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the strongest language that I have ever heard used at a scientific meeting." In response to the attacks from all sides, Brodie was reported to have stood up and stated, "It looks as though, according to Dr. Rivers, my vaccine is no good, and, according to Dr. Leake, Dr Kolmer's is dangerous." Kolmer simply responded by stating, "Gentlemen, this is one time I wish the floor would open up and swallow me." Ultimately, Kolmer's live vaccine was undoubtedly shown to be dangerous and had already been withdrawn in
September 1935 prior to the Milwaukee meeting. While the consensus of the symposium was largely skeptical of the efficacy of Brodie's vaccine, its safety was not in question and the recommendation was for a much larger well-controlled trial. However, when three children became ill with paralytic polio following a dose of the vaccine, the directors of the
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In response, the
Surgeon General pulled all polio vaccines made by Cutter Laboratories from the market, but not before 260 cases of paralytic illness had occurred. Eli Lilly, Parke-Davis, Pitman-Moore and Wyeth polio vaccines were also reported to have paralyzed numerous children. It was soon discovered that some lots of Salk polio vaccine made by Cutter, Wyeth, and the other labs had not been properly inactivated, allowing live poliovirus into more than 100,000 doses of vaccine. In May 1955, the National Institutes of Health and Public Health Services established a Technical Committee on Poliomyelitis Vaccine to test and review all polio vaccine lots and advise the Public Health Service as to which lots should be released for public use. These incidents reduced public confidence in polio vaccine, leading to a drop in vaccination rates.
736:
585:
1091:(the manufacturer who held the patent for his ricinoleating process) had distributed 12,000 doses of vaccine to some 700 physicians across the United States and Canada. Kolmer did not describe any monitoring of this experimental vaccination program nor did he provide these physicians with instructions in how to administer the vaccine or how to report side effects. Kolmer dedicated the bulk of his publications thereafter to explaining what he believed to be the cause of the 10+ reported cases of paralytic polio following vaccination, in many cases in towns where no polio outbreak had occurred. Six of these cases had been fatal. Kolmer had no control group but asserted that many more children would have gotten sick.
1217:
basic science and technology of the time was insufficient to understand and utilize this breakthrough. Brodie's work using formalin-inactivated virus would later become the basis for the Salk vaccine, but he would not live to see this success. Brodie was fired from his position within three months of the symposium's publication. While he was able to find another laboratory position, he died of a heart attack only three years later at age 36. By contrast, Park, who was believed in the community to be reaching senility at this point in his older age, was able to retire from his position with honors prior to his death in 1939. Kolmer, already an established and well respected researcher, returned to
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immunization coverage and low risk of importation, the WHO recommends one or two IPV doses starting at 2 months of age followed by at least two OPV doses, with the doses separated by 4–8 weeks depending on the risk of exposure. In countries with the highest levels of coverage and the lowest risks of importation and transmission, the WHO recommends a primary series of three IPV injections, with a booster dose after an interval of six months or more if the first dose was administered before 2 months of age.
1149:
published the
California results in August 1935. Through private physicians, Brodie also conducted a broader field study, including 9,000 children who received the vaccine and 4,500 age- and location-matched controls who did not receive a vaccine. Again, results were promising. Of those who received the vaccine, only a few went on to develop polio. Most had been exposed prior to vaccination and none had received the full series of vaccine doses being studied. Additionally, a polio epidemic in
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893:
2138:
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vaccine) had reached the market. Koprowski's attenuated vaccine was prepared by successive passages through the brains of Swiss albino mice. By the seventh passage, the vaccine strains could no longer infect nervous tissue or cause paralysis. After one to three further passages on rats, the vaccine was deemed safe for human use. On 27 February 1950, Koprowski's live, attenuated vaccine was tested for the first time on an 8-year-old boy living at
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1906:
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2002:
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individuals who had received potentially contaminated polio vaccine as late as 1957; the study again revealed no increased cancer incidence between persons who received polio vaccines containing SV40 and those who did not. The question of whether SV40 causes cancer in humans remains controversial, however, and the development of improved assays for detection of SV40 in human tissues will be needed to resolve the controversy.
2024:
1861:
1839:
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Sabin and
Koprowski both eventually succeeded in developing vaccines. Because of the commitment to the Salk vaccine in America, Sabin and Koprowski both did their testing outside the United States, Sabin in Mexico and the Soviet Union, Koprowski in the Congo and Poland. In 1957, Sabin developed a trivalent vaccine containing attenuated strains of all three types of poliovirus. In 1959, ten million children in the
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immunizations led to a further dramatic decline in the number of polio cases. Between 1962 and 1965, about 100 million
Americans (roughly 56% of the population at that time) received the Sabin vaccine. The result was a substantial reduction in the number of poliomyelitis cases, even from the much-reduced levels following the introduction of the Salk vaccine.
560:, cVDPV) and over time can revert to a neurovirulent form causing paralytic polio. This genetic reversal of the pathogen to a virulent form takes a considerable time and does not affect the person who was originally vaccinated. With wild polio cases at record lows, 2017 was the first year where more cases of cVDPV were recorded than the wild poliovirus.
633:. It should not be given to anyone who has an allergic reaction to these medicines. Signs and symptoms of an allergic reaction, which usually appear within minutes or a few hours after receiving the injected vaccine, include breathing difficulties, weakness, hoarseness or wheezing, heart rate fluctuations, skin rash and dizziness.
791:. By 2004, cases of poliomyelitis in Africa had been reduced to just a small number of isolated regions in the western portion of the continent, with sporadic cases elsewhere. Recent local opposition to vaccination campaigns have evolved due to lack of adequate information, often relating to fears that the vaccine might induce
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Although poliovirus transmission has been interrupted in much of the world, transmission of wild poliovirus does continue and creates an ongoing risk for the importation of wild poliovirus into previously polio-free regions. If importations of poliovirus occur, outbreaks of poliomyelitis may develop,
1525:
IPV was licensed in the United States in
November 1987, and is currently the vaccine of choice there. The first dose of polio vaccine is given shortly after birth, usually between 1 and 2 months of age, and a second dose is given at 4 months of age. The timing of the third dose depends on the vaccine
1497:
and Hilary
Koprowski continued working on developing a vaccine using live virus. During a meeting in Stockholm to discuss polio vaccines in November 1955, Sabin presented results obtained on a group of 80 volunteers, while Koprowski read a paper detailing the findings of a trial enrolling 150 people.
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in 1934. He tested his vaccine upon himself, his two children, and his assistant. He gave his vaccine to just 23 more children before declaring it safe and sending it out to doctors and health departments for a larger test of efficacy. By April 1935, he was able to report having tested the vaccine on
945:
substitutions distinguish the attenuated Sabin 1 strain from its virulent parent (the
Mahoney serotype), two nucleotide substitutions attenuate the Sabin 2 strain, and 10 substitutions are involved in attenuating the Sabin 3 strain. The primary attenuating factor common to all three Sabin vaccines is
703:
SV40 was found to be present in stocks of the injected form of the IPV in use between 1955 and 1963. It is not found in the OPV form. Over 98 million
Americans received one or more doses of polio vaccine between 1955 and 1963 when a proportion of vaccine was contaminated with SV40; an estimated 10–30
575:
A novel OPV2 vaccine (nOPV2) which has been genetically modified to reduce the likelihood of disease-causing activating mutations was granted emergency licencing in 2021, and subsequently full licensure in
December 2023. This has greater genetic stability than the traditional oral vaccine and is less
571:
2 OPV in regions where cVDPV type 2 was known to circulate. The switch to the bivalent vaccine and associated missing immunity against type 2 strains, among other factors, led to outbreaks of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2), which increased from 2 cases in 2016 to 1037 cases in
1875:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival; children under age 15 must have received three doses of polio vaccine before travel. Travellers without proof will be vaccinated upon arrival. Travellers departing Iraq to Afghanistan and Pakistan
1320:
of the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, who tested the first successful polio vaccine, in 1950. His vaccine, however, being a live attenuated virus taken orally, was still in the research stage and would not be ready for use until five years after Jonas Salk's polio vaccine (a dead-virus injectable
1216:
While Brodie had arguably made the most progress in the pursuit of a poliovirus vaccine, he suffered the most significant career repercussions due to his status as a less widely known researcher. Modern researchers recognize that Brodie may well have developed an effective polio vaccine, however the
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stood to immediately present clinical evidence that the Kolmer vaccine had caused several deaths and then allegedly accused Kolmer of being a murderer. As Rivers recalled in his oral history, "All hell broke loose, and it seemed as if everybody was trying to talk at the same time....Jimmy Leake used
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it became the first trial site for the new vaccine on very short notice. Between November 1934 - May 1935, over 1,500 doses of the vaccine were administered in Kern County. While initial results were very promising, insufficient staffing and poor protocol design left Brodie open to criticism when he
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to be the most effective. By 1 June 1934, Brodie was able to publish his first scholarly article describing his successful induction of immunity in three monkeys with inactivated polio virus. Through continued study on an additional 26 monkeys, Brodie ultimately concluded that administration of live
936:
created a special committee on live polio vaccines. The various vaccines were carefully evaluated for their ability to induce immunity to polio, while retaining a low incidence of neuropathogenicity in monkeys. Large-scale clinical trials performed in the Soviet Union in late 1950s to early 1960s by
498:
after two doses of inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), and at least 99% are immune to polio virus following three doses. The duration of immunity induced by IPV is not known with certainty, although a complete series is thought to provide protection for many years. IPV replaced the oral vaccine in many
1619:
to encourage them to distribute the vaccine in areas they control. However, the Pakistani Taliban was not supportive. On 11 September 2016, two unidentified gunmen associated with the Pakistani Taliban, Jamaat-ul-Ahrar, shot Zakaullah Khan, a doctor who was administering polio vaccines in Pakistan.
1465:
pharmaceutical company, with the paralysis starting in the limb the vaccine was injected into. The Cutter vaccine had been used in vaccinating 409,000 children in the western and midwestern United States. Later investigations showed that the Cutter vaccine had caused 260 cases of polio, killing 11.
1436:
was generally believed to have been caused by polio). The Salk vaccine had been 60–70% effective against PV1 (poliovirus type 1), over 90% effective against PV2 and PV3, and 94% effective against the development of bulbar polio. Soon after Salk's vaccine was licensed in 1955, children's vaccination
2153:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival. Regardless of immunisation status, all travellers from Afghanistan, Myanmar, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Somalia, Syria, and Yemen will be given an Oral Polio Vaccine dose upon arrival.
1606:
Polio vaccination programs have been resisted by some people in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nigeria - the three countries as of 2017 with remaining polio cases. Almost all Muslim religious and political leaders have endorsed the vaccine, but a fringe minority believes that the vaccines are secretly
522:
One dose of trivalent OPV produces immunity to all three poliovirus serotypes in roughly 50% of recipients. Three doses of live-attenuated OPV produce protective antibodies to all three poliovirus types in more than 95% of recipients. As with other live-virus vaccines, immunity initiated by OPV is
410:
but are otherwise well. However, the emergence of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV), a form of the vaccine virus that has reverted to causing poliomyelitis, has led to the development of novel oral polio vaccine type 2 (nOPV2) which aims to make the vaccine safer and thus stop further
1586:
Polio was eliminated in the Americas by 1994. The disease was officially eliminated in 36 Western Pacific countries, including China and Australia, in 2000. Europe was declared polio-free in 2002. Since January 2011, no cases of the disease have been reported in India, hence in February 2012, the
1304:
During the early 1950s, polio rates in the U.S. were above 25,000 annually; in 1952 and 1953, the U.S. experienced an outbreak of 58,000 and 35,000 polio cases, respectively, up from a typical number of some 20,000 a year, with deaths in those years numbering 3,200 and 1,400. Amid this U.S. polio
1037:
In the 1930s, poliovirus was perceived as especially terrifying, as little was known of how the disease was transmitted or how it could be prevented. This virus was also notable for primarily impacting affluent children, making it a prime target for vaccine development, despite its relatively low
1139:
laboratory. Brodie's progress was eagerly covered by popular press as the public hoped for a successful vaccine to become available. Such reporting did not make mention of the 12 children in a New York City Asylum who were subjected to early safety trials. As none of the subjects experienced ill
967:
OPV is usually provided in vials containing 10–20 doses of vaccine. A single dose of oral polio vaccine (usually two drops) contains 1,000,000 infectious units of Sabin 1 (effective against PV1), 100,000 infectious units of the Sabin 2 strain, and 600,000 infectious units of Sabin 3. The vaccine
401:
The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe. Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection. Oral polio vaccines cause about three cases of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis per million doses given. This compares with 5,000 cases per million who are paralysed following a polio
1070:
his polio vaccine, he repeatedly passed the virus through monkeys. Using methods of production that were later described as "hair-raisingly amateurish, the therapeutic equivalent of bath-tub gin," Kolmer ground the spinal cords of his infected monkeys and soaked them in a salt solution. He then
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was essential for an efficacious vaccine. Kolmer directly questioned the killed virus approach in scholarly journals. Kolmer's studies however had raised even more concern with increasing reports of children becoming paralysed following vaccination with his live virus vaccine and notably, with
2220:
proof of vaccination with at least one dose of bivalent OPV or IPV (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure). Persons obliged to undertake urgent international travel must be immunised with a single dose of polio vaccine before their departure. There is also risk of poliovirus
1719:
proof of polio vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival. Residents and ALL travellers staying in Afghanistan longer than 4 weeks need proof of polio vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) when departing from Afghanistan.
1678:
Travellers who wish to enter or leave certain countries must be vaccinated against polio, usually at most 12 months and at least 4 weeks before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks. Most requirements apply only to travel to or from
963:
oral poliovirus vaccine (MOPV) was licensed, and in 1962, type 3 MOPV was licensed. In 1963, trivalent OPV (TOPV) was licensed, and became the vaccine of choice in the United States and most other countries of the world, largely replacing the inactivated polio vaccine. A second wave of mass
731:
undertook a large study, using cancer case information from the institute's SEER database. The published findings from the study revealed no increased incidence of cancer in persons who may have received vaccine containing SV40. Another large study in Sweden examined cancer rates of 700,000
481:
in individuals with normal immune function, polio viruses have no non-primate reservoir in nature, and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time appears to be remote. There are two types of vaccine: inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) and oral polio vaccine (OPV).
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592:
In countries with endemic polio or where the risk of imported cases is high, the WHO recommends OPV vaccine at birth followed by a primary series of three OPV doses and at least one IPV dose starting at 6 weeks of age, with a minimum of 4 weeks between OPV doses. In countries with >90%
1620:
The leader of the Jamaat-ul-Ahrar claimed responsibility for the shooting and stated that the group would continue this type of attack. Such resistance to and skepticism of vaccinations has consequently slowed down the polio eradication process within the two remaining endemic countries.
954:
structures and reduces the ability of poliovirus to translate its RNA template within the host cell. The attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates very efficiently in the gut, the primary site of infection and replication, but is unable to replicate efficiently within
42:
1212:
in Georgia (acting as the primary funders for the project) requested it be withdrawn in December 1935. Following its withdrawal, the previously observed moratorium on human poliomyelitis vaccine development resumed and there would not be another attempt for nearly 20 years.
641:
A potential adverse effect of the Sabin OPV is caused by its known potential to recombine to a form that causes neurological infection and paralysis. The Sabin OPV results in vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) in approximately one individual per every
4245:
Sabin AB, Ramos-Alvarez M, Alvarez-Amezquita J, Pelon W, Michaels RH, Spigland I, et al. (August 1960). "Live, orally given poliovirus vaccine. Effects of rapid mass immunization on population under conditions of massive enteric infection with other viruses".
