Crusader states - Knowledge

2162:. To prepare for a military campaign against the Seljuks of Rum, Saladin concluded a two-year truce with Baldwin and, after launching a short but devastating campaign along the coast of Tripoli, with Raymond. For the first time in the history of Frankish–Muslim relations, the Franks could not set conditions for the peace. Between 1180 and 1183, Saladin asserted his suzerainty over the Artuqids, concluded a peace treaty with the Rum Seljuks, seized Aleppo from the Zengids and re-established the Egyptian navy. Meanwhile, after the truce expired in 1182, Saladin demonstrated the strategic advantage he had by holding both Cairo and Damascus. While he faced Baldwin in Oultrejordain, his troops from Syria pillaged Galilee. The Franks adopted a defensive tactic and strengthened their fortresses. In February 1183, a Jerusalemite assembly levied an extraordinary tax for defence funding. Raynald was the sole Frankish ruler to pursue an offensive policy. He attacked an Egyptian caravan and built a fleet for a naval raid into the 3385:

settlements were planned villages, established to encourage settlers from the West; some were shared with native Christians. The native Jewish population was concentrated in the four holy cities of Jerusalem, Hebron, Safed and Tiberias. From the late 12th century refugees from territories lost to the Muslims increased the Christian population of the coastal cities, but emigration to Cyprus or Frankish Greece can also be detected. The expansion of the urban population is most obvious at Acre where a new suburb developed following the Third Crusade. Emigration from Outremer intensified from the 1240s as prospects of the crusader states' survival darkened. In this period, a massive influx of Frankish and native Christian refugees to Cyprus is well documented. Franks who did not flee could survive the Mamluk conquest as slaves or renegades: a Franciscan friar met with Frankish prisoners of war and converts to Islam at Acre more than a decade after the fall of the city.

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likely be attributed to their enemies' flexibility. The Muslims had learnt how to solve their own shortcomings and take advantage of the Franks' weaknesses. Muslim rulers intensified jihād propaganda to curb ethnic tensions, while disputes between Frankish and western commanders prevented their effective cooperation. The Muslim commanders adopted new tactics against the heavily armoured knights, like the sudden division of their ranks during a cavalry charge. In contrast, the Franks could not compete with their enemies' swiftness. In a siege situation, they insisted on the deployment of siege towers, although a tower's construction lasted for four to six weeks, and during this period, relief forces could reach the besieged town or fortress. By contrast, the Muslims preferred quick mining operations like digging under ramparts or burning walls.

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part—generally one-third—of its revenues to the Jerusalemite headquarters. As the regular transfer of goods and money required the development of complex logistical and financial systems, the three orders operated as early forms of supranational trading houses and credit institutions. Their networks facilitated international money transfers, because funds deposited in a branch could be paid out in another, and loans granted in one country could be repaid in another. The Hospitallers never abandoned charitable work. In Jerusalem, their hospital served hundreds of patients of all religions and genders. Pilgrims, pregnant women, abandoned children, and impoverished people could also enlist their aid. However, waging war against infidels remained the military orders' prime obligation. As an early example of a

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providing the original and impressive artistic achievement of the crusades. Castles were a symbol of the dominance of the Frankish minority over a hostile majority population that acted as administrative centres. Modern historiography rejects the 19th-century consensus that Westerner Europeans learnt the basis of military architecture from the Near East. Europe had already experienced growth in defensive technology. Contact with Arab fortifications originally constructed by the Byzantines influenced developments in the east, but there is little evidence for differentiation between design cultures and the constraints of situation. Castles included oriental design features like large water reservoirs and they excluded occidental features like moats. Church design was in the

3175:, Saladin raised armies around 20,000 strong. Egyptian money and Syrian manpower represented the two critical factors underpinning Saladin's military might during the period. In response, the Franks quickly increased their military force up to around 18,000 troops by 1183, but not without implementing austerity measures. In the 13th century, the control of Acre's lucrative commerce provided the resources to maintain sizeable armies. At La Forbie, 16,000 Frankish warriors perished in the battlefield, but this was the last occasion when a united Jerusalemite army fought a pitched battle. During the 1291 siege of Acre, about 15,000 Frankish troops defended the city against more than 60,000 Mamluk warriors. 2521:. He participated in a military campaign against Cilicia, but it did not damage Leo's power. Leo and Raymond-Roupen had exhausted Antioch with destructive raids and occupied the city in 1216. Raymond-Roupen was installed as prince and Leo restored Bagras to the Templars. Raymond-Roupen could not pay for the aristocrats' loyalty in his impoverished principality and Bohemond regained Antioch with local support in 1219. The personal union between Antioch and Tripoli proved lasting, but in fact both crusader states disintegrated into small city-states. Raymond-Roupen fled to Cilicia, seeking Leo's support, and when Leo died in May, attempted to gain the throne against Leo's infant daughter 2575: 401: 3558: 3191:, during a joint Antiochene–Edessene campaign against Mawdud in 1111. Complaints about Frankish rulers' difficulties in paying off their troops abound, showing the importance of mercenary troops in Levantine warfare. Mercenaries were hired regularly for military campaigns, for garrisoning forts and particularly in Antioch, for serving in the prince's armed retinue. The crusader states could have hardly survived without constant support from the west. Armed pilgrims arriving at moments of crisis could save the day, like those who landed just after Baldwin I's defeat at Ramla in 1102. Westerners were unwilling to accept the Frankish leaders' authority. 2341: 3545:—courts of the burgesses, which is the name given to non-noble Franks, dealt with more serious offences and cases involving Franks. The level of assimilation is difficult to identify, as there is little material evidence. The archaeology is culturally exclusive and written evidence indicates deep religious divisions. Some historians assume the states' heterogeneity eroded formal apartheid. The key differentiator in status and economic position was between urban and rural dwellers. Indigenous Christians could gain higher status and acquire wealth through commerce and industry in towns, but few Muslims lived in urban areas except those in servitude. 1688:, to wage jihad against the Franks. Between 1110 and 1113, Mawdud mounted four campaigns in Mesopotamia and Syria, but rivalry among his heterogeneous armies' commanders forced him to abandon the offensive on each occasion. As Edessa was Mosul's chief rival, Mawdud directed two campaigns against the city. They caused havoc, and the county's eastern region could never recover. The Syrian Muslim rulers saw the Sultan's intervention as a threat to their autonomy and collaborated with the Franks. After an assassin, likely a Nizari, murdered Mawdud, Muhammad Tapar dispatched two armies to Syria, but both campaigns failed. 2956:. These have survived in 13th-century Armenian translations. Relationships among Antioch's various Frankish, Syrian, Greek, Jewish, Armenian, and Muslim inhabitants were generally good. The brief existence of the uniquely-landlocked Edessa means it is the least studied, but its history is traceable to Armenian and Syriac chronicles in addition to Latin sources. Like Jerusalem the political institutions appear to have reflected the northern French roots of the founders, although the membership of city councils included indigenous Christians. The population was diverse, including Armenian Orthodox, Greeks known as 674:, emerged. Many built castles, and their feuds brought much suffering to the unarmed population. The development of the knightly class coincided with the subjection of the formerly free peasantry into serfdom, but the connection between the two processes is unclear. As feudal lordships could be established by the acquiring land, western aristocrats willingly launched offensive military campaigns, even against faraway territories. Catholic Europe's expansion in the Mediterranean began in the second half of the 11th century. Norman warlords conquered southern Italy from the Byzantines and ousted the 3691:

panel painting, mosaics and illuminations in manuscripts adopted an indigenous style, leading to a cultural synthesis shown in the Church of the Nativity. Wall mosaics were unknown in the west but widespread in the crusader states. It is unknown whether the mosaic work was done by indigenous craftsmen or learnt by Frankish ones, but it shows the evolution of a distinctive and original artistic style. Workshops housed Italian, French, English, and indigenous craftsmen producing illustrated manuscripts showing a cross-fertilisation of ideas and techniques. One example is the

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West, where rulers developed bureaucratic machinery for administration, jurisdiction, and legislation through which they exercised control. In 1242 the Barons prevailed and appointed a succession of Ibelin and Cypriot regents. Centralised government collapsed in the face of independence exercised by the nobility, military orders, and Italian communes. The three Cypriot Lusignan kings who succeeded lacked the resources to recover the lost territory. One claimant sold the title of king to Charles of Anjou. He gained power for a short while but never visited the kingdom.

811: 3243:, the Frankish name for the Al-Aqsa Mosque where they established their first headquarters. The Templars' commitment to the defence of fellow Christians proved an attractive idea, stimulating the establishment of new military orders, in Outremer always by the militarisation of charitable organisations. The Hospitallers represents the earliest example. Originally a nursing confraternity at a Jerusalemite hospital founded by merchants from Amalfi, they assumed military functions in the 1130s. Three further military orders followed in the Levant: the 47: 2993: 1884:, who was Zengi's principal Muslim rival in Upper Mesopotamia. While Joscelin was staying west of the Euphrates at Turbessel, Zengi invaded the Frankish lands east of the river in late 1144. Before the end of the year, he captured the region, including the city of Edessa. Losing Edessa strategically threatened Antioch and limited opportunities for a Jerusalemite expansion in the south. In September 1146, Zengi was assassinated, possibly on orders from Damascus. His empire was divided between his two sons, with the younger 2734: 2405:, head of the Knights Hospitaller, wrote in a letter, 'We know for certain that since the loss of the land the inheritance of Christ cannot easily be regained. The land held by the Christians during the truces remains virtually uninhabited.' The Franks' strategic position was not necessarily detrimental: they kept the coastal towns and their frontiers shortened. Their enclaves represented a minor threat to the Ayyubids' empire in comparison with the Artuqids, Zengids, Seljuks of Rum, Cilician Armenians or 8898: 1444:(who was deserting) told him defeat was imminent. In June 1098, Bohemond persuaded a renegade Armenian tower commander to let the crusaders into the city. They slaughtered the Muslim inhabitants and, by mistake, some local Christians. The crusade leaders decided to return Antioch to Alexios as they had sworn to at Constantinople, but when they learnt of Alexios' withdrawal, Bohemond claimed the city for himself. The other leaders agreed, apart from Raymond, who supported the Byzantine alliance. 1512: 1421: 3758:). Muslims were marginalised from townlife, but Muslim villagers under crusader dominion seem to have fared equally well as or perhaps better than their counterparts in Muslim lands and Bedouins had a privileged status. Some mosques were converted into Latin Christian churches, especially larger ones, but most remained in Muslim possession and sometimes Muslims could pray in portions of erstwhile mosques in certain places; one such personally experienced episode is described by 1873: 2417: 2320:'s fleet saved Tripoli. Saladin released Guy on the condition that he go overseas and never bear arms against him. Historian Thomas Asbridge proposes that Saladin likely anticipated that a power struggle between Guy and Conrad was inevitable and it could weaken the Franks. Indeed, Guy failed to depart for Europe. In October, Bohemond asked Saladin for a seven-month truce, offering to surrender the city of Antioch if help did not arrive. Saladin's biographer 2230: 3776:

the region though new imagery and ideas in Western European poetry can be traced to some who visited as pilgrims. Although they did not migrate east themselves, their output often encouraged others to journey there on pilgrimage. Historians believe the crusader military architecture demonstrates a synthesis of the European, Byzantine, and Muslim traditions and that it is the most impressive artistic achievement of the crusades.

3187:. Unmarried female fief holders had to hire mercenaries; their wards represented underage vassals. Disabled men and men over sixty were required to cede their horses and arms to their lords. Vassals who owed the service of more than one soldier had to mobilise their own vassals or employ mercenaries. A feudal lord's army could be sizeable. For example, 60 cavalrymen and 100 footmen accompanied Richard of Salerno, then 2134:, and Sibylla, but the succession crisis in France prevented him from sailing. Tension between Baldwin's maternal and paternal relatives grew. When Raymond and Bohemond, both related to him on his father's side, came to Jerusalem unexpectedly before Easter in 1180, Baldwin panicked, fearing they had arrived to depose him and elevate Sibylla to the throne under their control. To thwart their coup, he sanctioned her marriage to 2401:. Saladin did not risk a defeat in a pitched battle, and Richard feared the exhausting march across arid lands towards Jerusalem. As he fell ill and needed to return home to attend to his affairs, a three-year truce was agreed in September 1192. The Franks kept land between Tyre and Jaffa, but dismantled Ascalon; Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem were allowed. Frankish confidence in the truce was not high. In April 1193, 8782: 3263:, they had a pivotal role in the crusader states' defence. The knight-brothers and their armed servants were professional soldiers under monastic vows. They wore a habit, always with a cross on it, and showing its wearer's rank. As lay rulers and aristocrats seldom had the funds to cover all costs of border defence, they eagerly ceded their border forts to the military orders. The earliest examples include 3549:

centre of cultural interchange through Greek- and Arabic-speaking Christians. The indigenous peoples showed the Frankish nobility traditional deference and in return Franks adopted their dress, food, housing, and military techniques. However, Frankish society was not a cultural melting pot. Inter-communal relations were shallow, identities separate, and the other communities considered alien.

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defensive situations. They adopted delaying tactics only when they obviously had no chance to defeat a large invading force, like during Saladin's invasion of Antioch in 1187 and Mamluk attacks against Outremer in the 1260s. While on the offensive, the Franks typically risked pitched battles if they could gain substantial territory and a local faction supported their campaign.

3095:—which Almalric I intended to strengthen the crown—to constrain the monarch instead, particularly regarding the monarch's right to confiscate feudal fiefs without trial. The loss of the vast majority of rural fiefs led the baronage to evolve into an urban mercantile class where knowledge of the law was a valuable, well-regarded skill and a career path to higher status. 1405:, where the Armenian populace welcomed him. Thoros, then ruler of this territory, could barely control or defend Edessa, so he tried to hire the Franks as mercenaries. Later, he went further and adopted Baldwin as his son in a power-share arrangement. In March 1098, a month after Baldwin's arrival, a Christian mob killed Thoros and acclaimed Baldwin as 3612:, compelled the use of landowners' mills, ovens and other facilities. The presence of hand-mills in most households is evidence of the serfs' circumvention of some monopolies. The centres of production were Antioch, Tripoli, Tyre, and Beirut. Textiles, with silk particularly prized, glass, dyestuffs, olives, wine, sesame oil, and sugar were exported. 2872:. With the support of the Templars, he blocked Hugh's access to Acre, forcing him to retreat to Cyprus, again leaving the kingdom without a resident monarch. The Mongols of the Ilkhanate sent embassies to Europe proposing anti-Mamluk alliances, but the major western rulers were reluctant to launch a new crusade for the Holy Land. The 1499:

accompanied by a treaty with the neighbouring Muslim rulers who were customarily forced to pay a tribute for the peace. The crusader states had a special position in Western Christianity's consciousness: many Catholic aristocrats were ready to fight for the Holy Land, although in the decades following the destruction of the large

3624:. Following the collapse of the first kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187, trade replaced agriculture in the economy, and the circulation of Western European coins predominated. Although Tyre, Sidon and Beirut minted silver pennies and copper coins, there is little evidence of systematic attempts to create a unified currency. 2960:, Syrian Orthodox known as Jacobites, and Muslims. In Tripoli, the fourth Frankish state, Raymond of Saint-Gilles and his successors ruled directly over several towns, granting the rest as fiefs to lords originating in Languedoc and Provence, and Gibelet was given to the Genoese in return for naval support. In the 12th 2021:, who ended the Shi'ite caliphate when Al-Adid died in September 1171, succeeded Shirkuh. In March 1171, Amalric undertook a visit to Manuel in Constantinople to get Byzantine military support for yet another attack on Egypt. To this end, he swore fealty to the Emperor before his return to Jerusalem, but conflicts 3648:. These ports were unable to replace Alexandria and Constantinople as the major commercial centres of commerce but competed with monarchs and each other to maintain economic advantage. The number of communes never reached more than the hundreds. Their power derived from the support of home cities. By the mid-13th 3065:

offering of the throne to Conrad of Montferrat in 1190 and then Henry II, Count of Champagne, in 1192 although this was given legal effect by Baldwin IV's will stipulating if Baldwin V died a minor, the pope, the kings of England and France, and the Holy Roman Emperor would decide the succession.

