3373:
3369:
3361:
3334:
3196:
2979:
2929:
2796:
2792:
2615:{\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {g} }=c\left(n-\lambda {\frac {dn}{d\lambda }}\right)^{-1}}
2386:
2213:
will experience diffraction and the best images that can be created (as described in
2183:
2083:
2022:
2010:
1976:
When oil or fuel is spilled, colourful patterns are formed by thin-film interference.
1870:
1238:
957:
941:
589:
523:
515:
451:
427:
380:
141:
6908:
3492:
2333:
1861:
All of the results from geometrical optics can be recovered using the techniques of
853:
773:
in 1608, both of which appeared in the spectacle making centres in the Netherlands.
8506:
8491:
8261:
8133:
8073:
7999:
7545:
6455:
6132:
5827:
5462:
5356:
4900:
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4422:
4068:
4033:
3962:
3875:
3739:
3664:
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3416:
3272:
3204:
2997:
A polariser changing the orientation of linearly polarised light. In this picture,
2955:
2951:
2367:
2191:
1997:
1899:
1815:
1811:
1253:
1139:
1042:
976:
758:
593:
511:
348:
248:
146:
30:
This article is about the branch of physics. For the book by Sir Isaac Newton, see
6205:
5052:
3994:
1176:, which are used to find basic properties of optical systems, such as approximate
8781:
8700:
8695:
8544:
8440:
8417:
8412:
8397:
8392:
8387:
8347:
8317:
8153:
8063:
8009:
7909:
7793:
7465:
The Keepers of Light: A History and Working Guide to Early Photographic Processes
7216:
7110:
7092:
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5513:
5406:
5389:
5181:
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4331:
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3404:
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3310:
3292:
2983:
2814:
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2312:
1769:
1673:
1166:
929:
815:
781:
394:
Optical science is relevant to and studied in many related disciplines including
356:
166:
6298:
Lucky Exposures: Diffraction limited astronomical imaging through the atmosphere
5382:
3647:
3611:
in biology indicates the central role optics plays as the science of one of the
3531:
less than a millimetre wide to scan the surface of the disc for data retrieval.
1814:
quantity to represent the electric field of the light wave, rather than using a
1805:
8786:
8662:
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8627:
8083:
8038:
8016:
7904:
6747:
5500:
5020:
4991:
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3710:
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2018:
1982:
1862:
1775:
1337:
1268:
1257:
1234:
984:
980:
960:
photons. Quantum optics gained practical importance with the inventions of the
865:
819:
702:
663:
507:
388:
235:
176:
161:
131:
6861:
A Century of Nature: Twenty-One Discoveries that Changed Science and the World
6791:
6620:
6570:
6244:
6021:
Cradle of Greatness: National and World Achievements of Ohio's Western Reserve
4875:
4846:
4374:
associated with the pupil size and given, roughly, by the Rayleigh criterion.
3623:, and optics are integral to the functioning of many consumer goods including
2370:, wherein the frequency changes due to excitation of the atoms and molecules.
8775:
8569:
8526:
8432:
8407:
8302:
6518:
6502:
6486:
6189:
5915:
5467:
5442:
5131:
Thinking about Life: The History and Philosophy of Biology and Other Sciences
4150:
3945:
3608:
3540:
3352:. Other research focuses on the phenomenology of electromagnetic waves as in
2942:
2750:
1906:
1876:
1544:
1219:
1181:
827:
823:
697:
531:
503:
471:
462:
423:
411:
312:
308:
8372:
7858:
7726:
5227:
4800:
4662:
The Arabic version of Euclid's optics = Kitāb Uqlīdis fī ikhtilāf al-manāẓir
4153:
which gives a rough estimate for the settings needed to estimate the proper
3998:
3433:
1933:
1865:
which apply many of the same mathematical and analytical techniques used in
1026:
872:
proposed a wave theory for light based on suggestions that had been made by
8735:
8690:
8647:
8337:
8312:
8266:
8118:
7516:
Meteorology Today: an introduction to weather, climate, and the environment
6855:
6593:
6152:
6137:
6120:
5831:
5360:
4356:
4334:: angle of view wider than 60° and focal length shorter than a normal lens.
3782:
3520:
3349:
3318:
3028:, with devices that block nearly all of the radiation in one mode known as
2218:
1562:
1249:
1245:
873:
857:
722:
674:
673:, Greek ideas about optics were resurrected and extended by writers in the
608:
439:
352:
126:
6077:. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green and John Taylor. p.
5426:
4959:
4833:
Nader El-Bizri (2005). "A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen's Optics".
3391:
to distinguish it from applied optical sciences, which are referred to as
2701:{\displaystyle D=-{\frac {\lambda }{c}}\,{\frac {d^{2}n}{d\lambda ^{2}}}.}
2043:
885:
Newtonian optics was generally accepted until the early 19th century when
8760:
8725:
8445:
8327:
6272:
5565:
4321:
4302:
4098:
4065:
3803:
3676:
3672:
3314:
3024:
Media that reduce the amplitude of certain polarisation modes are called
2975:
2785:
2440:
2034:
952:
of quantum mechanics as a whole. The ultimate culmination, the theory of
742:
726:
670:
499:
475:
403:
399:
364:
316:
7751:– an open-source textbook, containing a treatment of optics in ch. 28–32
5782:
MV Klein & TE Furtak, 1986, Optics, John Wiley & Sons, New York
5674:
4113:
3905:
colour, movement), and cognitive illusions where the eye and brain make
3247:
for polarised light. Polarisation occurs when light is scattered in the
635:
8755:
8720:
8589:
8357:
8352:
8210:
8138:
8128:
7681:(6th, Illustrated ed.). Belmont, California: Thomson-Brooks/Cole.
7085:
5764:
5543:
LASER: The inventor, the Nobel laureate, and the thirty-year patent war
4474:
4360:
3884:
For the visual effects used in film, video, and computer graphics, see
3818:
3794:
3616:
3572:
3365:
3326:
2971:
2947:
2394:
2328:
2300:
1787:
1572:
Ray tracing can be used to show how images are formed by a lens. For a
1284:
1215:
968:
937:
917:
625:
567:
431:
336:
151:
136:
7766:
7290:
7288:
7126:
Energy Minimization Methods in Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition
5078:"The Galileo Project > Science > The Telescope" by Al Van Helden
4756:
2090:
recorded his observations of diffraction patterns from bird feathers.
714:
making it a standard text on optics in Europe for the next 400 years.
654:
592:
is accomplished by rays emitted by the eyes. He also commented on the
7989:
4414:
4306:
4037:
3913:
3822:
3798:
3706:
3692:
3636:
3568:
3516:
3400:
3280:
3260:
3235:. If there is partial correlation between the emitters, the light is
3033:
2967:
2377:
Dispersion occurs when different frequencies of light have different
2222:
2209:
separate light sources. In general, light that is passing through an
1641:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{S_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{S_{2}}}={\frac {1}{f}},}
1573:
1227:
897:
of light that firmly established light's wave nature. Young's famous
730:
648:
575:
541:
415:
395:
332:
194:
156:
121:
7656:
Lipson, Stephen G.; Lipson, Henry; Tannhauser, David Stefan (1995).
7103:
6994:
6597:
3215:
1198:
1046:
from then until the present day. They can be summarised as follows:
391:
deals with the application of quantum mechanics to optical systems.
8740:
8511:
8287:
8282:
7556:
7285:
7155:
7143:
6434:
6056:] (in French). Paris: Impr. de S.A.S.; Chez E. Ganeau. p.
4963:
Representing Light Across Arts and Sciences: Theories and Practices
4748:
4161:
4049:
3811:
3721:(white surrounding area) are visible in this image, along with the
3632:
3396:
2536:
is the group velocity. For a uniform medium, the group velocity is
2280:
2210:
2187:
1709:
1119:{\displaystyle {\frac {\sin {\theta _{1}}}{\sin {\theta _{2}}}}=n,}
999:
936:
that firmly established the quantization of light itself. In 1913,
831:
787:
Ad Vitellionem paralipomena quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur
750:
746:
738:
734:
678:
644:
613:
571:
407:
320:
7173:
6027:
5960:
5948:
5936:
5716:
5662:
5025:
The Art of Science: From Perspective Drawing to Quantum Randomness
5000:
Renaissance Theories of Vision (Visual Culture in Early Modernity)
4388:
3251:. The scattered light produces the brightness and colour in clear
2970:, often gives rise to bright colours and rainbow-like effects. In
1782:
is approximately 3.0×10 m/s (exactly 299,792,458 m/s in
1576:
in air, the location of the image is given by the simple equation
8460:
7217:
Samuel Edward Sheppard & Charles Edward Kenneth Mees (1907).
5566:
Ariel Lipson; Stephen G. Lipson; Henry Lipson (28 October 2010).
4426:
4402:
4355:
The absolute value for the exposure time required depends on how
3949:
3901:
3891:
3858:
3726:
3624:
3512:
3456:
2959:
2917:
2417:
878:
630:
495:
479:
292:
59:
31:
7748:
7122:
6159:
Everything's Relative and Other Fables in Science and Technology
5691:
5689:
5652:
5650:
5127:
4160:
A camera's aperture is measured by a unitless number called the
3651:
Model of a human eye. Features mentioned in this article are 1.
2776:), or the oscillation direction may rotate as the wave travels (
2205:
Diffraction effects limit the ability of an optical detector to
1972:
790:(1604), generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics.
700:. In the early 11th century, Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) wrote the
8342:
4406:
4140:
of the camera and the shot which is summarized by the relation
3953:
3827:
3774:
3722:
3718:
3684:
3668:
3387:
Today, the pure science of optics is called optical science or
1910:, both the wave crests and wave troughs align. This results in
1783:
1502:
835:
711:
689:
603:
491:
483:
419:
384:
300:
7198:
7186:
5057:. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. pp. 4–5.
3384:
as possible components of the "next generation" of computers.
1713:
Images of black letters in a thin convex lens of focal length
8455:
8422:
8256:
8241:
6546:
5752:
5686:
5647:
4352:
Modern zoom lenses may have some or all of these attributes.
3743:
3714:
3660:
3612:
3564:
3560:
3438:
3428:
3329:
corresponding to the statistics of individual photon events.
2946:. Well known manifestations of this effect appear in optical
2729:
2423:
2151:
is the angular separation between the central fringe and the
1806:
Modelling and design of optical systems using physical optics
1437:
The index of refraction of a medium is related to the speed,
1289:
1177:
961:
581:
535:
487:
435:
328:
296:
7845:
7754:
7435:
4928:
4136:, or charge-coupled device. Photographers must consider the
3473:, which means that the light either is emitted in a narrow,
2993:
7828:
4013:
Illustrations of various optical instruments from the 1728
3503:
The first working laser was demonstrated on 16 May 1960 by
1407:{\displaystyle n_{1}\sin \theta _{1}=n_{2}\sin \theta _{2}}
845:, using two convex lenses to produce higher magnification.
360:
43:
6389:
5628:
Field Guide to Geometrical Optics. SPIE Field Guides vol.
4044:
Microscopes were first developed with just two lenses: an
3733:
The human eye functions by focusing light onto a layer of
3627:. Rainbows and mirages are examples of optical phenomena.
1146:
The laws of reflection and refraction can be derived from
794:
490:(Archaeological Museum of Heraclion, Greece). Lenses from
7736:
6558:
6441:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–24.