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especially in areas with low vaccination coverage and poor sanitation. As a result, high levels of vaccination coverage must be maintained. In November 2013, the WHO announced a polio outbreak in Syria. In response, the Armenian government put out a notice asking
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Travellers from active-transmission (including wild or vaccine-derived poliovirus) and at-risk countries, as well as all travellers from Afghanistan, Congo-Kinshasa, Mozambique, Myanmar, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Somalia, Syria, and Yemen, need
1083:
100 children without ill effect. Kolmer's first formal presentation of results would not come about until November 1935 where he presented the results of 446 children and adults he had vaccinated with his attenuated vaccine. He also reported that together the
1053:
in Philadelphia. The rivalry between these two researchers lent itself to a race-like mentality which, combined with a lack of oversight of medical studies, was reflected in the methodology and outcomes of each of these early vaccine development ventures.
1376:, Byron Bennett, L. James Lewis, and Lorraine Friedman, which required years of subsequent testing. Salk went on CBS radio to report a successful test on a small group of adults and children on 26 March 1953; two days later, the results were published in
1530:. Routine vaccination of adults (18 years of age and older) in developed countries is neither necessary nor recommended because most adults are already immune and have a very small risk of exposure to wild poliovirus in their home countries. In 2002, a
1115:), Brodie was able to pursue development of an inactivated or "killed virus" vaccine. Brodie's process also began by grinding the spinal cords of infectious monkeys and then treating the cords with various germicides, ultimately finding a solution of
754:
During the race to develop an oral polio vaccine, several large-scale human trials were undertaken. By 1958, the National Institutes of Health had determined that OPV produced using the Sabin strains were the safest. Between 1957 and 1960, however,
531:. The oral administration does not require special medical equipment or extensive training. Attenuated poliovirus derived from the oral polio vaccine is excreted for a few days after vaccination, potentially infecting and thus indirectly inducing
1038:
mortality and morbidity. Despite this, the community of researchers in the field thus far had largely observed an informal moratorium on any vaccine development as it was perceived to present too high a risk for too little likelihood of success.
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1173:
began to raise concerns regarding the safety and efficacy of the new poliovirus vaccines. At this time there was very little oversight of medical studies, and ethical treatment of study participants largely relied upon moral pressure from
1782:
Travellers from Afghanistan, Angola, Benin, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, China, Congo-Kinshasa, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mozambique, Myanmar, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, and Somalia need
1683:). Several countries have additional precautionary polio vaccination travel requirements, for example to and from 'key at-risk countries', which as of December 2020 include China, Indonesia, Mozambique, Myanmar, and Papua New Guinea.
1526:
formulation, but should be given between 6 and 18 months of age. A booster vaccination is given at 4 to 6 years of age, for a total of four doses at or before school entry. In some countries, a fifth vaccination is given during
398:(WHO) recommends all children be fully vaccinated against polio. The two vaccines have eliminated polio from most of the world, and reduced the number of cases reported each year from an estimated 350,000 in 1988 to 33 in 2018.
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535:
in unvaccinated individuals, and thus amplifying the effects of the doses delivered. Taken together, these advantages have made it the favored vaccine of many countries, and it has long been preferred by the global eradication
1460:
In April 1955, soon after mass polio vaccination began in the US, the Surgeon General began to receive reports of patients who contracted paralytic polio about a week after being vaccinated with Salk polio vaccine from the
1278:(Poliovirus type 1 – PV1, or Mahoney; PV2, Lansing; and PV3, Leon); the finding that prior to paralysis, the virus must be present in the blood; and the demonstration that administration of antibodies in the form of
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cultures failed to grow, but the polio cultures were successful. This development greatly facilitated vaccine research and ultimately allowed for the development of vaccines against polio. Enders and his colleagues,
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so-called 'polio-endemic', 'polio-affected', 'polio-exporting', 'polio-transmission', or 'high-risk' countries. As of August 2020, Afghanistan and Pakistan are the only polio-endemic countries in the world (where
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6293:
Resistance to polio vaccination is a fringe position. Almost every Muslim scholar and political leader has endorsed the vaccine, and all but a few Muslim-majority countries have wiped out the disease entirely.
576:
likely to revert to a virulent form. Genetically stabilised vaccines targeting poliovirus types 1 and 3 are in development, with the intention that these will eventually completely replace the Sabin vaccines.
547:
The primary disadvantage of OPV derives from its inherent nature. As an attenuated but active virus, it can induce vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) in approximately one individual per every
1742:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival. Belize residents travelling countries with confirmed polio cases also need proof of vaccination.
507:
Oral polio vaccines were easier to administer than IPV, as it eliminated the need for sterile syringes and therefore was more suitable for mass vaccination campaigns. OPV also provided longer-lasting
5260:
Hammon WM, Coriell LL, Wehrle PF, Stokes J (April 1953). "Evaluation of Red Cross gamma globulin as a prophylactic agent for poliomyelitis. IV. Final report of results based on clinical diagnoses".
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arranging a Symposium on Poliomyelitis to be delivered at the Annual Meeting of their Southern Branch the following month. It was during the discussion at this meeting that James Leake of the
6312:
6222:
3844:
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proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival. ALL Syria residents departing Syria to any country also need proof of vaccination.
563:
Until recent times, a trivalent OPV containing all three virus strains was used, and had nearly eradicated polio infection worldwide. With the complete eradication of wild poliovirus type
6408:
4741:
7189:
3041:"Poliomyelitis prevention: recommendations for use of inactivated poliovirus vaccine and live oral poliovirus vaccine. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases"
1325:, an institution for physically and mentally disabled people located in New York. After the child had no side effects, Koprowski enlarged his experiment to include 19 other children.
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1221:
as a professor of medicine. Kolmer had a very productive career, receiving multiple awards, and publishing countless papers, articles, and textbooks up until his retirement in 1957.
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6343:
1608:
2478:
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epidemic, millions of dollars were invested in finding and marketing a polio vaccine by commercial interests, including Lederle Laboratories in New York under the direction of
5673:
The Pasteur Institute stated that an antipoliomyelitis vaccine, developed by Professor Pierre Lepine would soon be produced in large quantities. (Times, London, 4 April 1955).
3158:
3414:
1809:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival. Travellers without proof are offered OPV vaccination upon arrival.
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1178:
scientists. Brodie's inactivated vaccines faced scrutiny from many who felt killed virus vaccines could not be efficacious. While researchers were able to replicate the
2060:
proof of OPV vaccination upon arrival. Residents and ALL travellers staying in Pakistan longer than 4 weeks need proof of OPV vaccination when departing from Pakistan.
1386:
invented a key laboratory technique that enabled the mass production of the vaccine by a team she led in Toronto. Beginning 23 February 1954, the vaccine was tested at
900:
5555:
941:
and his colleagues demonstrated safety and high efficacy of the vaccine. Based on these results, the Sabin strains were chosen for worldwide distribution. Fifty-seven
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ingredients and could cause impotence and infertility in male children, leading some parents not to have their children vaccinated. This belief is most common in the
1010:. The development of immunity to polio efficiently blocks person-to-person transmission of wild poliovirus, thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and
646:
million doses administered, with symptoms identical to wild polio. Due to its improved genetic stability, the novel OPV (nOPV) has a reduced risk of this occurring.
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1853:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival. Travellers without proof will be vaccinated upon arrival.
759:
continued to administer his vaccine around the world. In Africa, the vaccines were administered to roughly one million people in the Belgian territories (now the
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effects, Park, described by contemporaries as "never one to let grass grow under his feet," declared the vaccine safe. When a severe polio outbreak overwhelmed
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Sabin AB (1987). "Role of my cooperation with Soviet scientists in the elimination of polio: possible lessons for relations between the U.S.A. and the USSR".
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where they worked together on poliovirus. With the aid of grant funding from the President's Birthday Ball Commission (a predecessor to what would become the
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paralysis beginning at the arm rather than the foot in many cases. Both Kolmer and Brodie were called to present their research at the Annual Meeting of the
203:
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Enders JF, Weller TH, Robbins FC (January 1949). "Cultivation of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus in Cultures of Various Human Embryonic Tissues".
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virus in embryonic lung tissue. He had inoculated the planned number of tubes when he noticed that there were a few unused tubes. He retrieved a sample of
1021:. The last cases of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by endemic transmission of wild virus in the United States occurred in 1979, with an outbreak among the
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Olin P, Giesecke J (1998). "Potential exposure to SV40 in polio vaccines used in Sweden during 1957: no impact on cancer incidence rates 1960 to 1993".
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1066:. Inspired by the success of vaccines for rabies and yellow fever, he hoped to use a similar process to denature the polio virus. In order to go about
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8484:
3182:"Guidance for Assessment of Poliovirus Vaccination Status and Vaccination of Children Who Have Received Poliovirus Vaccine Outside the United States"
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temperature, which produces spontaneous mutations in the viral genome. Oral polio vaccines were developed by several groups, one of which was led by
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region. Attacks on polio vaccination teams have also occurred, thereby hampering international efforts to eradicate polio in Pakistan and globally.
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3856:
1046:
6051:
Yamazaki S, Toraya H (2001). "General News. Major Milestone reached in Global Polio Eradication: Western Pacific Region is certified Polio-Free".
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1509:
Once Sabin's oral vaccine became widely available, it supplanted Salk's injected vaccine, which had been tarnished in the public's opinion by the
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Nathanson N, Martin JR (December 1979). "The epidemiology of poliomyelitis: enigmas surrounding its appearance, epidemicity, and disappearance".
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3003:
601:
The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe. Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection. They are generally safe to be given to
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2713:
The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023)
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1425:, and 1.2 million children received no vaccination and served as a control group, who would then be observed to see if any contracted polio.
95:
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5896:
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2604:
1405:, the largest medical experiment in history at that time. The test began with about 4,000 children at Franklin Sherman Elementary School in
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million Americans may have received a dose of vaccine contaminated with SV40. Later analysis suggested that vaccines produced by the former
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6188:
5397:
1433:
6335:
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transmission inside Ukraine itself, and travellers to Ukraine are recommended to be up to date with their polio vaccination before entry.
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5238:
2653:
1441:, the annual number of polio cases fell from 35,000 in 1953 to 5,600 by 1957. By 1961 only 161 cases were recorded in the United States.
1075:, and refrigerated the product for 14 days to ultimately create what would later be prominently critiqued as a "veritable witches brew".
6567:
5467:
5428:
7375:
7342:
7311:
3607:
3551:
Eddy BE, Borman GS, Berkeley WH, Young RD (May 1961). "Tumors induced in hamsters by injection of rhesus monkey kidney cell extracts".
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2436:
Schonberger LB, Kaplan J, Kim-Farley R, Moore M, Eddins DL, Hatch M (1984). "Control of paralytic poliomyelitis in the United States".
1084:
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Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids and Acellular Pertussis Adsorbed, Hepatitis B (Recombinant) and Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine Combined
5820:
3262:
2920:
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reference strains, Mahoney (type 1 poliovirus), MEF-1 (type 2 poliovirus), and Saukett (type 3 poliovirus), grown in a type of monkey
422:
which people drank. The vaccine was not approved for use in the United States, but was used successfully elsewhere. The success of an
5842:
5533:
3735:
2086:, the government recommends all others travellers to consider getting a polio vaccine or booster dose, depending on their situation.
6037:
5367:
1417:. By the conclusion of the study, roughly 440,000 received one or more injections of the vaccine, about 210,000 children received a
7315:
7278:
7077:
6368:
3150:
6987:
6507:
4204:
2741:"Transmissibility and persistence of oral polio vaccine viruses: implications for the global poliomyelitis eradication initiative"
1506:, described as the Soviet Union's highest civilian honor. Sabin's oral vaccine using live virus came into commercial use in 1961.
8064:
7107:
3406:
2547:
1391:
993:
567:
2 this was phased out in 2016 and replaced with bivalent vaccine containing just types 1 and 3, supplemented with monovalent type
7848:
1199:
was asked to discuss each of the presented papers as a prominent critic of the vaccine development effort. This resulted in the
7677:
7215:
6957:
6837:
5956:
2083:
7167:
6867:
6777:
6627:
8535:
8463:
7388:
6747:
6537:
6263:
5623:
5598:
5461:
5363:
5083:
4935:
4531:
4507:
4219:
2944:"Virus-Specific CD4+ and CD8+ Cytotoxic T-Cell Responses and Long-Term T-Cell Memory in Individuals Vaccinated against Polio"
1513:
of 1955, in which Salk vaccines improperly prepared by one company resulted in several children dying or becoming paralyzed.
1291:
1271:
1078:
In keeping with the norms of the time, Kolmer completed a relatively small animal trial with 42 monkeys before proceeding to
442:
431:
7346:
7137:
7017:
6897:
6807:
6657:
6597:
6447:
735:
8069:
6927:
6717:
6687:
5691:
4066:
4003:
1595:
under age 15 to get the polio vaccine. As of 2014, polio virus had spread to 10 countries, mainly in Africa, Asia, and the
3969:
8101:
7853:
7779:
7632:
1204:
1158:
1136:
365:
7459:
5289:"Polio – Polio Cases (OWID based on US Public Health Service (1910–1951) and US Center for Disease Control (1960–2010))"
2104:
Travellers from polio-exporting countries (identified by Qatar as: Afghanistan, Nigeria, Pakistan and Philippines) need
8511:
7818:
7451:
4791:
4655:
3351:
2647:
2216:
Long-term visitors departing to states with wild or circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus transmission should present
1587:
country was taken off the WHO list of polio-endemic countries. In March 2014, India was declared a polio-free country.
1200:
1188:
527:, the primary site of wild poliovirus entry, which helps prevent infection with wild virus in areas where the virus is
17:
5933:
5042:
4719:
1274:. Other important advances that led to the development of polio vaccines were: the identification of three poliovirus
7923:
2843:
1237:
successfully cultivated the poliovirus in human tissue in the laboratory. This group had recently successfully grown
617:
Inactivated polio vaccine can cause an allergic reaction in a few people since the vaccine contains trace amounts of
1257:
infected with poliovirus and added it to the remaining test tubes, on the off chance that the virus might grow. The
8552:
8490:
7460:
3529:
2514:
1132:
1079:
760:
5991:
4955:
4324:
Benison S (1982). "International medical cooperation: Dr. Albert Sabin, live poliovirus vaccine and the Soviets".
8111:
8079:
8074:
7903:
2576:
1534:(five-component) combination vaccine (called Pediarix) containing IPV was approved for use in the United States.
1108:
655:
263:
127:
552:
million doses administered. The live virus can persist circulate in under-vaccinated populations (termed either
146:
8169:
7774:
6409:"Countries with risk of yellow fever transmission and countries requiring yellow fever vaccination (July 2019)"
4176:
3712:
1503:
1209:
584:
7246:
5296:
3324:
3298:
3124:
803:
believe is due to refusals by certain local populations to allow their children to receive the polio vaccine.
499:
developed countries in the 1990s mainly due to the (small) risk of vaccine-derived polio in the oral vaccine.
8633:
7967:
7672:
7274:
5005:
Brodie M (1935). "Active immunization in monkeys against poliomyelitis with germicidally inactivated virus".
3376:
1428:
The results of the field trial were announced 12 April 1955 (the tenth anniversary of the death of President
1234:
933:
776:
6121:
5166:
3637:
Vilchez RA, Kozinetz CA, Arrington AS, Madden CR, Butel JS (June 2003). "Simian virus 40 in human cancers".
1161:
to conduct a highly structured trial of the Brodie vaccine using funding from the Birthday Ball Commission.
8628:
7410:
5927:
5890:
3677:"Cancer risk associated with receipt of vaccines contaminated with simian virus 40: epidemiologic research"
947:
1062:
Kolmer began his vaccine development project in 1932 and ultimately focused on producing an attenuated or
8623:
7397:
6166:
1827:
Travellers from Afghanistan, Congo-Kinshasa, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Pakistan, Somalia, and Syria need
2176:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
2130:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
2108:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
2038:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
2016:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
1994:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
1972:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
1942:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
1920:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
1898:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
1831:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
1787:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
1764:
proof of OPV or IPV vaccination (received between 4 weeks and 12 months before departure) upon arrival.