2920:. However, research into the kingdom does not provide a comprehensive common template for the development of the other Latin settlements. Jerusalem's royal administration was based in the city until it was lost, and then in Acre. It featured the typical household officers of most European rulers: a cleric-led 3749:. The Franks had discriminatory laws against Jews and Muslims that prevented assimilation; overall their legal status was a Latin Christian adaptation of the dhimmi system. They were prevented from inhabiting Jerusalem, there were sumptuary laws that prevented them from wearing Frankish clothing, and the 3890:, and Christopher MacEvitt to argue the history of the crusader states is distinct from the crusades, allowing the application of other analytical techniques that place the crusader states in the context of Near Eastern politics. These ideas are still in the process of articulation by modern historians. 2199:, co-ruler, and had him crowned king while attempting to annul the marriage of Guy and Sibylla. Guy and Sibylla fled to Ascalon, and his supporters vainly intervened on their behalf at a general council. An embassy to Europe was met with offers of money but not of military support. Already dying, Baldwin 3699:

were previously unknown to the Franks. This continued, occasionally in a Frankish style, and of Western European saints leading to Italian panel painting. It is difficult to track illustration and castle design to their sources. It is simpler for textual sources where translations made in Antioch are

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Visual culture shows the assimilated nature of the society. The decoration of shrines, painting, and the production of manuscripts demonstrated the influence of indigenous artists. Frankish practitioners borrowed methods from Byzantine and indigenous artists in iconographical practice. Monumental and

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Frankish royalty reflected the region's diversity. Queen Melisende was part Armenian and married Fulk from Anjou. Their son Amalric married a Frank from the Levant before marrying a Byzantine Greek. The nobility's use of Jewish, Syrian, and Muslim physicians appalled William of Tyre. Antioch became a

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administered the Frankish estates, governed the native communities, and were often respected local landowners. If communities were segregated, as indicated by the written evidence and identified by Riley-Smith and Prawer, inter-communal conflict was avoided and interaction between the landed and the

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Without solid documentary basis modern calculations about the size of the crusader states' population are only guesswork. Medieval chronicles contain demographic data, but they mostly present exaggerated numbers, without differentiating Franks and native Christians. Calculations about the population

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and signal fires was an important element of Muslim warfare. As Muslim commanders were informed of the Franks' movements in time, they could intercept Frankish invaders unexpectedly. In comparison with contemporaneous Europe, battles were not uncommon in Outremer. The Franks fought battles mainly in

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in 1291. Those who could fled to Cyprus, while those who could not were slaughtered or sold into slavery. Without hope of support from the West, Tyre, Beirut, and Sidon all surrendered without a fight. The Mamluk policy was to destroy all physical evidence of the Franks; the destruction of the ports

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July 1187. Hattin was a massive defeat for the Franks. Nearly all the major Frankish leaders were taken prisoner, but only Raynald and the armed monks of the military orders were executed. Raymond was among the few Frankish leaders who escaped captivity. He fell seriously ill after reaching Tripoli.

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and Raymond swore fealty to the royal couple. Baldwin went into exile, and Raymond forged an alliance with Saladin. Raynald seized another caravan, which violated the truce and prompted Saladin to assemble his forces for the jihād. Raymond allowed Muslim troops to pass through Galilee to raid around

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Upholding the balance of power in Syria was apparently Raymond's main concern during his regency. When Saladin besieged Aleppo in 1174, Raymond led a relief army to the city; next year, when a united Zengid army invaded Saladin's realm, he signed a truce with Saladin. Gümüshtekin released Raynald of

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attacked Shaizar. Baldwin offered the city to Thierry, who refused Raynald's demands he become his vassal, and the siege was abandoned. After Nur ad-Din seized Shaizar in 1157, the Nizari remained the last independent Muslim power in Syria. As prospects for a new crusade from the West were poor, the

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rather than attempt to recover distant Edessa. The attack on Damascus ended in a humiliating defeat and retreat. Scapegoating followed the unexpected failure, with many westerners blaming the Franks. Fewer crusaders came from Europe to fight for the Holy Land in the next decades. Raymond of Poitiers

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The Fatimids' feud with the Seljuks hindered Muslim actions for more than a decade. Outnumbered by their enemies, the Franks remained in a vulnerable position, but they could forge temporary alliances with their Armenian, Arab, and Turkic neighbours. Each crusader state had its own strategic purpose

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The Franks' habitual following of the customs of their Western European homeland meant that they made few lasting innovations. Three notable exceptions were the military orders, warfare innovations, and fortification developments. No major European poet, theologian, scholar, or historian settled in

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From May 1229, when Frederick II left the Holy Land to defend his Italian and German lands, monarchs were absent. Conrad was titular king from 1225 until 1254, and his son Conradin until 1268 when Charles of Anjou executed him. The monarchy of Jerusalem had limited power in comparison with the

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ruled the Holy Land. The crusaders knew that their hold on the territory would not be secure as long as the castles in Oultrejourdain remained in Muslim hands. Prophecies about their inevitable victory spread in their camp, and Al-Adil's offer was rejected. After twenty-one months of stalemate, the

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recognised that peace treaties and armistices between Christians and Muslims were valid. The Frankish knights regarded the Turkic mounted warlords as their peers with familiar moral values, and this familiarity facilitated their negotiations with the Muslim leaders. The conquest of a city was often

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century Ottoman census records shows some Greek Orthodox communities disappeared before the crusades, but most continued during and for centuries after. Maronites were concentrated in Tripoli; Jacobites in Antioch and Edessa. Armenians were concentrated in the north, but communities existed in all

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in response to the unstable conditions at western Christendom's borderlands. The first of them, the Knights Templar, developed from a knightly brotherhood attached to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Around 1119, the knights took the monastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience and committed

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Guy now gathered a large force, committing all of his kingdom's available resources. The leadership divided on tactics. Raynald urged an offensive, while Raymond proposed defensive caution, although Saladin was besieging his castle at Tiberias. Guy decided to deal with the siege. The march towards

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The Seljuk invasions, the subsequent eclipse of the Byzantines and Fatimids, and the disintegration of the Seljuk Empire revived the old Levantine system of city-states. The region had always been highly urbanised, and the local societies were organised into networks of interdependent settlements,

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century the Italian communes. The leaders of the Third Crusade ignored the monarchy. The kings of England and France agreed on the division of future conquests, as if there was no need to consider the local nobility. Prawer felt the weakness of the crown of Jerusalem was demonstrated by the rapid

3038:. These meetings were between king and tenants in chief. The duty of the vassal to give counsel developed into a privilege and then the monarch's legitimacy depended on the court's agreement. The High Court was the great barons' and the king's direct vassals. It had a quorum of the king and three 1493:

The foundation of these three crusader states did not change the political situation in the Levant profoundly. Frankish rulers replaced local warlords in the cities, but large-scale colonisation did not follow, and the new conquerors did not change the traditional organisation of settlements and

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for the liberation of the Eastern Christians and the recovery of the Holy Land aroused unprecedented enthusiasm in Catholic Europe. Within a year, tens of thousands of people, both commoners and aristocrats, departed for the military campaign. Individual crusaders' motivations to join the crusade

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notes that it does not contradict the earlier view. Hans Eberhard Mayer had already advised that the number of Franks living in rural settlements should not be underestimated. These theories support the idea that the crusader states formed part of the wider expansion of Western Europe: driven by

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Olives, grapes, wheat, and barley were the important agricultural products before Saladin's conquests. Glass making and soap production were major industries in towns. Italians, Provençals, and Catalans monopolised shipping, imports, exports, transportation, and banking. Taxes on trade, markets,

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Immigration from Catholic Europe was continuous till the end of the crusader states. Although most colonists settled in the coastal cities, the Franks' presence is documented in more than 200 villages (about 15% of all rural settlements) in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Some Frankish rural

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and applied tactics to enhance the impact of a cavalry charge. Examples include surprise attacks at dawn and chasing herds of cattle towards an enemy camp. During a Frankish cavalry charge, the Muslim troops attempted to avoid a direct clash until the knights were separated from the infantry and

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As frequent beneficiaries of pious donations across Europe and the Levant, the Hospitallers, Templars, and to a lesser extent the Teutonic Knights accumulated considerable wealth. They administered their scattered estates through an extensive network of branch houses, each required to transfer a

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and Sicily prevented the Byzantines from campaigning in the Levant. In theory, Saladin was Nur ad-Din's lieutenant, but mutual distrust hindered their cooperation against the crusader states. As Saladin remitted suspiciously small revenue payments to him, Nur ad-Din began gathering troops for an

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system of the administration of state revenues. This system secured the payment of military commanders through granting them the right to collect the land tax in a well-defined territory, but it exposed the taxpayers to an absent lord's greed and to his officials' arbitrary actions. Although the

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affected the Middle East and western Europe differently. In the east, it caused droughts, while in the west, it improved conditions for agriculture. Higher agricultural yields led to population growth and the expansion of commerce, and to the development of prosperous new military and mercantile

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between Europe and the crusader states. The Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice flourished through profitable trading communes. Many historians argue that the interaction between western Christian and Islamic cultures was a significant and ultimately positive influence on the development of

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of Italians, Provençals, and Catalans had distinct cultures and exerted autonomous political power separate from the Franks. They remained intricately linked to their towns of origin, giving them monopolies over foreign trade, banking, and shipping. Opportunities to extend trade privileges were

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The Franks provided an import market for clothing and finished goods. They adopted the more monetised indigenous economic system using a hybrid coinage of northern Italian and southern French silver European coins; Frankish copper coins minted in Arabic and Byzantine styles; and silver and gold

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However, Franks needed to maintain productivity, so the villagers were tied to the land. Charters show landholders agreeing to return any villeins from other landholders they found on their property. Peasants were required to pay the lord one quarter to a half of crop yields. The Muslim pilgrim

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held in the near East; indigenous men were considered to have servile land tenures rather than lacking personal freedom. Villeins' status differed from Western serfs as they could marry outside their lords' domain, were not obliged to perform unpaid labour, could hold land and inherit property.

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and Ali ibn al-Athir concluded that the Franks' military skills had weakened. In fact, the Franks could still launch long-distance campaigns against Egypt and resist enemy attacks without adequate provisions for days. Consequently, as historian Nicholas Morton proposes, their defeats could more

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Companies of highly trained mounted knights made up the central element of Frankish armies. Their military expertise and outstanding unit cohesion distinguished them from the Byzantine and Muslim heavy cavalry. Frankish foot soldiers were disciplined to cooperate closely with the knights and to

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All estimates of the size of Frankish and Muslim armies are uncertain; existing accounts indicate that it is probable that the Franks of Outremer raised the largest armies in the Catholic world. As early as 1111, the four crusader states fielded 16,000 troops to launch a joint military campaign

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IV came to Antioch, and the commune recognised him as their father's heir. In September 1197, Henry of Champagne died after falling out a palace window in the kingdom's new capital Acre. The widowed Isabella married Aimery of Lusignan who had succeeded Guy in Cyprus. Saladin's ambitious brother

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VII of France. In 1176, Baldwin reached the age of 15 and majority, ending Raymond's regency. He revisited plans for an invasion of Egypt and renewed his father's pact with the Byzantines. Manuel dispatched a fleet of 70 galleys plus support ships to Outremer. As William had died, and Baldwin's

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in the early 1140s. There was no forced conversion of Muslims as this would end peasants' servile status, moreover crusaders generally showed no interest in converting Jews, Muslims or Miaphysites to Latin Christianity. Followers of different religions also could engage in shared forms of folk

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was a tactic used by both Muslim and Frankish troops, although Christian chroniclers considered it shameful. In a siege situation, the Franks avoided direct assaults. Instead, they imposed a blockade on the besieged town and starved the defenders into submission. By contrast, Muslim commanders

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century. The kings rarely awarded land or lordships, and those they did frequently became vacant and reverted to the crown because of the high mortality rate. Their followers' loyalty was rewarded with city incomes. Through this, the domain of the first five rulers was larger than the combined

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status, and the local Christian population cooperated with the conquerors. Jerusalem remained neutral when the Mamluks of Egypt moved to confront the Mongols after Hulagu, and much of his force moved east on the death of Möngke to address the Mongol succession. The Mamluks defeated the greatly

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in August 1189. Crusader groups from many parts of Europe joined them. Their tactic surprised Saladin and prevented him from resuming the invasion of Antioch. Three major crusader armies departed for the Holy Land in 1189–1190. Frederick Barbarossa's crusade ended abruptly in June 1190 when he

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in 1153. The Damascenes feared further Frankish expansion, and Nur ad-Din seized the city with ease a year later. He continued to remit the tribute that Damascus' former rulers had offered to the Jerusalemite kings. Baldwin extracted tribute from the Egyptians as well. Raynald lacked financial

611:, and their dukes did not always obey the emperors. Northern Italy was even less united, divided into numerous de facto independent states, and the authority of the emperor was barely felt. Carolingian's western successor state, France, was not united either; the French kings only controlled a 3414:. Muslim Druze lived in the mountains of Tripoli. Jews lived in coastal towns and some Galilean towns and in the holy cities Jerusalem, Safed, Hebron and Tiberias. . Little research has been done on Islamic conversion, but the available evidence led Ellenblum to believe that around Nablus and 3178:

The crusader states' military power depended mainly on four major categories of soldiery: vassals, mercenaries, visitors from the west, and troops provided by the military orders. Vassals were expected to perform their military duties in person as fully armed knights, or more lightly armoured

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Prawer argued no major Western European cultural figure settled in the states, but that others were encouraged East by the expression of imagery in Western European poetry. Historians believe that military architecture demonstrates a synthesis of the European, Byzantine and Muslim traditions

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century this system provided a total of 300 knights, a much smaller army than Antioch or Jerusalem. Architectural and artistic activity in Lebanese churches provide evidence that the indigenous populations prospered under Frankish rule, in part due to its remoteness from the worst impacts of

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in Central Asia in 1227. Part of the Khwarazmian army fled to eastern Anatolia and these masterless Turkic soldiers offered their services to the neighbouring rulers for pay. Western Christians regarded the Mongols as potential allies against the Muslims because some Mongol tribes adhered to

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centuries, but it is likely that the Crusades hastened this. Western European populations and economies were booming, creating a growing social class that wanted artisanal products and eastern imports. European fleets expanded with better ships, navigation improved, and fare-paying pilgrims

2356:

of the Templars, gathered about 600 knights in Antioch. They approached Tyre, but Conrad of Montferrat refused them entry, convinced Guy had forfeited his claim to rule when Saladin conquered his kingdom. Guy and his comrades knew western crusaders would arrive soon and risked a token move

3084:

lamented, 'We know rather poorly, for they are known by hearsay and usage...and we think an assize is something we have seen as an assize...in the kingdom of Jerusalem made much better use of the laws and acted on them more surely before the land was lost.' An idyllic view of the early

2005:, both eager to seek external support. This gave Amalric and Nur ad-Din the opportunity to intervene. Amalric launched five invasions of Egypt between 1163 and 1169, on the last occasion cooperating with a Byzantine fleet, but he could not establish a bridgehead. Nur ad-Din appointed his 3848:

century. R. C. Smail argued it identified an integrated society which did not exist to justify French colonialism. The new consensus was the society was segregated with limited social and cultural interchange. Focusing on evidence of social, legal, and political frameworks in Jerusalem,

1459:

reluctantly joined the eventually unsuccessful siege of Arqa. Alexios asked the crusade to delay the march to Jerusalem, so the Byzantines could assist. Raymond's support for this strategy increased division among the crusade leaders and damaged his reputation among ordinary crusaders.

3372:

1 million—with the European areas that provided crusaders having a population of 23.7 million. He estimates that by 1200 these figures had risen to 13.7 million in Islamic territory—Anatolia 7 million, Syria 2.7 million, Egypt 2.5 million and North Africa

3353:

of a town are based on reports of a siege when refugees from nearby villages had multiplied it. Estimations of the number of Franks in Outremer range between 120,000 and 300,000. If these numbers are credible, Franks made up at least 15% of the crusader states' total population.

3741:. Thus, Meletos also acted as the recognised bishop of Gaza without the ecclesiastic complications that could have occurred had a bishop been assigned to a town ruled by a religious order. Toleration continued, but there was an interventionist papist response from Jacques de Vitry, 2444:, and Leo seized it, ignoring claims of the Templars and Bohemond. In 1194, Bohemond accepted Leo's invitation to discuss Bagras' return, but Leo imprisoned him, demanding Antioch for his release. The Greek population and the Italian community rejected the Armenians, and formed a 3585:, Syria and the urban economies of the Nile. Commerce continued with the coastal cities providing maritime outlets for the Islamic hinterland, and unprecedented volumes of eastern wares were exported to Europe. Byzantine-Muslim mercantile growth may well have occurred in the 12th 3484:

century charters indicate this increased after the loss of the first kingdom to redress the Franks' lost income. Historian Christopher MacEvitt cites these as reasons that the term "indentured peasant" is a more accurate description for the villagers in the Latin East than serf.

3334:

As the Franks were unable to absorb casualties as effectively as their enemies, a defeat in a major battle could put the very existence of a crusader state at risk. Examples include the shrinking of Antiochene territory after the defeat of an Antiochene–Edessene coalition at the

2570:

to cement an alliance between Cilicia and Antioch. A feud between the two nations broke out again after neglected Armenian aristocrats murdered Philip in late 1224. An alliance between the Armenians and his former Ayyubid allies in Aleppo foiled Bohemond's attempts at revenge.

2452:. Bohemond was released when he abandoned his claims on Cilicia, forfeiting Bagras and marrying Raymond to Alice. Any male heir of this marriage was expected to be the heir to both Antioch and Armenia. When Raymond died in 1197, Bohemond sent Alice and Raymond's posthumous son 3123:; Riley-Smith writes of their pedantry and the use of spurious legal justification for political action. The barons valued this ability to articulate the law. This is evidenced by the elaborate and impressive treatises of the baronial jurists from the second half of the 13th 2378:. Guy and Conrad had reconciled, but their conflict returned when Sybilla of Jerusalem and her two daughters by Guy died. Conrad married the reluctant Isabella, Sybilla's half-sister and heir, despite her marriage to Humphrey of Toron, and gossip about his two living wives. 1929:, his wife, sold the remains of the County of Edessa to the Byzantines with Baldwin's consent. Already 21 and eager to rule alone, Baldwin forced Melisende's retirement in 1152. In Antioch, Constance resisted pressure to remarry until 1153 when she chose the French nobleman 1447:

This dispute resulted in the march stalling in north Syria. The crusaders were becoming aware of the chaotic state of Muslim politics through frequent diplomatic relations with the Muslim powers. Raymond indulged in a small expedition. He bypassed Shaizar and laid siege to

1413:, the Byzantine title Thoros had used. Baldwin's position was personal rather than institutional, and the Armenian governance of the city remained in place. Baldwin's nascent County of Edessa consisted of pockets separated from his other holdings of Turbessel, Rawandan and 460:

believes this reflected that only Latins held complete political and legal rights in the kingdom, and that the major division in the society was not between the nobility and the common people but between the Franks and the indigenous peoples. Despite sometimes receiving

396:

reflect that the settlers could be differentiated from the indigenous population by language and faith. The Franks were mainly French-speaking Roman Catholics, while the natives were mostly Arabic- or Greek-speaking Muslims, Christians of other denominations, and Jews.