5812:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
5341:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
4294:#" is treated as a single symbol, and specific values of
4071:
view that appears three dimensional when used by humans.
3866:
and one for the angle of orientation of the astigmatism.
3252:
1818:
model with orthogonal electric and magnetic vectors. The
1779:
1549:
916:
The next development in optical theory came in 1899 when
342:
Most optical phenomena can be accounted for by using the
7601:
University Physics: Extended Version With Modern Physics
7439:
Principles of Radiographic Imaging: An Art and a Science
7220:
Investigations on the Theory of the Photographic Process
6660:
6648:
6636:
6534:
6368:
1687:
is to the lens, the further the image is from the lens.
1679:
7814:
6476:
6474:
6315:
6049:
Memoires pour l'histoire des sciences et des beaux arts
4960:
Elena Agazzi; Enrico Giannetto; Franco Giudice (2010).
4287:
is the diameter of the entrance pupil. By convention, "
4144:
Exposure ∝ ApertureArea × ExposureTime × SceneLuminance
4028:
Single lenses have a variety of applications including
3481:, was developed first, devices that emit microwave and
3464:
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
3259:. Optical polarisation is principally of importance in
3100:{\displaystyle I=I_{0}\cos ^{2}\theta _{\mathrm {i} },}
848:
Optical theory progressed in the mid-17th century with
834:. He was also able to correctly deduce the role of the
717:
In the 13th century in medieval Europe, English bishop
359:
is a more comprehensive model of light, which includes
327:, and other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as
7832:
7655:
6936:
4781:
Hogendijk, Jan P.; Sabra, Abdelhamid I., eds. (2003).
3993:
tissues with a grid structure produce shapes known as
3857:
The optical power of corrective lenses is measured in
2260:{\displaystyle \sin \theta =1.22{\frac {\lambda }{D}}}
1717:
are shown in red. Selected rays are shown for letters
7823:
6318:
Absorption and Scattering of Light by Small Particles
4273:
4253:
4200:
4177:
3395:. Prominent subfields of optical engineering include
3143:
3052:
2640:
2544:
2455:
2307:. Astronomers refer to this effect as the quality of
2231:
2107:
2028:
1584:
1449:
1348:
1340:
describes the resulting deflection of the light ray:
1062:
7467:. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Morgan & Morgan. p. 20.
7408:
6471:
6260:
5740:
5728:
4783:
The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives
4456:
3181:{\displaystyle {\frac {I}{I_{0}}}={\frac {1}{2}}\,.}
6966:
5187:
5041:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 94–99.
4359:to light the medium being used is (measured by the
1729:in blue, green and orange, respectively. Note that
1161:Geometric optics is often simplified by making the
1030:
Geometry of reflection and refraction of light rays
470:Optics began with the development of lenses by the
7519:(5th ed.). West Publishing Company. pp.
7325:
7113:, Don McCready, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
6301:(PhD thesis). Cambridge University. Archived from
6177:
6156:
5914:
5410:
5226:
4659:
4559:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology
4513:McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology
4279:
4259:
4236:
4183:
3243:, and the parameters of the polarisation ellipse.
3180:
3099:
2700:
2614:
2517:
2439:Material dispersion is often characterised by the
2259:
2131:
1794:of electromagnetic waves was predicted in 1865 by
1640:
1472:
1406:
1318:between a uniform medium with index of refraction
1118:
757:. Bacon was able to use parts of glass spheres as
7790:Optics and photonics: Physics enhancing our lives
7779:– a step-by-step introduction to classical optics
6995:E.R. Kandel; J.H. Schwartz; T.M. Jessell (2000).
6602:(2nd ed.). New York: CRC. pp. 117–120.
5977:
5975:
5805:"A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field"
5337:"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field"
3607:Optics is part of everyday life. The ubiquity of
1883:
458:Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics
8773:
7001:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.
6125:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
6054:Memoirs for the history of science and fine arts
5625:
5054:Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes
4626:
4606:. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 181–182.
2194:, with the associated bright spots occurring in
1668:is the distance from the lens to the image, and
478:. The earliest known lenses, made from polished
7506:
7412:The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge
5991:(2nd ed.). San Diego, US: Academic Press.
5853:A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field
5604:
5434:
4891:G. Simon (2006). "The Gaze in Ibn al-Haytham".
4348:to be physically shorter than its focal length.
3838:All of these conditions can be corrected using
3543:. Lasers are used in medicine in areas such as
3044:, of the light that passes through is given by
2047:Diffraction on two slits separated by distance
1759:) has a double-size, virtual and upright image.
606:(4th–3rd century BC) wrote a treatise entitled
7024:
7022:
6433:
5972:
5197:Stargazer: The Life and Times of the Telescope
4861:
4832:
4780:
2714:is less than zero, the medium is said to have
2000:is directly affected by interference effects.
1740:) has an equal-size, real and inverted image;
311:it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of
8681:Conservation and restoration of glass objects
8226:
7888:
7874:
7598:
7562:
7377:
7264:
7204:
7192:
7161:
7149:
7123:A.K. Jain; M. Figueiredo; J. Zerubia (2001).
6962:
6960:
6958:
6630:
6580:
6552:
6528:
6512:
6496:
6465:
6282:
6254:
6215:
6199:
6118:
6033:
5966:
5954:
5942:
5892:(3rd ed.). Roberts & Co Publishers.
5858:
5770:
5758:
5722:
5695:
5680:
5668:
5656:
5096:
3437:Experiments such as this one with high-power
3413:fabrication and testing of optical components
3135:is 1/2, the transmission coefficient becomes
1659:is the distance from the object to the lens,
295:that studies the behaviour and properties of
269:
7675:Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004).
7674:
7174:P.E. Nothnagle; W. Chambers; M.W. Davidson.
6678:
6343:
5981:
5912:
5483:"On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules"
5334:
4630:Visual Form Detection in 3-Dimensional Space
4507:
4505:
4064:, looks at side-by-side images to produce a
3317:, respond to individual photons. Electronic
2404:to the normal will be refracted at an angle
2350:which is frequency-dependent and strictly a
2318:
1327:and another medium with index of refraction
839:described an improved version, known as the
810:Board with optical devices, 1728 Cyclopaedia
7695:
7599:Young, Hugh D.; Freedman, Roger A. (2020).
7512:
7487:
7462:
7019:
6901:
6846:
6592:
6018:
5518:QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter
5291:Theories of light, from Descartes to Newton
5184:, Nobel Foundation. Retrieved April 3, 2009
5128:Paul S. Agutter; Denys N. Wheatley (2008).
4807:
2158:order fringe, where the central maximum is
2101:). In general, the equation takes the form
2068:
1553:A ray tracing diagram for a converging lens
1226:, which describes surfaces that have equal
1206:Reflections can be divided into two types:
785:
375:Some phenomena depend on light having both
8233:
8219:
7881:
7867:
7352:
7237:
6990:
6988:
6955:
5885:
5572:. Cambridge University Press. p. 48.
5512:
5489:. 26, Series 6: 1–25. 1913. Archived from
5313:
5288:
5103:. Courier Dover Publications. p. 27.
5039:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler
4601:
2067:, who also coined the term from the Latin
486:, date from as early as 2000 BC from
276:
262:
7058:"Key to All Optical Illusions Discovered"
7055:
6393:Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective
6385:
6383:
6227:
6221:
6136:
5868:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5540:
5520:. Princeton University Press. p. 6.
5466:
5087:. Galileo.rice.edu. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
4685:
4683:
4658:Euclid (1999). Elaheh Kheirandish (ed.).
4555:
4502:
3174:
2660:
1293:Illustration of Snell's Law for the case
753:, Euclid, al-Kindi, Ptolemy, Tideus, and
47:A researcher working on an optical system
8240:
7625:
6864:. University of Chicago Press. pp.
6697:McAulay, Alastair D. (16 January 1991).
6070:
6023:. Cleveland: Shaker Savings Association.
5707:
5440:
5405:
5284:
5282:
5233:. Dover Publications. pp. 142–146.
5019:
4990:
4890:
4387:
4112:
4097:
4008:
3890:
3700:
3646:
3491:
3432:
3231:, in which case the light is said to be
3214:
2992:
2935:
2431:, and the green dots propagate with the
2422:
2332:
2042:
1971:
1708:
1678:
1672:is the focal length of the lens. In the
1548:
1288:
1197:
1025:
998:
805:
793:
775:
653:
461:
379:. Explanation of these effects requires
42:
7651:(4th ed.). Addison-Wesley Longman.
7436:R.R. Carlton; A. McKenna Adler (2000).
6985:
6820:
6696:
6339:
6337:
6316:C.F. Bohren & D.R. Huffman (1983).
6151:
5799:
5608:An Introduction to the Theory of Optics
5383:Max Planck: the reluctant revolutionary
5027:. Doredrecht: Springer. pp. 25–47.
4929:Ian P. Howard; Brian J. Rogers (1995).
4689:
4237:{\displaystyle f/\#=N={\frac {f}{D}}\ }
3586:
3441:are part of the modern optics research.
2202:being twice the spacing between atoms.
2132:{\displaystyle m\lambda =d\sin \theta }
2021:, and filters for colour separation in
798:Cover of the first edition of Newton's
662:'s manuscript showing his knowledge of
14:
8802:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
8774:
8079:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
7842:European Photonics Industry Consortium
7646:
7294:
7037:from the original on December 27, 2008
7028:
6937:J. Wilson & J.F.B. Hawkes (1987).
6424:. Academic Press Inc., New York (1960)
6380:
6295:Tubbs, Robert Nigel (September 2003).
6045:
5269:
5253:
5224:
5193:
5158:
5050:
4935:. Oxford University Press. p. 7.
4734:
4680:
4657:
4004:
3561:electro-optical countermeasures (EOCM)
2899:component or it can be 90° behind the
2225:. The size of such a disk is given by
377:wave-like and particle-like properties
8797:Applied and interdisciplinary physics
8214:
7862:
7696:Tipler, Paul A.; Mosca, Gene (2004).
7579:
7241:Mastering Black-and-White Photography
6666:
6654:
6642:
6626:
6576:
6564:
6540:
6524:
6508:
6492:
6480:
6461:
6390:R. Ramaswami; K.N. Sivarajan (1998).
6374:
6294:
6278:
6266:
6250:
6211:
6195:
6183:
6098:. London: J. Martyn and J. Allestry.
6091:
5746:
5734:
5279:
4966:. V&R unipress GmbH. p. 42.
4730:
4728:
4690:Ptolemy (1996). A. Mark Smith (ed.).
4592:. stanford.edu. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
4537:from the original on February 1, 2009
4490:List of textbooks in electromagnetism
4377:
4324:: angle of view of about 50° (called
3555:and in military applications such as
2982:, a phenomenon which is the basis of
2745:, decreasing in frequency with time.
2722:is greater than zero, the medium has
2381:, due either to material properties (
1931:
1015:
518:philosophers, and the development of
7804:
7678:Physics for Scientists and Engineers
7603:(15th ed.). Pearson Education.
7543:
6721:
6334:
5320:. Harvard University Press. p.
3746:. The light then passes through the
3036:". Malus' law, which is named after
2303:and dispersion which cause stars to
2275:is the wavelength of the light, and
2221:, and the central bright lobe as an
1561:. Lenses are characterized by their
27:Branch of physics that studies light
7584:(5th ed.). Pearson Education.
6967:D. Atchison & G. Smith (2000).