724:
countries, may have been contaminated, meaning hundreds of millions more may have been exposed to SV40.
490:
When the IPV (injection) is used, 90% or more of individuals develop protective antibodies to all three
8571:
8089:
7526:
7509:
5490:
6358:"International Travel and Health. Chapter 6 – Vaccine-preventable diseases and vaccines (2019 update)"
3875:"CHAT oral polio vaccine was not the source of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 group M for humans"
2288:
105:
8139:
6193:
6117:
4026:
3234:
3012:
2852:
2708:
2541:
2508:
2361:
1559:
728:
470:
395:
8618:
8094:
8059:
8054:
8049:
7423:
6469:
3767:"Contamination of poliovirus vaccines with simian virus 40 (1955–1963) and subsequent cancer rates"
1395:
1369:
1342:
7332:
8540:
8473:
8454:
8250:
8222:
8184:
8179:
8159:
7682:
7039:
6288:
5884:
3229:
1150:
1141:
469:
Interruption of person-to-person transmission of the virus by vaccination is important in global
183:
85:
6199:
5556:"Polio Victory Remembered as March of Dimes Marks 50th Anniversary of Salk Vaccine Field Trials"
5389:
8638:
8521:
8450:
7444:
7419:
7370:
3594:
Carbone M (December 1999). "Simian virus 40 and human tumors: It is time to study mechanisms".
1522:
1179:
1125:
880:
528:
516:
6253:
5451:
5234:
3436:
Shimizu H, Thorley B, Paladin FJ, Brussen KA, Stambos V, Yuen L, et al. (December 2004).
3011:(10th ed. (2nd printing) ed.). Washington, D.C.: Public Health Foundation. Archived from
2637:
8516:
8350:
8345:
7796:
7742:
7652:
6559:
5420:
5073:
4593:
4353:"Impaired binding of standard initiation factors mediates poliovirus translation attenuation"
2126:
Travellers from polio-endemic countries as identified by WHO (Afghanistan and Pakistan) need
2121:
1567:
1437:
campaigns were launched. In the U.S., following a mass immunization campaign promoted by the
1429:
1387:
664:
kidney cells used to prepare the poliovirus vaccines were determined to be infected with the
302:
7393:
7384:
4402:"Dual stem loops within the poliovirus internal ribosomal entry site control neurovirulence"
1628:
8399:
8340:
8131:
7769:
7647:
7598:
7565:
7499:
7166:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
7136:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
7106:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
7076:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
7046:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
7016:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6986:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6956:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6926:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6896:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6866:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6836:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6806:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6776:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6746:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6716:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6686:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6656:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6626:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6596:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6566:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6536:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 23 October 2020.
6060:
5812:
5359:
5200:
4164:
3743:
2912:
2793:
1267:
1196:
1104:
697:
474:
6506:. International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). 1 October 2020.
5525:
2449:
1542:
836:-mediated immunity in the bloodstream, which prevents polio infection from progressing to
543:
cVDPV cases (red line) outnumbered wild polio cases (blue line) for the first time in 2017
8:
8322:
8288:
8174:
7940:
7935:
7881:
7712:
7580:
7552:
7504:
6017:
3765:
Strickler HD, Rosenberg PS, Devesa SS, Hertel J, Fraumeni JF, Goedert JJ (January 1998).
2669:"Pioneering figures in medicine: Albert Bruce Sabin – inventor of the oral polio vaccine"
1462:
1402:
849:
788:
772:
423:
387:
293:
196:
7732:
7305:
7301:
7069:
6357:
6064:
5204:
4928:
The Cutter Incident: How America's First Polio Vaccine Led to the Growing Vaccine Crisis
2797:
8355:
8189:
7930:
7891:
7876:
7752:
7737:
7722:
7642:
7560:
6979:
6499:
5786:
5759:
5335:
5318:
5143:
5118:
4975:
4639:
Tom Rivers: reflections on a life in medicine and science : an oral history memoir
4584:
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2740:
2609:
2536:
2418:
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1474:
1322:
1088:
1067:
960:
913:
508:
419:
391:
157:
7099:
6255:
Neuromuscular Disorders of Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence: A Clinician's Approach
6159:"India polio-free for a year: 'First time in history we're able to put up such a map'"
4426:
4401:
4377:
4352:
3650:
3462:
3437:
2324:
World Health Organization (2016). "Polio vaccines: WHO position paper – March, 2016".
2056:
Travellers from ALL countries planning to stay in Pakistan for more than 4 weeks need
8643:
8478:
8445:
8278:
8119:
8009:
7898:
7759:
7584:
7547:
7437:
6259:
6095:
6029:
5791:
5776:
5721:
5656:
5652:
5619:
5594:
5587:
5457:
5340:
5269:
5216:
5148:
5079:
4971:
4931:
4895:
4820:
4797:
4787:
4687:
4651:
4571:
4527:
4503:
4480:
4431:
4382:
4351:
Ochs K, Zeller A, Saleh L, Bassili G, Song Y, Sonntag A, et al. (January 2003).
4333:
4298:
4263:
4259:
4215:
4168:
4124:
3950:
3896:
3815:
3788:
3696:
3654:
3611:
3568:
3467:
3211:
3097:
3062:
2973:
2959:
2821:
2816:
2781:
2762:
2690:
2643:
2453:
2410:
2343:
2082:
proof of polio vaccination upon arrival or before departure, respectively. Due to an
1800:
1680:
1449:
1354:
1218:
780:
278:
119:
8424:
7207:
6949:
6829:
4310:
4149:"Vaccine-derived polioviruses and the endgame strategy for global polio eradication"
3580:
2422:
1349:
8404:
8389:
8245:
8106:
8019:
7159:
6859:
6769:
6619:
6068:
5781:
5771:
5648:
5330:
5208:
5138:
5130:
5014:
4979:
4967:
4643:
4579:
4563:
4470:
4462:
4421:
4413:
4372:
4364:
4290:
4255:
4160:
4114:
4104:
3940:
3932:
3886:
3778:
3708:
3688:
3646:
3603:
3560:
3457:
3449:
3201:
3193:
3089:
3052:
2963:
2955:
2811:
2801:
2752:
2716:
2680:
2445:
2402:
2373:
2333:
1592:
1575:
1406:
1383:
1317:
1263:
1246:
1183:
1121:
938:
925:
833:
756:
539:
532:
512:
415:
246:
236:
226:
216:
7945:
6739:
6529:
4417:
4368:
3623:
2780:
Koike S, Taya C, Kurata T, Abe S, Ise I, Yonekawa H, et al. (February 1991).
2393:
Aylward RB (2006). "Eradicating polio: today's challenges and tomorrow's legacy".
8585:
8409:
8207:
8014:
7972:
7858:
7838:
7808:
7791:
7717:
7707:
7637:
7576:
7572:
7521:
7336:
7129:
7009:
6889:
6799:
6649:
6589:
6439:
5760:"Lessons from the Salk polio vaccine: methods for and risks of rapid translation"
4109:
4062:
2012:
Travellers from Afghanistan, Kenya, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Papua New Guinea need
1612:
1510:
1502:
received the Sabin oral vaccine. For this work, Sabin was given the medal of the
1444:
A week before the announcement of the Francis Field Trial results in April 1955,
1373:
1072:
856:
6919:
6709:
6679:
5683:
5212:
4058:
3999:
775:
arose that the vaccine had created the conditions necessary for transmission of
8613:
8597:
8546:
8273:
8164:
8124:
8004:
7825:
7764:
5639:
Hinman AR (June 1984). "Landmark perspective: Mass vaccination against polio".
4202:
3852:
3564:
1615:
is an additional cause of distrust. In 2015, the WHO announced a deal with the
1570:, began in 1988, and has relied largely on the oral polio vaccine developed by
1438:
1378:
1279:
1170:
1154:
1112:
1100:
1042:
956:
800:
4567:
3921:"Historical aspects of the development of live virus vaccine in poliomyelitis"
2685:
2668:
1401:
Salk's vaccine was then used in a test called the Francis Field Trial, led by
33:
8607:
8429:
8414:
8384:
8379:
8234:
7982:
7886:
7531:
5725:
4824:
4691:
4575:
4466:
3977:
3692:
3438:"Circulation of type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus in the Philippines in 2001"
1547:
1422:
1011:
999:
917:
878:
vaccine. In the UK, IPV is combined with tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, and
841:
661:
458:
383:
59:
7786:
6015:
5018:
4801:
2605:"Hilary Koprowski, Who Developed First Live-Virus Polio Vaccine, Dies at 96"
2406:
1041:
This shifted in the early 1930s when American groups took up the challenge:
771:). The results of these human trials have been controversial, and unfounded
8506:
8149:
8044:
7977:
7918:
7913:
7593:
7484:
7464:
6099:
6072:
5918:
5795:
5344:
5273:
5220:
5152:
4484:
4386:
4267:
4172:
4128:
3954:
3900:
3783:
3766:
3700:
3658:
3615:
3572:
3471:
3215:
3197:
3005:
Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (The Pink Book)
2977:
2766:
2694:
2414:
2347:
2143:
1571:
1499:
1494:
1482:
1478:
1314:
1242:
1116:
1007:
1006:'. Stimulating immune response, by use of an infectious agent, is known as
981:
977:
921:
892:
845:
748:
622:
435:
241:
231:
221:
211:
6086:
D' Souza RM, Kennett M, Watson C (2002). "Australia declared polio free".
6033:
5660:
5134:
4899:
4713:
4647:
4435:
4337:
4302:
4294:
3936:
3819:
3792:
3608:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4644(20000201)76:2<189::AID-JCB3>3.0.CO;2-J
3066:
3057:
3040:
2856:
2825:
2806:
2457:
2257:
A misconception has been present in Pakistan that polio vaccine contained
2241:
supplies the inactivated vaccine to developing countries for as little as
1131:
Soon after, following a similar protocol to Kolmer, Brodie proceeded with
799:
and in several other African nations without necessary information, which
8293:
8283:
8144:
7950:
7833:
7801:
7727:
7589:
7480:
7472:
5360:"Interview with Hilary Koprowski, sourced at History of Vaccines website"
3101:
2503:
2217:
2195:
2173:
2150:
2127:
2105:
2079:
2073:
2057:
2035:
2013:
1991:
1969:
1939:
1917:
1895:
1872:
1850:
1828:
1806:
1784:
1761:
1739:
1716:
1710:
1596:
1531:
1527:
1300:
1955 newspaper headlines on the development of an effective polio vaccine
1254:
1230:
1175:
1045:
led a team from the public health laboratory of the city of New York and
1018:
969:
875:
792:
705:
681:
626:
113:
4781:
4637:
4244:
2721:
2378:
2338:
329:
322:
8419:
8394:
8084:
8034:
6223:"Armenian Health Ministry: Syrian Armenian children need polio vaccine"
4888:
Transactions & Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia
3352:"Two New Vaccines Join the Fight to Eradicate Polio | UC San Francisco"
2167:
1414:
1365:
1338:
1310:
1145:
942:
860:
740:
693:
685:
668:(SV40), which was also discovered in 1960 and is a naturally occurring
618:
495:
478:
453:
427:
340:
191:
66:
5987:
2572:
1333:
916:, produced by the passage of the virus through nonhuman cells at a sub
8468:
8039:
7907:
7476:
6143:
Ray K (26 February 2012). "India wins battle against dreaded polio".
6114:"Europe achieves historic milestone as Region is declared polio-free"
4742:"Vaccine Testing and Vulnerable Human Subjects | History of Vaccines"
4093:"What led to the Nigerian boycott of the polio vaccination campaign?"
1551:
1306:
1192:
1003:
951:
929:
867:
864:
825:
602:
524:
403:
99:
4400:
Gromeier M, Bossert B, Arita M, Nomoto A, Wimmer E (February 1999).
4148:
4147:
Kew OM, Sutter RW, de Gourville EM, Dowdle WR, Pallansch MA (2005).
3676:
8310:
8303:
8298:
8268:
8024:
7960:
7955:
7238:
5288:
3891:
3874:
2051:
1955:
1600:
1275:
1017:
The development of two polio vaccines led to the first modern mass
973:
829:
817:
784:
630:
606:
491:
407:
402:
infection. Both types of vaccine are generally safe to give during
313:
141:
7300:
Hall E, Wodi AP, Hamborsky J, Morelli V, Schillie S, eds. (2021).
1409:, and eventually involved 1.8 million children, in 44 states from
8029:
7468:
2211:
1985:
1911:
1616:
1418:
1296:
1182:
he had produced in his animal trials, prevailing wisdom was that
1124:
while administration of killed virus vaccine tended to result in
1026:
837:
796:
768:
689:
672:
that infects monkeys. In 1961, SV40 was found to cause tumors in
462:
379:
49:
6018:"Certification of poliomyelitis eradication--the Americas, 1994"
3553:
Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine
2435:
700:. However, SV40 has not been determined to cause these cancers.
8332:
8317:
7603:
3407:"Common and Rare Side Effects for poliovirus vaccine injection"
3329:
Global Polio Eradication Initiative - World Health Organization
3303:
Global Polio Eradication Initiative - World Health Organization
2194:
Travellers from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Pakistan need
1889:
1755:
1733:
1563:
932:, developed their own attenuated vaccine strains. In 1958, the
905:
821:
764:
721:
677:
673:
7396:– 'People and Discoveries: Salk Produces Polio Vaccine 1952',
3764:
3636:
3001:
2880:
434:. Another attenuated live oral polio vaccine was developed by
8327:
8212:
7813:
7747:
6016:
Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) (October 1994).
2259:
2189:
2099:
2007:
1965:
1960:
Travellers from and to polio-exporting countries, as well as
1933:
1822:
1777:
1410:
1238:
1022:
855:
In the United States, vaccine is administered along with the
717:
713:
669:
414:
The first successful demonstration of a polio vaccine was by
41:
8592:
7405:"IPOL – Poliovirus Vaccine Inactivated (Monkey Kidney Cell)"
5957:"Can India's social mobilisation strategy work in Pakistan?"
3528:. Centers for Disease Control. 22 April 2004. Archived from
3435:
1229:
A breakthrough came in 1948 when a research group headed by
7622:
7338:
Manual for the surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases
7307:
Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases
6028:(39). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: 720–722.
4146:
3002:
Atkinson W, Hamborsky J, McIntyre L, Wolfe S, eds. (2008).
2268:
2242:
2029:
1961:
1866:
1844:
1607:
being used for sterilization of Muslims. The fact that the
1364:
The first effective polio vaccine was developed in 1952 by
871:
744:
709:
665:
465:", encouraging the public to receive an oral polio vaccine.
5988:"Eradicating Polio: A Model for International Cooperation"
4500:
Poliomyelitis: A World Geography: Emergence to Eradication
4399:
3180:
Marin M, Patel M, Oberste S, Pallansch MA (January 2017).
3179:
2364:(2022). "Polio vaccines: WHO position paper – June 2022".
523:
probably lifelong. OPV produces excellent immunity in the
7192:. The Global Polio Eradication Initiative. Archived from
6085:
5259:
5123:
American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health
2707:
2360:
2323:
1493:
At the same time that Salk was testing his vaccine, both
676:. More recently, the virus was found in certain forms of
8649:
World Health Organization essential medicines (vaccines)
7299:
5757:
4203:
Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (2006).
4027:"Rumor, Fear and Fatigue Hinder Final Push to End Polio"
3377:"Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against polio (Pol3)"
1849:
Travellers from Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Nigeria need
1715:
Travellers from polio-endemic countries (Pakistan) need
1689:
Polio vaccination requirements for international travel
1452:
in Paris had also announced an effective polio vaccine.
3550:
1876:
must also provide proof of vaccination upon departure.