1845:. Raymond finally arrived in Antioch three years later and married Constance. He reconquered parts of Cilicia from the Armenians. In 1137, Pons was killed battling the Damascenes, and Zengi invaded Tripoli. Fulk intervened, but Zengi's troops captured Pons' successor 3732:

to administer indigenous populations without clergy and in Latin, and Orthodox Christians often shared churches. In Antioch, Greeks occasionally replaced Latin patriarchs. In the town of Gaza, which was under control of the Templars but had previously been a

2603:. His attempts to confiscate baronial fiefs brought him into conflict with the Frankish aristocrats. As Al-Mua'zzam had died, Frederick made the most of his diplomatic skills to achieve the partial implementation of Al-Adil's previous promise. They signed a 1750:

II's time. His absence, its impact on government, and his placement of relatives and their vassals in positions of power created opposition in Jerusalem. Baldwin's sixteen-month captivity led to a failed deposition attempt by some of the nobility, with the

3808:. Relations between Europeans and the Islamic world stretched across the length of the Mediterranean Sea, making it difficult for historians to identify what proportion of cultural cross-fertilisation originated in the crusader states, Sicily and Spain. 1584:

to the king, but reserved the right to reclaim it as a fief if he returned from Antioch within fifteen months. For the next two years, Tancred ruled Antioch. He conquered Byzantine Cilicia and parts of Syria. The Fatimid Caliphate attacked Jerusalem in

1869:, and Shaizar for him. The following year the Byzantines and Franks jointly besieged Aleppo and Shaizar but could not take the towns. Zengi soon seized Homs from the Damascenes, but a Damascene–Jerusalemite coalition prevented his southward expansion. 2645:

led separate military campaigns to the Holy Land. They followed Frederick's tactics of forceful diplomacy and played rival factions off against each other in the succession disputes that followed Al-Kamil's death. Richard's treaty with Al-Kamil's son,

2725:

in May 1250. Louis spent four more years in Outremer. As the kingdom's effective ruler, he conducted negotiations with both the Syrian Ayyubids and the Egyptian Mamluks and refortified the coastal towns. He sent an embassy from Acre to the Great Khan

1722:

II. Public opinion attributed a series of disasters affecting the Outremer—defeats by enemy forces and plagues of locusts—as punishments for the Franks' sins. To improve moral standards, the Jerusalemite ecclesiastic and secular leaders assembled a

2815:. The Franks did not have the military capability to resist this new threat. A Mongol garrison was stationed at Antioch, and individual Frankish barons concluded separate truces with Baibars. Determined to conquer the crusader states, he captured 3008:, Prince of Galilee, established baronial dynasties and often acted as autonomous rulers. Royal powers were done away with, and governance was undertaken within the feudatories. The remaining central control was exercised at the High Court or 2948:. Royal territory was directly administered by Viscounts. All tangible evidence of the written law was lost in 1187 when the Franks lost the city of Jerusalem to the Muslims. The courts of the princes of Antioch were similar and created the 1888:

succeeding him in Aleppo. A power vacuum in Edessa allowed Joscelin to return to the city, but he was unable to take the citadel. When Nur ad-Din arrived, the Franks were trapped, Joscelin fled and the subsequent sack left the city deserted.

1792:

contingent provided by Fulk. The campaign was abandoned when the Franks' foraging parties were destroyed, and bad weather made the roads impassable. In 1130 Bohemond II was killed raiding in Cilicia, leaving Alice with their infant daughter,

3878:

religious reform and growing papal power. However, historians argue there was no vigorous church reform in the East or resulting persecution of Jews and heretics. Some consider regulations from the 1120 Council of Nablus as exceptional and

2315:

Bad weather and growing discontent among his troops forced Saladin to abandon the siege of Tyre and allow his men to return to Iraq, Syria, and Egypt early in 1188. In May, Saladin turned his attention to Tripoli and Antioch. The arrival of

2473:

IV, although several nobles felt compelled to support Raymond-Roupen and joined him in Cilicia. Leo of Cilicia launched a series of military campaigns to assert Raymond-Roupen's claim to Antioch. Bohemond made alliances with Saladin's son,

2590:

II and assumed the title of king of Jerusalem. Two years later, Al-Adil promised to abandon all lands conquered by Saladin in return for Frankish support against Al-Mu'azzam. An epidemic prevented Frederick's departure for a crusade, and

1087:, but they could practise their religion and maintain their own law courts. Theological, liturgical, and cultural differences had given rise to the development of competing Christian denominations in the Levant before the 7th-century 2397:. Internal dissension forced Richard to abandon Guy and accept Conrad's kingship. Guy was compensated with possession of Cyprus. In April 1192, Conrad was assassinated in Tyre. Within a week, the widowed Isabella was married to 1027:. The Seljuks contested control of southern Palestine with Egypt, where Shia rulers ruled a majority Sunni populace through powerful viziers who were mainly Turkic or Armenian, rather than Egyptian or Arab. The Seljuks and the 2217:

V's guardianship. As there was no consensus on what should happen if the boy king died, it would be for the pope, the Holy Roman Emperor, the kings of France and England to decide whether his mother Sibylla or her half-sister

1865:, reasserted Byzantine claims to Cilicia and Antioch. His military campaign compelled Raymond of Poitiers to give homage and agree that he would surrender Antioch by way of compensation if the Byzantines ever captured Aleppo, 1354:

Alexios cautiously welcomed the feudal armies commanded by western nobles. By dazzling them with wealth and charming them with flattery, Alexios extracted oaths of fealty from most of the Crusader commanders. As his vassals,

3861:, extended this analysis: the lack of integration was based on economics with the Franks' position depending on a subjugated, disenfranchised local population. The Franks' primary motivations were economic. Islamic historian 3225:

themselves to the armed protection of pilgrims visiting Jerusalem. This unusual combination of monastic and knightly ideas did not meet with general approval, but the Templars found an influential protector in the prominent

3753:

punishment for sexual relations between Muslims and Christians was mutilation. Jews and Muslims retained autonomous systems of religious law. They were discriminated in civil and intercommunal law and had to pay a poll tax

1397:, during which the Franks made alliances with local Armenians. Before reaching Antioch, Baldwin and his men left the main army and headed to the Euphrates river, engaging in local politics and seizing the fortifications of 3388:

Immigration from Jewish communities in Europe also increased from this period due to the travel routes having been opened up by Christian pilgrims. For example, in 1211 hundreds of Rabbis immigrated to the Crusader state.

3373:

1.5 million—while the crusaders' home countries' population was 35.6 million. Russell also acknowledges that much of Anatolia was Christian or under the Byzantines and that some purportedly Islamic areas such as

2969:, Nestorians, Syrians, and large numbers of Syriac-speaking Maronites with their own clerical hierarchies. The Greek Orthodox Church was restricted, as in Jerusalem. There were similar self-governing Muslim communities of 1788:, who had widespread western connections useful to the kingdom. After Fulk's arrival, Baldwin raised a large force for an attack on Damascus. This force included the leaders of the other crusader states, and a significant 1494:

property in the countryside. The Muslim leaders were massacred or forced into exile, and the natives, accustomed to the rule of well-organised warbands, offered little resistance to their new lords. Western Christianity's

2486:, the Sultan of Rum. As neither Bohemond nor Leo could muster enough troops to defend their Tripolitan or Cilician hinterland against enemy invasions or rebellious aristocrats and to garrison Antioch simultaneously, the 3598:

subsidised voyages. Largely indigenous agricultural production flourished before the fall of the First Kingdom in 1187 but was negligible afterwards. Franks, Muslims, Jews and indigenous Christians traded crafts in the

3512:, this was unusual. Society was politically and legally stratified. Ethnically based communities were self-governing with relations between communities controlled by the Franks. Research has focused on the role of the 2915:

Modern historiography has focused on the kingdom of Jerusalem. Possibly this is related to it being the objective of the First Crusade, as well as the perception of the city being the centre and chief city of medieval

2697:. Ismail bought the Franks' alliance by a promise to restore 'all the lands that Saladin had reconquered'. Catholic priests took possession of the Dome of the Rock, but in July 1244 Khwarazmians marching towards Egypt 346:. The term Outremer is of medieval origin, whilst modern historians use Crusader states, and the term Franks for the European incomers. However, relatively few of the incoming Europeans took a crusader oath. The Latin 1475:

were rejected. Raymond refused the royal title, claiming only Christ could wear a crown in Jerusalem. This may have been to dissuade the more popular Godfrey from assuming the throne, but Godfrey adopted the title

1628:

arrived. Baldwin brokered a deal, sharing the territory between them, until William Jordan's death united the county. Bertrand acknowledged Baldwin's suzerainty, although William Jordan had been Tancred's vassal.

8464:

Murray, Alan V (2013). "Chapter 4: Franks and Indigenous Communities in Palestine and Syria (1099–1187): A Hierarchical Model of Social Interaction in the Principalities of Outremer". In Classen, Albrecht (ed.).

926:

held political power. Seljuk success was achieved by extreme violence. It brought disruptive nomadism to the sedentary society of the Levant, and set a pattern followed by other nomadic Turkic clans such as the

862:

were valued primarily because the link of their prospects to a single master generated extreme loyalty. In the context of Middle Eastern politics this made them more trustworthy than relatives. Eventually, some

2989:

holdings of the nobility. These kings of Jerusalem had greater internal power than comparative western monarchs, but they lacked the personnel and administrative systems necessary to govern such a large realm.

3639:, received commercial rights and access to Eastern markets. Over time, this developed into colonial communities with property and jurisdiction. Largely located in the ports of Acre, Tyre, Tripoli, and Sidon, 2561:

and the Egyptian army. The crusaders surrendered Damietta in return for safe conduct, ending the crusade. While staying in Damietta, Cardinal Pelagius sent reinforcements to Raymond-Roupen in Cilicia, but

1817:, a relative of Melisende, but was still compelled to accept the shared inheritance. He also thwarted frequent attempts by his sister-in-law Alice to assume the regency in Antioch, including alliances with 2291:

October 1187. There were no massacres following the conquest, but tens of thousands of Franks were enslaved. Those who could negotiate a free passage or were ransomed swarmed to Tyre, Tripoli, or Antioch.

2897:

Genoese-held Tripoli, enslaving or killing its residents. In 1290, Italian crusaders broke his truce with Jerusalem by killing Muslim traders in Acre. Qalawun's death did not hinder the successful Mamluk

3110:

families. This created a separate class—the remnants of the old nobility with a limited understanding of the Latin East. This included the king-consorts Guy, Conrad, Henry, Aimery, John, and the absent

1746:, were formed. As the Fatimid Caliphate no longer posed a major threat to Jerusalem, but Antioch and Edessa were vulnerable to invasion, the defence of the northern crusader states took much of Baldwin 1936:

From 1149, all Fatimid caliphs were children, and military commanders were competing for power. Ascalon, the Fatimids' last Palestinian bridgehead, hindered Frankish raids against Egypt, but Baldwin

670:, was to perform for the grantor, or lord. A vassal owed fealty to the lord and was expected to provide military aid and advice to him. Violence was endemic, and a new class of mounted warriors, the 3631:

of Pisa, Venice, and Genoa were enthusiastic crusaders whose commercial wealth provided the Franks with financial foundations and naval resources. In return, these cities and others, like Amalfi,

2619:

to the Muslims. The native Franks were unenthusiastic about the treaty because it was questionable whether it could be defended. Frederick left for Italy in May 1229, and never returned. He sent

3683:

style seen in the 12th-century rebuilding of the Holy Sepulchre. The Franks retained earlier Byzantine detail, but added northern French, Aquitanian, and Provençal style arches and chapels. The

1577:. His arrival thwarted Daimbert, who crowned Baldwin as Jerusalem's first Latin king on Christmas Day 1100. By performing the ceremony, the Patriarch abandoned his claim to rule the Holy Land. 2173:

and married Sybil, an Antiochene noblewoman with a bad reputation. Patriarch Aimery excommunicated him and the Antiochene nobles who opposed the marriage fled to the Cilician Armenian prince,

3433:(free serfs) to nobles and religious institutions. This may have been a method of denoting the revenues from these villeins or land where the boundaries were unclear. These are described as 3280:; Muslim commanders employed crossbowmen almost exclusively in a siege situation. Native Christians and converted Turks along with some Franks served as lightly armoured cavalrymen, called 2181:. Saladin granted a truce to Bohemond and made preparations for an invasion of Jerusalem where Guy took command of the defence. When Saladin invaded Galilee, the Franks responded with what 1440:. At Antioch, Bohemond persuaded the other leaders the city should be his if he could capture it, and Alexios did not come to claim it. Alexios withdrew, rather than join the siege, after 3397:

Modern research indicates that Jews, Muslims and local Christian populations were less integrated than previously thought. Christians lived around Jerusalem and in an arc stretching from

2465:, reunited Egypt and Damascus under his rule by 1200. He expanded the truces with the Franks and enhanced commercial contacts with Venice and Pisa. Bohemond III died in 1201. The 2107:. As Baldwin, a leper, was not expected to father children, his sister's marriage was to be arranged before his inevitable premature death from the disease. His regent, Raymond, chose 1227:

each centred around a city or a major town. These networks developed into autonomous lordships under the rule of a Turkic, Arab or Armenian warlord or town magistrate in the late 11th

2552:

repeatedly offered the return of Jerusalem and the Holy Land in exchange for the crusaders' withdrawal. His ability to implement his truce proposals was questionable for his brother

2189:

as their largest army in living memory but avoided fighting a battle. After days of fierce skirmishing, Saladin withdrew towards Damascus. Baldwin dismissed Guy from his position as

1338:

against the Seljuk threat. What the Emperor probably had in mind was a relatively modest force, and Urban far exceeded his expectations by calling for the First Crusade at the later

1452:

to enforce the payment of a tribute. In Raymond's absence, Bohemond expelled Raymond's last troops from Antioch and consolidated his rule in the developing Principality of Antioch.

1346:(Christian holy war) and, based mainly on Old Testament passages in which God leads the Hebrews to victory in war, reconciled this with Church teachings. Urban's call for an armed 3857:

presented the widely accepted view of a society that was predominantly urban, isolated from the indigenous peoples, with separate legal and religious systems. Prawer's 1972 work,

1523:

during the first years of its existence. Jerusalem needed undisturbed access to the Mediterranean; Antioch wanted to seize Cilicia and the territory along the upper course of the

2880:

was acknowledged as Jerusalem's nominal king, but the rump kingdom was in fact a mosaic of autonomous lordships, some under Mamluk suzerainty. In 1285, the death of the warlike

2633:. Filangieri occupied Beirut and Tyre, but the Ibelins and their allies firmly kept Acre and established a commune to protect their interest. Pope Gregory IX called for a 3799:, who responded in 1312 by dissolving the order on probably false grounds of sodomy, magic, and heresy. The raising, transportation, and supply of armies led to flourishing 2413:

relatives, and the dynastic feud lasted for almost a decade. The Ayyubids agreed near-constant truces with the Franks and offered territorial concessions to keep the peace.

259:

as an analogy to the French colonial experience in the Levant, though this was rejected by 20th-century historians. Their consensus was that the Frankish population, as the

1813:

joint heirs. Fulk intended to revoke the arrangement, but his favouritism toward his compatriots roused strong discontent in the kingdom. In 1134, he repressed a revolt by

532:

commemorated Muhammad's night journey. Although the most sacred places of devotion were in Palestine, there were also shrines in neighbouring Syria. As a borderland of the

2607:

ten years, ten months, and ten days (the maximum period for a peace treaty between Muslims and Christians, according to Muslim custom). It restored Jerusalem, Bethlehem,

2226:

IV wanted to secure Bohemond's support for his decisions on the succession. Back in Antioch, Bohemond kidnapped Ruben of Cilicia and forced him into becoming his vassal.

3539:

and there is other evidence they led local troops occasionally. The courts of the indigenous communities administered civil disputes and minor criminality. The Frankish

2705:

on 18 October. Few Franks escaped from the battlefield. As-Salah captured most of the crusaders' mainland territory, restricting the Franks to a few coastal towns.