6422:Wave Propagation and Group Velocity
3821:. Similarly, people suffering from
3631:provides the backbone for both the
3469:. Laser light is usually spatially
994:
780:The first treatise about optics by
677:. One of the earliest of these was
24:
8093:
7619:
7223:. Longmans, Green and Co. p.
7176:"Introduction to Stereomicroscopy"
6724:The Principles of Nonlinear Optics
6232:(2nd ed.). London: Longmans.
5545:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
4725:
4633:. Psychology Press. pp. 25–.
4515:(5th ed.). McGraw-Hill. 1993.
4209:
3842:. For presbyopia and hyperopia, a
3717:(black circle in the centre), and
3088:
2895:component can be 90° ahead of the
2878:In the leftmost figure above, the
2863:
2848:
2833:
2551:
2498:
2473:
2029:Diffraction and optical resolution
1799:
1763:
964:in 1953 and of the laser in 1960.
860:expanded Descartes's ideas into a
351:, treats light as a collection of
299:, including its interactions with
25:
8818:
7794:Institute of Physics publications
7715:
6772:Charles H. Townes – Nobel Lecture
5200:. Allen & Unwin. p. 55.
4814:. Brill Publishers. p. 500.
4394:October 2007 California wildfires
3869:
3515:scanner, introduced in 1974. The
3407:with practical applications like
2950:/retarders (linear modes) and in
1748:) has its image at infinity; and
1156:
7552:from the original on 2010-01-10.
7537:
7481:
7456:
7429:
7402:
7398:from the original on 2016-08-19.
7371:
7346:
7319:
7315:from the original on 2016-08-19.
7301:. Cengage Learning. p. 71.
7258:
7231:
7210:
7182:from the original on 2011-09-16.
7167:
7116:
7097:
7068:
7064:from the original on 2008-09-05.
7049:
6930:
6882:
6802:from the original on 3 July 2014
6726:. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
6616:from the original on 2015-04-02.
6410:from the original on 2015-10-27.
6008:from the original on 2008-04-06.
5849:from the original on 2011-07-28.
5586:from the original on 28 May 2013
5495:. The landmark paper laying the
5214:from the original on 2016-05-08.
5148:from the original on 2016-05-16.
5117:from the original on 2016-06-17.
4980:from the original on 2016-05-10.
4949:from the original on 2016-05-06.
4828:from the original on 2016-04-27.
4647:from the original on 2016-05-03.
4480:Important publications in optics
4459:
4363:, or, for digital media, by the
3709:is a living optical device. The
3286:
3210:
2906:right-hand circular polarisation
2288:defined the somewhat arbitrary "
1932:
243:
242:
229:
66:
8751:Radioactive waste vitrification
8706:Glass fiber reinforced concrete
8200:Timeline of physics discoveries
7075:Geometry of the Vanishing Point
6919:from the original on 2012-01-07
6840:
6829:from the original on 2008-05-17
6814:
6784:
6765:
6754:from the original on 2008-03-31
6740:
6715:
6690:
6672:
6586:
6427:
6414:
6350:(2nd ed.). Wiley. p.
6309:
6288:
6230:Geometrical and Physical Optics
6145:
6112:
6085:
6064:
6039:
6012:
5906:
5879:
5793:
5776:
5701:
5619:
5598:
5559:
5534:
5506:
5475:
5399:
5375:
5328:
5307:
5218:
5168:
5121:
5090:
5071:
5044:
5031:
4984:
4953:
4932:Binocular Vision and Stereopsis
4922:
4771:
4344:, a design that uses a special
4301:# are written by replacing the
4117:Photograph taken with aperture
4102:Photograph taken with aperture
3602:
3485:frequencies are usually called
2910:left-hand circular polarisation
2868:Elliptical polarisation diagram
2756:
2628:is the index of refraction and
1855:transmission-line matrix method
1265:mirrors with parabolic surfaces
901:showed that light followed the
494:date around 700 BC, as do
7763:– Melles Griot Technical Guide
7757:– Optics library and community
7700:. Vol. 2. W. H. Freeman.
7660:. Cambridge University Press.
7632:. Cambridge University Press.
7626:Born, Max; Wolf, Emil (2002).
7572:
5889:Introduction to Fourier Optics
4864:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
4835:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
4785:. MIT Press. pp. 85–118.
4708:
4651:
4620:
4595:
4576:
4549:
4519:
4087:
3956:. This illusion so confounded
3116:is the initial intensity, and
1884:Superposition and interference
1829:Kirchhoff diffraction equation
1278:
1202:Diagram of specular reflection
1187:
13:
1:
8618:Chemically strengthened glass
7649:Introduction to Modern Optics
7409:New York Times Staff (2004).
7357:. Amphoto Books. p. 35.
7104:"The Moon Illusion Explained"
6119:Turnbull, H. W. (1940–1941).
4998:; Carman, Charles H. (eds.).
4604:A manual of greek mathematics
4495:
3553:laser capture microdissection
3203:. When light reflects from a
2853:Circular polarisation diagram
1903:wavelength and frequency are
1443:, of light in that medium by
1309:, such as air/water interface
893:conducted experiments on the
682:
624:and described the effects of
8451:Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals
7546:"An Introduction to Mirages"
7492:. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
7384:. Focal Press. p. 294.
6998:Principles of Neural Science
5921:. University Science Books.
5864:M. Born and E. Wolf (1999).
5100:The History of the Telescope
4893:The Medieval History Journal
3642:
3509:Hughes Research Laboratories
2974:, such properties, known as
2928:and is characterised by the
932:published the theory of the
602:. Some hundred years later,
542:
339:exhibit similar properties.
7:
8164:Quantum information science
7767:Physics of Light and Optics
7563:Young & Freedman (2020)
7442:. Thomson Delmar Learning.
7326:Leslie D. Stroebel (1999).
7244:. Allworth Communications.
7205:Young & Freedman (2020)
7193:Young & Freedman (2020)
7162:Young & Freedman (2020)
7150:Young & Freedman (2020)
6792:"The VLT's Artificial Star"
6631:Young & Freedman (2020)
6581:Young & Freedman (2020)
6553:Young & Freedman (2020)
6529:Young & Freedman (2020)
6513:Young & Freedman (2020)
6497:Young & Freedman (2020)
6466:Young & Freedman (2020)
6283:Young & Freedman (2020)
6255:Young & Freedman (2020)
6216:Young & Freedman (2020)
6200:Young & Freedman (2020)
6034:Young & Freedman (2020)
5967:Young & Freedman (2020)
5955:Young & Freedman (2020)
5943:Young & Freedman (2020)
5771:Young & Freedman (2020)
5759:Young & Freedman (2020)
5723:Young & Freedman (2020)
5712:. New York: Academic Press.
5696:Young & Freedman (2020)
5683:, pp. 1142–1143, 1145.
5681:Young & Freedman (2020)
5669:Young & Freedman (2020)
5657:Young & Freedman (2020)
4527:"World's oldest telescope?"
4452:
3615:. Many people benefit from
2838:Linear polarisation diagram
2385:) or to the geometry of an
2271:is the angular resolution,
1506:materials are used to make
814:In the early 17th century,
737:or physics of light, and a
10:
8823:
7995:Classical electromagnetism
6909:"How the CD was developed"
6396:. London: Academic Press.
4905:10.1177/097194580500900105
4381:
4091:
4021:
3883:
3873:
3802:lens has become with age.
3742:, then passes through the
3690:
3567:. Lasers are also used in
3426:
3372:have taken an interest in
3364:, statistical optics, and
3290:
2760:
2322:
2215:diffraction-limited optics
2055:and are numbered as order
2032:
1887:
1800:quantum mechanical effects
1767:
1542:
1282:
1191:
1019:
658:Reproduction of a page of
612:where he linked vision to
536:
455:
449:
445:
323:light. Light is a type of
29:
8792:Electromagnetic radiation
8671:
8603:
8535:
8482:Chemical vapor deposition
8469:
8431:
8403:Ultra low expansion glass
8293:Borophosphosilicate glass
8275:
8249:
8172:
8109:
8037:
7953:
7925:
7897:
7647:Fowles, Grant R. (1975).
6825:. University of Chicago.
6682:; Milburn, G. J. (1994).
6347:Classical Electrodynamics
6228:Longhurst, R. S. (1968).
5773:, p. 1143,1163,1175.
5626:J.E. Greivenkamp (2004).
4876:10.1017/S0957423907000367
4847:10.1017/S0957423905000172
4627:William R. Uttal (1983).
4267:is the focal length, and
3533:Fibre-optic communication
3422:
2718:or normal dispersion. If
2319:Dispersion and scattering
1912:constructive interference
1877:Gaussian beam propagation
1700:Monochromatic aberrations
1538:
1533:total internal reflection
1180:and object positions and
862:corpuscle theory of light
344:classical electromagnetic
325:electromagnetic radiation
215:List of unsolved problems
8721:Glass-reinforced plastic
8383:Sodium hexametaphosphate
8101:Condensed matter physics
7811:European Optical Society
7771:Brigham Young University
7056:J. Bryner (2008-06-02).
7031:"Ophthalmic Lens Design"
5633:. SPIE. pp. 19–20.
5605:Arthur Schuster (1904).
5468:10.1002/andp.19053220607
5317:A Source Book in Physics
5134:. Springer. p. 17.
5051:Ilardi, Vincent (2007).
3397:illumination engineering
2065:Francesco Maria Grimaldi
1991:Michelson interferometer
1917:destructive interference
1488:speed of light in vacuum
303:and the construction of
8613:Anti-reflective coating
8487:Glass batch calculation
8368:Photochromic lens glass
7743:Textbooks and tutorials
6969:Optics of the Human Eye
6796:ESO Picture of the Week
5708:Marchand, E.W. (1978).
3880:Perspective (graphical)
3861:, a value equal to the
3557:missile defence systems
2873:Elliptical polarisation
2782:elliptical polarisation
2284:therefore be resolved.
2002:Antireflective coatings
1998:thin films and coatings
1890:Superposition principle
1851:boundary element method
1845:techniques such as the
1802:have to be considered.
1142:of the second material.
954:quantum electrodynamics
903:superposition principle
852:written by philosopher
755:Constantine the African
596:reversal of mirrors in
8185:Nobel Prize in Physics
8047:Relativistic mechanics
7580:Hecht, Eugene (2017).
7378:Sidney F. Ray (2002).
7295:Warren, Bruce (2001).
7265:M.J. Langford (2000).
6858:; Tim Lincoln (eds.).
6468:, pp. 1083, 1118.
6437:& E. Wolf (1999).
6138:10.1098/rsnr.1940.0003
6046:Aubert, J. L. (1760).
5985:Optical Interferometry
5832:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008
5497:Bohr model of the atom
5487:Philosophical Magazine
5413:The Old Quantum Theory
5361:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008
5175:Microscopes: Time Line
5097:Henry C. King (2003).
4666:. New York: Springer.
4485:List of optical topics
4397:
4281:
4261:
4238:
4185:
4125:
4110:
4094:Science of photography
4054:conservation of energy
4019:
3907:unconscious inferences
3896:
3764:black-and-white vision
3730:
3713:(light brown region),
3688:
3500:
3442:
3269:circular birefringence
3267:and optical rotation (
3241:degree of polarisation
3224:
3182:
3101:
3021:
2869:
2854:
2839:
2702:
2616:
2519:
2436:
2338:
2311:. Techniques known as
2261:
2178:Fraunhofer diffraction
2133:
2069:
2060:
1981:predictable patterns.