1871:
Travellers aged 15+ from Afghanistan and Pakistan need
588:
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against polio in 2015
443:
World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines
7040:"Saint Kitts & Nevis Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6350:
6336:"Taliban Join Global Effort to Kill Off Polio in 2016"
6251:
4684:
Lesser harms: The morality of risk in medical research
4526:. Washington: Pan American Health Organization. 2006.
4350:
1337:
Administration of the polio inoculation, including by
1169:
While their work was ongoing, the larger community of
8569:
7190:"Availability and price of inactivated polio vaccine"
5758:
Juskewitch JE, Tapia CJ, Windebank AJ (August 2010).
5711:
5709:
4718:(Thesis). Cooper Medical School of Rowan University.
4715:
The Trials and Triumphs of the American Polio Vaccine
1916:
Travellers from and to polio-affected countries need
1550:
boy is injected with inactivated poliovirus vaccine (
998:
In a generic sense, vaccination works by priming the
636:
6403:
6401:
6399:
6397:
6395:
6393:
6391:
6389:
6309:"Pakistan polio official killed in Peshawar: police"
5043:"The tragic story of a Canadian vaccine trailblazer"
4817:
Margin of Safety: The Story of Poliomyelitis Vaccine
3263:"GPEI Strategy for the Response to cVDPV2 2020–2021"
3151:"Eradication of polio – Is Syria being left behind?"
2913:"Polio Vaccination: What Everyone Should Know | CDC"
2883:"Poliomyelitis vaccine: Canadian Immunization Guide"
2172:
Travellers from countries with polio outbreaks need
1071:
filtered the solution through mesh, treated it with
6088:
Communicable Diseases Intelligence Quarterly Report
5319:"Public Health Weekly Reports for October 10, 1947"
5190:
3522:"Simian Virus 40 (SV40), Polio Vaccine, and Cancer"
3155:
UNSW School of Public Health and Community Medicine
2851:. The Immunological Basis for Immunization Series.
1270:, were recognized in 1954 for their efforts with a
612:
457:This 1963 poster featured CDC's national symbol of
5706:
5613:
5586:
4455:Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry
4214:. Edinburgh: Stationery Office. pp. 313–329.
3486:"nOPV2: Clinical Development and Evidence Summary"
2779:
2281:
8485:Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
7330:
6386:
6252:De Vivo DC, Ryan MM, Jones HR, Darras BT (2014).
6079:
5684:"Pierre Lépine (1901–1989) – Notice biographique"
5618:. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America.
2837:
2835:
2598:
2596:
2594:
1674:Vaccination requirements for international travel
8605:
6560:"Brunei Darussalam Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6106:
5456:. Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. 294–.
5235:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1954"
4886:Berk LB (1989). "Polio Vaccine Trials of 1935".
1632:Polio vaccination is required for travellers...
1609:CIA organized a fake vaccination program in 2011
1360:1961 for the National Polio Immunization Program
5817:Smithsonian National Museum of American History
4497:
3079:
2941:
2881:Public Health Agency of Canada (18 July 2007).
2078:Travellers from or to high-risk countries need
2034:Travellers from polio-exporting countries need
1760:Travellers from polio-exporting countries need
1558:A global effort to eradicate polio, led by the
1094:
816:The Salk vaccine, IPV, is based on three wild,
301:
7385:History of Vaccines Website – History of Polio
6311:. The Daily Star: Lebanon. 11 September 2016.
6245:
6050:
5843:"Sabin receives highest Soviet civilian honor"
5751:
4598:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (
3758:
2832:
2591:
1990:Travellers from polio-affected countries need
1938:Travellers from Afghanistan and Pakistan need
1894:Travellers from Afghanistan and Pakistan need
1738:Travellers from Afghanistan and Pakistan need
1603:advising vaccinations to outbound travellers.
7445:
7239:"Lab tests show polio vaccine is not 'Haram'"
6980:"Philippines Recommended Vaccinations: Polio"
6437:
6011:
6009:
5739:"Technical Report on Poliomyelitis Vaccine".
5589:Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine
4921:
4919:
4917:
4915:
4913:
4911:
4909:
4686:. Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press.
4240:
4238:
4210:. In Salisbury D, Ramsay M, Noakes K (eds.).
3914:
3912:
3910:
2239:Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization
1099:At nearly the same time as Kolmer's project,
6303:
6301:
5879:
5877:
5286:
5253:
4451:"Salk and Sabin: poliomyelitis immunisation"
4024:
3961:
3805:
3429:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2738:
2567:
2565:
2395:Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology
1655: From some countries, to some countries
145:
7070:"Saudi Arabia Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6282:
6022:MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
5262:Journal of the American Medical Association
4960:Journal of the American Medical Association
4956:"Active immunization against poliomyelitis"
4953:
4142:
4140:
4138:
3186:MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
3119:
3117:
3115:
3113:
3111:
2782:"Transgenic mice susceptible to poliovirus"
2666:
2529:
2386:
1649: From some countries, to all countries
1643: From some countries, to all countries
511:than the Salk vaccine, as it provides both
7452:
7438:
7376:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
7343:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
7312:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
6500:"Afghanistan Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6333:
6006:
5578:
5227:
4906:
4235:
4000:"Nigeria Muslims oppose polio vaccination"
3907:
3868:
3866:
3808:Developments in Biological Standardization
3356:The University of California San Francisco
3173:
3129:Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI)
2935:
2319:
2317:
1685:
1637: From all countries, to all countries
1345:, where his team had developed the vaccine
1309:. Also working at Lederle was Polish-born
743:for use in a 1967 vaccination campaign in
390:poliovirus given by injection (IPV) and a
40:
7422:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
7335:. In Roush SW, Baldy LM, Hall MH (eds.).
7160:"Ukraine Recommended Vaccinations: Polio"
7100:"Seychelles Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6298:
5874:
5785:
5775:
5720:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
5443:
5357:
5334:
5142:
4583:
4474:
4425:
4376:
4118:
4108:
4086:
4084:
3944:
3918:
3890:
3839:
3837:
3835:
3833:
3831:
3829:
3799:
3782:
3670:
3668:
3544:
3461:
3205:
3056:
2984:
2967:
2815:
2805:
2756:
2720:
2684:
2562:
2377:
2337:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2297:
739:Doses of oral polio vaccine are added to
649:
75:nOPV2: attenuated, genetically stabilised
6044:
5548:
5523:
5071:
5040:
4783:A Summer Plague: Polio and Its Survivors
4491:
4135:
3845:"Competition to develop an oral vaccine"
3733:
3108:
2855:(WHO). WHO/EPI/GEN/93.16. Archived from
2504:"Does polio still exist? Is it curable?"
1627:
1541:
1473:
1348:
1332:
1295:
1085:Research Institute of Cutaneous Medicine
1057:
1051:Research Institute of Cutaneous Medicine
899:
891:
734:
583:
538:
452:
7310:(14th ed.). Washington D.C.: U.S.
7280:Immunisation against infectious disease
7236:
6950:"Pakistan Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6830:"Maldives Required Vaccinations: Polio"
5954:
5919:"FDA Statistical Review and Evaluation"
5807:
5805:
5418:
5078:. Oxford University Press. p. 57.
4681:
4323:
4212:Immunisation Against Infectious Disease
3967:
3872:
3863:
3593:
3148:
3035:
3033:
2942:Wahid R, Cannon MJ, Chow M (May 2005).
2734:
2732:
2701:
2392:
1805:Travellers from at-risk countries need
1135:upon himself and his co-workers at the
994:Cold War tensions and the polio vaccine
828:line), which are then inactivated with
328:
321:
118:
14:
8606:
7387:History of Vaccines, a project of the
7331:Routh JA, Oberste MS, Patel M (2018).
7272:
6900:from the original on 21 September 2020
6860:"Morocco Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6770:"Lebanon Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6620:"Georgia Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6346:from the original on 28 February 2017.
6315:from the original on 11 September 2016
6220:
5985:
5979:
5899:from the original on 22 September 2019
5715:
5638:
5632:
5614:Sorem A, Sass EJ, Gottfried G (1996).
5566:from the original on 27 September 2015
5287:Ochmann S, Roser M (9 November 2017).
5184:
5004:
4881:
4879:
4877:
4875:
4873:
4871:
4869:
4867:
4814:
4711:
4635:
4631:
4629:
4524:Poliomyelitis Eradication: Field Guide
4448:
4442:
4165:10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123625
4090:
4081:
4025:Dugger CW, McNeil DG (20 March 2006).
3826:
3674:
3665:
3073:
2739:Fine PE, Carneiro IA (November 1999).
2656:from the original on 8 September 2017.
2464:
2354:
2294:
2289:Use During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
2227:
1693:
1688:
1681:wild polio has not yet been eradicated
1623:
708:countries until 1980, and used in the
558:circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus
438:and came into commercial use in 1961.
7433:
7389:College of Physicians of Philadelphia
7371:"Polio Vaccine Information Statement"
7318:from the original on 30 December 2016
7287:from the original on 12 November 2019
7249:from the original on 22 December 2015
7080:from the original on 27 February 2021
6740:"Jordan Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6530:"Belize Required Vaccinations: Polio"
5694:from the original on 28 November 2016
5584:
5536:from the original on 3 September 2014
5488:
5482:
5449:
5364:College of Physicians of Philadelphia
5241:from the original on 19 December 2008
5113:
5111:
5109:
5107:
5092:from the original on 25 November 2023
5036:
5034:
5032:
5030:
5028:
4949:
4947:
4930:. Yale University Press. p. 38.
4925:
4865:
4863:
4861:
4859:
4857:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4849:
4847:
4779:
4775:
4773:
4771:
4769:
4767:
4707:
4705:
4703:
4701:
4677:
4675:
4673:
4671:
4669:
4667:
4627:
4625:
4623:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4615:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4545:
4543:
4280:
4198:
4196:
4194:
4039:from the original on 10 December 2008
4006:from the original on 29 November 2008
3736:"Vaccine scandal revives cancer fear"
3516:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3387:from the original on 22 February 2020
3349:
2841:
2715:. Geneva: World Health Organization.
2642:. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 395.
2635:
2287:
1292:Announcement of Polio vaccine success
1272:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1164:
426:(killed) polio vaccine, developed by
394:poliovirus given by mouth (OPV). The
272:
136:
104:
7170:from the original on 24 January 2021
7140:from the original on 30 October 2020
7130:"Syria Required Vaccinations: Polio"
7050:from the original on 4 December 2020
7020:from the original on 2 December 2020
7010:"Qatar Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6990:from the original on 25 October 2020
6960:from the original on 21 October 2020
6890:"Nepal Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6870:from the original on 21 October 2020
6840:from the original on 30 October 2020
6810:from the original on 30 October 2020
6800:"Libya Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6780:from the original on 30 October 2020
6750:from the original on 30 October 2020
6720:from the original on 20 January 2021
6690:from the original on 30 October 2020
6660:from the original on 30 October 2020
6650:"India Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6630:from the original on 17 January 2021
6590:"Egypt Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6570:from the original on 1 December 2020
6540:from the original on 30 October 2020
6510:from the original on 21 October 2020
6419:from the original on 27 January 2021
5994:from the original on 3 December 2006
5967:from the original on 24 October 2015
5823:from the original on 20 January 2017
5802:
5607:
5517:
5390:"science.ca : Leone N. Farrell"
5172:from the original on 1 December 2017
4954:Broadie M, Park W (5 October 1935).
4885:
4786:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
4549:
4516:
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4069:from the original on 10 January 2006
3291:
3243:from the original on 17 October 2019
3030:
2923:from the original on 16 January 2021
2729:
2484:from the original on 3 February 2019
832:. The injected Salk vaccine confers
795:. The disease has since resurged in
245:
235:
225:
215:
7275:"Polio: the green book, chapter 26"
7218:from the original on 9 October 2015
6930:from the original on 15 August 2020
6920:"Oman Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6710:"Iraq Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6680:"Iran Required Vaccinations: Polio"
6474:Global Polio Eradication Initiative
6450:from the original on 26 August 2020
6431:
6272:from the original on 23 April 2017.
6142:
6120:(WHO). 21 June 2002. Archived from
5427:. Post-polio Health International.
4841:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
4326:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
4059:"Anti-polio vaccine Malians jailed"
3855:SA. 2 February 2007. Archived from
3493:Global Polio Eradication Initiative
3417:from the original on 24 August 2021
3317:
3270:Polio Global Eradication Initiative
3161:from the original on 6 October 2018
2617:from the original on 25 August 2017
2602:
2450:10.1093/clinids/6.Supplement_2.S424
1455:
24:
8512:Eradication of infectious diseases
8269:Androvax (androstenedione albumin)
7349:from the original on 1 August 2020
7265:
7110:from the original on 4 August 2020
6480:from the original on 29 April 2021
6438:Scherbel-Ball N (25 August 2020).
6374:from the original on 11 April 2020
6165:. 26 February 2012. Archived from
5936:from the original on 6 August 2020
5853:from the original on 25 April 2017
5764:Clinical and Translational Science
5505:from the original on 20 March 2018
5431:from the original on 9 August 2019
5299:from the original on 28 March 2018
5104:
5025:
4944:
4844:
4764:
4698:
4664:
4606:
4540:
4191:
3715:from the original on 20 April 2020
3507:
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3279:from the original on 1 August 2021
3094:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112848
2758:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009924
2550:from the original on 18 April 2017
2472:"Global Wild Poliovirus 2014–2019"
1282:protects against paralytic polio.
1195:WI in October 1935. Additionally,
1189:American Public Health Association
1120:virus vaccine tended to result in
946:a mutation located in the virus's
637:Vaccine-associated paralytic polio
25:
8660:
8102:Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
7363:
7283:. London: Public Health England.
7208:"Impotence fears hit polio drive"
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6258:. Elsevier Science. p. 161.
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5470:from the original on 21 July 2014
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5053:from the original on 19 July 2021
4986:from the original on 19 July 2021
4722:from the original on 21 July 2021
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2893:from the original on 27 July 2021
2579:from the original on 27 July 2021
2252:
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8591:
8579:
8491:Alternative vaccination schedule
7997:
7461:Artificial induction of immunity
7415:. 11 December 2019. STN: 103930.
7230:
7200:
7182:
7152:
7122:
7092:
7062:
7032:
7002:
6972:
6942:
6912:
6882:
6852:
6822:
6792:
6762:
6732:
6702:
6672:
6642:
6612:
6582:
6552:
6522:
6492:
6462:
6327:
6276:
6214:
6181:
6151:
6136:
5948:
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5777:10.1111/j.1752-8062.2010.00205.x
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5370:from the original on 15 May 2016
4972:10.1001/jama.1935.02760400005002
4502:. Oxford University Press (US).
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3970:"The Gulp Heard Round the World"
3639:The American Journal of Medicine
3596:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry
3082:American Journal of Epidemiology
2960:10.1128/JVI.79.10.5988-5995.2005
2745:American Journal of Epidemiology
2517:from the original on 29 May 2018
2204:
2182:
2160:
2136:
2114:
2092:
2066:
2044:
2022:
2000:
1978:
1948:
1926:
1904:
1882:
1859:
1837:
1815:
1793:
1770:
1748:
1726:
1703:
1157:provided an opportunity for the
811:
761:Democratic Republic of the Congo
696:mesothelioma, and some types of
613:Allergic reaction to the vaccine
386:(polio). Two types are used: an
27:Vaccine to prevent poliomyelitis
7992:
6440:"Africa declared free of polio"
6415:. United Nations. 4 July 2019.
5865:
5835:
5732:
5676:
5667:
5616:Polio's legacy: an oral history
5412:
5382:
5358:Koprowski H (15 October 2010).
5351:
5329:(41): 1467–1498. October 1947.