2687:'s divine right to universal rule, and they demanded unconditional submission from both Christians and Muslims. As-Salih Ayyub hired the Khwarazmians and garrisoned new 1169:

seized Cilicia and entered Antioch in 1084. Two years later, he was killed in a conflict with the Great Seljuk Empire. Between 1092 and 1094, Nizam al-Mulk, the Sultan

2083:, seized Damascus but soon surrendered it to Saladin. By 1176, Saladin reunited much of Muslim Syria through warring against Gümüshtekin and As-Salih's relatives, the 1161:. Romanos' capture and Byzantine factionalism that followed broke Byzantine border control. This enabled large numbers of Turkic warbands and nomadic herders to enter 1569:

to secure his inheritance for his brother Baldwin. Daimbert and Tancred sought Bohemond's help against the Lotharingians, but the Danishmends captured Bohemond under

1293:, seized Edessa. During this period the old Islamic conflict between Sunni and Shia made the Muslim peoples more likely to wage war on each other than on Christians. 776:. The Gregorian Reform enhanced the popes' influence on secular matters. To achieve political goals, popes excommunicated their opponents, placed entire realms under 2701:

unexpectedly. The Franks gathered all available troops and joined Ismail near Gaza, but the Khwarazmians and Egyptians defeated the Frankish and Damascene coalition

1734:

for deeply religious warriors was likely first discussed at the council of Nablus. Church leaders quickly espoused the idea of armed monks, and within a decade, two

725:

reduced lay influence on church life and strengthened papal authority over the clergy. Eastern Christians continued to consider the popes as no more than one of the

465:

from, and acting as regent for, the rulers of the other states; the king held no formalised overlord status, and those states remained legally outside the kingdom.

3050:(roughly, 'Assize on liege-homage') expanded the court's membership to all 600 or more fief-holders. Those paying direct homage to the king became members of the 2127:. He wanted to be free to return to Flanders and rejected both offers. The plan for the invasion was abandoned, and the Byzantine fleet sailed for Constantinople. 1464: 3080:. All written law was lost in the fall of Jerusalem. The legal system was now largely based on custom and the memory of the lost legislation. The renowned jurist 3840:

described Frankish settlements in the Levant as colonies where the offspring of mixed marriages adopted local traditions. The first American crusade historian,

3644:

taken. In 1124, for example, the Venetians received one-third of Tyre and its territories with exemption from taxes in return for Venetian participation in the

2586:

in Rome in 1220. He did not join the Egyptian crusade but reopened the negotiations with Al-Adil over the city of Jerusalem. In 1225, Frederick married Isabella

710:. They replaced the Muslim and Jewish middlemen in the lucrative trans-Mediterranean commerce, and their fleets became the dominant naval forces in the region. 8108: 3865:

argued that the Islamic population responded with resentment, suspicion, and rejection of the Franks. Recently this has been challenged by historians such as

3276:

defend them against attacks by the Turkic light cavalry. The Frankish armies' distinctive feature was the extensive deployment of foot soldiers equipped with

3745:. Armenians, Copts, Jacobites, Nestorians and Maronites had greater religious autonomy independently appointing bishops, as they were considered outside the 2241:

Saladin signed a four-year truce with Jerusalem and attacked Mosul. He could not capture the city but extracted an oath of fealty from Mosul's Zengid ruler,

268: 2650:, restored most land west of the Jordan River to the Franks. Conrad reached the age of majority in 1243 but failed to visit Outremer. Arguing that Conrad's 2312:. Passionate sermons raised religious fervour, and it is likely that more people took the crusader oath than during recruitment for the previous crusades. 1776:

seized Aleppo in 1128. The two major Muslim centres' union was especially dangerous for the neighbouring Edessa, but it also worried Damascus's new ruler,

1640:

with Bohemond. Tancred assumed the regency of Edessa. The Byzantines took the opportunity to reconquer Cilicia. They took the port but not the citadel of

3830:'s influential narratives concentrated on topics of war, conquest, and settlement while France's colonial ambitions in the Levant were linked explicitly. 3157:

in Iberia. Among the Franks' early enemies, the Fatimids possessed 10,000–12,000 troops, the rulers of Aleppo had 7,000–8,000 soldiers, and the Damascene

3145:

against Shaizar. Edessa and Tripoli raised armies numbering 1,000–3,000 troops, Antioch and Jerusalem deployed 4,000–6,000 soldiers. In comparison,

3163:

commanded 2,000–5,000 troops. The Artuqids could hire as many as 30,000 Turks, but these nomadic warriors were unfit for lengthy sieges. After uniting

1471:

lasting barely longer than a month. Thousands of Muslims and Jews were killed, and the survivors sold into slavery. Proposals to govern the city as an

1908:

in 1148. The arduous march had greatly reduced the two rulers' forces. At a leadership conference, including the widowed Melisende and her son Baldwin

2108: 1149:

indulged in cross-border raiding. In 1071, while securing his northern borders during a break in his campaigns against the Fatimid Caliphate, Sultan

240:, ending the Kingdom of Jerusalem nearly 200 years after it was founded. With all four of the states defeated and annexed, the survivors fled to the 3098:

After Hattin, the Franks lost their cities, lands, and churches. Barons fled to Cyprus and intermarried with leading new emigres from the Lusignan,

2629:. The Ibelins denied Frederick's right to appoint his lieutenant without consulting the barons, and Outremer plunged into a civil war, known as the 2253:

to a general council. In his absence, Sybilla's supporters, led by Joscelin and Raynald, took full control of Jerusalem, Acre and Beirut. Patriarch

690:; and Italian fleets launched pillaging raids against the north African ports. This shift of power especially benefited merchants from the Italian 650:. Europe was rural and underdeveloped, offering little more than raw materials and slaves in return for spices, cloth, and other luxuries from the 2977:, including Isma’ili, in the frontier areas to the north. The multi-ethnic structure may well have been more pronounced in Tripoli and in the 12th 1691:

As Aleppo remained vulnerable to Frankish attacks, the city leaders sought external protection. They allied with the adventurous Artuqid princes,

2743:

Feuds between rival candidates to the regency and commercial conflicts between Venice and Genoa resulted in a new civil war in 1256 known as the

2566:, who was regent for the Cilician queen, acted quickly. He captured Raymond-Roupen, who died in prison. The queen was married to Bohemond's son, 753: 3652:

century, the rulers of the communes barely recognised the authority of the Franks and divided Acre into several fortified miniature republics.

2195:, apparently because Guy had proved unable to overcome factionalism in the army. In November 1183, Baldwin made Guy's five-year-old stepson, 801: 7055: 3205: 1664: 1632:

When Bohemond was released for a ransom in 1103, he compensated Tancred with lands and gifts. Baldwin of Bourcq and his cousin and vassal,

1601:

I repulsed these attacks and with Genoese, Venetian, and Norwegian fleets conquered all the towns on the Palestinian coast except Tyre and

757: 8956: 2087:. That same year, Emperor Manuel invaded the Sultanate of Rum to reopen the Anatolian pilgrimage route towards the Holy Land. His defeat 2984:

The king of Jerusalem's foremost role was as leader of the feudal host during the near-constant warfare in the early decades of the 12th

2933: 2937: 1402: 1035:

and Fatimid Egypt was the chief Shi'ite power in Islam. The root of this was beyond cultural and racial conflict but originated in the

3606:

pilgrims, and industry combined with estate revenue to provide the Frankish nobles and church with income. Seigniorial monopolies, or

2941: 2925: 642:

Western Christians and Muslims interacted mainly through warring or commerce. During the 8th and 9th centuries, the Muslims were

476:. All of the holy sites in Judaism were found there, including the remains of the Second Temple, destroyed by the Romans in 70AD. The 8814: 8158:

Jacoby, David (2007). "The Economic Function of the Crusader States of the Levant: A New Approach". In Cavaciocchi, Simonetta (ed.).

2671: 1554:, the papal legate, arrived in the Levant with 120 Pisan ships, Godfrey gained much-needed naval support by backing him for the 805: 8231:

Alliances and Treaties between Frankish and Muslim Rulers in the Middle East: Cross-Cultural Diplomacy in the Period of the Crusades

3695:. This style either reflected or influenced the taste of patrons of the arts in increasingly stylised Byzantine-influenced content. 3488:

Linguistic differences remained a key differentiator between the Franks' lords and the local population. The Franks typically spoke

2929: 1095:, remained in full communion with the Byzantine imperial church, and their religious leaders often came from the Byzantine capital, 2945: 2805:. Baibars revived Saladin's empire by uniting Egypt and Syria and held Hulagu in check through an alliance with the Mongols of the 2300:. He was William's brother and arrived only days after Hattin. The childless Raymond died, and Bohemond's younger son, also called 1766:, in Antioch. Aleppo had plunged into anarchy, but Bohemond II could not exploit this because of a conflict with Joscelin. The new 1837:

ruler, seized the Cilician plain. In 1133, the Antiochene nobility asked Fulk to propose a husband for Constance, and he selected

615:

directly. Counts and dukes ruled other regions, and some of them were remarkably wealthy and powerful—in particular, the dukes of

1312: 1302: 428:. The northern states covered what is now part of Syria, south-eastern Turkey, and Lebanon. These areas were historically called 2513:, a French aristocrat and experienced soldier. After her death two years later, John ruled as regent for their infant daughter, 2385:

siege, the Muslim garrison surrendered Acre, and Philip and most of the French army returned to Europe. Richard led the crusade

2053:

took control, but unknown assailants murdered him on the streets of Acre. With the baronage's consent, Amalric's cousin, Raymond

3301:

preferred direct attacks as they could easily muster new troops to replace those who had perished. Both sides employed similar

2506: 749: 3356:

In context, Josiah Russell estimates the population of what he calls 'Islamic territory' as roughly 12.5 million in 1000—

1562:. Daimbert revived the idea of creating an ecclesiastic principality and extracted oaths of fealty from Godfrey and Bohemond. 8764: 8741: 8705: 8680: 8652: 8554: 8531: 8503: 8478: 8454: 8435: 8412: 8382: 8316: 8291: 8268: 8242: 8219: 8194: 8171: 8148: 8122: 8094: 8033: 8003: 7942: 7914: 7888: 7865: 7804: 7771: 7743: 7713: 7687: 3873:

points out this is not a return to older theories as the same sources are used and the archaeology is unprovable. Specialist

2170: 2080: 1326:

from the Turks and Europe. This compensated for a shortfall caused by lost territory, especially in Anatolia. In 1095 at the

761: 3708:

There is no written evidence that the Franks or local Christians recognised significant religious differences until the 13th

2328:

to the furthest districts of Beirut with only the interruption of Tyre and also all the dependencies of Antioch, apart from

2583: 1967: 1917:

joined forces with the Nizari and Joscelin with the Rum Seljuks against Aleppo. Nur ad-Din invaded Antioch and Raymond was

1308: 1119: 596: 292: 3520:, Arabic for leader, chief or mayor. Riley-Smith divided these into the urban freemen and rural workers tied to the land; 2257:

crowned her queen and appointed Guy her co-ruler. The barons assembling at Nablus offered the crown to Isabella's husband

2123:

health was deteriorating, the Franks offered the regency and the Egyptian invasion's command to Baldwin's crusader cousin

1876:

Kings Louis VIII and Conrad III meet Queen Melisende and King Baldwin III at Acre from a 13th-century codex

1699:, who inflicted crucial defeats on the Franks between 1119 and 1124, but could rarely prevent Frankish counter-invasions. 8853: 3687:

of the south facade follow classical Syrian patterns, but there is little evidence of indigenous influence in sculpture.

1647:

Bohemond returned to Italy to recruit allies and gather supplies. Tancred assumed leadership in Antioch, and his cousin

8986: 3844:, described the care the Franks took to "win the goodwill of the natives". Historians rejected this approach in the 20th 3339:

in 1104 and the territorial consequences of Saladin's triumph at Hattin. From the 1150s, observers like the chroniclers

9078: 3200: 2022: 1735: 1580:

Tancred remained defiant to Baldwin until an Antiochene delegation offered him the regency in March 1101. He ceded his

3405:

in the south. Comparisons of archaeological evidence of Byzantine churches built prior to the Muslim conquest and 16th

1482:('Defender of the Holy Sepulchre') when he was proclaimed the first Frankish ruler of Jerusalem. In Western Europe an 8624: 3788: 3119:

century have been poorly regarded by both contemporary and modern commentators: their superficial rhetoric disgusted

2694: 2545: 2324:

wrote, after the Frankish castles were starved into submission, that "the Muslims acquired everything from as far as

745: 662:

In Catholic Europe, state and society were organised along feudal lines. Landed estates were customarily granted in

981:

kept power after his ward reached the age of majority or died. The Seljuks adopted and strengthened the traditional

8786: 8308: 2533: 2487: 1970:, and received a significant dowry. With his consent, Manuel forced Raynald into accepting Byzantine overlordship. 1478: 1256: 935:. The Great Seljuk Empire was decentralised, polyglot, and multi-national. A junior Seljuk ruling a province as an 264: 165:

were Crusaders. Medieval and modern writers use the term "Outremer" as a synonym, derived from the French word for

31: 3581:

The crusader states were economic centres obstructing Muslim trade by sea with the west Europe, and by land with

1892:

The fall of Edessa shocked Western opinion, prompting the largest military response since the First Crusade. The

1555: 1532: 990:

Seljuk state worked when family ties and personal loyalty overlapped the leaders' personal ambitions, the lavish

1011:

The region's ethnic and religious diversity led to alienation among the ruled populations. In Syria, the Seljuk

492:, Muhammad's miraculous night travel and ascension to Heaven. Places associated with holy people developed into 9116: 9027: 3882:

believed they followed Byzantine, rather than western reformist, precedent. The debate has led historians like

3817: 3742: 3680: 1573:

while securing Antioch's northern marches. Before departing for Jerusalem, Baldwin ceded Edessa to his cousin,

2839:

for the rest of his life. Massacres of the Franks and native Christians regularly followed a Mamluk conquest.

8961: 8807: 8163: 7880: 7823: 3154: 3005: 2358: 1854: 1781: 1383: 1088: 485: 111: 9048: 3716:. The crusaders filled Greek Orthodox ecclesiastical positions that became vacant, such as on the death of 587:

around 800. The empire had disintegrated, and two loosely unified successor states had taken its place: the

8467:

East Meets West in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times: Transcultural Experiences in the Premodern World

3826:

century the crusader states became a subject of study, distinct from the crusades, particularly in France.

3410:

major towns. Central areas had a predominantly Sunni Muslim population, but Shi'ite communities existed in

2859: 2449: 2398: 2174: 1846: 1822: 1456: 505: 405: 2637:

in preparation for the expiry of the truce. Between 1239 and 1241, wealthy French and English nobles like

2222:

had stronger claim to the throne. Bohemond was staying at Acre around this time, allegedly because Baldwin

2071:, the richest heiress of the kingdom, and gaining Galilee. Nur ad-Din's empire quickly disintegrated. His 2046:

The accession of underage rulers led to disunity both in Jerusalem and in Muslim Syria. In Jerusalem, the

1223:

in western historiography. The Order used targeted murder to compensate for their lack of military power.

1039:

following Muhammad's death. Sunnis supported a caliphal succession that began with one of his associates,

149:; and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the southernmost and most prominent state, covered an area in what is now 9121: 9009: 8882: 8672: 3725: 2873: 2862:

disputed the succession. The barons preferred Hugh, but in 1277 Maria sold her claim to Charles. He sent

2658:, as regent. The same year, they captured Tyre, the last centre of Frederick's authority in the kingdom. 2124: 1994: 1762:

Baldwin had four daughters. In 1126, Bohemond reached the age of majority and married the second-oldest,

1727:

and issued decrees against adultery, sodomy, bigamy, and sexual relations between Catholics and Muslims.

1633: 1625: 1531:, took a practical approach to dealing with the Franks. His treaties establishing Damascene–Jerusalemite 8543: 8424: 8280: 8018: 2595:

excommunicated him for repeatedly breaking his oath. In April 1228, Isabella died after giving birth to

30:

This article is about the four feudal states established in the Levant around 1100. For other uses, see

8495: 8086: 7995: 3636: 2921: 2522: 2131: 1958: 1942: 1539: 1371: 1360: 713:

On the eve of the Crusades, after a thousand years of reputedly uninterrupted succession of popes, the

288: 161:. The description "Crusader states" can be misleading, as from 1130 onwards, very few people among the 38: 7728: 3827: 9126: 3700:

notable but of secondary importance to the works from Muslim Spain and the hybrid culture of Sicily.

3632: 3525:

peasants limited. McEvitt identifies possible tension between competing groups. According to the 13th

3248: 2981:

century there may have been a southern French culture, although this characteristic faded over time.

2775: 2714: 2698: 2374:

arrived in May. During his voyage, Richard had seized Cyprus from the island's self-declared emperor

2284: 2096: 1468: 1115: 233: 197: 8422:

Murray, Alan V; Nicholson, Helen (2006). "Jerusalem, (Latin) Kingdom of". In Murray, Alan V. (ed.).