1977:
1833:Fraunhofer diffraction
1760:
1683:
1642:
1554:
1474:
1473:{\displaystyle n=c/v,}
1408:
1336:. In such situations,
1310:
1203:
1163:paraxial approximation
1120:
1031:
1004:
967:Following the work of
907:electromagnetic theory
899:double slit experiment
811:
803:
791:
786:
666:
584:first articulated the
467:
205:List of physics awards
48:
38:Optic (disambiguation)
36:. For other uses, see
8746:Prince Rupert's drops
8595:Transparent materials
8555:Gradient-index optics
8363:Phosphosilicate glass
8190:Philosophy of physics
7565:, pp. 1117–1118.
7355:Using the View Camera
7329:View Camera Technique
7178:. Nikon MicroscopyU.
7164:, pp. 1171–1173.
7152:, pp. 1171–1175.
6633:, pp. 1119–1121.
6583:, pp. 1124–1125.
6344:J.D. Jackson (1975).
6257:, pp. 1228–1230.
6218:, pp. 1224–1225.
6163:. New Jersey: Wiley.
6071:Brewster, D. (1831).
6036:, pp. 1198–1200.
5982:P. Hariharan (2003).
5969:, pp. 1191–1192.
5945:, pp. 1187–1188.
5913:A.E. Siegman (1986).
5725:, pp. 1113–1115.
5710:Gradient Index Optics
5671:, pp. 1112–1113.
5611:. E. Arnold. p.
5516:(1985). "Chapter 1".
5441:Einstein, A. (1905).
5417:. Pergamon. pp.
5335:J.C. Maxwell (1865).
5225:Caspar, Max (1993) .
5194:Watson, Fred (2007).
4996:Hendrix, John Shannon
4439:temperature inversion
4391:
4282:
4262:
4239:
4186:
4116:
4101:
4081:reflecting telescopes
4062:comparison microscope
4012:
3894:
3729:which protect the eye
3704:
3650:
3629:Optical communication
3495:
3436:
3331:Light-emitting diodes
3218:
3183:
3102:
2996:
2988:polarisation rotators
2936:Changing polarisation
2867:
2852:
2837:
2703:
2617:
2520:
2426:
2336:
2262:
2134:
2046:
1975:
1894:Interference (optics)
1847:finite element method
1712:
1698:that distort images.
1682:
1643:
1552:
1508:gradient-index optics
1475:
1409:
1292:
1201:
1121:
1029:
1002:
891:Augustin-Jean Fresnel
809:
797:
779:
769:around 1595, and the
664:the law of refraction
657:
465:
46:
8711:Glass ionomer cement
8585:Photosensitive glass
8512:Liquidus temperature
8333:Fluorosilicate glass
8149:Mathematical physics
7721:Relevant discussions
7629:Principles of Optics
7513:C.D. Ahrens (1994).
7488:J.M. Cowley (1975).
7463:W. Crawford (1979).
6722:Shen, Y. R. (1984).
6599:Tunable Laser Optics
6567:, pp. 367, 373.
6527:, pp. 334–335;
6511:, pp. 333–334;
6495:, pp. 330–332;
6464:, pp. 333–334;
6214:, pp. 488–491;
6198:, pp. 398–399;
6074:A Treatise on Optics
6019:E.R. Hoover (1977).
5957:, p. 512, 1189.
5801:Maxwell, James Clerk
4694:. DIANE Publishing.
4583:A History Of The Eye
4435:Novaya Zemlya effect
4271:
4251:
4198:
4175:
4171:#, often notated as
4058:compound microscopes
3593:Kapitsa–Dirac effect
3587:Kapitsa–Dirac effect
3141:
3050:
2922:polarisation ellipse
2763:Polarisation (waves)
2638:
2542:
2453:
2445:propagation constant
2395:dielectric materials
2391:waveguide dispersion
2372:Brillouin scattering
2229:
2105:
2077:to break into pieces
2015:interference filters
1867:acoustic engineering
1704:chromatic aberration
1582:
1567:lensmaker's equation
1447:
1346:
1273:spherical aberration
1224:Lambert's cosine law
1194:Reflection (physics)
1060:
973:quantum field theory
934:photoelectric effect
771:refracting telescope
8731:Glass-to-metal seal
8653:Self-cleaning glass
8575:Optical lens design
8124:Atmospheric physics
7963:Classical mechanics
7891:branches of physics
7820:The Optical Society
7490:Diffraction physics
7353:S. Simmons (1992).
7238:B.J. Suess (2003).
6889:What is a bar code?
6680:Walls, Daniel Frank
6669:, pp. 353–356.
6657:, pp. 355–358.
6645:, pp. 339–342.
6543:, pp. 379–383.
6439:Principle of Optics
6377:, pp. 202–204.
6238:1967gpo..book.....L
5886:J. Goodman (2005).
5866:Principle of Optics
5824:1865RSPT..155..459C
5459:1905AnP...322..132E
5353:1865RSPT..155..459C
5314:W.F. Magie (1935).
5289:A.I. Sabra (1981).
5002:. Farnham, Surrey:
4602:T.L. Heath (2003).
4030:photographic lenses
4024:Optical instruments
4005:Optical instruments
3852:cylindrical surface
3735:photoreceptor cells
3697:Photometry (optics)
3529:semiconductor laser
3499:'s laser guide star
3475:low-divergence beam
3448:stimulated emission
3393:optical engineering
3339:quantum electronics
3297:Optical engineering
3237:partially polarised
3038:Étienne-Louis Malus
2964:Erasmus Bartholinus
2817:that describes the
2774:linear polarisation
2724:negative dispersion
2716:positive dispersion
2483:
2383:material dispersion
2356:Rayleigh scattering
2325:Dispersion (optics)
2309:astronomical seeing
2170:diffraction grating
1987:angular resolutions
1963:Two waves 180° out
1796:Maxwell's equations
1694:Lenses suffer from
1218:) or extrapolated (
1208:specular reflection
922:blackbody radiation
920:correctly modelled
911:James Clerk Maxwell
842:Keplerian telescope
641:angle of refraction
560:intromission theory
498:lenses such as the
54:Part of a series on
8807:Natural philosophy
8716:Glass microspheres
8638:Hydrogen darkening
8560:Hydrogen darkening
8308:Chalcogenide glass
8298:Borosilicate glass
8180:History of physics
7773:Undergraduate Book
7761:Fundamental Optics
7109:2015-12-04 at the
7091:2007-07-13 at the
7080:2008-06-22 at the
7033:. OptiCampus.com.
6894:2012-04-23 at the
6777:2008-10-11 at the
6092:Hooke, R. (1665).
5541:N. Taylor (2000).
5447:Annalen der Physik
5388:2012-04-01 at the
5180:2010-01-09 at the
5083:2012-03-20 at the
5006:. pp. 11–30.
5004:Ashgate Publishing
4588:2012-01-20 at the
4556:T.F. Hoad (1996).
4398:
4384:Atmospheric optics
4378:Atmospheric optics
4365:quantum efficiency
4277:
4257:
4234:
4181:
4126:
4111:
4020:
3897:
3731:
3689:
3581:laser hair removal
3501:
3443:
3382:photonic computing
3370:computer engineers
3358:non-imaging optics
3335:photovoltaic cells
3265:circular dichroism
3225:
3178:
3097:
3030:polarising filters
3022:
2920:in the plane (the
2870:
2855:
2840:
2819:polarisation state
2739:negatively chirped
2698:
2612:
2515:
2467:
2437:
2352:quantum mechanical
2348:Compton scattering
2343:Thomson scattering
2339:
2290:Rayleigh criterion
2257:
2129:
2061:
2039:Optical resolution
2011:dielectric mirrors
1996:The appearance of
1978:
1958:Two waves in phase
1898:In the absence of
1843:Numerical modeling
1761:
1684:
1638:
1555:
1470:
1404:
1311:
1212:diffuse reflection
1204:
1150:which states that
1148:Fermat's principle
1116:
1035:Geometrical optics
1032:
1022:Geometrical optics
1016:Geometrical optics
1005:
946:absorption spectra
870:Christiaan Huygens
812:
804:
792:
767:optical microscope
759:magnifying glasses
719:Robert Grosseteste
667:
633:, in his treatise
618:geometrical optics
520:geometrical optics
468:
236:Physics portal
49:
8769:
8768:
8686:Glass-coated wire
8658:sol–gel technique
8643:Insulated glazing
8580:Photochromic lens
8565:Optical amplifier
8517:sol–gel technique
8208:
8207:
8195:Physics education
8144:Materials science
8111:Interdisciplinary
8069:Quantum mechanics
7856:
7855:
7707:978-0-7167-0810-0
7688:978-0-534-40842-8
7667:978-0-521-43631-1
7639:978-1-139-64340-5
7610:978-1-292-31473-0
7591:978-0-133-97722-6
7530:978-0-314-02779-5
7499:978-0-444-10791-6
7474:978-0-87100-158-0
7449:978-0-7668-1300-7
7422:978-0-312-31367-8
7391:978-0-240-51540-3
7364:978-0-8174-6353-3
7339:978-0-240-80345-6
7308:978-0-7668-1777-7
7278:978-0-240-51592-2
7268:Basic Photography
7251:978-1-58115-306-4
7136:978-3-540-42523-6
7012:978-0-8385-7701-1
6978:978-0-7506-3775-6
6948:978-0-13-523697-0
6941:. Prentice Hall.
6875:978-0-226-28413-2
6852:"The first laser"
6823:"The first laser"
6750:. Reference.com.
6733:978-0-471-88998-4
6708:978-0-471-63242-9
6609:978-1-4822-4529-5
6448:978-0-521-64222-4
6420:Brillouin, Léon.
6403:978-0-12-374092-2
6361:978-0-471-43132-9
6327:978-0-471-29340-8
6170:978-0-471-20257-8
6105:978-0-486-49564-4
5998:978-0-12-325220-3
5928:978-0-935702-11-8
5899:978-0-9747077-2-3
5640:978-0-8194-5294-8
5579:978-0-521-49345-1
5552:978-0-684-83515-0
5527:978-0-691-08388-9
5501:molecular bonding
5300:978-0-521-28436-3
5207:978-1-74175-383-7
5141:978-1-4020-8865-0
5110:978-0-486-43265-6
5064:978-0-87169-259-7
5013:978-1-4094-0024-0
4973:978-3-89971-735-8
4942:978-0-19-508476-4
4821:978-90-04-10119-7
4792:978-0-262-19482-2
4720:978-0-521-52069-0
4701:978-0-87169-862-9
4673:978-0-387-98523-7
4640:978-0-89859-289-4
4613:978-0-486-43231-1
4569:978-0-19-283098-2
4372:diffraction limit
4280:{\displaystyle D}
4260:{\displaystyle f}
4233:
4229:
4184:{\displaystyle N}
4034:rear-view mirrors
3987:Zöllner illusions
3840:corrective lenses
3768:peripheral vision
3577:laser light shows
3549:laser eye surgery
3545:bloodless surgery
3374:integrated optics
3362:non-linear optics
3221:polarising filter
3219:The effects of a
3197:Fresnel equations
3172:
3159:
2980:mechanical stress
2930:Stokes parameters
2693:
2658:
2596:
2513:
2484:
2387:optical waveguide
2255:
2207:optically resolve
2184:X-ray diffraction
2023:colour television
1970:
1969:
1871:signal processing
1633:
1620:
1600:
1254:Corner reflectors
1239:Law of Reflection
1105:
830:and astronomical
590:visual perception
524:Greco-Roman world
472:ancient Egyptians
452:History of optics
381:quantum mechanics
291:is the branch of
286:
285:
142:Classical physics
16:(Redirected from
8814:
8507:Ion implantation
8262:Glass transition
8235:
8228:
8221:
8212:
8211:
8134:Chemical physics
8074:Particle physics
8000:Classical optics
7883:
7876:
7869:
7860:
7859:
7805:
7749:Light and Matter
7711:
7692:
7671:
7652:
7643:
7614:
7595:
7566:
7560:
7554:
7553:
7541:
7535:
7534:
7510:
7504:
7503:
7485:
7479:
7478:
7460:
7454:
7453:
7433:
7427:
7426:
7406:
7400:
7399:
7375:
7369:
7368:
7350:
7344:
7343:
7323:
7317:
7316:
7292:
7283:
7282:
7262:
7256:
7255:
7235:
7229:
7228:
7214:
7208:
7207:, pp. 1175.