5311:
5280:
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4998:
4831:
4808:
4734:
4393:
4344:
4317:
4274:
4051:
4018:
3992:
3727:
3630:
3587:
3478:
3399:
3369:
3343:
3255:
3222:
3142:
2905:
2874:
2773:
2660:
2629:
1109:New York City Health Department
887:
844:, thus eliminating the risk of
656:Vaccine contamination with SV40
596:
448:
8323:Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)
6189:"India three years polio-free"
5813:"Two Vaccines: Sabin and Salk"
5688:Archives de l'Institut Pasteur
2496:
2438:Reviews of Infectious Diseases
2429:
1504:Order of Friendship of Peoples
959:tissue. In 1961, type 1 and 2
896:Sabin immunization certificate
806:
789:have been conclusively refuted
485:
13:
1:
7854:Group B streptococcal disease
7673:Vaccines for Children Program
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6476:. World Health Organization.
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3651:10.1016/S0002-9343(03)00087-1
3325:"GPEI-OPV Oral polio vaccine"
3299:"GPEI-OPV Oral polio vaccine"
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2366:Weekly Epidemiological Record
2326:Weekly Epidemiological Record
2274:
2249:) per dose in 10-dose vials.
1581:
1328:
1089:Merrell Company of Cincinnati
934:National Institutes of Health
787:. These hypotheses, however,
777:simian immunodeficiency virus
502:
7411:Food and Drug Administration
6221:Barron L (4 November 2013).
5986:Mastny L (25 January 1999).
5928:Food and Drug Administration
5891:Food and Drug Administration
5421:"Leone Norwood Farrell, PhD"
4819:. Garden City, NY: Collins.
4110:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040073
3879:Clinical Infectious Diseases
2786:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
2667:Smith DR, Leggat PA (2005).
2084:ongoing local VDPV2 outbreak
1599:, with Pakistan, Syria, and
1285:
1095:Brodie's inactivated vaccine
948:internal ribosome entry site
7:
7398:Public Broadcasting Service
7333:"Chapter 12: Poliomyelitis"
7302:"Chapter 18: Poliomyelitis"
5593:. William Morrow & Co.
5213:10.1126/science.109.2822.85
4570:(inactive 27 August 2024).
4449:Pearce JM (November 2004).
579:
10:
8665:
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4839:A History of Poliomyelitis
4498:Smallman-Raynor M (2006).
3734:Bookchin D (7 July 2004).
3565:10.3181/00379727-107-26576
3125:"OPV - Oral Polio Vaccine"
2725:. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02.
2673:The Kurume Medical Journal
1671:
1578:(Sabin-Chumakov vaccine).
1353:Mass polio vaccination in
1289:
1235:Children's Hospital Boston
1205:U.S. Public Health Service
1159:U.S. Public Health Service
991:
987:
874:) and a pediatric dose of
653:
8530:
8499:
8438:
8370:
8261:
8233:
8200:
7869:
7700:
7693:
7612:
7540:
7492:
7341:. Atlanta, Georgia: U.S.
6413:World Health Organization
6365:World Health Organization
6194:World Health Organization
6118:World Health Organization
5419:Elliott CK (March 2011).
5007:The Journal of Immunology
4746:www.historyofvaccines.org
4568:10.1017/S0025727300009790
3974:The Philadelphia Inquirer
3919:Koprowski H (July 1960).
3873:Plotkin SA (April 2001).
3681:Expert Review of Vaccines
3235:World Health Organization
2853:World Health Organization
2709:World Health Organization
2686:10.2739/kurumemedj.52.111
2542:World Health Organization
2509:World Health Organization
2362:World Health Organization
1667: From some countries
1560:World Health Organization
1421:, consisting of harmless
1388:Arsenal Elementary School
968:contains small traces of
729:National Cancer Institute
605:women and those who have
396:World Health Organization
355:
339:
312:
292:
287:
262:
257:
202:
182:
156:
126:
112:
94:
84:
79:
65:
55:
48:
39:
7849:Clostridioides difficile
7424:Medical Subject Headings
6367:. United Nations. 2020.
5990:. Worldwatch Institute.
5237:. The Nobel Foundation.
5075:Polio: An American Story
4467:10.1136/jnnp.2003.028530
4091:Jegede AS (March 2007).
3693:10.1586/14760584.4.2.197
3675:Engels EA (April 2005).
3350:Gadye L (14 June 2023).
1396:Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
1392:Watson Home for Children
1370:University of Pittsburgh
1343:University of Pittsburgh
1341:himself, in 1957 at the
1103:had joined immunologist
1032:
773:accusations in the 1990s
680:in humans, for instance
609:but are otherwise well.
441:Polio vaccine is on the
8112:Tick-borne encephalitis
6470:"Key At-Risk Countries"
6289:Oxford University Press
5019:10.4049/jimmunol.28.1.1
4550:Löwy I (1 April 2006).
3925:British Medical Journal
2845:Module 6: Poliomyelitis
2603:Fox M (20 April 2013).
2407:10.1179/136485906X97354
2232:
1661: To some countries
1537:
1516:
1469:
1249:was attempting to grow
1224:
1210:Warm Springs Foundation
924:. Other groups, led by
8522:List of vaccine topics
7517:Mathematical modelling
7273:Ramsay M, ed. (2013).
5747:(8): 742. August 1955.
5167:"John A. Kolmer, M.D."
3784:10.1001/jama.279.4.292
3198:10.15585/mmwr.mm6601a6
2639:Vaccination: A History
2444:(Suppl 2): S424–S426.
1669:
1555:
1490:
1361:
1346:
1301:
1049:collaborated with the
980:—but does not contain
909:
897:
881:Haemophilus influenzae
751:
650:Contamination concerns
589:
544:
517:cell-mediated immunity
466:
406:and in those who have
90:Ipol, Poliovax, others
8517:Vaccinate Your Family
7968:Japanese encephalitis
5819:. 27 September 2021.
5741:Public Health Reports
5453:Understanding viruses
5323:Public Health Reports
5135:10.2105/AJPH.26.2.181
4295:10.1353/pbm.1987.0023
3937:10.1136/bmj.2.5192.85
3058:10.1542/peds.99.2.300
2807:10.1073/pnas.88.3.951
2122:Saint Kitts and Nevis
1631:
1545:
1477:
1430:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1352:
1336:
1299:
1137:NYC Health Department
1058:Kolmer's live vaccine
903:
895:
738:
654:Further information:
587:
542:
473:, since no long-term
456:
418:in 1950, with a live
8634:Inactivated vaccines
8400:John Franklin Enders
6124:on 16 September 2008
6073:10.1093/her/16.1.109
5849:. 20 November 1986.
5072:Oshinsky DM (2005).
3018:on 24 September 2008
1268:Frederick C. Robbins
1133:self experimentation
1080:self experimentation
698:non-Hodgkin lymphoma
411:outbreaks of cVDPV.
8629:American inventions
7581:Virus-like particle
7505:Vaccine ingredients
7420:Poliovirus Vaccines
7214:. 25 January 2007.
6285:The Missing Martyrs
6233:on 19 December 2013
6169:on 27 February 2012
6065:2001PDiff..16..110Y
5961:The Express Tribune
5895:. 6 November 2019.
5205:1949Sci...109...85E
4837:Paul, J.R. (1971).
4682:Halpern SA (2006).
4406:Journal of Virology
4357:Journal of Virology
4205:"26: Poliomyelitis"
3448:(24): 13512–13521.
3442:Journal of Virology
2948:Journal of Virology
2798:1991PNAS...88..951K
2228:Society and culture
1624:Travel requirements
1012:the wider community
850:post-polio syndrome
783:to humans, causing
50:Vaccine description
36:
8624:1955 introductions
8557:Never to phase III
8356:Hexavalent vaccine
8170:Epstein–Barr virus
8065:Oxford–AstraZeneca
7753:NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135
5718:Jonas Salk: A Life
5716:Jacobs CD (2015).
4815:Wilson JR (1963).
4032:The New York Times
3859:on 7 October 2007.
2862:on 19 October 2019
2610:The New York Times
2265:Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
2005:
1670:
1556:
1491:
1368:and a team at the
1362:
1347:
1323:Letchworth Village
1302:
1165:Academic reception
1064:live virus vaccine
914:attenuated vaccine
910:
904:Example of OPV in
898:
752:
590:
554:variant poliovirus
545:
467:
32:
18:Oral polio vaccine
8567:
8566:
8479:Vaccines and SIDS
8366:
8365:
8140:Hepatitis A and B
8116:Varicella zoster
7573:Subunit/component
7196:on 11 April 2015.
6283:Charles Kurzman.
6265:978-0-12-417127-5
6116:(Press release).
5647:(22): 2994–2996.
5625:978-0-7618-0144-3
5600:978-0-688-09494-2
5585:Smith JS (1990).
5562:. 26 April 2004.
5530:American Heritage
5526:"Miracle Workers"
5463:978-0-7637-2932-5
5293:Our World in Data
5268:(15): 1272–1285.
5085:978-0-19-515294-4
4966:(14): 1089–1093.
4937:978-0-300-12605-1
4926:Offit PA (2007).
4712:Hovern D (2018).
4636:Rivers T (1967).
4533:978-92-75-11607-4
4509:978-0-19-924474-4
4254:(14): 1521–1526.
4221:978-0-11-322528-6
3381:Our World in Data
2954:(10): 5988–5995.
2919:. 25 March 2021.
2751:(10): 1001–1021.
2267:province and the
2225:
2224:
1568:Rotary Foundation
1450:Pasteur Institute
1434:paralytic illness
1355:Columbus, Georgia
1245:. In March 1948,
1219:Temple University
884:type b vaccines.
840:and protects the
477:state exists for
471:polio eradication
432:announced in 1955
373:
372:
276:
172:
139:
16:(Redirected from
8656:
8596:
8595:
8584:
8583:
8582:
8575:
8458:MMR autism fraud
8405:Maurice Hilleman
8390:Hilary Koprowski
7698:
7697:
7454:
7447:
7440:
7431:
7430:
7416:
7381:
7358:
7356:
7354:
7327:
7325:
7323:
7296:
7294:
7292:
7259:
7258:
7256:
7254:
7234:
7228:
7227:
7225:
7223:
7204:
7198:
7197:
7186:
7180:
7179:
7177:
7175:
7156:
7150:
7149:
7147:
7145:
7126:
7120:
7119:
7117:
7115:
7096:
7090:
7089:
7087:
7085:
7066:
7060:
7059:
7057:
7055:
7036:
7030:
7029:
7027:
7025:
7006:
7000:
6999:
6997:
6995:
6976:
6970:
6969:
6967:
6965:
6946:
6940:
6939:
6937:
6935:
6916:
6910:
6909:
6907:
6905:
6886:
6880:
6879:
6877:
6875:
6856:
6850:
6849:
6847:
6845:
6826:
6820:
6819:
6817:
6815:
6796:
6790:
6789:
6787:
6785:
6766:
6760:
6759:
6757:
6755:
6736:
6730:
6729:
6727:
6725:
6706:
6700:
6699:
6697:
6695:
6676:
6670:
6669:
6667:
6665:
6646:
6640:
6639:
6637:
6635:
6616:
6610:
6609:
6607:
6605:
6586:
6580:
6579:
6577:
6575:
6556:
6550:
6549:
6547:
6545:
6526:
6520:
6519:
6517:
6515:
6496:
6490:
6489:
6487:
6485:
6466:
6460:
6459:
6457:
6455:
6435:
6429:
6428:
6426:
6424:
6405:
6384:
6383:
6381:
6379:
6373:
6362:
6354:
6348:
6347:
6331:
6325:
6324:
6322:
6320:
6305:
6296:
6295:
6280:
6274:
6273:
6249:
6243:
6242:
6240:
6238:
6229:. Archived from
6218:
6212:
6211:
6209:
6207:
6198:. Archived from
6185:
6179:
6178:
6176:
6174:
6155:
6149:
6148:
6140:
6134:
6133:
6131:
6129:
6110:
6104:
6103:
6083:
6077:
6076:
6048:
6042:
6041:
6013:
6004:
6003:
6001:
5999:
5983:
5977:
5976:
5974:
5972:
5952:
5946:
5945:
5943:
5941:
5923:
5915:
5909:
5908:
5906:
5904:
5881:
5872:
5869:
5863:
5862:
5860:
5858:
5839:
5833:
5832:
5830:
5828:
5809:
5800:
5799:
5789:
5779:
5755:
5749:
5748:
5736:
5730:
5729:
5713:
5704:
5703:
5701:
5699:
5680:
5674:
5671:
5665:
5664:
5636:
5630:
5629:
5611:
5605:
5604:
5592:
5582:
5576:
5575:
5573:
5571:
5552:
5546:
5545:
5543:
5541:
5521:
5515:
5514:
5512:
5510:
5491:"Political Ills"
5489:Conis E (2016).
5486:
5480:
5479:
5477:
5475:
5450:Shors T (2008).
5447:
5441:
5440:
5438:
5436:
5416:
5410:
5409:
5407:
5405:
5386:
5380:
5379:
5377:
5375:
5355:
5349:
5348:
5338:
5315:
5309:
5308:
5306:
5304:
5284:
5278:
5277:
5257:
5251:
5250:
5248:
5246:
5231:
5225:
5224:
5188:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5177:
5163:
5157:
5156:
5146:
5115:
5102:
5101:
5099:
5097:
5069:
5063:
5062:
5060:
5058:
5038:
5023:
5022:
5002:
4996:
4995:
4993:
4991:
4951:
4942:
4941:
4923:
4904:
4903:
4883:
4842:
4835:
4829:
4828:
4812:
4806:
4805:
4780:Gould T (1997).
4777:
4762:
4761:
4759:
4757:
4752:on 2 August 2021
4748:. Archived from
4738:
4732:
4731:
4729:
4727:
4709:
4696:
4695:
4679:
4662:
4661:
4633:
4604:
4603:
4597:
4589:
4587:
4547:
4538:
4537:
4520:
4514:
4513:
4495:
4489:
4488:
4478:
4446:
4440:
4439:
4429:
4397:
4391:
4390:
4380:
4348:
4342:
4341:
4321:
4315:
4314:
4278:
4272:
4271:
4242:
4233:
4232:
4231:on 15 June 2007.
4230:
4224:. Archived from
4209:
4200:
4189:
4188:
4186:
4184:
4144:
4133:
4132:
4122:
4112:
4088:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4074:
4055:
4049:
4048:
4046:
4044:
4022:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4011:
3996:
3990:
3989:
3987:
3985:
3965:
3959:
3958:
3948:
3916:
3905:
3904:
3894:
3885:(7): 1068–1084.
3870:
3861:
3860:
3849:Conquering Polio
3841:
3824:
3823:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3786:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3751:
3742:. Archived from
3731:
3725:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3672:
3663:
3662:
3634:
3628:
3627:
3591:
3585:
3584:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3537:
3518:
3505:
3504:
3502:
3500:
3490:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3465:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3403:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3392:
3373:
3367:
3366:
3364:
3362:
3347:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3336:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3295:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3278:
3267:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3239:. 22 July 2019.
3226:
3220:
3219:
3209:
3177:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3166:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3121:
3106:
3105:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3060:
3037:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3023:
3017:
3010:
2999:
2982:
2981:
2971:
2939:
2933:
2932:
2930:
2928:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2898:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2861:
2850:
2839:
2830:
2829:
2819:
2809:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2760:
2736:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2688:
2664:
2658:
2657:
2636:Bazin H (2011).
2633:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2600:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2569:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2522:
2500:
2494:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2483:
2476:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2433:
2427:
2426:
2401:(5–6): 401–413.