2540:, the ruler of Germany and Sicily, was expected to assume control on his arrival; the papal legate, 1966:

Franks of Jerusalem sought a marriage alliance with the Byzantines. Baldwin married Manuel's niece,

9111: 8946: 8800: 3910: 3887: 3795:

probably had financial and political reasons to oppose the Knights Templar. He exerted pressure on

3724:

succeeded him as patriarch of Jerusalem. The appointment of Latin bishops had little effect on the

2514: 2375: 2027: 1913: 1830: 1806: 1709: 1527:; and Edessa aspired to control the Upper Euphrates valley. The most powerful Syrian Muslim ruler, 1044: 456:. From around 1115, the ruler of Jerusalem was styled 'king of the Latins in Jerusalem'. Historian 17: 7816:"Settlement, Identity, and Memory in the Latin East: An Examination of the Term 'Crusader States'" 3099: 2304:, assumed power in Tripoli. After news of the Franks' devastating defeat at Hattin reached Italy, 2013:

to direct the military operations in Egypt. Weeks before Shirkuh died in 1169, the Fatimid caliph

840:

borderlands and sold them to Islamic leaders who used them as slave soldiers. These were known as

8926: 8860: 8832: 8404: 8260: 8025: 7906: 3284:. They were positioned to fight against the Turkic light cavalry and were well suited for raids. 3252: 3210: 2824: 2771: 2654:

was entitled to rule in his absence, the Jerusalemite barons elected his mother's maternal aunt,

2493:

The Franks knew they could not regain the Holy Land without conquering Egypt. The leaders of the

2409:

in the north. After Saladin died in March 1193, none of his sons could assume authority over his

2219: 2088: 1990: 1842: 1785: 1663:

forced Bohemond to restore Laodikeia and Cilicia to Alexios, become his vassal and reinstate the

1581: 1574: 1441: 955:

military commanders acting as tutors and guardians for young Seljuk princes held the position of

917: 797: 335: 263:

were known at the time, lived as a minority society that was largely urban and isolated from the

221: 123: 55: 4124: 2827:

in 1268. Jaffa surrendered and Baibers weakened the military orders by capturing the castles of

1930: 8951: 8931: 8919: 8723: 8104: 3831: 3764: 3717: 3684: 3244: 3236: 3221: 2894: 2783: 2779: 2748: 2604: 2574: 2563: 2498: 2429: 2301: 2254: 2196: 2147: 2047: 1962: 1885: 1668: 1624:

continued the siege after Raymond's death in 1105. It was completed in 1109 when Raymond's son

1594: 1590: 1586: 1375: 1166: 1111: 1036: 643: 517: 489: 225: 209: 185: 2889:, combined with the Pisan and Venetian wars with the Genoese, finally gave the Mamluk sultan, 1608:

Raymond laid the foundations of the fourth crusader state, the County of Tripoli. He captured

236:. The Crusader presence in the Levant collapsed shortly thereafter, when the Mamluks captured 9038: 9033: 8697: 8644: 7763: 3640: 3557: 3288: 3146: 2863: 2851: 2638: 2169:

Byzantine influence declined after Manuel died in 1180. Bohemond repulsed his Byzantine wife

1901: 1570: 1528: 1367: 769: 513: 400: 284: 189: 181: 115: 8727: 2479: 2261:, but he submitted to Sybilla to avoid a civil war. After his desertion, all the barons but 504:. The surge in Christian pilgrimage also inspired many Jews to return to the Holy Land. The 251:

The study of the Crusader states in their own right, as opposed to being a sub-topic of the

8848: 8614: 8252: 8140: 3854: 3645: 3232: 3045: 2899: 2786:, and in the conquest of northern Syria. The Mongols emancipated the Christians from their 2722: 2596: 2371: 2353: 2317: 2297: 2293: 2258: 2242: 2155: 2115: 1978: 1794: 1706:

I as King of Jerusalem, naming Joscelin his successor in Edessa. After Roger was killed at

1651:

did the same in Edessa. In 1107, Bohemond crossed the Adriatic Sea and failed in besieging

1472: 1260: 1216: 765: 655: 509: 389: 351: 343: 237: 131: 63: 1949:, to appropriate his wealth and attacked the Byzantine's Cilician Armenians. When Emperor 1515: 1351:

varied, but some of them probably left Europe to make a new permanent home in the Levant.

869:

descendants climbed the Muslim hierarchy to become king makers or even dynastic founders.

8: 9043: 8974: 8756: 8662: 8634: 8211: 8045:"The Crisis of the First Crusade: from the Defeat of Kerbogah to the Departure from Arqa" 7735: 7705: 3939: 3870: 3841: 3792: 3671: 3661: 3240: 2828: 2794: 2737: 2702: 2642: 2630: 2502: 2367: 1961:, brought military strength from the West for campaigning. Thierry, Baldwin, Raynald and 1897: 1838: 1797:. Baldwin II denied Alice control, instead resuming the regency until his death in 1131. 1743: 1543: 1356: 1339: 1327: 1174: 1158: 1154: 628: 488:. Islamic tradition described the region's principal city, Jerusalem, as the site of the 473: 472:, as an exceptionally sacred place. They all associated the region with the lives of the 457: 313: 9058: 1282: 9083: 8979: 8966: 8941: 8870: 8597: 8589: 8359: 8347: 8076: 8064: 7973: 7875:

Burgtorf, Jochen (2016). "The Antiochene war of succession". In Boas, Adrian J. (ed.).

7815: 7777: 3862: 3780: 3721: 3628: 3340: 3150: 2953: 2877: 2855: 2843: 2744: 2706: 2675: 2655: 2634: 2620: 2553: 2466: 2402: 2349: 2112: 2104: 1982: 1648: 1331: 1220: 1066: 707: 636: 632: 616: 592: 584: 421: 154: 3779:

After Acre fell, the Hospitallers relocated first to Cyprus, then conquered and ruled

2440:. In 1191, Saladin abandoned a three-year occupation of the northern Syrian castle of 8887: 8877: 8760: 8737: 8701: 8676: 8648: 8620: 8601: 8581: 8550: 8527: 8499: 8474: 8470: 8450: 8431: 8408: 8378: 8351: 8312: 8287: 8264: 8238: 8215: 8190: 8167: 8144: 8118: 8090: 8056: 8029: 8013: 7999: 7965: 7938: 7928: 7910: 7884: 7861: 7840: 7800: 7767: 7739: 7709: 7683: 3879: 3784: 3759: 3692: 3620:

and dinars. After 1124, the Franks copied Egyptian dinars, creating Jerusalem's gold

3501: 3293: 3107: 3103: 2890: 2816: 2567: 2382: 2305: 2283:

Within months after Hattin, Saladin conquered almost the entire kingdom. The city of

2267: 2262: 2158:. Baldwin's mother and her clique marginalised Raymond, Bohemond and the influential 2151: 1950: 1946: 1926: 1777: 1773: 1752: 1724: 1641: 1621: 1558:, as well as granting him parts of Jerusalem and the Pisans a section of the port of 1547: 1032: 1028: 699: 679: 675: 620: 588: 574: 537: 437: 339: 241: 201: 127: 59: 1286: 8996: 8865: 8573: 8343: 8234: 7985: 7832: 3866: 3729: 3336: 3267:

in Jerusalem, and Krak des Chevaliers in Tripoli, both seized by the Hospitallers.

3214: 3120: 3081: 3039: 2651: 2445: 2437: 2329: 2321: 2275: 2274:

Tiberias was arduous, and Saladin's troops overwhelmed the exhausted Frankish army

2143: 2076: 2068: 1937: 1862: 1834: 1814: 1763: 1756: 1672: 1656: 1617: 1551: 1437: 1394: 1290: 1244: 1204: 893: 885: 821: 781: 722: 703: 578: 525: 331: 217: 205: 119: 51: 8564:

Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1971). "The Assise sur la Ligece and the Commune of Acre".

3000:

In the second quarter of the century, magnates like Raynald of Châtillon, Lord of

1535:(shared rule) in debated territories created precedents for other Muslim leaders. 1490:

was a layman responsible for the protection and administration of church estates.

1031:

of Egypt hated each other, as the Seljuk saw themselves as defenders of the Sunni

780:

and promised spiritual rewards to those who took up arms for their cause. In 1074

612: 8936: 8733: 8691: 8666: 8638: 8517: 8372: 8302: 8205: 8114: 8080: 7989: 7790: 7723: 7697: 7675: 6599: 3746: 3734: 3505: 3322: 3297: 3068:

Prior to the 1187 defeat at Hattin, laws developed by the court were recorded as

2832: 2752: 2727: 2710: 2592: 2541: 2510: 2410: 2386: 2182: 2159: 2135: 2050: 1997:, to inherit the kingdom was confirmed. The Fatimid Caliphate had rival viziers, 1954: 1818: 1789: 1739: 1660: 1500: 1382:

had previously held, would be handed to Alexios' Byzantine representatives. Only

1212: 829: 734: 695: 624: 608: 549: 462: 361: 304: 229: 228:, leaving only the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which had been severely weakened by the 87: 9053: 8969: 8616:

A History of the Crusades, Volume V: The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East

3561:

Coins of the Kingdom of Jerusalem from the British Museum. Left: European style

2249:

V died, and a power struggle began in Jerusalem. Raymond summoned the barons to

1671:. Tancred continued as regent of Antioch and ignored the treaty. Richard's son, 9020: 9015: 8610: 8132: 7852:

Burgtorf, Jochen (2006). "Antioch, Principality of". In Murray, Alan V. (ed.).

7753: 6575: 3796: 3738: 3608: 3566: 3497: 3361: 3310: 3188: 3060:

century, they were joined by the leaders of the military orders and in the 13th

2758: 2647: 2494: 2475: 2453: 2100: 1918: 1893: 1731: 1566: 1274: 1200: 1178: 1096: 881: 785: 773: 604: 529: 429: 260: 177: 71: 8897: 8577: 3737:, the Greek and Syrian population was given to the care of Meletos, bishop of 2767: 2340: 46: 9105: 9001: 8585: 8523: 8513: 8489: 8355: 8278:

MacEvitt, Christopher (2006). "Edessa, County of". In Murray, Alan V. (ed.).

8060: 7969: 7924: 7844: 3943: 3904: 3874: 3850: 3666: 3562: 3302: 3260: 3001: 2904: 2718: 2667: 2600: 2529: 2309: 2234: 1986: 1524: 1364: 1335: 1240: 1208: 1108: 1023:

and northern Syria, the Byzantines, Arabs, and Turks squeezed populations of

928: 717:

was Catholic Europe's oldest institution. The popes were seen as the Apostle

647: 553: 477: 323: 245: 99: 3457:

was reserved for the many urban domestic slaves the Franks held. The use of

1008:, and military commanders could lead to disintegration in critical moments. 8914: 8906: 7934: 7898: 7781: 7757: 3899: 3883: 3869:

using archaeological research, but no alternative model has been accepted.

3369: 3306: 3112: 2966: 2949: 2806: 2680: 2616: 2363: 1905: 1379: 1248: 1219:

branch of Isma'ilism. This was known as the New Preaching in Syria and the

1170: 837: 742: 533: 425: 103: 7836: 3728:. The previous bishops were foreign Byzantine Greeks. Greeks were used as 2501:

instead. Aimery and Isabella died in 1205. Isabella's daughter by Conrad,

2344:

The crusader states after Saladin's conquests and before the Third Crusade

1925:

in 1149. The next year Joscelin was captured and tortured and later died.

1861:

dinars for his and Raymond's freedom. Emperor Alexios' son and successor,

1503:

in Anatolia, only smaller groups of armed pilgrims departed for Outremer.

204:, after which territorial consolidation followed, including the taking of 8401:

The Crusader States & their Neighbours: A Military History, 1099–1187

8110:

The Age Of The Crusades – The Near East from the eleventh century to 1517

3947: 3805: 3800: 3582: 3264: 3226: 3025: 2992: 2917: 2763: 2733: 2558: 2544:, controlled the finances from the west. The crusaders invaded Egypt and 2428:

III of Antioch did not include his recalcitrant Cilician Armenian vassal

1881: 1696: 1424:

Godfrey of Bouillon during the siege of Jerusalem (from the 14th-century

1054: 1012: 889: 877: 718: 691: 651: 413: 350:

of the First Crusade, written in the early 11th century, called the

184:, was subject to a coup d'état in which the leadership was taken over by 8593: 8363: 8328: 8068: 8044: 7977: 7953: 1289:, ruled Antioch; and a warlord representing Byzantine interests, called 8619:. Madison and London: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 295–314. 8609:

Russell, Josiah C. (1985). "The Population of the Crusader States". In

8160:

Europe's Economic Relations with the Islamic World, 13th–18th centuries

3859:

The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages

3489: 3469: 3318: 3281: 3011: 2965:

Saladin's conquests in 1187–1188. These were Arabic-speaking Melkites,

2886: 2684: 1433: 1347: 1150: 1141:

and their Byzantine, also often ethnically Turkic, counterparts called

1137:

in 969, after three centuries of Arab rule, and invading Syria. Turkic

1133:

centuries, the Byzantine Empire had been on the offensive, recapturing

1104: 1016: 730: 687: 600: 8541:

Richard, Jean (2006). "Tripoli, County of". In Murray, Alan V. (ed.).

6611: 3292:

their horses became exhausted. Frankish foot soldiers could create a '

2026:

attack on Egypt, but he died in May 1174. He left an 11-year-old son,

1432:

As the crusaders marched towards Antioch, Syrian Muslims asked Sultan

212:, but the other three realms endured until the final years of the 13th 137:

The three northern states covered an area in what is now southeastern

8186: 7796: 7514:

Enquiring History – The Crusades: Conflict and Controversy, 1095–1291

7205: 3963: 3415: 3314: 3182: 3033: 2836: 2462: 2406: 2186: 2099:, for a large ransom. They hastened to Jerusalem, and Raynald seized 1511: 1495: 1485: 1417:

by the territory of Turkic and Armenian warlords and the Euphrates.

1406: 1398: 1386:

refused this oath, instead promising non-aggression towards Alexios.

1323: 1278: 1123: 1024: 777: 726: 521: 469: 441: 393: 347: 173: 107: 95: 67: 6779: 6755: 6527: 2952:

laws that were also later adopted by Cilician Armenia, known as the

2509:, became regent. The regency ended with Maria's marriage in 1210 to 2436:

III's brother. When Ruben died, Leo replaced his daughter and heir,

1805:

On his deathbed Baldwin named Fulk, Melisende, and their infant son

1759:, considered as a possible replacement. Charles declined the offer. 1652: 544:, though enthusiasm for pursuing it had faded by the end of the 11th 9088: 8840: 7857: 6923: 6851: 5924: 5732: 3430: 3422: 3357: 3277: 2974: 2847: 2608: 2599:. Without seeking a reconciliation with the Pope, Frederick sailed 2578:

A 13th-century manuscript of the marriage of Frederick and Isabella

2549: 1602: 1414: 1390: 1264: 1162: 1138: 1076: 1040: 984: 963:('father-commander'). If his ward held a province in appanage, the 936: 932: 814: 738: 599:, and the neighbouring lands; and France. Germany was divided into 557: 497: 272: 252: 8792: 6260: 6137: 2876:

weakened Charles's position in the west. After his death in 1285,

2683:. In fact, most Mongols were pagans with a strong belief in their 1678:

The fall of Tripoli prompted Sultan Muhammad Tapar to appoint the

1436:

for help, but he was engaged in a power struggle with his brother

8374:

The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance

8334: 8304:

The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance

7121: 7056:"How the Crusades Affected Medieval Jews in Europe and Palestine" 6964: 6125: 5396: 3617: 3411: 3398: 3378: 3071: 2957: 2802: 2163: 2084: 2035: 2030:. Within two months, Amalric died. His son and successor, Baldwin 2018: 2014: 2010: 2002: 1692: 1613: 1252: 1144: 1134: 1092: 1020: 901: 843: 671: 501: 193: 146: 6719: 6320: 6166: 6164: 4682: 4043: 4041: 1207:

in Anatolia. The Egyptian succession resulted in a split in the

810: 764:

sided with the Ecumenical Patriarch against the Papacy, but the

741:

and liturgy, caused acrimonious disputes which escalated when a

468:

Jews, Christians, and Muslims respected Palestine, known as the

271:

that had survived and remained in the holy cities of Jerusalem,

8781: 8329:"Latins, Muslims, and Greeks in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem" 7429: 7427: 6539: 6091: 6089: 5768: 5384: 5225: 3935: 3621: 3574: 3509: 3402: 3089:

century legal system was created. The barons reinterpreted the

2441: 2416: 2250: 2139: 2072: 1998: 1685: 1637: 1609: 1420: 1196: 1192: 1182: 1060: 958: 913: 907: 851: 833: 714: 667: 493: 424:

and at its greatest extent included some territory east of the

409: 327: 319: 276: 256: 162: 158: 150: 138: 91: 7313: 5081: 4826: 4706: 4092: 2229: 8445:

Murray, Alan V (2006). "Outremer". In Murray, Alan V. (ed.).