7202:
7196:
7190:
7184:
7183:
7171:
7165:
7159:
7153:
7147:
7141:
7140:
7120:
7114:
7101:
7095:
7072:
7066:
7065:
7053:
7047:
7046:
7044:
7042:
7026:
7017:
7016:
6992:
6983:
6982:
6964:
6953:
6952:
6934:
6928:
6927:
6925:
6924:
6905:
6899:
6886:
6880:
6879:
6844:
6838:
6837:
6835:
6834:
6818:
6812:
6811:
6809:
6807:
6788:
6782:
6781:. nobelprize.org
6769:
6763:
6762:
6760:
6759:
6744:
6738:
6737:
6719:
6713:
6712:
6694:
6688:
6687:
6676:
6670:
6664:
6658:
6652:
6646:
6640:
6634:
6624:
6618:
6617:
6590:
6584:
6574:
6568:
6562:
6556:
6550:
6544:
6538:
6532:
6522:
6516:
6506:
6500:
6490:
6484:
6478:
6469:
6459:
6453:
6452:
6431:
6425:
6418:
6412:
6411:
6387:
6378:
6372:
6366:
6365:
6341:
6332:
6331:
6313:
6307:
6306:
6292:
6286:
6276:
6270:
6264:
6258:
6248:
6242:
6241:
6225:
6219:
6209:
6203:
6193:
6187:
6181:
6175:
6174:
6162:
6149:
6143:
6142:
6140:
6116:
6110:
6109:
6089:
6083:
6082:
6068:
6062:
6061:
6043:
6037:
6031:
6025:
6024:
6016:
6010:
6009:
6007:
5990:
5979:
5970:
5964:
5958:
5952:
5946:
5940:
5934:
5932:
5920:
5910:
5904:
5903:
5883:
5877:
5862:
5856:
5850:
5848:
5809:
5797:
5791:
5780:
5774:
5768:
5762:
5756:
5750:
5744:
5738:
5732:
5726:
5720:
5714:
5713:
5705:
5699:
5693:
5684:
5678:
5672:
5666:
5660:
5654:
5645:
5644:
5623:
5617:
5616:
5602:
5596:
5595:
5593:
5591:
5563:
5557:
5556:
5538:
5532:
5531:
5510:
5504:
5494:
5493:on July 4, 2007.
5479:
5473:
5472:
5470:
5438:
5432:
5430:
5416:
5403:
5397:
5396:. December 2000.
5379:
5373:
5372:
5332:
5326:
5325:
5311:
5305:
5304:
5286:
5277:
5267:
5261:
5251:
5245:
5244:
5232:
5222:
5216:
5215:
5191:
5185:
5172:
5166:
5156:
5150:
5149:
5125:
5119:
5118:
5094:
5088:
5075:
5069:
5068:
5048:
5042:
5035:
5029:
5028:
5017:
4988:
4982:
4981:
4957:
4951:
4950:
4926:
4920:
4916:
4887:
4858:
4829:
4804:
4775:
4769:
4768:
4732:
4723:
4712:
4706:
4705:
4687:
4678:
4677:
4665:
4655:
4649:
4648:
4624:
4618:
4617:
4599:
4593:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4553:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4542:
4533:. July 1, 1999.
4523:
4517:
4516:
4509:
4469:
4464:
4463:
4423:rays of sunlight
4300:
4298:
4293:
4291:
4286:
4284:
4283:
4278:
4266:
4264:
4263:
4258:
4243:
4241:
4240:
4235:
4231:
4230:
4222:
4208:
4190:
4188:
4187:
4182:
4170:
4168:
4123:
4121:
4108:
4106:
3952:than it does at
3876:Optical illusion
3808:ophthalmologists
3740:anterior chamber
3665:anterior chamber
3597:optical tweezers
3468:
3465:
3462:
3417:image processing
3368:. Additionally,
3311:photomultipliers
3273:optically active
3201:Brewster's angle
3187:
3185:
3184:
3179:
3173:
3165:
3160:
3158:
3157:
3145:
3134:
3124:
3115:
3106:
3104:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3078:
3077:
3068:
3067:
3043:
3019:
2956:optical rotation
2952:Faraday rotation
2902:
2898:
2894:
2885:
2881:
2828:
2824:
2815:Lissajous figure
2812:
2806:
2802:
2769:transverse waves
2721:
2713:
2707:
2705:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2677:
2673:
2672:
2662:
2659:
2651:
2631:
2627:
2621:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2611:
2610:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2587:
2579:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2535:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2477:
2476:
2463:
2415:
2403:
2379:phase velocities
2368:Raman scattering
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2256:
2248:
2201:
2192:Bragg reflection
2164:
2157:
2155:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2100:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2058:
2054:
2050:
1936:
1922:
1921:
1758:
1747:
1739:
1716:
1671:
1667:
1658:
1647:
1645:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1626:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1606:
1601:
1599:
1598:
1586:
1530:
1521:
1485:
1479:
1477:
1476:
1471:
1463:
1442:
1433:
1424:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1405:
1403:
1402:
1387:
1386:
1374:
1373:
1358:
1357:
1335:
1326:
1308:
1140:refractive index
1137:
1131:
1125:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1106:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1101:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1081:
1064:
1041:, describes the
1003:Classical optics
995:Classical optics
977:George Sudarshan
789:
708:Kitab al-manazir
687:
684:
588:, the idea that
554:
551:
550:appearance, look
548:
545:
539:
538:
363:effects such as
349:geometric optics
278:
271:
264:
251:
246:
245:
238:
234:
233:
210:List of journals
147:Electromagnetism
70:
51:
50:
21:
8822:
8821:
8817:
8816:
8815:
8813:
8812:
8811:
8772:
8771:
8770:
8765:
8701:Glass electrode
8696:Glass databases
8673:
8667:
8605:
8599:
8531:
8465:
8441:Bioactive glass
8427:
8413:Vitreous enamel
8398:Thoriated glass
8393:Tellurite glass
8378:Soda–lime glass
8348:Gold ruby glass
8318:Cranberry glass
8271:
8245:
8239:
8209:
8204:
8168:
8154:Medical physics
8105:
8064:Nuclear physics
8033:
8027:Non-equilibrium
7949:
7921:
7893:
7887:
7857:
7784:Further reading
7718:
7708:
7689:
7668:
7658:Optical Physics
7640:
7622:
7620:Further reading
7617:
7611:
7592:
7575:
7570:
7569:
7561:
7557:
7542:
7538:
7531:
7511:
7507:
7500:
7486:
7482:
7475:
7461:
7457:
7450:
7434:
7430:
7423:
7407:
7403:
7392:
7376:
7372:
7365:
7351:
7347:
7340:
7332:. Focal Press.
7324:
7320:
7309:
7293:
7286:
7279:
7271:. Focal Press.
7263:
7259:
7252:
7236:
7232:
7215:
7211:
7203:
7199:
7195:, p. 1174.
7191:
7187:
7172:
7168:
7160:
7156:
7148:
7144:
7137:
7121:
7117:
7111:Wayback Machine
7102:
7098:
7093:Wayback Machine
7082:Wayback Machine
7073:
7069:
7060:. LiveScience.
7054:
7050:
7040:
7038:
7027:
7020:
7013:
6993:
6986:
6979:
6965:
6956:
6949:
6935:
6931:
6922:
6920:
6907:
6906:
6902:
6896:Wayback Machine
6887:
6883:
6876:
6845:
6841:
6832:
6830:
6819:
6815:
6805:
6803:
6790:
6789:
6785:
6779:Wayback Machine
6770:
6766:
6757:
6755:
6746:
6745:
6741:
6734:
6720:
6716:
6709:
6695:
6691:
6677:
6673:
6665:
6661:
6653:
6649:
6641:
6637:
6629:, p. 338;
6625:
6621:
6610:
6591:
6587:
6579:, p. 372;
6575:
6571:
6563:
6559:
6555:, p. 1124.
6551:
6547:
6539:
6535:
6531:, p. 1124.
6523:
6519:
6515:, p. 1123.
6507:
6503:
6499:, p. 1123.
6491:
6487:
6479:
6472:
6460:
6456:
6449:
6432:
6428:
6419:
6415:
6404:
6388:
6381:
6373:
6369:
6362:
6342:
6335:
6328:
6314:
6310:
6293:
6289:
6285:, p. 1232.
6281:, p. 485;
6277:
6273:
6265:
6261:
6253:, p. 497;
6249:
6245:
6226:
6222:
6210:
6206:
6202:, p. 1192.
6194:
6190:
6182:
6178:
6171:
6150:
6146:
6117:
6113:
6106:
6090:
6086:
6069:
6065:
6044:
6040:
6032:
6028:
6017:
6013:
6005:
5999:
5988:
5980:
5973:
5965:
5961:
5953:
5949:
5941:
5937:
5929:
5911:
5907:
5900:
5884:
5880:
5863:
5859:
5846:
5807:
5798:
5794:
5781:
5777:
5769:
5765:
5761:, p. 1157.
5757:
5753:
5745:
5741:
5733:
5729:
5721:
5717:
5706:
5702:
5698:, p. 1116.
5694:
5687:
5679:
5675:
5667:
5663:
5659:, p. 1109.
5655:
5648:
5641:
5624:
5620:
5603:
5599:
5589:
5587:
5580:
5569:Optical Physics
5564:
5560:
5553:
5539:
5535:
5528:
5511:
5507:
5481:
5480:
5476:
5439:
5435:
5404:
5400:
5390:Wayback Machine
5380:
5376:
5333:
5329:
5312:
5308:
5301:
5293:. CUP Archive.