2390:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2358:
2352:
2351:
2341:
2321:
2292:
2291:
2285:
2248:
2237:As of 2015, the
2210:
2208:
2207:
2188:
2186:
2185:
2166:
2164:
2163:
2142:
2140:
2139:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2098:
2096:
2095:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2028:
2026:
2025:
2006:
2004:
2003:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1954:
1952:
1951:
1932:
1930:
1929:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1888:
1886:
1885:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1843:
1841:
1840:
1821:
1819:
1818:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1754:
1752:
1751:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1709:
1707:
1706:
1686:
1666:
1660:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1593:Syrian Armenians
1576:Mikhail Chumakov
1456:Safety incidents
1407:McLean, Virginia
1384:Leone N. Farrell
1318:Hilary Koprowski
1264:Thomas H. Weller
1247:Thomas H. Weller
1197:Thomas M. Rivers
1184:humoral immunity
1122:humoral immunity
939:Mikhail Chumakov
926:Hilary Koprowski
824:tissue culture (
757:Hilary Koprowski
645:
570:
566:
551:
513:humoral immunity
420:attenuated virus
416:Hilary Koprowski
382:used to prevent
369:
368:
361:
332:
325:
305:
274:
271:
249:
239:
229:
219:
170:
167:
149:
138:
135:
122:
108:
71:IPV: inactivated
44:
37:
35:
31:
21:
8664:
8663:
8659:
8658:
8657:
8655:
8654:
8653:
8619:1952 in biology
8604:
8603:
8602:
8590:
8580:
8578:
8570:
8568:
8563:
8562:
8547:Clinical trials
8526:
8495:
8434:
8410:Stanley Plotkin
8372:
8362:
8274:Cancer vaccines
8257:
8251:Schistosomiasis
8229:
8223:Trypanosomiasis
8196:
8160:Cytomegalovirus
8070:Pfizer–BioNTech
7865:
7689:
7638:Vaccine wastage
7608:
7536:
7488:
7458:
7403:
7369:
7366:
7361:
7352:
7350:
7321:
7319:
7290:
7288:
7268:
7266:Further reading
7263:
7262:
7252:
7250:
7235:
7231:
7221:
7219:
7212:BBC News Online
7206:
7205:
7201:
7188:
7187:
7183:
7173:
7171:
7158:
7157:
7153:
7143:
7141:
7128:
7127:
7123:
7113:
7111:
7098:
7097:
7093:
7083:
7081:
7068:
7067:
7063:
7053:
7051:
7038:
7037:
7033:
7023:
7021:
7008:
7007:
7003:
6993:
6991:
6978:
6977:
6973:
6963:
6961:
6948:
6947:
6943:
6933:
6931:
6918:
6917:
6913:
6903:
6901:
6888:
6887:
6883:
6873:
6871:
6858:
6857:
6853:
6843:
6841:
6828:
6827:
6823:
6813:
6811:
6798:
6797:
6793:
6783:
6781:
6768:
6767:
6763:
6753:
6751:
6738:
6737:
6733:
6723:
6721:
6708:
6707:
6703:
6693:
6691:
6678:
6677:
6673:
6663:
6661:
6648:
6647:
6643:
6633:
6631:
6618:
6617:
6613:
6603:
6601:
6588:
6587:
6583:
6573:
6571:
6558:
6557:
6553:
6543:
6541:
6528:
6527:
6523:
6513:
6511:
6498:
6497:
6493:
6483:
6481:
6468:
6467:
6463:
6453:
6451:
6436:
6432:
6422:
6420:
6407:
6406:
6387:
6377:
6375:
6371:
6360:
6356:
6355:
6351:
6332:
6328:
6318:
6316:
6307:
6306:
6299:
6291:. p. 130.
6281:
6277:
6266:
6250:
6246:
6236:
6234:
6227:CISTran Finance
6219:
6215:
6205:
6203:
6202:on 1 March 2017
6187:
6186:
6182:
6172:
6170:
6157:
6156:
6152:
6141:
6137:
6127:
6125:
6112:
6111:
6107:
6084:
6080:
6053:Health Educ Res
6049:
6045:
6014:
6007:
5997:
5995:
5984:
5980:
5970:
5968:
5953:
5949:
5939:
5937:
5921:
5917:
5916:
5912:
5902:
5900:
5883:
5882:
5875:
5870:
5866:
5856:
5854:
5847:U.P.I. archives
5841:
5840:
5836:
5826:
5824:
5811:
5810:
5803:
5756:
5752:
5738:
5737:
5733:
5714:
5707:
5697:
5695:
5682:
5681:
5677:
5672:
5668:
5637:
5633:
5626:
5612:
5608:
5601:
5583:
5579:
5569:
5567:
5554:
5553:
5549:
5539:
5537:
5522:
5518:
5508:
5506:
5487:
5483:
5473:
5471:
5464:
5448:
5444:
5434:
5432:
5417:
5413:
5403:
5401:
5388:
5387:
5383:
5373:
5371:
5356:
5352:
5317:
5316:
5312:
5302:
5300:
5285:
5281:
5258:
5254:
5244:
5242:
5233:
5232:
5228:
5199:(2822): 85–87.
5189:
5185:
5175:
5173:
5165:
5164:
5160:
5119:"Poliomyelitis"
5117:
5116:
5105:
5095:
5093:
5086:
5070:
5066:
5056:
5054:
5039:
5026:
5003:
4999:
4989:
4987:
4952:
4945:
4938:
4924:
4907:
4884:
4845:
4836:
4832:
4813:
4809:
4794:
4778:
4765:
4755:
4753:
4740:
4739:
4735:
4725:
4723:
4710:
4699:
4680:
4665:
4658:
4634:
4607:
4591:
4590:
4556:Medical History
4548:
4541:
4534:
4522:
4521:
4517:
4510:
4496:
4492:
4447:
4443:
4398:
4394:
4349:
4345:
4322:
4318:
4279:
4275:
4243:
4236:
4228:
4222:
4207:
4201:
4192:
4182:
4180:
4145:
4136:
4089:
4082:
4072:
4070:
4065:. 12 May 2005.
4063:BBC News Online
4057:
4056:
4052:
4042:
4040:
4023:
4019:
4009:
4007:
3998:
3997:
3993:
3983:
3981:
3980:on 5 April 2004
3966:
3962:
3931:(5192): 85–91.
3917:
3908:
3871:
3864:
3843:
3842:
3827:
3804:
3800:
3763:
3759:
3749:
3747:
3746:on 20 July 2004
3732:
3728:
3718:
3716:
3673:
3666:
3635:
3631:
3592:
3588:
3549:
3545:
3535:
3533:
3520:
3519:
3508:
3498:
3496:
3488:
3484:
3483:
3479:
3434:
3430:
3420:
3418:
3405:
3404:
3400:
3390:
3388:
3375:
3374:
3370:
3360:
3358:
3348:
3344:
3334:
3332:
3331:. 12 April 2024
3323:
3322:
3318:
3308:
3306:
3305:. 12 April 2024
3297:
3296:
3292:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3244:
3230:"Poliomyelitis"
3228:
3227:
3223:
3178:
3174:
3164:
3162:
3149:Kunasekaran M.
3147:
3143:
3133:
3131:
3123:
3122:
3109:
3078:
3074:
3039:
3038:
3031:
3021:
3019:
3015:
3008:
3000:
2985:
2940:
2936:
2926:
2924:
2911:
2910:
2906:
2896:
2894:
2879:
2875:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2848:
2840:
2833:
2778:
2774:
2737:
2730:
2706:
2702:
2665:
2661:
2650:
2634:
2630:
2620:
2618:
2601:
2592:
2582:
2580:
2571:
2570:
2563:
2553:
2551:
2537:"Poliomyelitis"
2535:
2534:
2530:
2520:
2518:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2434:
2430:
2391:
2387:
2372:(25): 277–300.
2359:
2355:
2322:
2295:
2286:
2282:
2277:
2255:
2246:
2235:
2230:
2205:
2203:
2183:
2181:
2161:
2159:
2137:
2135:
2115:
2113:
2093:
2091:
2067:
2065:
2045:
2043:
2023:
2021:
2001:
1999:
1979:
1977:
1968:pilgrims, need
1949:
1947:
1927:
1925:
1905:
1903:
1883:
1881:
1860:
1858:
1838:
1836:
1816:
1814:
1794:
1792:
1771:
1769:
1749:
1747:
1727:
1725:
1704:
1702:
1676:
1668:
1664:
1662:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1638:
1634:
1626:
1613:Osama bin Laden
1584:
1540:
1519:
1511:Cutter incident
1472:
1458:
1374:Julius Youngner
1331:
1294:
1288:
1227:
1180:tissue immunity
1171:bacteriologists
1167:
1126:tissue immunity
1105:William H. Park
1097:
1060:
1035:
996:
990:
950:, which alters
890:
814:
809:
801:epidemiologists
666:simian virus-40
658:
652:
643:
639:
615:
599:
582:
568:
564:
549:
505:
488:
451:
364:
362:
359:(what is this?)
356:
351:
335:
308:
283:
253:
194:
185:
178:
159:
152:
74:
73:OPV: attenuated
72:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8662:
8652:
8651:
8646:
8641:
8636:
8631:
8626:
8621:
8616:
8601:
8600:
8588:
8565:
8564:
8561:
8560:
8559:
8558:
8555:
8544:
8538:
8532:
8531:
8528:
8527:
8525:
8524:
8519:
8514:
8509:
8503:
8501:
8497:
8496:
8494:
8493:
8488:
8481:
8476:
8471:
8466:
8461:
8448:
8442:
8440:
8436:
8435:
8433:
8432:
8427:
8425:Katalin Karikó
8422:
8417:
8412:
8407:
8402:
8397:
8392:
8387:
8382:
8376:
8374:
8368:
8367:
8364:
8363:
8361:
8360:
8359:
8358:
8353:
8348:
8343:
8335:
8330:
8325:
8320:
8315:
8314:
8313:
8308:
8307:
8306:
8301:
8291:
8286:
8281:
8271:
8265:
8263:
8259:
8258:
8256:
8255:
8254:
8253:
8248:
8239:
8237:
8231:
8230:
8228:
8227:
8226:
8225:
8217:
8216:
8215:
8204:
8202:
8198:
8197:
8195:
8194:
8193:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8180:Herpes simplex
8177:
8172:
8167:
8162:
8154:
8153:
8152:
8147:
8142:
8134:
8129:
8128:
8127:
8122:
8114:
8109:
8104:
8099:
8098:
8097:
8092:
8087:
8082:
8080:Sinopharm BIBP
8077:
8072:
8067:
8062:
8057:
8052:
8047:
8042:
8037:
8032:
8030:Bharat Biotech
8027:
8017:
8012:
8007:
8002:
8001:
8000:
7995:
7985:
7980:
7975:
7970:
7965:
7964:
7963:
7958:
7948:
7943:
7938:
7933:
7928:
7927:
7926:
7921:
7916:
7911:
7896:
7895:
7894:
7884:
7879:
7873:
7871:
7867:
7866:
7864:
7863:
7862:
7861:
7856:
7851:
7843:
7842:
7841:
7836:
7828:
7823:
7822:
7821:
7816:
7806:
7805:
7804:
7794:
7789:
7784:
7783:
7782:
7777:
7767:
7762:
7757:
7756:
7755:
7750:
7740:
7735:
7730:
7725:
7720:
7715:
7710:
7704:
7702:
7695:
7691:
7690:
7688:
7687:
7686:
7685:
7680:
7675:
7670:
7665:
7657:
7656:
7655:
7653:Vaccine injury
7650:
7645:
7640:
7635:
7630:
7625:
7616:
7614:
7613:Administration
7610:
7609:
7607:
7606:
7601:
7596:
7587:
7570:
7569:
7568:
7563:
7555:
7550:
7544:
7542:
7538:
7537:
7535:
7534:
7529:
7524:
7519:
7514:
7513:
7512:
7502:
7496:
7494:
7490:
7489:
7457:
7456:
7449:
7442:
7434:
7428:
7427:
7417:
7401:
7391:
7382:
7380:. August 2021.
7365:
7364:External links
7362:
7360:
7359:
7328:
7297:
7269:
7267:
7264:
7261:
7260:
7229:
7199:
7181:
7151:
7121:
7091:
7061:
7031:
7001:
6971:
6941:
6911:
6881:
6851:
6821:
6791:
6761:
6731:
6701:
6671:
6641:
6611:
6581:
6551:
6521:
6491:
6461:
6430:
6385:
6349:
6326:
6297:
6275:
6264:
6244:
6213:
6180:
6150:
6135:
6105:
6094:(2): 253–260.
6078:
6059:(1): 109–114.
6043:
6005:
5978:
5947:
5910:
5873:
5864:
5834:
5801:
5770:(4): 182–185.
5750:
5731:
5705:
5675:
5666:
5631:
5624:
5606:
5599:
5577:
5547:
5516:
5481:
5462:
5442:
5411:
5394:www.science.ca
5381:
5350:
5310:
5279:
5252:
5226:
5183:
5158:
5103:
5084:
5064:
5024:
4997:
4943:
4936:
4905:
4894:(4): 321–336.
4843:
4830:
4807:
4793:978-0300072761
4792:
4763:
4733:
4697:
4663:
4657:978-0262020268
4656:
4648:2027/heb.05734
4605:
4562:(2): 253–254.
4539:
4532:
4515:
4508:
4490:
4441:
4412:(2): 958–964.
4392:
4363:(1): 115–122.
4343:
4332:(4): 460–483.
4316:
4273:
4234:
4220:
4190:
4134:
4080:
4050:
4017:
3991:
3960:
3906:
3892:10.1086/319612
3862:
3853:Sanofi Pasteur
3825:
3798:
3777:(4): 292–295.
3757:
3726:
3687:(2): 197–206.
3664:
3645:(8): 675–684.
3629:
3602:(2): 189–193.
3586:
3543:
3532:on 22 May 2013
3526:Vaccine Safety
3506:
3477:
3428:
3398:
3368:
3342:
3316:
3290:
3254:
3221:
3172:
3141:
3107:
3088:(6): 672–692.
3072:
3029:
2983:
2934:
2904:
2873:
2831:
2792:(3): 951–955.
2772:
2728:
2700:
2679:(3): 111–116.
2659:
2649:978-2742007752
2648:
2628:
2590:
2561:
2528:
2495:
2463:
2428:
2385:
2353:
2332:(12): 145–68.