7519: 7463: 7412: 7400: 7366: 7364: 7337: 7193: 7085: 6368: 6344: 6308: 6212: 6161: 5948: 5792: 5672: 5648: 4754: 4142: 4125:"Italy in the Middle Ages - Life in Italy in the Middle Ages" 4038: 3696: 3599: 3577:(1140–1180). Right: gold bezant with Christian symbol (1250s) 3570: 3493: 3477: 3473: 3464: 3374: 3365: 3229: 3168: 3164: 2970: 2850:, the titular king of Jerusalem, in Naples after his victory 2820: 2809:. He reformed governance in Egypt, giving power to the elite 2798: 2612: 2394: 2390: 2325: 2006: 1559: 1142: 1082: 942: 721:'s successors, and their prestige was high. In the west, the 683: 541: 481: 280: 142: 7792:

Crusader Archaeology: The Material Culture of the Latin East

7501:

The Crusades to the Holy Land: The Essential Reference Guide

7451: 7424: 6815: 6731: 6419: 6236: 6200: 6188: 6176: 6086: 6074: 6050: 6026: 5756: 4994: 4166: 2661: 2557:

crusaders marched on Cairo before being trapped between the

2079:

took As-Salih from Damascus to Aleppo. Gümüshtekin's rival,

1989:

before his coronation, but the right of their two children,

1872: 1667:. Bohemond never returned. He died, leaving an underage son 1467:

to Jerusalem. On 15 July 1099, crusaders took the city

9065: 8753:

The Feudal Nobility and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1174–1277

7991:

Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem

7652: 7628: 7568: 7544: 7289: 7181: 7109: 6942: 6940: 6938: 6791: 6743: 6707: 6431: 6356: 6272: 6113: 5989: 5987: 5912: 5852: 5828: 5360: 5336: 5249: 5213: 4970: 4958: 4946: 4874: 4610: 4065: 3990: 3980: 3978: 3515: 3172: 2778:

and Bohemond VI joined forces with the Mongols in the

2717:

with the remnants of his army, and ransomed days after the

1953:

delayed the payment he had been promised, Raynald pillaged

1922: 1866: 1449: 1234: 1199:

were killed in the succession conflict, and Suleiman's son

897: 663: 7640: 7616: 7604: 7580: 7376: 7361: 7277: 7265: 7241: 7024: 7000: 6911: 6887: 6803: 6695: 6683: 6659: 6647: 6563: 6479: 6467: 6455: 6443: 6014: 5972: 5960: 5936: 5888: 5864: 5840: 5816: 5780: 5720: 5696: 5684: 5636: 5624: 5588: 5576: 5552: 5528: 5468: 5456: 5432: 5420: 5372: 5348: 5273: 5201: 5153: 5129: 5059: 5057: 5006: 4898: 4886: 4862: 4802: 4670: 4490: 4274: 3837:

Les colonies franques de Syrie aux XIIme et XIIIme siècles

3463:

is thought to reflect the higher status that villagers or

3115:

dynasty that followed. The barons of Jerusalem in the 13th

2366:

in Anatolia. Only fragments of his army reached Outremer.

1597:, on the last occasion in alliance with Toghtekin. Baldwin 1126:' separate church organisation emerged under Muslim rule. 920:. The caliphs kept their legitimacy and prestige, but the 444:. In the Middle Ages the Crusader states were also called 118:, the four states were, in order from north to south: the 7903:

The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades

7388: 7097: 7073: 7036: 7012: 6671: 6623: 6515: 6491: 6397: 6395: 6004: 6002: 5744: 5660: 5612: 5516: 5444: 5285: 5261: 5237: 5141: 5117: 5105: 4814: 4742: 4730: 4718: 4694: 4658: 4646: 4550: 4526: 4238: 4178: 4154: 1718:

II assumed the regency of Antioch for the absent Bohemond

1408: 1048: 7592: 7439: 7325: 7157: 7133: 6935: 6503: 6296: 6224: 6062: 6038: 5984: 5876: 5804: 5504: 5309: 5297: 4766: 4622: 4478: 4418: 4334: 4322: 4298: 4286: 4262: 4226: 4202: 4190: 4104: 4082: 4080: 3975: 2721:

assumed power in Egypt through murdering As-Salih's son

2623:, with an army, to rule the kingdom of Jerusalem as his 2335: 2266:

Acre. His shock at the Frankish defeat in the resulting

2233:

Saladin and Guy fight from a 13th-century manuscript of

784:

even considered leading a military campaign against the

293:

rampant Christian antisemitism accompanying the Crusades

7145: 6988: 6863: 6767: 6635: 6551: 6407: 6332: 6101: 5165: 5054: 5030: 5018: 4982: 4934: 4922: 4910: 4598: 4514: 4026: 2670:'s westward expansion reached the Middle East when the 1393:

guided the crusade on the arduous three-month march to

8377:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 111–114. 7680:

The Creation of the Principality of Antioch: 1098–1130

7556: 7349: 7217: 6976: 6952: 6899: 6875: 6839: 6587: 6392: 6380: 6284: 6248: 6149: 5999: 5900: 5708: 5600: 5540: 5492: 5480: 5408: 5326: 5324: 5177: 4586: 4502: 4466: 4454: 4250: 2111:

for Sybilla's husband. William was the cousin of both

2041: 1565:

When Godfrey died in 1100, his retainers occupied the

666:—that is, in return for services that the grantee, or 192:

remained as the ruling prince in the captured city of

50:

Map of the territorial extent of the Crusader states (

7169: 6827: 5069: 4790: 4778: 4574: 4562: 4538: 4442: 4406: 4394: 4370: 4358: 4346: 4214: 4077: 2835:

before returning his attention to the Mongols of the

2755:

brought the war to Tripoli and Antioch. In 1258, the

1075:

were second-class citizens, obliged to pay a special

5189: 5042: 4430: 4053: 4014: 1636:, were captured while attacking Ridwan of Aleppo at 788:

who had attacked Byzantine territories in Anatolia.

98:, the foundation for these polities was laid by the 8729:

The Crusader States and Their Neighbours, 1098–1291

8549:. Vol. IV: R–Z. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1197–1201. 7301: 7253: 7229: 5564: 5321: 5093: 4850: 4634: 4310: 2730:, offering an anti-Muslim alliance to the Mongols. 2213:

years, but charged Joscelin with the ailing Baldwin

1857:. Fulk surrendered the castle and paid Zengi 50,000 1829:. Taking advantage of Antioch's weakened position, 1455:Under pressure from the poorer Franks, Godfrey and 267:, having separate legal and religious systems. The 8542: 8449:. Vol. III: K–P. ABC-CLIO. pp. 910–912. 8423: 8335:History: The Journal of the Historical Association 8327: 8279: 8017: 7727: 4838: 4382: 4002: 3247:mainly for leper knights in the 1130s, the German 2893:, the opportunity to expel the Franks. In 1289 he 2774:and ended the Abbasid Caliphate. Two years later, 1675:, succeeded as regent on Tancred's death in 1112. 420:The Kingdom of Jerusalem extended over historical 8430:. Vol. II: D–J. ABC-CLIO. pp. 662–672. 8286:. Vol. II: D–J. ABC-CLIO. pp. 379–385. 3425:living off the land. Charters from the early 12th 646:, and commercial contacts primarily enriched the 200:resulted in a decisive Crusader victory over the 9103: 3767:where the cultic site had however been divided. 2996:The feudatories of the king of Jerusalem in 1187 2432:in his truce with Saladin in 1192. Leo was Ruben 2067:. He became the most powerful baron by marrying 1800: 678:from Sicily; French aristocrats hastened to the 480:presented Palestine as the venue of the acts of 8421: 7499:Daniella Talmon Heller, "Muslims in Outremer", 4047: 3429:century show evidence of the donation of local 2057:III of Tripoli, assumed the regency for Baldwin 1730:A proposal by a group of pious knights about a 1506: 900:, and on to Baghdad. There, Saljūq's grandson 94:from 1098 to 1291. Following the principles of 37:"Outremer" redirects here. For other uses, see 8613:; Zacour, Norman P.; Hazard, Harry W. (eds.). 3480:per head and a tax on produce from trees. 13th 3153:and 12,000 crusaders fought against the Moors 2910: 2903:and fortified towns ruptured the history of a 2456:to Cilicia. Raymond's younger brother Bohemond 1896:consisted of two great armies led overland by 1378:all swore that any territory gained which the 856:and were emancipated when converted to Islam. 556:quickly developed, culminating in the idea of 500:coming from faraway lands, often as an act of 8808: 3220:The military orders emerged as a new form of 3180: 3158: 2881: 2801:was assassinated and replaced by the general 2756: 1767: 1679: 1268: 1211:branch of Shia Islam. The Persian missionary 1186: 1122:, broke with the Byzantine state church. The 1003: 976: 964: 956: 921: 905: 802:Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty 768:was not yet inevitable, and the Catholic and 3835: 3540: 3530: 3513: 3381:also had significant Christian populations. 3090: 3069: 3051: 3043: 3031: 3009: 2867: 2810: 2787: 2688: 2624: 2245:, in March 1186. A few months later, Baldwin 2204: 2190: 2062: 1853:, and besieged Fulk in the border castle of 1232: 1080: 1070: 1058: 997: 991: 982: 970: 950: 940: 864: 857: 849: 841: 817:at the beginning of the First Crusade (1097) 451: 374: 172:By 1098, the Crusaders' armed pilgrimage to 8957:County Palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos 8563: 8257:Byzantium and the Crusader States 1096–1204 8075: 6533: 5087: 4748: 4532: 4098: 3712:century when the jurists used phrases like 3458: 3452: 3446: 3440: 3434: 3235:. Their monastic rule was confirmed at the 3023: 3017: 2582:Frederick renewed his crusader oath on his 1880:Joscelin made an alliance with the Artuqid 1707: 1702:In 1118 Baldwin of Bourcq succeeded Baldwin 1483: 1322:The Byzantines augmented their armies with 445: 383: 365: 355: 8815: 8801: 8371:MacEvitt, Christopher (24 November 2010). 6608:, pp. 55, 57, 64, 69, 90–91, 160–161. 3270: 2548:in November 1219. The new sultan of Egypt 2505:, succeeded, and Isabella's half-brother, 2091:weakened the Byzantines' hold on Cilicia. 583:Most crusades came from what had been the 330:in around 1100: (from north to south) the 8487: 8203: 7984: 7598: 7525: 7469: 7418: 7406: 7394: 7343: 7319: 7199: 7115: 7091: 7079: 7042: 7018: 6946: 6797: 6629: 6521: 6497: 6374: 6350: 6314: 6266: 6218: 6170: 6143: 5954: 5798: 5678: 5654: 5219: 5063: 4988: 4832: 4676: 4496: 4280: 4071: 3907:, the crusader states in medieval Livonia 3602:—teeming oriental bazaars of the cities. 3239:in France in 1129. The name derives from 2751:'s conflict with his Genoese vassals the 2662:Destruction by the Mamluks (1244 to 1291) 2348:Guy of Lusignan, his brother Aimery, and 1285:held Jerusalem; Ridwan's father-in-law, 806:Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty 520:was thought to enclose his birthplace in 27:Christian states in the Levant, 1098–1291 8640:God's War: A New History of the Crusades 8370: 8300: 8277: 7874: 7851: 7722: 7696: 7674: 7646: 7622: 7610: 7457: 7445: 7433: 7163: 7139: 7127: 6584:, pp. 9–11, 32, 41, 47–48, 153–159. 6509: 6425: 6413: 6386: 6242: 6194: 6131: 6095: 6080: 6056: 6044: 6032: 5882: 5810: 5762: 4976: 4952: 4820: 4760: 4736: 4724: 4712: 4700: 4688: 4664: 4652: 4616: 4508: 4484: 4472: 3969: 3665: 3556: 3204: 2991: 2732: 2573: 2415: 2339: 2270:brought him to reconciliation with Guy. 2228: 2095:Châtillon and Baldwin's maternal uncle, 1871: 1510: 1419: 809: 399: 303:The terms Crusader states and Outremer ( 291:were heavily persecuted in a pattern of 45: 8689: 8661: 8633: 8608: 8540: 8180: 8131: 8012: 7702:The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land 7658: 7634: 7574: 7495: 7493: 7491: 7295: 7211: 7187: 7151: 6994: 6869: 6821: 6785: 6773: 6761: 6749: 6737: 6725: 6713: 6641: 6617: 6557: 6437: 6362: 6338: 6326: 6278: 6182: 6119: 6107: 5918: 5858: 5834: 5366: 5171: 5135: 5012: 4904: 4892: 4868: 4808: 4772: 4628: 4412: 4352: 4328: 4304: 4292: 4268: 4256: 4244: 4232: 4220: 4208: 4196: 4184: 4172: 4148: 4110: 3655: 3421:Most of the indigenous population were 3329: 3139: 2907:city civilisation rooted in antiquity. 1313:Timeline of the Principality of Antioch 1303:Military history of the Crusader states 996:grants combined with rivalries between 14: 9104: 8512: 8463: 8444: 8398: 8228: 8157: 8042: 7954:"Feudal Obligations in the Latin East" 7951: 7923: 7752: 7586: 7562: 7550: 7539:Wandering Monks, Virgins, and Pilgrims 7382: 7370: 7355: 7331: 7283: 7271: 7247: 7223: 7175: 7103: 7030: 7006: 6982: 6970: 6958: 6929: 6917: 6905: 6893: 6881: 6857: 6845: 6833: 6809: 6701: 6689: 6677: 6665: 6653: 6605: 6593: 6581: 6569: 6545: 6485: 6473: 6461: 6449: 6401: 6020: 5978: 5966: 5942: 5930: 5906: 5894: 5870: 5846: 5822: 5786: 5774: 5738: 5726: 5714: 5702: 5690: 5642: 5630: 5594: 5582: 5558: 5534: 5474: 5462: 5438: 5426: 5390: 5378: 5354: 5342: 5279: 5255: 5231: 5207: 5183: 5159: 5147: 5123: 5111: 5048: 5024: 5000: 4964: 4940: 4928: 4880: 4856: 4796: 4784: 4640: 4604: 4592: 4568: 4436: 4424: 4020: 3984: 3296:' against the rain of Turkish arrows. 2130:Baldwin negotiated a marriage between 1977:III died in 1163. His younger brother 824:permeated the Middle East from the 9th 750:Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople 318:'overseas') describe the four 8796: 8668:The Debate on the Crusades, 1099–2010 8325: 8251: 5750: 5666: 5618: 5522: 5450: 5291: 5267: 5243: 4122: 4032: 3946:, illustrated this in verse within a 3472:reported there was a poll tax of one 2797:. On their return, the Mamluk sultan 2336:Recovery and civil war (1189 to 1243) 1538:In August 1099, Godfrey defeated the 1465:marched along the Mediterranean coast 382:. Alternatively, the chronicles used 110:after it was lost to the 7th-century 8185:. Translated by Phyllis G. Jestice. 8103: 7897: 7813: 7788: 7488: 7307: 7259: 7235: 6302: 6290: 6254: 6230: 6206: 6155: 6068: 6008: 5993: 5606: 5570: 5546: 5510: 5498: 5486: 5414: 5402: 5330: 5315: 5303: 5195: 5099: 5075: 5036: 4916: 4844: 4580: 4556: 4544: 4520: 4460: 4448: 4400: 4388: 4376: 4364: 4340: 4316: 4160: 4086: 4059: 4008: 3996: 2766:, younger brother of the Great Khan 2693:troops in Egypt, alarming his uncle 1309:Timeline of the Kingdom of Jerusalem 1215:led a breakaway group, creating the 969:ruled it as regent for the underage 560:for lands claimed for Christianity. 244:, which had been established by the 8822: 3726:Arabic-speaking Orthodox Christians 3670:12th-century Hospitaller castle of 3016:, which was also known in Latin as 2854:. Isabella I's great-grandson 2042:Decline and survival (1174 to 1188) 1281:were in control. Ridwan's retainer 1267:and Aleppo respectively, but their 1129:During the late 10th and early 11th 375: 24: 8716: 8348:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1978.tb02360.x 8082:The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives 3529:century jurists, in the towns the 3201:Military order (religious society) 3194: 3006:Raymond III, Count of Tripoli 2469:renewed its allegiance to Bohemond 2370:landed at Acre in April 1191, and 1384:Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse 568: 440:. Edessa extended east beyond the 25: 9138: 8774: 8207:Crusading and the Crusader States 3811: 3789:Sovereign Military Order of Malta 2695:As-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus 2497:planned an invasion of Egypt but 2185:described in his contemporaneous 1457:Robert II, Count of Flanders 1091:. The Greek Orthodox natives, or 737:. This opposition, together with 360:irrespective of their ethnicity. 8896: 8780: 8309:University of Pennsylvania Press 7730:The First Crusade: A New History 7531: 7506: 7475: 7048: 3418:Christians remained a majority. 2528:John of Brienne was leader of a 2488:War of the Antiochene Succession 2125:Philip I, Count of Flanders 1784:was his heir. He married her to 1069:, like Christians and Jews. The 1047:from his cousin and son-in-law, 289:destruction of the Second Temple 157:, southern Lebanon, and western 106:in 1095 in order to reclaim the 32:Crusader states (disambiguation) 8233:. Translated by Peter M. Holt. 7667: 4116: 3928: 3287:The Frankish knights fought in 3213:granting the Al Aqsa Mosque to 2842:In 1268, the new Sicilian king 2490:lasted for more than a decade. 2393:, capturing Jaffa, Ascalon and 2132:Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy 1181:all died. Malik-Shah's brother 1065:, or protected peoples, to the 216:century, when they fell to the 210:Edessa fell to the Zengid Turks 9028:Livonian Brothers of the Sword 8915:Latin Empire of Constantinople 8751:Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1973). 8301:MacEvitt, Christopher (2008). 6620:, pp. 717, 970 (note 10). 3972:, pp. 115, 698 (note 49). 3818:Historiography of the Crusades 3804:European civilisation and the 2713:against Egypt in 1249. He was 2097:Joscelin III of Courtenay 1342:. He developed a doctrine of 1043:, while Shi'ites supported an 102:, which was proclaimed by the 13: 1: 8962:Lordship of Argos and Nauplia 8690:Tyerman, Christopher (2019). 8545:The Crusades: An Encyclopedia 8447:The Crusades: An Encyclopedia 8426:The Crusades: An Encyclopedia 8326:Mayer, Hans Eberhard (1978). 8282:The Crusades: An Encyclopedia 7881:University of Wisconsin Press 7854:The Crusades: An Encyclopedia 7824:The English Historical Review 7214:, pp. 127, 131, 136–141. 3916: 3791:survives to the present-day. 3347: 3149:commanded 5,000–7,000 troops 3078:Letters of the Holy Sepulchre 3030:, or in vernacular French as 2615:to the Franks while granting 2448:under Bohemond's eldest son, 2420:Map of Lesser Armenia in 1200 1801:Muslim revival (1131 to 1174) 1426:Roman de Godefroi de Bouillon 1317: 563: 322:states established after the 7512:Jamie Byrom, Michael Riley, 6932:, pp. 233–237, 244–262. 6860:, pp. 220–222, 229–234. 6788:, pp. 155–156, 158–160. 6764:, pp. 151–153, 160–161. 5933:, pp. 328–329, 341–344. 5741:, pp. 276–279, 283–284. 5405:, pp. 142–145, 160–161. 3921: 3496:. While some learnt Arabic, 3211:Baldwin II of Jerusalem 2782:, when Bohemond set fire to 2017:made him vizier. His nephew 1843:William IX of Aquitaine 1780:. Baldwin's eldest daughter 1507:Consolidation (1099 to 1130) 1407: 832:captured unconverted Turkic 654:. Climate change during the 506:Church of the Holy Sepulchre 474:prophets of the Hebrew Bible 406:Church of the Holy Sepulchre 265:indigenous Levantine peoples 180:. Edessa, under the rule of 70:in 1135, shortly before the 7: 9010:State of the Teutonic Order 8883:Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 8673:Manchester University Press 8229:Köhler, Michael A. (2013). 4048:Murray & Nicholson 2006 3938:and effective ruler of the 3893: 3714:men not of the rule of Rome 3703: 3317:, and from the 1150s large 3134: 2911:Government and institutions 2874:War of the Sicilian Vespers 1963:Raymond III of Tripoli 1941:resources. He tortured the 1714:('Field of Blood'), Baldwin 1153:defeated Byzantine Emperor 733:, and rejected the idea of 298: 10: 9143: 8496:Greenwood Publishing Group 8204:Jotischky, Andrew (2004). 8181:Jaspert, Nikolas (2006) . 8087:Edinburgh University Press 8020:The Turks in World History 7996:Cambridge University Press 4123:Ancos (3 September 2019). 3957: 3815: 3659: 3552: 3392: 3253:Order of St Thomas of Acre 3209:13th-century miniature of 3198: 2639:Theobald I of Navarre 2138:, a young aristocrat from 1981:had to repudiate his wife 1959:Thierry, Count of Flanders 1943:Latin Patriarch of Antioch 1902:Conrad III of Germany 1665:Greek patriarch of Antioch 1479:Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri 1306: 1300: 1296: 795: 572: 548:century. In contrast, the 269:ancient Jewish communities 234:siege of Jerusalem in 1244 198:siege of Jerusalem in 1099 39:Outre-Mer (disambiguation) 36: 29: 9074: 8995: 8905: 8894: 8839: 8830: 8693:The World of the Crusades 8578:10.1017/S0362152900005316 8488:Nicholson, Helen (2004). 8399:Morton, Nicholas (2020). 6973:, p. 154 (note 196). 3770: 3251:in 1198, and the English 3249:Order of Teutonic Knights 2399:Henry, Count of Champagne 2372:Richard I of England 2318:William II of Sicily 2259:Humphrey IV of Toron 1556:Patriarchate of Jerusalem 876:century, a minor clan of 791: 536:, Syria was an important 508:was built to commemorate 366: 218:Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt 8947:Duchy of the Archipelago 8473:GmbH. pp. 291–310. 7814:Buck, Andrew D. (2020). 7789:Boas, Adrian J. (1999). 7130:, pp. 142–147, 149. 6728:, pp. 144, 146–147. 6548:, pp. 108, 112–113. 6536:, pp. 179–180, 204. 6329:, pp. 728, 806–807. 6269:, pp. 251–252, 257. 6146:, pp. 236–241, 245. 6134:, pp. 203, 207–208. 5777:, pp. 278–281, 291. 5393:, pp. 195–199, 206. 5234:, pp. 149, 151–155. 4691:, pp. 43–45, 50–52. 3999:, pp. 274–276, 279. 3911:List of Crusader castles 3793:Philip IV of France 3401:and the Jordan River to 3056:. By the end of the 12th 2776:Hethum I of Cilicia 2368:Philip II of France 2028:As-Salih Ismail al-Malik 1898:Louis VII of France 1374:; and Godfrey's brother 1155:Romanos IV Diogenes 754:patriarchs of Alexandria 255:, began in 19th-century 176:was passing through the 8927:Kingdom of Thessalonica 8861:Principality of Antioch 8833:List of Crusader states 8405:Oxford University Press 8261:Oxford University Press 8137:Contesting the Crusades 8026:Oxford University Press 7907:Oxford University Press 6209:, pp. 87, 172–173. 3948:princely Islamic manual 3828:Joseph François Michaud 3321:. The extensive use of 3271:Combat arms and tactics 2878:Henry II of Cyprus 2856:Hugh III of Cyprus 2844:Charles I of Anjou 2707:Louis IX of France 2154:had close links to the 1933:as her second husband. 1582:Principality of Galilee 1442:Stephen, Count of Blois 1334:requested support from 1332:Alexios I Komnenos 1143: 892:, had expanded through 739:differences in theology 729:church leaders, titled 432:(known to the Arabs as 336:Principality of Antioch 220:. The Mamluks captured 124:Principality of Antioch 9049:Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek 8952:Triarchy of Negroponte 8932:Principality of Achaea 8920:Duchy of Philippopolis 8519:The Crusaders' Kingdom 8014:Findley, Carter Vaughn 7952:Edbury, P. W. (1977). 5003:, pp. 81–84, 103. 4715:, pp. 51, 58, 60. 4151:, pp. 8–9, 15–18. 3836: 3832:Emmanuel Guillaume-Rey 3765:Cave of the Patriarchs 3763:religion, like at the 3675: 3578: 3541: 3531: 3514: 3459: 3453: 3451:for Muslims. The term 3447: 3441: 3435: 3368:1.5 million and 3245:Order of Saint Lazarus 3222:religious organisation 3217: 3181: 3159: 3155:at Las Navas de Tolosa 3091: 3070: 3052: 3044: 3032: 3024: 3018: 3010: 2997: 2882: 2868: 2858:and her granddaughter 2819:and Arsuf in 1265 and 2811: 2788: 2757: 2740: 2715:captured near Damietta 2689: 2681:Nestorian Christianity 2625: 2579: 2564:Constantine of Baberon 2421: 2345: 2306:Pope Gregory VIII 2276:at the Horns of Hattin 2255:Heraclius of Jerusalem 2238: 2205: 2191: 2148:constable of Jerusalem 2063: 1951:Manuel I Komnenos 1877: 1768: 1708: 1680: 1622:William II Jordan 1519: 1484: 1429: 1361:duke of Lower Lorraine 1269: 1233: 1187: 1173:, the Fatimid Caliph, 1167:Suleiman ibn Qutulmish 1165:. Alp Arslan's cousin 1081: 1071: 1059: 1057:granted the status of 1045:alternative succession 1004: 998: 992: 983: 977: 971: 965: 957: 951: 941: 922: 906: 904:was granted the title 865: 858: 850: 842: 818: 597:part of northern Italy 518:Church of the Nativity 452: 446: 417: 384: 356: 308: 75: 9117:Christian terminology 9039:Bishopric of Courland 9034:Archbishopric of Riga 8698:Yale University Press 8253:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes 8043:France, John (1970). 7764:Yale University Press 7682:. The Boydell Press. 4967:, pp. 65, 78–81. 4883:, pp. 33–34, 55. 4835:, pp. 59–60, 62. 4763:, pp. 69, 72–73. 4559:, pp. 12, 14–15. 4175:, pp. 57, 61–62. 4163:, pp. 16, 19–22. 3816:Further information: 3669: 3660:Further information: 3569:(1162–1175). Centre: 3560: 3289:close order formation 3208: 3147:William the Conqueror 2995: 2864:Roger of San Severino 2736: 2577: 2499:sacked Constantinople 2419: 2343: 2285:Jerusalem surrendered 2232: 2203:IV appointed Raymond 2109:William of Montferrat 1973:The childless Baldwin 1875: 1863:John II Komnenos 1815:Hugh II of Jaffa 1634:Joscelin of Courtenay 1529:Toghtekin of Damascus 1514: 1423: 1372:Tancred of Hauteville 1301:Further information: 1203:revived his father's 830:Muslim border raiders 813: 796:Further information: 782:Pope Gregory VII 772:Churches remained in 408:, one of the holiest 403: 354:who came from Europe 130:(1102–1289), and the 116:Eastern Mediterranean 49: 8849:Kingdom of Jerusalem 8789:at Wikimedia Commons 8663:Tyerman, Christopher 8635:Tyerman, Christopher 8212:Taylor & Francis 8166:. pp. 159–191. 