5287:
5280:
5268:
5264:
5252:
5248:
5241:
5223:
5219:
5208:
5192:
5188:
5182:Wayback Machine
5173:
5169:
5157:
5153:
5142:
5126:
5122:
5111:
5095:
5091:
5085:Wayback Machine
5076:
5072:
5065:
5049:
5045:
5037:D.C. Lindberg,
5036:
5032:
5021:El-Bizri, Nader
5014:
4992:El-Bizri, Nader
4989:
4985:
4974:
4958:
4954:
4943:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4822:
4793:
4776:
4772:
4733:
4726:
4713:
4709:
4702:
4688:
4681:
4674:
4656:
4652:
4641:
4625:
4621:
4614:
4600:
4596:
4590:Wayback Machine
4581:
4577:
4570:
4554:
4550:
4540:
4538:
4525:
4524:
4520:
4511:
4510:
4503:
4498:
4465:
4458:
4455:
4386:
4380:
4346:telephoto group
4338:Long focus lens
4332:Wide-angle lens
4296:
4295:
4289:
4288:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4252:
4249:
4248:
4221:
4204:
4199:
4196:
4195:
4191:, and given by
4176:
4173:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4119:
4118:
4104:
4103:
4096:
4090:
4026:
4007:
3942:vanishing point
3938:Wundt illusions
3889:
3882:
3874:Main articles:
3872:
3844:converging lens
3779:photopic vision
3752:vitreous humour
3699:
3691:Main articles:
3653:vitreous humour
3645:
3605:
3589:
3525:optical storage
3505:Theodore Maiman
3466:
3463:
3460:
3431:
3425:
3405:optoelectronics
3389:optical physics
3354:singular optics
3299:
3293:Optical physics
3291:Main articles:
3289:
3271:) exhibited by
3213:
3164:
3153:
3149:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3129:
3123:
3117:
3114:
3108:
3087:
3086:
3082:
3073:
3069:
3063:
3059:
3051:
3048:
3047:
3041:
3018:
3011:
3004:
2998:
2984:photoelasticity
2938:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2883:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2861:
2860:
2846:
2845:
2826:
2822:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2765:
2759:
2719:
2711:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2668:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2650:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2629:
2625:
2603:
2588:
2580:
2578:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2528:
2505:
2497:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2486:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2462:
2454:
2451:
2450:
2405:
2401:
2331:
2323:Main articles:
2321:
2313:adaptive optics
2276:
2272:
2268:
2247:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2199:
2196:unique patterns
2159:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2140:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2079:
2076:
2073:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2033:Main articles:
2031:
2019:heat reflectors
1964:
1927:
1896:
1888:Main articles:
1886:
1820:Huygens–Fresnel
1808:
1772:
1770:Physical optics
1766:
1764:Physical optics
1753:
1745:
1734:
1714:
1674:sign convention
1669:
1666:
1660:
1657:
1651:
1625:
1614:
1610:
1605:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1579:
1547:
1541:
1529:
1523:
1520:
1514:
1481:
1459:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1426:
1423:
1417:
1398:
1394:
1382:
1378:
1369:
1365:
1353:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1334:
1328:
1325:
1319:
1307:
1300:
1294:
1287:
1281:
1258:retroreflection
1196:
1190:
1167:Gaussian optics
1159:
1133:
1127:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1085:
1077:
1073:
1072:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1024:
1018:
997:
930:Albert Einstein
820:pinhole cameras
816:Johannes Kepler
782:Johannes Kepler
685:
651:of the images.
586:emission theory
564:emission theory
552:
549:
546:
530:comes from the
466:The Nimrud lens
460:
454:
448:
357:Physical optics
282:
241:
228:
227:
220:
219:
190:
182:
181:
167:Nuclear physics
117:
107:
93:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8820:
8810:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8794:
8789:
8784:
8767:
8766:
8764:
8763:
8758:
8753:
8748:
8743:
8738:
8733:
8728:
8723:
8718:
8713:
8708:
8703:
8698:
8693:
8688:
8683:
8677:
8675:
8669:
8668:
8666:
8665:
8663:Tempered glass
8660:
8655:
8650:
8645:
8640:
8635:
8633:DNA microarray
8630:
8628:Dealkalization
8625:
8620:
8615:
8609:
8607:
8601:
8600:
8598:
8597:
8592:
8587:
8582:
8577:
8572:
8567:
8562:
8557:
8552:
8547:
8541:
8539:
8533:
8532:
8530:
8529:
8524:
8519:
8514:
8509:
8504:
8502:Glass modeling
8499:
8494:
8489:
8484:
8479:
8473:
8471:
8467:
8466:
8464:
8463:
8458:
8453:
8448:
8443:
8437:
8435:
8433:Glass-ceramics
8429:
8428:
8426:
8425:
8420:
8415:
8410:
8405:
8400:
8395:
8390:
8385:
8380:
8375:
8373:Silicate glass
8370:
8365:
8360:
8355:
8350:
8345:
8340:
8335:
8330:
8325:
8320:
8315:
8310:
8305:
8300:
8295:
8290:
8285:
8279:
8277:
8273:
8272:
8270:
8269:
8264:
8259:
8253:
8251:
8247:
8246:
8244:science topics
8238:
8237:
8230:
8223:
8215:
8206:
8205:
8203:
8202:
8197:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8176:
8174:
8170:
8169:
8167:
8166:
8161:
8156:
8151:
8146:
8141:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8121:
8115:
8113:
8107:
8106:
8104:
8103:
8098:
8097:
8096:
8091:
8086:
8076:
8071:
8066:
8061:
8060:
8059:
8054:
8043:
8041:
8035:
8034:
8032:
8031:
8030:
8029:
8024:
8017:Thermodynamics
8014:
8013:
8012:
8007:
7997:
7992:
7987:
7986:
7985:
7980:
7975:
7970:
7959:
7957:
7951:
7950:
7948:
7947:
7946:
7945:
7935:
7929:
7927:
7923:
7922:
7920:
7919:
7918:
7917:
7907:
7901:
7899:
7895:
7894:
7886:
7885:
7878:
7871:
7863:
7854:
7853:
7849:
7848:
7837:
7836:
7835:
7826:
7817:
7803:
7802:
7801:
7797:
7796:
7786:
7785:
7781:
7780:
7774:
7764:
7758:
7752:
7745:
7744:
7740:
7739:
7723:
7722:
7717:
7716:External links
7714:
7713:
7712:
7706:
7693:
7687:
7672:
7666:
7653:
7644:
7638:
7621:
7618:
7616:
7615:
7609:
7596:
7590:
7576:
7574:
7571:
7568:
7567:
7555:
7536:
7529:
7505:
7498:
7480:
7473:
7455:
7448:
7428:
7421:
7401:
7390:
7370:
7363:
7345:
7338:
7318:
7307:
7284:
7277:
7257:
7250:
7230:
7209:
7197:
7185:
7166:
7154:
7142:
7135:
7115:
7096:
7067:
7048:
7018:
7011:
6984:
6977:
6954:
6947:
6929:
6915:. 2007-08-17.
6900:
6898:denso-wave.com
6881:
6874:
6839:
6813:
6783:
6764:
6739:
6732:
6714:
6707:
6689:
6684:Quantum Optics
6671:
6659:
6647:
6635:
6619:
6608:
6585:
6569:
6557:
6545:
6533:
6517:
6501:
6485:
6483:, p. 336.
6470:
6454:
6447:
6426:
6413:
6402:
6379:
6367:
6360:
6333:
6326:
6308:
6305:on 2008-10-05.
6287:
6271:
6269:, p. 482.
6259:
6243:
6220:
6204:
6188:
6176:
6169:
6144:
6111:
6104:
6084:
6063:
6038:
6026:
6011:
5997:
5971:
5959:
5947:
5935:
5927:
5905:
5898:
5878:
5857:
5792:
5775:
5763:
5751:
5749:, p. 165.
5739:
5737:, p. 159.
5727:
5715:
5700:
5685:
5673:
5661:
5646:
5639:
5618:
5597:
5578:
5558:
5551:
5533:
5526:
5505:
5474:
5453:(6): 132–148.
5433:
5398:
5374:
5327:
5306:
5299:
5278:
5262:
5246:
5239:
5217:
5206:
5186:
5167:
5151:
5140:
5120:
5109:
5089:
5070:
5063:
5043:
5030:
5012:
4983:
4972:
4952:
4941:
4921:
4918:
4917:
4888:
4859:
4841:(2): 189–218.
4830:
4820:
4805:
4791:
4777:
4770:
4749:10.1086/355456
4743:(3): 464–491.
4724:
4707:
4700:
4679:
4672:
4650:
4639:
4619:
4612:
4594:
4575:
4568:
4548:
4518:
4500:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4471:
4470:
4467:Physics portal
4454:
4451:
4382:Main article:
4379:
4376:
4350:
4349:
4342:telephoto lens
4335:
4329:
4311:depth of field
4276:
4256:
4245:
4244:
4228:
4225:
4220:
4217:
4214:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4180:
4146:
4145:
4092:Main article:
4089:
4086:
4046:objective lens
4022:Main article:
4006:
4003:
3995:moiré patterns
3886:visual effects
3871:
3870:Visual effects
3868:
3848:diverging lens
3657:ciliary muscle
3644:
3641:
3621:contact lenses
3609:visual systems
3604:
3601:
3588:
3585:
3541:laser pointers
3537:laser printers
3527:devices use a
3427:Main article:
3424:
3421:
3378:machine vision
3346:crystal optics
3307:quantum optics
3288:
3285:
3212:
3209:
3177:
3171:
3168:
3163:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3121:
3112:
3096:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3055:
3016:
3009:
3002:
2937:
2934:
2926:Jones calculus
2871:
2862:
2856:
2847:
2841:
2832:
2761:Main article:
2758:
2755:
2751:optical fibres
2697:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2657:
2654:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2609:
2606:
2601:
2594:
2591:
2586:
2583:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2559:
2553:
2548:
2532:
2511:
2508:
2500:
2495:
2491:
2481:
2475:
2470:
2466:
2461:
2458:
2433:group velocity
2429:phase velocity
2364:Tyndall effect
2360:Mie scattering
2320:
2317:
2294:Interferometry
2254:
2251:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2084:Newton's rings
2030:
2027:
1983:Interferometry
1968:
1967:
1960:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1930:
1885:
1882:
1863:Fourier optics
1827:of waves. The
1807:
1804:
1776:speed of light
1768:Main article:
1765:
1762:
1664:
1655:
1637:
1632:
1629:
1624:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1543:Main article:
1540:
1537:
1527:
1518:
1469:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1430:
1421:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1356:
1352:
1332:
1323:
1305:
1298:
1283:Main article:
1280:
1277:
1235:surface normal
1192:Main article:
1189:
1186:
1182:magnifications
1158:
1157:Approximations
1155:
1144:
1143:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1088:
1080:
1076:
1071:
1068:
1054:
1020:Main article:
1017:
1014:
996:
993:
985:Leonard Mandel
981:Roy J. Glauber
913:in the 1860s.