2293:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2254:
2253:Misconceptions
2251:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2214:
2200:
2199:
2192:
2178:
2177:
2170:
2156:
2155:
2146:
2132:
2131:
2124:
2110:
2109:
2102:
2088:
2087:
2076:
2062:
2061:
2054:
2040:
2039:
2032:
2018:
2017:
2010:
1996:
1995:
1988:
1974:
1973:
1958:
1944:
1943:
1936:
1922:
1921:
1914:
1900:
1899:
1892:
1878:
1877:
1869:
1855:
1854:
1847:
1833:
1832:
1825:
1811:
1810:
1803:
1789:
1788:
1780:
1766:
1765:
1758:
1744:
1743:
1736:
1722:
1721:
1713:
1699:
1698:
1695:
1691:
1690:
1663:
1657:
1651:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1625:
1622:
1583:
1580:
1539:
1536:
1518:
1515:
1471:
1468:
1457:
1454:
1439:March of Dimes
1403:Thomas Francis
1372:that included
1330:
1327:
1287:
1284:
1280:gamma globulin
1226:
1223:
1166:
1163:
1155:North Carolina
1113:March of Dimes
1101:Maurice Brodie
1096:
1093:
1059:
1056:
1047:John A. Kolmer
1043:Maurice Brodie
1034:
1031:
989:
986:
957:nervous system
889:
886:
813:
810:
808:
805:
720:, and several
651:
648:
638:
635:
614:
611:
598:
595:
581:
578:
504:
501:
487:
484:
450:
447:
376:Polio vaccines
371:
370:
353:
352:
350:
349:
345:
343:
337:
336:
334:
333:
326:
318:
316:
310:
309:
307:
306:
298:
296:
290:
289:
285:
284:
282:
281:
268:
266:
260:
259:
255:
254:
252:
251:
208:
206:
200:
199:
188:
186:administration
180:
179:
177:
176:
174:
164:
162:
154:
153:
151:
150:
132:
130:
124:
123:
116:
110:
109:
102:
92:
91:
88:
82:
81:
77:
76:
69:
63:
62:
57:
53:
52:
46:
45:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8661:
8650:
8647:
8645:
8642:
8640:
8639:Live vaccines
8637:
8635:
8632:
8630:
8627:
8625:
8622:
8620:
8617:
8615:
8612:
8611:
8609:
8599:
8594:
8589:
8587:
8577:
8576:
8573:
8556:
8554:
8551:
8550:
8548:
8545:
8542:
8539:
8537:
8534:
8533:
8529:
8523:
8520:
8518:
8515:
8513:
8510:
8508:
8505:
8504:
8502:
8498:
8492:
8489:
8487:
8486:
8482:
8480:
8477:
8475:
8472:
8470:
8467:
8465:
8462:
8459:
8457:
8452:
8449:
8447:
8444:
8443:
8441:
8437:
8431:
8430:Drew Weissman
8428:
8426:
8423:
8421:
8418:
8416:
8415:H. Fred Clark
8413:
8411:
8408:
8406:
8403:
8401:
8398:
8396:
8393:
8391:
8388:
8386:
8385:Louis Pasteur
8383:
8381:
8380:Edward Jenner
8378:
8377:
8375:
8369:
8357:
8354:
8352:
8351:DTwP-HepB-Hib
8349:
8347:
8346:DTaP-IPV-HepB
8344:
8342:
8339:
8338:
8337:combination:
8336:
8334:
8331:
8329:
8326:
8324:
8321:
8319:
8316:
8312:
8309:
8305:
8302:
8300:
8297:
8296:
8295:
8292:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8276:
8275:
8272:
8270:
8267:
8266:
8264:
8260:
8252:
8249:
8247:
8244:
8243:
8241:
8240:
8238:
8236:
8235:Helminthiasis
8232:
8224:
8221:
8220:
8218:
8214:
8211:
8210:
8209:
8206:
8205:
8203:
8199:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8183:
8181:
8178:
8176:
8173:
8171:
8168:
8166:
8163:
8161:
8158:
8157:
8155:
8151:
8148:
8146:
8143:
8141:
8138:
8137:
8136:combination:
8135:
8133:
8130:
8126:
8123:
8121:
8118:
8117:
8115:
8113:
8110:
8108:
8105:
8103:
8100:
8096:
8093:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8081:
8078:
8076:
8073:
8071:
8068:
8066:
8063:
8061:
8058:
8056:
8053:
8051:
8048:
8046:
8043:
8041:
8038:
8036:
8033:
8031:
8028:
8026:
8023:
8022:
8021:
8018:
8016:
8013:
8011:
8008:
8006:
8003:
7999:
7996:
7994:
7991:
7990:
7989:
7986:
7984:
7981:
7979:
7976:
7974:
7971:
7969:
7966:
7962:
7959:
7957:
7954:
7953:
7952:
7949:
7947:
7944:
7942:
7939:
7937:
7934:
7932:
7929:
7925:
7922:
7920:
7917:
7915:
7912:
7909:
7905:
7902:
7901:
7900:
7897:
7893:
7890:
7889:
7888:
7885:
7883:
7880:
7878:
7875:
7874:
7872:
7868:
7860:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7850:
7847:
7846:
7844:
7840:
7837:
7835:
7834:DPT/DTwP/DTaP
7832:
7831:
7830:combination:
7829:
7827:
7824:
7820:
7817:
7815:
7812:
7811:
7810:
7807:
7803:
7800:
7799:
7798:
7795:
7793:
7790:
7788:
7785:
7781:
7778:
7776:
7773:
7772:
7771:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7761:
7758:
7754:
7751:
7749:
7746:
7745:
7744:
7743:Meningococcus
7741:
7739:
7736:
7734:
7733:Leptospirosis
7731:
7729:
7726:
7724:
7721:
7719:
7716:
7714:
7711:
7709:
7706:
7705:
7703:
7699:
7696:
7692:
7684:
7681:
7679:
7676:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7668:Vaccine court
7666:
7664:
7661:
7660:
7658:
7654:
7651:
7649:
7646:
7644:
7641:
7639:
7636:
7634:
7631:
7629:
7626:
7624:
7623:GAVI Alliance
7621:
7620:
7618:
7617:
7615:
7611:
7605:
7602:
7600:
7597:
7595:
7591:
7588:
7586:
7582:
7578:
7574:
7571:
7567:
7564:
7562:
7559:
7558:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7545:
7543:
7539:
7533:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7511:
7508:
7507:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7497:
7495:
7491:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7474:
7470:
7466:
7462:
7455:
7450:
7448:
7443:
7441:
7436:
7435:
7432:
7425:
7421:
7418:
7414:
7412:
7406:
7402:
7399:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7386:
7383:
7379:
7377:
7372:
7368:
7367:
7348:
7344:
7340:
7339:
7334:
7329:
7317:
7313:
7309:
7308:
7303:
7298:
7286:
7282:
7281:
7276:
7271:
7270:
7248:
7244:
7240:
7233:
7217:
7213:
7209:
7203:
7195:
7191:
7185:
7169:
7165:
7161:
7155:
7139:
7135:
7131:
7125:
7109:
7105:
7101:
7095:
7079:
7075:
7071:
7065:
7049:
7045:
7041:
7035:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7005:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6975:
6959:
6955:
6951:
6945:
6929:
6925:
6921:
6915:
6899:
6895:
6891:
6885:
6869:
6865:
6861:
6855:
6839:
6835:
6831:
6825:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6795:
6779:
6775:
6771:
6765:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6735:
6719:
6715:
6711:
6705:
6689:
6685:
6681:
6675:
6659:
6655:
6651:
6645:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6615:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6585:
6569:
6565:
6561:
6555:
6539:
6535:
6531:
6525:
6509:
6505:
6501:
6495:
6479:
6475:
6471:
6465:
6449:
6445:
6441:
6434:
6418:
6414:
6410:
6404:
6402:
6400:
6398:
6396:
6394:
6392:
6390:
6370:
6366:
6359:
6353:
6345:
6341:
6340:Bloomberg.com
6337:
6330:
6314:
6310:
6304:
6302:
6294:
6290:
6286:
6279:
6271:
6267:
6261:
6257:
6256:
6248:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6217:
6201:
6197:
6195:
6190:
6184:
6168:
6164:
6163:The Telegraph
6160:
6154:
6146:
6145:Deccan Herald
6139:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6109:
6101:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6082:
6074:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6047:
6039:
6035:
6031:
6027:
6023:
6019:
6012:
6010:
5993:
5989:
5982:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5951:
5935:
5931:
5929:
5920:
5914:
5898:
5894:
5892:
5886:
5880:
5878:
5868:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5838:
5822:
5818:
5814:
5808:
5806:
5797:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5773:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5754:
5746:
5742:
5735:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5712:
5710:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5679:
5670:
5662:
5658:
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5650:
5646:
5642:
5635:
5627:
5621:
5617:
5610:
5602:
5596:
5591:
5590:
5581:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5551:
5535:
5531:
5527:
5520:
5504:
5500:
5496:
5495:Distillations
5492:
5485:
5469:
5465:
5459:
5455:
5454:
5446:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5415:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5385:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5354:
5346:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5314:
5298:
5294:
5290:
5283:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5256:
5240:
5236:
5230:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5187:
5171:
5168:
5162:
5154:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5114:
5112:
5110:
5108:
5091:
5087:
5081:
5077:
5076:
5068:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5037:
5035:
5033:
5031:
5029:
5020:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5001:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4950:
4948:
4939:
4933:
4929:
4922:
4920:
4918:
4916:
4914:
4912:
4910:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4882:
4880:
4878:
4876:
4874:
4872:
4870:
4868:
4866:
4864:
4862:
4860:
4858:
4856:
4854:
4852:
4850:
4848:
4840:
4834:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4811:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4789:
4785:
4784:
4776:
4774:
4772:
4770:
4768:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4737:
4721:
4717:
4716:
4708:
4706:
4704:
4702:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4678:
4676:
4674:
4672:
4670:
4668:
4659:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4642:. MIT Press.
4641:
4640:
4632:
4630:
4628:
4626:
4624:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4616:
4614:
4612:
4610:
4601:
4595:
4586:
4581:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4552:"Book Review"
4546:
4544:
4535:
4529:
4525:
4519:
4511:
4505:
4501:
4494:
4486:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4445:
4437:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4396:
4388:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4347:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4320:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4277:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4241:
4239:
4227:
4223:
4217:
4213:
4206:
4199:
4197:
4195:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4143:
4141:
4139:
4130:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4097:PLOS Medicine
4094:
4087:
4085:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4054:
4038:
4034:
4033:
4028:
4021:
4005:
4001:
3995:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3964:
3956:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3915:
3913:
3911:
3902:
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3893:
3888:
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3880:
3876:
3869:
3867:
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3840:
3838:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3830:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3802:
3794:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3761:
3745:
3741:
3740:New Scientist
3737:
3730:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3671:
3669:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3633:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3590:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3547:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3517:
3515:
3513:
3511:
3494:
3487:
3481:
3473:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3416:
3412:
3411:www.webmd.com
3408:
3402:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3372:
3357:
3353:
3346:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3304:
3300:
3294:
3275:
3271:
3264:
3258:
3242:
3238:
3236:
3231:
3225:
3217:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3176:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3145:
3130:
3126:
3120:
3118:
3116:
3114:
3112:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3076:
3068:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3036:
3034:
3014:
3007:
3006:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2979:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2938:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2908:
2892:
2888:
2887:www.canada.ca
2884:
2877:
2858:
2854:
2847:
2846:
2842:Robertson S.
2838:
2836:
2827:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2776:
2768:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2735:
2733:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2704:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2655:
2651:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2632:
2616:
2612:
2611:
2606:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2578:
2574:
2568:
2566:
2549:
2545:
2543:
2538:
2532:
2516:
2512:
2510:
2505:
2499:
2480:
2473:
2467:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2432:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2380:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2357:
2349:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2290:
2284:
2280:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2261:
2250:
2244:
2240:
2219:
2215:
2213:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2191:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2169:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2145:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2123:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2101:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2075:
2064:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2053:
2042:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2031:
2020:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2009:
1998:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1987:
1976:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1957:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1935:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1913:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1891:
1880:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1868:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1846:
1835:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1824:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1802:
1791:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1779:
1768:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1757:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1735:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1712:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1675:
1630:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1611:to help find
1610:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1588:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1535:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1514:
1512:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1481:(right) with
1480:
1476:
1467:
1464:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1446:Pierre Lépine
1442:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1424:
1423:culture media
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1359:
1356:
1351:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1326:
1324:
1319:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1298:
1293:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1222:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1176:peer academic
1172:
1162:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
1000:immune system
995:
985:
983:
982:preservatives
979:
975:
971:
965:
962:
958:
953:
949:
944:
940:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
918:physiological
915:
907:
902:
894:
885:
883:
882:
877:
873:
869:
866:
862:
858:
853:
851:
847:
843:
842:motor neurons
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
804:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
750:
746:
742:
737:
733:
730:
727:In 1998, the
725:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
701:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
662:rhesus monkey
660:In 1960, the
657:
647:
634:
632:
628:
624:
620:
610:
608:
604:
594:
586:
577:
573:
561:
559:
555:
541:
537:
534:
530:
526:
520:
518:
514:
510:
500:
497:
493:
483:
480:
476:
472:
464:
460:
459:public health
455:
446:
444:
439:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
412:
409:
405:
399:
397:
393:
389:
385:
384:poliomyelitis
381:
377:
367:
360:
354:
347:
346:
344:
342:
338:
331:
327:
324:
320:
319:
317:
315:
311:
304:
300:
299:
297:
295:
291:
286:
280:
270:
269:
267:
265:
261:
256:
248:
243:
238:
233:
228:
223:
218:
213:
210:
209:
207:
205:
201:
198:
193:
189:
187:
181:
175:
166:
165:
163:
161:
155:
148:
143:
134:
133:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
115:
111:
107:
103:
101:
97:
93:
89:
87:
83:
80:Clinical data
78:
70:
68:
64:
61:
60:Poliomyelitis
58:
54:
51:
47:
43:
38:
34:Polio vaccine
30:
19:
8507:Epidemiology
8483:
8455:
8341:DTaP-IPV/Hib
8132:Yellow fever
8045:EpiVacCorona
7987:
7797:Tuberculosis
7770:Pneumococcal
7738:Lyme disease
7566:Heterologous
7465:Immunization
7408:
7374:
7351:. Retrieved
7337:
7320:. Retrieved
7306:
7289:. Retrieved
7279:
7251:. Retrieved
7242:
7232:
7220:. Retrieved
7211:
7202:
7194:the original
7184:
7172:. Retrieved
7163:
7154:
7142:. Retrieved
7133:
7124:
7112:. Retrieved
7103:
7094:
7082:. Retrieved
7073:
7064:
7052:. Retrieved
7043:
7034:
7022:. Retrieved
7013:
7004:
6992:. Retrieved
6983:
6974:
6962:. Retrieved
6953:
6944:
6932:. Retrieved
6923:
6914:
6902:. Retrieved
6893:
6884:
6872:. Retrieved
6863:
6854:
6842:. Retrieved
6833:
6824:
6812:. Retrieved
6803:
6794:
6782:. Retrieved
6773:
6764:
6752:. Retrieved
6743:
6734:
6722:. Retrieved
6713:
6704:
6692:. Retrieved
6683:
6674:
6662:. Retrieved
6653:
6644:
6632:. Retrieved
6623:
6614:
6602:. Retrieved
6593:
6584:
6572:. Retrieved
6563:
6554:
6542:. Retrieved
6533:
6524:
6512:. Retrieved
6503:
6494:
6482:. Retrieved
6473:
6464:
6452:. Retrieved
6443:
6433:
6421:. Retrieved
6412:
6376:. Retrieved
6364:
6352:
6339:
6329:
6319:11 September
6317:. Retrieved
6292:
6284:
6278:
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6247:
6235:. Retrieved
6231:the original
6226:
6216:
6204:. Retrieved
6200:the original
6192:
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6171:. Retrieved
6167:the original
6162:
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6138:
6126:. Retrieved
6122:the original
6108:
6091:
6087:
6081:
6056:
6052:
6046:
6025:
6021:
5996:. Retrieved
5981:
5969:. Retrieved
5960:
5950:
5938:. Retrieved
5925:
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4594:cite journal
4559:
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4211:
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4030:
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3978:the original
3973:
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3739:
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3492:
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3233:
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3189:
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3013:the original
3004:
2951:
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2937:
2925:. Retrieved
2916:
2907:
2895:. Retrieved
2886:
2876:
2864:. Retrieved
2857:the original
2844:
2789:
2785:
2775:
2748:
2744:
2722:10665/371090
2712:
2703:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2638:
2631:
2619:. Retrieved
2608:
2581:. Retrieved
2573:"GPEI-nOPV2"
2552:. Retrieved
2540:
2531:
2519:. Retrieved
2507:
2498:
2486:. Retrieved
2466:
2441:
2437:
2431:
2398:
2394:
2388:
2379:10665/357168
2369:
2365:
2356:
2339:10665/254399
2329:
2325:
2283:
2258:
2256:
2245:0.75 (about
2236:
2144:Saudi Arabia
1677:
1605:
1589:
1585:
1572:Albert Sabin
1557:
1521:An enhanced-
1520:
1508:
1500:Soviet Union
1495:Albert Sabin
1492:
1486:
1483:Robert Gallo
1479:Albert Sabin
1459:
1443:
1427:
1400:
1377:
1363:
1357:
1315:immunologist
1303:
1258:
1250:
1243:cell culture
1228:
1215:
1168:
1130:
1117:formaldehyde
1098:
1077:
1063:
1061:
1040:
1036:
1019:inoculations
1016:
1008:immunization
997:
978:streptomycin
966:
922:Albert Sabin
911:
879:
854:
846:bulbar polio
815:
753:
749:West Germany
726:
702:
659:
640:
623:streptomycin
616:
600:
597:Side effects
591:
574:
562:
557:
553:
546:
521:
506:
489:
468:
449:Medical uses
440:
436:Albert Sabin
413:
400:
375:
374:
363:
357:
303:1008119-78-5
264:Legal status
258:Legal status
128:License data
67:Vaccine type
29:
8543:from market
8439:Controversy
8373:researchers
8289:Hepatitis B
8175:Hepatitis C
8120:Chicken pox
7946:Hepatitis E
7941:Hepatitis B
7936:Hepatitis A
7882:Chikungunya
7859:Shigellosis
7713:Brucellosis
7599:Therapeutic
7553:Inactivated
7493:Development
7481:Inoculation
7473:Vaccination
7353:23 December
7322:23 December
7291:23 December
7253:15 December
7222:15 December
6237:18 December
6206:19 February
6173:26 February
5998:29 November
5698:28 November
5570:14 November
5540:1 September
5474:22 February
5245:29 November
5176:28 November
5047:Macleans.ca
5013:(1): 1–18.