854:René Descartes
828:solar eclipses
703:Book of Optics
698:curved mirrors
692:mathematician
504:ancient Romans
450:Main article:
447:
444:
410:(particularly
389:Quantum optics
284:
283:
281:
280:
273:
266:
258:
255:
254:
253:
252:
239:
222:
221:
218:
217:
212:
207:
202:
191:
188:
187:
184:
183:
180:
179:
177:Thermodynamics
174:
169:
164:
162:Modern physics
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
132:Atomic physics
129:
124:
118:
113:
112:
109:
108:
106:
105:
94:
92:
91:
86:
81:
75:
72:
71:
63:
62:
56:
55:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8819:
8808:
8805:
8803:
8800:
8798:
8795:
8793:
8790:
8788:
8785:
8783:
8780:
8779:
8777:
8762:
8759:
8757:
8754:
8752:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8742:
8739:
8737:
8734:
8732:
8729:
8727:
8724:
8722:
8719:
8717:
8714:
8712:
8709:
8707:
8704:
8702:
8699:
8697:
8694:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8679:
8678:
8676:
8670:
8664:
8661:
8659:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8624:
8621:
8619:
8616:
8614:
8611:
8610:
8608:
8602:
8596:
8593:
8591:
8588:
8586:
8583:
8581:
8578:
8576:
8573:
8571:
8570:Optical fiber
8568:
8566:
8563:
8561:
8558:
8556:
8553:
8551:
8548:
8546:
8543:
8542:
8540:
8538:
8534:
8528:
8527:Vitrification
8525:
8523:
8520:
8518:
8515:
8513:
8510:
8508:
8505:
8503:
8500:
8498:
8497:Glass melting
8495:
8493:
8492:Glass forming
8490:
8488:
8485:
8483:
8480:
8478:
8475:
8474:
8472:
8468:
8462:
8459:
8457:
8454:
8452:
8449:
8447:
8444:
8442:
8439:
8438:
8436:
8434:
8430:
8424:
8421:
8419:
8416:
8414:
8411:
8409:
8408:Uranium glass
8406:
8404:
8401:
8399:
8396:
8394:
8391:
8389:
8388:Soluble glass
8386:
8384:
8381:
8379:
8376:
8374:
8371:
8369:
8366:
8364:
8361:
8359:
8356:
8354:
8351:
8349:
8346:
8344:
8341:
8339:
8336:
8334:
8331:
8329:
8326:
8324:
8321:
8319:
8316:
8314:
8311:
8309:
8306:
8304:
8303:Ceramic glaze
8301:
8299:
8296:
8294:
8291:
8289:
8286:
8284:
8281:
8280:
8278:
8274:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8254:
8252:
8248:
8243:
8236:
8231:
8229:
8224:
8222:
8217:
8216:
8213:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8183:
8181:
8178:
8177:
8175:
8171:
8165:
8162:
8160:
8159:Ocean physics
8157:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8145:
8142:
8140:
8137:
8135:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8125:
8122:
8120:
8117:
8116:
8114:
8112:
8108:
8102:
8099:
8095:
8094:Modern optics
8092:
8090:
8087:
8085:
8082:
8081:
8080:
8077:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8065:
8062:
8058:
8055:
8053:
8050:
8049:
8048:
8045:
8044:
8042:
8040:
8036:
8028:
8025:
8023:
8020:
8019:
8018:
8015:
8011:
8008:
8006:
8003:
8002:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7991:
7988:
7984:
7981:
7979:
7976:
7974:
7971:
7969:
7966:
7965:
7964:
7961:
7960:
7958:
7956:
7952:
7944:
7943:Computational
7941:
7940:
7939:
7936:
7934:
7931:
7930:
7928:
7924:
7916:
7913:
7912:
7911:
7908:
7906:
7903:
7902:
7900:
7896:
7892:
7884:
7879:
7877:
7872:
7870:
7865:
7864:
7861:
7852:
7847:
7843:
7840:
7839:
7838:
7834:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7821:
7818:
7816:
7812:
7809:
7808:
7807:
7806:
7799:
7798:
7795:
7791:
7788:
7787:
7783:
7782:
7778:
7777:Optics for PV
7775:
7772:
7768:
7765:
7762:
7759:
7756:
7753:
7750:
7747:
7746:
7742:
7741:
7738:
7734:
7733:
7728:
7725:
7724:
7720:
7719:
7709:
7703:
7699:
7694:
7690:
7684:
7680:
7679:
7673:
7669:
7663:
7659:
7654:
7650:
7645:
7641:
7635:
7631:
7630:
7624:
7623:
7612:
7606:
7602:
7597:
7593:
7587:
7583:
7578:
7577:
7564:
7559:
7551:
7547:
7540:
7532:
7526:
7522:
7518:
7517:
7509:
7501:
7495:
7491:
7484:
7476:
7470:
7466:
7459:
7451:
7445:
7441:
7440:
7432:
7424:
7418:
7415:. Macmillan.
7414:
7413:
7405:
7397:
7393:
7387:
7383:
7382:
7374:
7366:
7360:
7356:
7349:
7341:
7335:
7331:
7330:
7322:
7314:
7310:
7304:
7300:
7299:
7291:
7289:
7280:
7274:
7270:
7269:
7261:
7253:
7247:
7243:
7242:
7234:
7226:
7222:
7221:
7213:
7206:
7201:
7194:
7189:
7181:
7177:
7170:
7163:
7158:
7151:
7146:
7138:
7132:
7128:
7127:
7119:
7112:
7108:
7105:
7100:
7094:
7090:
7087:
7083:
7079:
7076:
7071:
7063:
7059:
7052:
7036:
7032:
7025:
7023:
7014:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6999:
6991:
6989:
6980:
6974:
6970:
6963:
6961:
6959:
6950:
6944:
6940:
6933:
6918:
6914:
6910:
6904:
6897:
6893:
6890:
6885:
6877:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6862:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6843:
6828:
6824:
6821:C.H. Townes.
6817:
6801:
6797:
6793:
6787:
6780:
6776:
6773:
6768:
6753:
6749:
6743:
6735:
6729:
6725:
6718:
6710:
6704:
6700:
6693:
6685:
6681:
6675:
6668:
6663:
6656:
6651:
6644:
6639:
6632:
6628:
6623:
6615:
6611:
6605:
6601:
6600:
6595:
6589:
6582:
6578:
6573:
6566:
6561:
6554:
6549:
6542:
6537:
6530:
6526:
6521:
6514:
6510:
6505:
6498:
6494:
6489:
6482:
6477:
6475:
6467:
6463:
6458:
6450:
6444:
6440:
6436:
6430:
6423:
6417:
6409:
6405:
6399:
6395:
6394:
6386:
6384:
6376:
6371:
6363:
6357:
6353:
6349:
6348:
6340:
6338:
6329:
6323:
6319:
6312:
6304:
6300:
6299:
6291:
6284:
6280:
6275:
6268:
6263:
6256:
6252:
6247:
6239:
6235:
6231:
6224:
6217:
6213:
6208:
6201:
6197:
6192:
6185:
6180:
6172:
6166:
6161:
6160:
6154:
6148:
6139:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6122:
6115:
6107:
6101:
6097:
6096:
6088:
6080:
6076:
6075:
6067:
6059:
6055:
6051:
6050:
6042:
6035:
6030:
6022:
6015:
6004:
6000:
5994:
5987:
5986:
5978:
5976:
5968:
5963:
5956:
5951:
5944:
5939:
5930:
5924:
5919:
5918:
5909:
5901:
5895:
5891:
5890:
5882:
5875:
5874:0-521-64222-1
5871:
5867:
5861:
5854:
5845:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5813:
5806:
5802:
5796:
5789:
5788:0-471-87297-0
5785:
5779:
5772:
5767:
5760:
5755:
5748:
5743:
5736:
5731:
5724:
5719:
5711:
5704:
5697:
5692:
5690:
5682:
5677:
5670:
5665:
5658:
5653:
5651:
5642:
5636:
5632:
5631:
5622:
5614:
5610:
5609:
5601:
5585:
5581:
5575:
5571:
5570:
5562:
5554:
5548:
5544:
5537:
5529:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5509:
5502:
5498:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5478:
5469:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5452:
5449:(in German).
5448:
5444:
5437:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5415:
5414:
5408:
5402:
5395:
5394:Physics World
5391:
5387:
5384:
5378:
5370:
5366:
5362:
5358:
5354:
5350:
5346:
5342:
5338:
5331:
5323:
5319:
5318:
5310:
5302:
5296:
5292:
5285:
5283:
5275:
5271:
5270:Caspar (1993)
5266:
5259:
5255:
5254:Ilardi (2007)
5250:
5242:
5240:0-486-67605-6
5236:
5231:
5230:
5221:
5213:
5209:
5203:
5199:
5198:
5190:
5183:
5179:
5176:
5171:
5164:
5160:
5159:Ilardi (2007)
5155:
5147:
5143:
5137:
5133:
5132:
5124:
5116:
5112:
5106:
5102:
5101:
5093:
5086:
5082:
5079:
5074:
5066:
5060:
5056:
5055:
5047:
5040:
5034:
5026:
5022:
5015:
5009:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4987:
4979:
4975:
4969:
4965:
4964:
4956:
4948:
4944:
4938:
4934:
4933:
4925:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4865:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4831:
4827:
4823:
4817:
4813:
4812:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4794:
4788:
4784:
4779:
4778:
4774:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4731:
4729:
4721:
4717:
4711:
4703:
4697:
4693:
4686:
4684:
4675:
4669:
4664:
4663:
4654:
4646:
4642:
4636:
4632:
4631:
4623:
4615:
4609:
4605:
4598:
4591:
4587:
4584:
4579:
4571:
4565:
4561:
4560:
4552:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4522:
4514:
4508:
4506:
4501:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4472:
4468:
4462:
4457:
4450:
4446:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4430:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4375:
4373:
4368:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4353:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4336:
4333:
4330:
4327:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4318:
4314:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4274:
4254:
4226:
4223:
4218:
4215:
4212:
4205:
4201:
4194:
4193:
4192:
4178:
4163:
4158:
4157:in daylight.
4156:
4152:
4151:Sunny 16 rule
4143:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4115:
4100:
4095:
4085:
4083:
4082:
4076:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4042:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4025:
4018:
4017:
4011:
4002:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3979:Fraser spiral
3976:
3972:
3967:
3965:
3964:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3946:moon illusion
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3910:
3908:
3903:
3893:
3887:
3881:
3877:
3867:
3864:
3860:
3855:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3836:
3833:
3829:
3824:
3820:
3815:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3791:accommodation
3787:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3771:
3769:
3765:
3759:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3736:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3694:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3649:
3640:
3638:
3634:
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3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3600:
3598:
3594:
3584:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3498:
3494:
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3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3449:
3440:
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3430:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3350:metamaterials
3347:
3342:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3319:image sensors
3316:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3302:Modern optics
3298:
3294:
3287:Modern optics
3284:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3222:
3217:
3211:Natural light
3208:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3192:
3188:
3175:
3169:
3166:
3161:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3136:
3133:
3126:
3120:
3111:
3094:
3083:
3079:
3074:
3070:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3053:
3045:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3015:
3008:
3001:
2995:
2991:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2933:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2913:
2911:
2907:
2888:
2874:
2866:
2859:
2851:
2844:
2836:
2831:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2770:
2764:
2757:Polarisation
2754:
2752:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2731:
2725:
2717:
2708:
2695:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2655:
2652:
2647:
2644:
2641:
2633:
2622:
2607:
2604:
2599:
2592:
2589:
2584:
2581:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2557:
2546:
2537:
2531:
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2509:
2506:
2493:
2489:
2479:
2468:
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2421:
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2297:
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2249:
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2238:
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2232:
2224:
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2208:
2203:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2146:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2095:
2091:
2089:
2088:James Gregory
2085:
2071:
2066:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2006:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1974:
1966:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1929:
1924:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1901:
1895:
1891:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1825:superposition
1821:
1817:
1813:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1771:
1756:
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1743:
1738:
1732:
1728:
1724:
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1627:
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1607:
1602:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1577:
1575:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1551:
1546:
1545:Lens (optics)
1536:
1534:
1526:
1517:
1511:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1497:
1491:
1489:
1484:
1467:
1464:
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1441:
1435:
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1420:
1414:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1341:
1339:
1331:
1322:
1317:
1304:
1297:
1291:
1286:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1250:mirror images
1247:
1242:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1200:
1195:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1168:
1164:
1154:
1153:
1149:
1141:
1136:
1130:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1086:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1066:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1028:
1023:
1013:
1009:
1001:
992:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
965:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
914:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
883:
881:
880:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
846:
844:
843:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
808:
801:
796:
788:
783:
778:
774:
772:
768:
762:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
733:of light, an
732:
728:
724:
720:
715:
713:
709:
705:
704:
699:
695:
691:
680:
676:
672:
665:
661:
656:
652:
650:
646:
642:
638:
637:
632:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
610:
605:
601:
600:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
556:
544:
533:
532:ancient Greek
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
476:Mesopotamians
473:
464:
459:
453:
443:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
412:ophthalmology
409:
405:
401:
397:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
345:
340:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
279:
274:
272:
267:
265:
260:
259:
257:
256:
250:
240:
237:
232:
226:
225:
224:
223:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
200:
196:
193:
192:
186:
185:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
119:
116:
111:
110:
103:
99:
96:
95:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
76:
74:
73:
69:
65:
64:
61:
58:
57:
53:
52:
45:
39:
35:
34:
19:
8736:Porous glass
8691:Safety glass
8648:Porous glass
8606:modification
8536:
8418:Wood's glass
8338:Fused quartz
8313:Cobalt glass
8267:Supercooling
8119:Astrophysics
7933:Experimental
7850:
7731:
7697:
7677:
7657:
7648:
7627:
7600:
7581:
7558:
7539:
7515:
7508:
7489:
7483:
7464:
7458:
7438:
7431:
7411:
7404:
7380:
7373:
7354:
7348:
7328:
7321:
7297:
7267:
7260:
7240:
7233:
7219:
7212:
7200:
7188:
7169:
7157:
7145:
7129:. Springer.
7125:
7118:
7099:
7070:
7051:
7041:November 12,
7039:. Retrieved
7029:D. Meister.
6997:
6971:. Elsevier.
6968:
6938:
6932:
6921:. Retrieved
6912:
6903:
6884:
6860:
6856:Laura Garwin
6842:
6831:. Retrieved
6816:
6804:. Retrieved
6795:
6786:
6767:
6756:. Retrieved
6742:
6723:
6717:
6698:
6692:
6683:
6674:
6667:Hecht (2017)
6662:
6655:Hecht (2017)
6650:
6643:Hecht (2017)
6638:
6627:Hecht (2017)
6622:
6598:
6588:
6577:Hecht (2017)
6572:
6565:Hecht (2017)
6560:
6548:
6541:Hecht (2017)
6536:
6525:Hecht (2017)
6520:
6509:Hecht (2017)
6504:
6493:Hecht (2017)
6488:
6481:Hecht (2017)
6462:Hecht (2017)
6457:
6438:
6429:
6421:
6416:
6392:
6375:Hecht (2017)
6370:
6346:
6317:
6311:
6303:the original
6297:
6290:
6279:Hecht (2017)
6274:
6267:Hecht (2017)
6262:
6251:Hecht (2017)
6246:
6229:
6223:
6212:Hecht (2017)
6207:
6196:Hecht (2017)
6191:
6186:, p. 5.
6184:Hecht (2017)
6179:
6158:
6147:
6128:
6124:
6114:
6094:
6087:
6073:
6066:
6053:
6048:
6041:
6029:
6020:
6014:
5984:
5962:
5950:
5938:
5916:
5908:
5888:
5881:
5865:
5860:
5815:
5811:
5795:
5778:
5766:
5754:
5747:Hecht (2017)
5742:
5735:Hecht (2017)
5730:
5718:
5709:
5703:
5676:
5664:
5629:
5627:
5621:
5607:
5600:
5588:. Retrieved
5568:
5561:
5542:
5536:
5517:
5508:
5491:the original
5486:
5477:
5450:
5446:
5436:
5412:
5407:Einstein, A.
5401:
5393:
5377:
5344:
5340:
5330:
5316:
5309:
5290:
5265:
5249:
5228:
5220:
5196:
5189:
5170:
5154:
5130:
5123:
5099:
5092:
5073:
5053:
5046:
5038:
5033:
5024:
4999:
4986:
4962:
4955:
4931:
4924:
4896:
4892:
4867:
4863:
4838:
4834:
4810:
4782:
4773:
4740:
4736:
4710:
4691:
4661:
4653:
4629:
4622:
4603:
4597:
4578:
4558:
4551:
4539:. Retrieved
4530:
4521:
4512:
4447:
4443:Fata Morgana
4431:
4399:
4369:
4354:
4351:
4345:
4325:
4315:
4246:
4159:
4147:
4127:
4079:
4077:
4073:
4066:stereoscopic
4057:
4043:
4027:
4014:
3968:
3961:
3911:
3898:
3856:
3837:
3816:
3804:Optometrists
3788:
3783:night vision
3772:
3760:
3732:
3606:
3603:Applications
3590:
3521:compact disc
3502:
3486:
3478:
3452:
3446:
3444:
3386:
3343:
3315:channeltrons
3301:
3300:
3268:
3245:
3236:
3232:
3226:
3193:
3189:
3137:
3131:
3127:
3118:
3109:
3046:
3029:
3025:
3023:
3013:
3006:
2999:
2943:birefringent
2941:
2939:
2921:
2914:
2909:
2905:
2889:
2877:
2872:
2857:
2842:
2818:
2809:
2790:
2766:
2747:
2743:down-chirped
2742:
2738:
2734:
2727:
2723:
2715:
2709:
2634:
2623:
2538:
2529:
2526:
2449:
2438:
2411:
2407:
2406:arcsin(sin (
2399:
2390:
2382:
2376:
2340:
2298:
2219:Airy pattern
2204:
2182:
2167:
2160:
2096:
2092:
2062:
2007:
1995:
1979:
1962:
1957:
1948:
1941:
1925:
1904:
1897:
1875:
1860:
1841:
1837:
1809:
1792:
1773:
1754:
1749:
1741:
1736:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1699:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1661:
1652:
1649:
1578:
1571:
1563:focal length
1558:
1556:
1524:
1515:
1512:
1500:
1492:
1482:
1439:
1436:
1427:
1418:
1415:
1342:
1329:
1320:
1312:
1302:
1295:
1262:
1246:flat mirrors
1243:
1232:
1205:
1170:
1160:
1151:
1145:
1134:
1128:
1048:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1010:
1006:
966:
925:
915:
895:interference
887:Thomas Young
884:
877:
874:Robert Hooke
858:Isaac Newton
847:
840:
813:
799:
763:
725:of light, a
723:epistemology
716:
707:
701:
675:Muslim world
668:
634:
617:
607:
597:
580:
557:
527:
469:
440:fibre optics
393:
374:
369:interference
341:
307:that use or
288:
287:
171:
127:Astrophysics
32:
8761:Glass fiber
8726:Glass cloth
8470:Preparation
8446:CorningWare
8328:Flint glass
8323:Crown glass
8276:Formulation
8022:Statistical
7938:Theoretical
7915:Engineering
7732:In Our Time
7573:Works cited
7298:Photography
7086:Convergence
6848:C.H. Townes
6686:. Springer.
6594:F.J. Duarte
6153:Rothman, T.
5933:Chapter 16.
5347:: 459–512.
5272:, pp.
4441:called the
4322:Normal lens
4303:number sign
4164:or f-stop,
4138:reciprocity
4088:Photography
4016:Cyclopaedia
3991:transparent
3983:Poggendorff
3922:Müller-Lyer
3832:astigmatism
3738:cornea—the
3677:optic nerve
3673:lens cortex
3635:and modern
3613:five senses
3573:bubblegrams
3451:. The term
3409:lens design
3257:photographs
3233:unpolarised
3032:or simply "
2976:pleochroism
2948:wave plates
2728:positively
2441:Abbe number
2070:diffringere
2035:Diffraction
1696:aberrations
1338:Snell's Law
1279:Refractions
1188:Reflections
1173:ray tracing
1043:propagation
950:development
928:. In 1905,
868:. In 1690,
743:Roger Bacon
727:metaphysics
671:Middle Ages
669:During the
622:perspective
616:, creating
526:. The word
500:Nimrud lens
432:microscopes
404:photography
400:engineering
365:diffraction
337:radio waves
317:ultraviolet
305:instruments
8776:Categories
8756:Windshield
8590:Refraction
8550:Dispersion
8358:Milk glass
8353:Lead glass
8139:Geophysics
8129:Biophysics
7973:Analytical
7926:Approaches
7755:Optics2001
7544:A. Young.
6923:2007-08-17
6833:2008-05-15
6758:2008-05-15
5514:R. Feynman
5256:, p.
5161:, p.
4496:References
4475:Ion optics
4415:afterglows
4361:film speed
4001:patterns.
3999:line moiré
3975:Ehrenstein
3863:reciprocal
3819:presbyopia
3795:near point
3756:blind spot
3617:eyeglasses
3366:radiometry
3327:shot noise
3325:, exhibit
3321:, such as
3249:atmosphere
3229:correlated
3034:polarisers
2972:mineralogy
2797:components
2735:up-chirped
2329:Scattering
2301:scattering
1788:wavelength
1496:dispersion
1285:Refraction
1039:ray optics
991:of light.
989:statistics
969:Paul Dirac
938:Niels Bohr
918:Max Planck
686: 801
626:refraction
568:Democritus
456:See also:
428:telescopes
398:, various
333:microwaves
152:Geophysics
137:Biophysics
8623:Corrosion
8522:Viscosity
8477:Annealing
8089:Molecular
7990:Acoustics
7983:Continuum
7978:Celestial
7968:Newtonian
7955:Classical
7898:Divisions
7800:Societies
6701:. Wiley.
6320:. Wiley.
6131:: 22–38.
5840:186207827
5369:186207827
4913:170628785
4899:: 89–98.
4884:170960993
4870:: 57–80.
4855:123057532
4765:144361526
4357:sensitive
4307:zoom lens
4210:#
4069:binocular
4038:periscope
3971:café wall
3914:Ames room
3823:hyperopia
3812:opticians
3799:far point
3727:eyelashes
3707:human eye
3693:Human eye
3643:Human eye
3637:telephony
3569:holograms
3517:laserdisc
3401:photonics
3281:molecules
3261:chemistry
3205:thin film
3084:θ
3080:
2968:dichroism
2786:chirality
2684:λ
2653:λ
2648:−
2605:−
2593:λ
2576:λ
2573:−
2510:λ
2420:pattern.
2362:with the
2250:λ
2239:θ
2236:
2223:Airy disk
2145:two slits
2127:θ
2124:
2112:λ
1900:nonlinear
1778:waves in
1574:thin lens
1396:θ
1392:
1367:θ
1363:
1316:interface
1228:luminance
1171:paraxial
1095:θ
1090:
1075:θ
1070:
850:treatises
731:cosmogony
649:chirality
576:Aristotle
416:optometry
396:astronomy
195:Physicist
157:Mechanics
122:Acoustics
8741:Pre-preg
8545:Achromat
8288:Bioglass
8283:AgInSbTe
7822:(OSA) –
7550:Archived
7396:Archived
7313:Archived
7180:Archived
7107:Archived
7089:Archived
7078:Archived
7062:Archived
7035:Archived
6917:Archived
6913:BBC News
6892:Archived
6850:(2003).
6827:Archived
6800:Archived
6775:Archived
6752:Archived
6614:Archived
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