4159:: 587–635.
4073:29 November
4043:29 November
4010:29 November
3984:29 November
3814:: 227–233.
3750:29 November
3559:: 191–197.
3022:29 November
2917:www.cdc.gov
2621:8 September
2218:Carte Jaune
2196:Carte Jaune
2174:Carte Jaune
2151:Carte Jaune
2128:Carte Jaune
2106:Carte Jaune
2080:Carte Jaune
2074:Philippines
2058:Carte Jaune
2036:Carte Jaune
2014:Carte Jaune
1992:Carte Jaune
1970:Carte Jaune
1940:Carte Jaune
1918:Carte Jaune
1896:Carte Jaune
1873:Carte Jaune
1851:Carte Jaune
1829:Carte Jaune
1807:Carte Jaune
1785:Carte Jaune
1762:Carte Jaune
1740:Carte Jaune
1717:Carte Jaune
1711:Afghanistan
1597:Middle East
1532:pentavalent
1528:adolescence
1255:mouse brain
1231:John Enders
1142:Kern County
1068:attenuating
1025:in several
970:antibiotics
876:hepatitis B
812:Inactivated
807:Manufacture
781:chimpanzees
741:sugar cubes
706:Soviet bloc
686:bone tumors
627:polymyxin B
619:antibiotics
536:initiative.
496:polio virus
486:Inactivated
424:inactivated
388:inactivated
288:Identifiers
114:MedlinePlus
86:Trade names
8608:Categories
8474:Thiomersal
8420:Paul Offit
8395:Jonas Salk
8371:Inventors/
8242:research:
8219:research:
8156:research:
8085:Skycovione
8075:Sanofi–GSK
8020:SARS-CoV-2
7931:Hantavirus
7892:rVSV-ZEBOV
7877:Adenovirus
7845:research:
7723:Diphtheria
7561:Attenuated
7174:2 December
7144:2 December
7114:2 December
7084:2 December
7054:2 December
7024:2 December
6994:2 December
6964:2 December
6934:2 December
6904:2 December
6874:2 December
6844:2 December
6814:2 December
6784:2 December
6754:2 December
6724:2 December
6694:2 December
6664:2 December
6634:2 December
6604:2 December
6574:2 December
6544:2 December
6514:2 December
6484:2 December
6423:2 December
6378:2 December
5971:24 October
5885:"Pediarix"
5766:(Review).
5425:polioplace
5374:15 October
4103:(3): e73.
3247:18 October
3045:Pediatrics
2866:18 October
2488:3 February
2275:References
2168:Seychelles
1672:See also:
1582:After 1990
1566:, and the
1415:California
1366:Jonas Salk
1329:Jonas Salk
1311:virologist
1290:See also:
1146:California
1073:ricinolate
992:See also:
961:monovalent
943:nucleotide
912:OPV is an
888:Attenuated
870:vaccines (
861:diphtheria
694:peritoneal
503:Attenuated
479:poliovirus
428:Jonas Salk
341:ChemSpider
294:CAS Number
192:parenteral
8553:Phase III
8541:Withdrawn
8469:Pox party
8279:ALVAC-CEA
8201:Protozoan
8090:Sputnik V
8040:CoronaVac
8010:Rotavirus
7908:Pandemrix
7760:Pertussis
7701:Bacterial
7585:Synthetic
7548:Conjugate
7500:Adjuvants
7477:Infection
7164:iamat.org
7134:iamat.org
7104:iamat.org
7074:iamat.org
7044:iamat.org
7014:iamat.org
6984:iamat.org
6954:iamat.org
6924:iamat.org
6894:iamat.org
6864:iamat.org
6834:iamat.org
6804:iamat.org
6774:iamat.org
6744:iamat.org
6714:iamat.org
6684:iamat.org
6654:iamat.org
6624:iamat.org
6594:iamat.org
6564:iamat.org
6534:iamat.org
6504:iamat.org
6454:25 August
6128:23 August
5726:919967059
5560:News Desk
5435:10 August
4825:630735949
4692:877210630
4576:0025-7273
3499:10 August
3421:24 August
3361:10 August
3165:6 October
1552:Mogadishu
1307:H. R. Cox
1286:1950–1955
1276:serotypes
1259:varicella
1251:varicella
1193:Milwaukee
1004:immunogen
1002:with an '
952:stem-loop
868:pertussis
865:acellular
826:Vero cell
793:sterility
525:intestine
492:serotypes
404:pregnancy
184:Routes of
158:Pregnancy
106:Monograph
100:Drugs.com
8644:Vaccines
8586:Medicine
8311:Prostvac
8304:Gardasil
8299:Cervarix
8246:Hookworm
8125:Shingles
8107:Smallpox
8025:Corbevax
7961:Gardasil
7956:Cervarix
7694:Vaccines
7648:Schedule
7619:Global:
7527:Timeline
7469:Vaccines
7347:Archived
7316:Archived
7285:Archived
7247:Archived
7243:dawn.com
7216:Archived
7168:Archived
7138:Archived
7108:Archived
7078:Archived
7048:Archived
7018:Archived
6988:Archived
6958:Archived
6928:Archived
6898:Archived
6868:Archived
6838:Archived
6808:Archived
6778:Archived
6748:Archived
6718:Archived
6688:Archived
6658:Archived
6628:Archived
6598:Archived
6568:Archived
6538:Archived
6508:Archived
6478:Archived
6448:Archived
6444:BBC News
6417:Archived
6369:Archived
6344:Archived
6313:Archived
6270:Archived
6100:12206379
6038:Archived
5992:Archived
5965:Archived
5934:Archived
5897:Archived
5857:25 April
5851:Archived
5827:24 April
5821:Archived
5796:20718820
5692:Archived
5564:Archived
5534:Archived
5509:27 March
5503:Archived
5468:Archived
5429:Archived
5404:1 August
5398:Archived
5368:Archived
5345:19316151
5303:26 March
5297:Archived
5274:13034471
5239:Archived
5221:17794160
5170:Archived
5153:18014373
5096:23 March
5090:Archived
5051:Archived
4984:Archived
4802:38243151
4720:Archived
4485:15489385
4387:12477816
4311:45655185
4268:14440553
4177:Archived
4173:16153180
4129:17388657
4067:Archived
4037:Archived
4004:Archived
3955:14410975
3901:11264036
3713:Archived
3701:15889993
3659:12798456
3616:10618636
3581:31275908
3573:13725644
3472:15564462
3415:Archived
3385:Archived
3335:12 April
3309:12 April
3283:1 August
3274:Archived
3241:Archived
3216:28081056
3159:Archived
3134:9 August
2978:15857985
2927:1 August
2921:Archived
2897:1 August
2891:Archived
2767:10568615
2711:(2023).
2695:16422178
2654:Archived
2615:Archived
2583:1 August
2577:Archived
2554:25 April
2548:Archived
2515:Archived
2479:Archived
2423:25327986
2415:16899145
2348:27039410
2247:US$ 0.89
2052:Pakistan
1956:Maldives
1697:Details
1694:Country
1601:Cameroon
1432:, whose
1390:and the
1087:and the
1029:states.
974:neomycin
930:H.R. Cox
830:formalin
818:virulent
785:HIV/AIDS
631:neomycin
607:HIV/AIDS
603:pregnant
580:Schedule
533:immunity
509:immunity
408:HIV/AIDS
392:weakened
380:vaccines
366:(verify)
314:DrugBank
204:ATC code
173: B2
160:category
142:DailyMed
8598:Viruses
8572:Portals
8500:Related
8446:General
8208:Malaria
8095:Valneva
8060:Novavax
8055:Moderna
8050:Janssen
8035:CanSino
8015:Rubella
7973:Measles
7839:Td/Tdap
7809:Typhoid
7792:Tetanus
7787:Q fever
7718:Cholera
7708:Anthrax
7577:Peptide
7541:Classes
7522:Storage
7394:PBS.org
7345:(CDC).
7314:(CDC).
6061:Bibcode
6034:7522302
5787:2928990
5661:6371280
5336:1995293
5201:Bibcode
5193:Science
5144:1562619
5057:18 July
4990:19 July
4980:1640997
4900:2692236
4756:18 July
4726:19 July
4585:1472109
4476:1738787
4436:9882296
4338:6760938
4303:3696960
4183:30 June
4120:1831725
3946:2096806
3820:9776244
3793:9450713
3719:30 June
3709:5861910
3391:4 March
3207:5687270
3067:9024465
2969:1091702
2826:1846972
2794:Bibcode
2458:6740085
2212:Ukraine
1986:Morocco
1912:Lebanon
1801:Georgia
1617:Taliban
1562:(WHO),
1554:, 1993)
1523:potency
1448:at the
1419:placebo
1233:at the
1151:Raleigh
1107:at the
1027:Midwest
988:History
857:tetanus
838:viremia
797:Nigeria
769:Burundi
722:African
690:pleural
674:rodents
572:2020.
529:endemic
475:carrier
463:Wellbee
461:, the "
330:DB10797
323:DB10796
244: (
242:J07BF04
234: (
232:J07BF03
224: (
222:J07BF02
220:)
214: (
212:J07BF01
144::
120:a601177
8536:WHO-EM
8456:Lancet
8333:TA-NIC
8318:NicVAX
8165:Dengue
8005:Rabies
7826:Typhus
7765:Plague
7643:Policy
7604:Toxoid
7532:Trials
7426:(MeSH)
6262:
6098:
6032:
5940:8 July
5903:8 July
5794:
5784:
5724:
5659:
5622:
5597:
5460:
5343:
5333:
5272:
5219:
5151:
5141:
5082:
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4690:
4654:
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4530:
4506:
4483:
4473:
4434:
4427:103915
4424:
4385:
4378:140626
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4336:
4309:
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3624:795975
3622:
3614:
3579:
3571:
3536:22 May
3470:
3463:533948
3460:
3214:
3204:
3102:400274
3100:
3065:
2976:
2966:
2824:
2814:
2765:
2693:
2646:
2521:21 May
2456:
2421:
2413:
2346:
2209:
2187:
2165:
2141:
2119:
2097:
2071:
2049:
2027:
1983:
1953:
1931:
1909:
1890:Jordan
1887:
1864:
1842:
1820:
1798:
1775:
1756:Brunei
1753:
1734:Belize
1731:
1708:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1564:UNICEF
1548:Somali
1463:Cutter
906:dragee
863:, and
822:kidney
767:, and
765:Rwanda
678:cancer
644:
629:, and
569:
565:
550:
430:, was
279:℞-only
277:
140:
56:Target
8614:Polio
8464:NCVIA
8328:TA-CD
8262:Other
8213:RTS,S
7993:Sabin
7988:Polio
7983:Mumps
7887:Ebola
7870:Viral
7819:ViCPS
7814:Ty21a
7748:MeNZB
7678:VAERS
7628:NITAG
7557:Live
7413:(FDA)
7409:U.S.
7400:(PBS)
7378:(CDC)
6372:(PDF)
6361:(PDF)
6196:(WHO)
5930:(FDA)
5926:U.S.
5922:(PDF)
5893:(FDA)
5889:U.S.
4976:S2CID
4307:S2CID
4229:(PDF)
4208:(PDF)
3705:S2CID
3620:S2CID
3577:S2CID
3489:(PDF)
3277:(PDF)
3266:(PDF)
3237:(WHO)
3016:(PDF)
3009:(PDF)
2860:(PDF)
2849:(PDF)
2817:50932
2544:(WHO)
2511:(WHO)
2482:(PDF)
2475:(PDF)
2419:S2CID
2260:haram
2190:Syria
2100:Qatar
2008:Nepal
1966:Umrah
1934:Libya
1823:India
1778:Egypt
1487:circa
1411:Maine
1358:circa
1239:mumps
1033:1930s
1023:Amish
908:candy
779:from
718:Japan
714:China
682:brain
670:virus
195:OPV:
190:IPV:
8190:Zika
8150:MMRV
7998:Salk
7978:Mpox
7924:LAIV
7919:H5N8
7914:H5N1
7904:H1N1
7780:PPSV
7663:ACIP
7659:US:
7633:SAGE
7594:mRNA
7510:list
7355:2019
7324:2019
7293:2019
7255:2015
7224:2015
7176:2020
7146:2020
7116:2020
7086:2020
7056:2020
7026:2020
6996:2020
6966:2020
6936:2020
6906:2020
6876:2020
6846:2020
6816:2020
6786:2020
6756:2020
6726:2020
6696:2020
6666:2020
6636:2020
6606:2020
6576:2020
6546:2020
6516:2020
6486:2020
6456:2020
6425:2020
6380:2020
6321:2016
6260:ISBN
6239:2013
6208:2017
6175:2012
6130:2008
6096:PMID
6030:PMID
6000:2008
5973:2015
5942:2020
5905:2020
5859:2017
5829:2017
5792:PMID
5722:OCLC
5700:2016
5657:PMID
5641:JAMA
5620:ISBN
5595:ISBN
5572:2014
5542:2014
5511:2018
5476:2011
5458:ISBN
5437:2019
5406:2021
5376:2010
5341:PMID
5305:2018
5270:PMID
5247:2008
5217:PMID
5178:2017
5149:PMID
5098:2022
5080:ISBN
5059:2021
4992:2021
4932:ISBN
4896:PMID
4821:OCLC
4798:OCLC
4788:ISBN
4758:2021
4728:2021
4688:OCLC
4652:ISBN
4600:link
4572:ISSN
4528:ISBN
4504:ISBN
4481:PMID
4432:PMID
4383:PMID
4334:PMID
4299:PMID
4264:PMID
4248:JAMA
4216:ISBN
4185:2019
4169:PMID
4125:PMID
4075:2008
4045:2008
4012:2008
3986:2008
3951:PMID
3897:PMID
3816:PMID
3789:PMID
3771:JAMA
3752:2008
3721:2019
3697:PMID
3655:PMID
3612:PMID
3569:PMID
3538:2013
3501:2024
3468:PMID
3423:2021
3393:2020
3363:2024
3337:2024
3311:2024
3285:2021
3249:2019
3212:PMID
3167:2018
3136:2024
3098:PMID
3063:PMID
3024:2008
2974:PMID
2929:2021
2899:2021
2868:2019
2822:PMID
2763:PMID
2691:PMID
2644:ISBN
2623:2017
2585:2021
2556:2017
2523:2018
2490:2019
2454:PMID
2411:PMID
2344:PMID
2269:FATA
2233:Cost
2030:Oman
1964:and
1962:Hajj
1867:Iraq
1845:Iran
1574:and
1538:1988
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