8141:Blackwell Publishing 7883:. pp. 196–211. 7856:. Vol. I: A–C. 7736:Simon & Schuster 7706:Simon & Schuster 7553:, pp. 252, 468. 7322:, pp. 152, 165. 6824:, pp. 111, 190. 6740:, pp. 144, 146. 6185:, pp. 269, 273. 5345:, pp. 180, 182. 5258:, pp. 153, 168. 5162:, pp. 145, 152. 4343:, pp. 222, 224. 3855:Jonathan Riley-Smith 3656:Art and architecture 3330:Weakness and decline 3233:Bernard of Clairvaux 3140:Size and recruitment 3092:assise sur la ligece 3046:assise sur la ligece 2793:reduced Mongol army 2723:Al-Muazzam Turanshah 2593:Pope Gregory IX 2478:of Aleppo, and with 2294:Conrad of Montferrat 2156:House of Plantagenet 2116:Frederick Barbarossa 1931:Raynald of Châtillon 1912:III, they agreed to 1620:Tripoli. His cousin 1473:ecclesiastical state 1370:; Bohemond's nephew 1255:, and Tutush's sons 884:, after the warlord 727:five highest ranking 656:Medieval Warm Period 623:, and the counts of 613:small central region 591:, which encompassed 510:Christ's crucifixion 344:Kingdom of Jerusalem 132:Kingdom of Jerusalem 90:that existed in the 9044:Bishopric of Dorpat 8975:Knights Hospitaller 8757:The Macmillan Press 8724:Holt, Peter Malcolm 8105:Holt, Peter Malcolm 8077:Hillenbrand, Carole 7837:10.1093/ehr/ceaa008 7759:The Crusader States 7661:, pp. 177–178. 7637:, pp. 174–176. 7589:, pp. 359–360. 7577:, pp. 152–154. 7528:, pp. 127–129. 7472:, pp. 134–143. 7460:, pp. 111–114. 7436:, pp. 667–668. 7421:, pp. 147–149. 7409:, pp. 145–146. 7385:, pp. 295–296. 7373:, pp. 280–281. 7346:, pp. 151–152. 7298:, pp. 120–121. 7286:, pp. 396–397. 7274:, pp. 392–393. 7250:, pp. 352–354. 7202:, pp. 128–130. 7190:, pp. 126–136. 7094:, pp. 131–132. 7033:, pp. 167–169. 7009:, pp. 167–168. 6920:, pp. 242–244. 6896:, pp. 192–197. 6812:, pp. 220–221. 6752:, pp. 154–156. 6716:, pp. 153–154. 6704:, pp. 255–257. 6692:, pp. 144–151. 6668:, pp. 331–337. 6656:, pp. 143–144. 6572:, pp. 108–109. 6488:, pp. 107–108. 6476:, pp. 112–117. 6464:, pp. 112–114. 6452:, pp. 104–105. 6440:, pp. 379–385. 6428:, pp. 379–385. 6377:, pp. 241–243. 6365:, pp. 816–818. 6353:, pp. 240–241. 6317:, pp. 239–240. 6305:, pp. 222–226. 6281:, pp. 727–728. 6245:, pp. 574–576. 6233:, pp. 213–215. 6221:, pp. 256–257. 6197:, pp. 572–574. 6173:, pp. 244–245. 6122:, pp. 263–267. 6098:, pp. 201–203. 6083:, pp. 538–539. 6071:, pp. 204–206. 6059:, pp. 201–202. 6035:, pp. 200–201. 6023:, pp. 269–270. 5996:, pp. 203–204. 5981:, pp. 353–354. 5969:, pp. 330–338. 5957:, pp. 170–171. 5945:, pp. 336–338. 5921:, pp. 406–409. 5897:, pp. 322–323. 5873:, pp. 307–317. 5861:, pp. 191–197. 5849:, pp. 299–315. 5837:, pp. 364–367. 5825:, pp. 290–299. 5801:, pp. 106–107. 5789:, pp. 280–290. 5765:, pp. 197–198. 5753:, pp. 223–224. 5729:, pp. 277–278. 5705:, pp. 229–230. 5693:, pp. 274–276. 5681:, pp. 104–106. 5669:, pp. 215–216. 5657:, pp. 103–104. 5645:, pp. 266–269. 5633:, pp. 217–220. 5621:, pp. 211–215. 5597:, pp. 213–215. 5585:, pp. 264–265. 5561:, pp. 258–264. 5537:, pp. 257–258. 5525:, pp. 204–210. 5513:, pp. 163–165. 5477:, pp. 237–252. 5465:, pp. 231–233. 5453:, pp. 175–180. 5441:, pp. 175–179. 5429:, pp. 209–212. 5381:, pp. 161–162. 5369:, pp. 336–337. 5357:, pp. 184–190. 5318:, pp. 134–135. 5306:, pp. 133–134. 5294:, pp. 120–122. 5282:, pp. 165–170. 5270:, pp. 106–107. 5246:, pp. 105–106. 5210:, pp. 144–149. 5150:, pp. 143–144. 5138:, pp. 253–254. 5126:, pp. 134–135. 5114:, pp. 129–131. 5090:, pp. 109–110. 5039:, pp. 118–120. 5015:, pp. 192–194. 4979:, pp. 118–136. 4955:, pp. 116–120. 4919:, pp. 112–114. 4907:, pp. 115–117. 4895:, pp. 147–149. 4871:, pp. 113–115. 4811:, pp. 150–152. 4619:, pp. 115–116. 4523:, pp. 167–168. 4101:, pp. 100–103. 4074:, pp. 34, 122. 4035:, pp. 175–176. 3987:, pp. 291–292. 3940:Great Seljuk Empire 3871:Christopher Tyerman 3842:Dana Carleton Munro 3797:Pope Clement V 3672:Krak des Chevaliers 3662:Art of the Crusades 3305:, including wooden 2829:Krak des Chevaliers 2747:. The pro-Venetian 2738:Krak des Chevaliers 2643:Richard of Cornwall 2631:War of the Lombards 2584:imperial coronation 2503:Maria of Montferrat 2197:also called Baldwin 2146:held the office of 1919:defeated and killed 1841:, a younger son of 1839:Raymond of Poitiers 1544:Al-Afdal Shahanshah 1368:Bohemond of Taranto 1357:Godfrey of Bouillon 1340:Council of Clermont 1328:Council of Piacenza 1231:century. The local 1201:Kilij Arslan I 1175:Al-Mustansir Billah 1037:splits within Islam 975:. On occasion, the 947:, Arabic for king. 798:Arab–Byzantine wars 458:Hans Eberhard Mayer 190:Bohemond of Taranto 186:Baldwin of Boulogne 9122:Historical regions 9084:Crusading movement 8980:Hospitaller Rhodes 8942:Duchy of Neopatras 8611:Setton, Kenneth M. 7877:The Crusader World 7860:. pp. 72–79. 7106:, pp. 49, 51. 7060:My Jewish Learning 6680:, pp. 11, 40. 4463:, pp. 18, 30. 4427:, pp. 19, 46. 4247:, pp. 57, 62. 4187:, pp. 47, 53. 3863:Carole Hillenbrand 3722:Arnulf of Chocques 3676: 3629:maritime republics 3579: 3542:cour des bourgeois 3535:presided over the 3445:for Christians or 3341:Michael the Syrian 3218: 2998: 2954:Assizes of Antioch 2745:War of Saint Sabas 2741: 2676:Khwarazmian Empire 2656:Alice of Champagne 2621:Richard Filangieri 2580: 2467:commune of Antioch 2422: 2403:Geoffroy de Donjon 2350:Gerard de Ridefort 2346: 2239: 2113:Holy Roman Emperor 2105:Stephanie of Milly 1983:Agnes of Courtenay 1878: 1649:Richard of Salerno 1520: 1430: 1376:Baldwin of Bologne 1336:Pope Urban II 1221:Order of Assassins 1067:People of the Book 819: 585:Carolingian Empire 516:in Jerusalem. The 418: 352:Western Christians 114:. Situated on the 76: 9099: 9098: 9066:Free City of Riga 8888:Kingdom of Cyprus 8878:County of Tripoli 8785:Media related to 8766:978-1-349-15498-2 8743:978-0-582-36931-3 8707:978-0-300-21739-1 8682:978-0-7190-7320-5 8654:978-0-141-90431-3 8556:978-1-57607-862-4 8533:978-1-84212-224-2 8505:978-0-313-32685-1 8480:978-3-11-032878-3 8471:Walter de Gruyter 8456:978-1-57607-862-4 8437:978-1-57607-862-4 8414:978-0-19-882454-1 8384:978-0-8122-0269-4 8318:978-0-8122-2083-4 8293:978-1-57607-862-4 8270:978-0-19-820407-7 8244:978-90-04-24857-1 8221:978-0-582-41851-6 8196:978-0-415-35968-9 8173:978-8-80-072239-1 8150:978-1-4051-1189-8 8124:978-0-58249-302-5 8096:978-0-7486-0630-6 8035:978-0-19-516770-2 8005:978-0-5215-2187-1 7986:Ellenblum, Ronnie 7944:978-0-7126-6633-6 7930:Europe: A History 7916:978-0-19-878799-0 7890:978-0-415-82494-1 7867:978-1-57607-862-4 7806:978-0-415-17361-2 7773:978-0-300-11312-9 7745:978-0-7432-2083-5 7715:978-1-84983-688-3 7689:978-0-85115-661-3 7649:, pp. 18–21. 7625:, pp. 13–14. 7613:, pp. 14–17. 7481:Nikolas Jaspert, 7334:, pp. 85–93. 7118:, pp. 20–22. 6800:, pp. 87–89. 6293:, pp. 87–94. 6257:, pp. 82–83. 6158:, pp. 63–64. 6011:, pp. 60–62. 5609:, pp. 54–55. 5549:, pp. 51–52. 5501:, pp. 49–51. 5489:, pp. 47–48. 5417:, pp. 44–46. 5222:, pp. 79–80. 5078:, pp. 27–28. 5027:, pp. 96–98. 4943:, pp. 56–64. 4931:, pp. 85–87. 4823:, pp. 85–88. 4775:, pp. 86–88. 4739:, pp. 75–76. 4727:, pp. 65–70. 4703:, pp. 59–60. 4679:, pp. 12–14. 4667:, pp. 33–47. 4655:, pp. 23–24. 4631:, pp. 46–47. 4607:, pp. 11–19. 4583:, pp. 20–21. 4547:, pp. 85–86. 4499:, pp. 42–46. 4451:, pp. 42–43. 4403:, pp. 82–83. 4379:, pp. 68–69. 4367:, pp. 66–67. 4331:, pp. 68–69. 4307:, pp. 65–68. 4295:, pp. 25–27. 4283:, pp. 28–29. 4271:, pp. 25–26. 4235:, pp. 24–25. 4211:, pp. 16–17. 4199:, pp. 3, 88. 4113:, pp. 28–29. 4089:, pp. 34–35. 4062:, pp. 33–34. 3880:Benjamin Z. Kedar 3787:(1530–1798). The 3760:Usama ibn Munqidh 3730:coadjutor bishops 3693:Melisende Psalter 3681:French Romanesque 3237:Council of Troyes 2900:siege of the city 2891:Al-Mansur Qalawun 2672:Mongols conquered 2546:captured Damietta 2542:Cardinal Pelagius 2530:gathering crusade 2268:Battle of Cresson 2263:Baldwin of Ibelin 2243:Izz al-Din Mas'ud 2034:IV, was 13 and a 1947:Aimery of Limoges 1938:captured the town 1927:Beatrice of Saone 1835:Cilician Armenian 1778:Taj al-Muluk Buri 1774:Imad al-Din Zengi 1725:council at Nablus 1575:Baldwin of Bourcq 1033:Abbasid Caliphate 1029:Fatimid Caliphate 1015:ruled indigenous 680:Iberian Peninsula 589:Holy Roman Empire 575:Early Middle Ages 438:Upper Mesopotamia 392:. These medieval 340:County of Tripoli 317: 285:Jewish–Roman wars 261:Western Europeans 242:Kingdom of Cyprus 230:Ayyubid Sultanate 202:Fatimid Caliphate 128:County of Tripoli 126:(1098–1268), the 122:(1098–1150), the 88:Catholic polities 16:(Redirected from 9134: 9127:Christian states 9059:Order of Dobrzyń 8987:Genoese colonies 8900: 8866:County of Edessa 8817: 8810: 8803: 8794: 8793: 8784: 8770: 8747: 8711: 8686: 8658: 8630: 8605: 8560: 8548: 8537: 8509: 8484: 8460: 8441: 8429: 8418: 8395: 8393: 8391: 8367: 8342:(208): 175–192. 8331: 8322: 8297: 8285: 8274: 8248: 8235:Brill Publishers 8225: 8200: 8177: 8154: 8128: 8100: 8072: 8039: 8023: 8009: 7981: 7948: 7920: 7894: 7871: 7848: 7831:(573): 271–302. 7820: 7810: 7785: 7749: 7733: 7724:Asbridge, Thomas 7719: 7698:Asbridge, Thomas 7693: 7676:Asbridge, Thomas 7662: 7656: 7650: 7644: 7638: 7632: 7626: 7620: 7614: 7608: 7602: 7596: 7590: 7584: 7578: 7572: 7566: 7560: 7554: 7548: 7542: 7535: 7529: 7523: 7517: 7510: 7504: 7497: 7486: 7479: 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4536: 4533:Hillenbrand 1999 4530: 4524: 4518: 4512: 4506: 4500: 4494: 4488: 4487:, pp. 8–10. 4482: 4476: 4470: 4464: 4458: 4452: 4446: 4440: 4434: 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4380: 4374: 4368: 4362: 4356: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4326: 4320: 4314: 4308: 4302: 4296: 4290: 4284: 4278: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4254: 4248: 4242: 4236: 4230: 4224: 4218: 4212: 4206: 4200: 4194: 4188: 4182: 4176: 4170: 4164: 4158: 4152: 4146: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4120: 4114: 4108: 4102: 4099:Hillenbrand 1999 4096: 4090: 4084: 4075: 4069: 4063: 4057: 4051: 4045: 4036: 4030: 4024: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3982: 3973: 3967: 3951: 3932: 3867:Ronnie Ellenblum 3847: 3839: 3825: 3783:(1309–1522) and 3711: 3651: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3544: 3537:Cour des Syriens 3534: 3528: 3519: 3483: 3462: 3456: 3450: 3444: 3438: 3428: 3408: 3364:2 million, 3360:8 million, 3337:Battle of Harran 3241:Solomon's Temple 3215:Hugues de Payens 3186: 3162: 3126: 3121:Jacques de Vitry 3118: 3094: 3088: 3082:Philip of Novara 3075: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3049: 3040:tenants-in-chief 3037: 3029: 3021: 3015: 2987: 2980: 2963: 2885: 2871: 2860:Maria of Antioch 2814: 2791: 2762: 2749:Bohemond VI 2699:sacked Jerusalem 2692: 2652:heir presumptive 2628: 2589: 2537: 2518: 2483: 2472: 2459: 2435: 2427: 2322:Ali ibn al-Athir 2298:defences of Tyre 2290: 2281: 2248: 2225: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2202: 2194: 2178: 2142:. Guy's brother 2121: 2089:at Myriokephalon 2069:Eschiva of Bures 2066: 2060: 2056: 2033: 1976: 1955:Byzantine Cyprus 1911: 1860: 1850: 1826: 1810: 1771: 1757:Charles the Good 1749: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1705: 1683: 1673:Roger of Salerno 1669:Bohemond II 1659:. The resulting 1657:Balkan Peninsula 1600: 1571:Gazi Gümüshtigin 1552:Daimbert of Pisa 1489: 1412: 1283:Sokman ben Artuq 1272: 1239:took control of 1238: 1230: 1205:Sultanate of Rum 1190: 1148: 1132: 1102: 1086: 1074: 1064: 1007: 1001: 995: 988: 980: 974: 968: 962: 954: 946: 925: 911: 875: 868: 861: 855: 847: 827: 822:Turkic migration 766:East–West Schism 723:Gregorian Reform 644:on the offensive 579:High Middle Ages 547: 526:Dome of the Rock 490:Isra' and Mi'raj 455: 449: 387: 378: 377: 369: 368: 359: 332:County of Edessa 312: 215: 120:County of Edessa 21: 9142: 9141: 9137: 9136: 9135: 9133: 9132: 9131: 9112:Crusader states 9102: 9101: 9100: 9095: 9079:Military orders 9070: 8999: 8991: 8937:Duchy of Athens 8901: 8892: 8835: 8826: 8824:Crusader states 8821: 8787:Crusader states 8777: 8767: 8750: 8744: 8734:Pearson Longman 8722: 8719: 8717:Further reading 8714: 8708: 8683: 8655: 8627: 8557: 8534: 8506: 8481: 8457: 8438: 8415: 8389: 8387: 8385: 8319: 8294: 8271: 8245: 8222: 8197: 8174: 8151: 8133:Housley, Norman 8125: 8115:Pearson Longman 8097: 8036: 8006: 7945: 7917: 7891: 7868: 7818: 7807: 7774: 7754:Barber, Malcolm 7746: 7716: 7690: 7670: 7665: 7657: 7653: 7645: 7641: 7633: 7629: 7621: 7617: 7609: 7605: 7597: 7593: 7585: 7581: 7573: 7569: 7561: 7557: 7549: 7545: 7537:Maribel Dietz, 7536: 7532: 7524: 7520: 7511: 7507: 7498: 7489: 7480: 7476: 7468: 7464: 7456: 7452: 7444: 7440: 7432: 7425: 7417: 7413: 7405: 7401: 7393: 7389: 7381: 7377: 7369: 7362: 7354: 7350: 7342: 7338: 7330: 7326: 7318: 7314: 7306: 7302: 7294: 7290: 7282: 7278: 7270: 7266: 7258: 7254: 7246: 7242: 7234: 7230: 7222: 7218: 7210: 7206: 7198: 7194: 7186: 7182: 7174: 7170: 7166:, pp. 149. 7162: 7158: 7150: 7146: 7138: 7134: 7126: 7122: 7114: 7110: 7102: 7098: 7090: 7086: 7078: 7074: 7064: 7062: 7054: 7053: 7049: 7041: 7037: 7029: 7025: 7017: 7013: 7005: 7001: 6993: 6989: 6981: 6977: 6969: 6965: 6957: 6953: 6945: 6936: 6928: 6924: 6916: 6912: 6904: 6900: 6892: 6888: 6880: 6876: 6868: 6864: 6856: 6852: 6844: 6840: 6832: 6828: 6820: 6816: 6808: 6804: 6796: 6792: 6784: 6780: 6772: 6768: 6760: 6756: 6748: 6744: 6736: 6732: 6724: 6720: 6712: 6708: 6700: 6696: 6688: 6684: 6676: 6672: 6664: 6660: 6652: 6648: 6640: 6636: 6628: 6624: 6616: 6612: 6604: 6600: 6596:, pp. 161. 6592: 6588: 6580: 6576: 6568: 6564: 6556: 6552: 6544: 6540: 6532: 6528: 6520: 6516: 6508: 6504: 6496: 6492: 6484: 6480: 6472: 6468: 6460: 6456: 6448: 6444: 6436: 6432: 6424: 6420: 6412: 6408: 6400: 6393: 6385: 6381: 6373: 6369: 6361: 6357: 6349: 6345: 6337: 6333: 6325: 6321: 6313: 6309: 6301: 6297: 6289: 6285: 6277: 6273: 6265: 6261: 6253: 6249: 6241: 6237: 6229: 6225: 6217: 6213: 6205: 6201: 6193: 6189: 6181: 6177: 6169: 6162: 6154: 6150: 6142: 6138: 6130: 6126: 6118: 6114: 6106: 6102: 6094: 6087: 6079: 6075: 6067: 6063: 6055: 6051: 6043: 6039: 6031: 6027: 6019: 6015: 6007: 6000: 5992: 5985: 5977: 5973: 5965: 5961: 5953: 5949: 5941: 5937: 5929: 5925: 5917: 5913: 5905: 5901: 5893: 5889: 5881: 5877: 5869: 5865: 5857: 5853: 5845: 5841: 5833: 5829: 5821: 5817: 5809: 5805: 5797: 5793: 5785: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5761: 5757: 5749: 5745: 5737: 5733: 5725: 5721: 5713: 5709: 5701: 5697: 5689: 5685: 5677: 5673: 5665: 5661: 5653: 5649: 5641: 5637: 5629: 5625: 5617: 5613: 5605: 5601: 5593: 5589: 5581: 5577: 5569: 5565: 5557: 5553: 5545: 5541: 5533: 5529: 5521: 5517: 5509: 5505: 5497: 5493: 5485: 5481: 5473: 5469: 5461: 5457: 5449: 5445: 5437: 5433: 5425: 5421: 5413: 5409: 5401: 5397: 5389: 5385: 5377: 5373: 5365: 5361: 5353: 5349: 5341: 5337: 5329: 5322: 5314: 5310: 5302: 5298: 5290: 5286: 5278: 5274: 5266: 5262: 5254: 5250: 5242: 5238: 5230: 5226: 5218: 5214: 5206: 5202: 5194: 5190: 5182: 5178: 5170: 5166: 5158: 5154: 5146: 5142: 5134: 5130: 5122: 5118: 5110: 5106: 5098: 5094: 5086: 5082: 5074: 5070: 5062: 5055: 5047: 5043: 5035: 5031: 5023: 5019: 5011: 5007: 4999: 4995: 4987: 4983: 4975: 4971: 4963: 4959: 4951: 4947: 4939: 4935: 4927: 4923: 4915: 4911: 4903: 4899: 4891: 4887: 4879: 4875: 4867: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4843: 4839: 4831: 4827: 4819: 4815: 4807: 4803: 4795: 4791: 4783: 4779: 4771: 4767: 4759: 4755: 4747: 4743: 4735: 4731: 4723: 4719: 4711: 4707: 4699: 4695: 4687: 4683: 4675: 4671: 4663: 4659: 4651: 4647: 4639: 4635: 4627: 4623: 4615: 4611: 4603: 4599: 4591: 4587: 4579: 4575: 4571:, pp. 8–9. 4567: 4563: 4555: 4551: 4543: 4539: 4531: 4527: 4519: 4515: 4507: 4503: 4495: 4491: 4483: 4479: 4471: 4467: 4459: 4455: 4447: 4443: 4435: 4431: 4423: 4419: 4411: 4407: 4399: 4395: 4387: 4383: 4375: 4371: 4363: 4359: 4351: 4347: 4339: 4335: 4327: 4323: 4319:, pp. 6–7. 4315: 4311: 4303: 4299: 4291: 4287: 4279: 4275: 4267: 4263: 4259:, pp. 4–6. 4255: 4251: 4243: 4239: 4231: 4227: 4219: 4215: 4207: 4203: 4195: 4191: 4183: 4179: 4171: 4167: 4159: 4155: 4147: 4143: 4133: 4131: 4121: 4117: 4109: 4105: 4097: 4093: 4085: 4078: 4070: 4066: 4058: 4054: 4046: 4039: 4031: 4027: 4019: 4015: 4007: 4003: 3995: 3991: 3983: 3976: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3955: 3954: 3933: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3896: 3845: 3823: 3820: 3814: 3773: 3747:Catholic Church 3720:when the Frank 3709: 3706: 3685:column capitals 3664: 3658: 3649: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3555: 3526: 3481: 3426: 3406: 3395: 3350: 3332: 3323:carrier pigeons 3298:Feigned retreat 3273: 3203: 3197: 3195:Military orders 3142: 3137: 3124: 3116: 3086: 3061: 3057: 3042:. In 1162, the 3019:Curia generalis 2985: 2978: 2961: 2913: 2664: 2601:for the crusade 2587: 2554:Al-Mu'azzam Isa 2535: 2516: 2511:John of Brienne 2481: 2470: 2457: 2433: 2425: 2362:drowned in the 2338: 2288: 2279: 2246: 2223: 2214: 2210: 2200: 2183:William of Tyre 2176: 2136:Guy of Lusignan 2119: 2081:Ibn al-Muqaddam 2058: 2054: 2051:Miles of Plancy 2044: 2031: 1991:Baldwin IV 1974: 1914:attack Damascus 1909: 1858: 1848: 1824: 1819:Pons of Tripoli 1808: 1803: 1747: 1740:Knights Templar 1736:military orders 1719: 1715: 1703: 1661:Treaty of Devol 1598: 1509: 1501:Crusade of 1101 1395:besiege Antioch 1320: 1315: 1305: 1299: 1228: 1213:Hassan-i Sabbah 1177:and the vizier 1130: 1100: 1089:Muslim conquest 873: 872:In the mid-11th 825: 808: 794: 735:papal supremacy 581: 573:Main articles: 571: 569:Catholic Europe 566: 545: 416:, in Jerusalem. 362:Byzantine Greek 301: 226:Tripoli in 1289 222:Antioch in 1268 213: 182:Greek Orthodoxy 145:, and northern 141:, northwestern 112:Muslim conquest 80:Crusader states 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9140: 9130: 9129: 9124: 9119: 9114: 9097: 9096: 9094: 9093: 9092: 9091: 9081: 9075: 9072: 9071: 9069: 9068: 9063: 9062: 9061: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9025: 9024: 9023: 9021:Livonian Order 9018: 9016:Teutonic Order 9006: 9004: 8993: 8992: 8990: 8989: 8984: 8983: 8982: 8972: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8949: 8944: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8923: 8922: 8911: 8909: 8903: 8902: 8895: 8893: 8891: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8875: 8874: 8873: 8863: 8858: 8857: 8856: 8845: 8843: 8837: 8836: 8831: 8828: 8827: 8820: 8819: 8812: 8805: 8797: 8791: 8790: 8776: 8775:External links 8773: 8772: 8771: 8765: 8748: 8742: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8712: 8706: 8687: 8681: 8659: 8653: 8631: 8625: 8606: 8561: 8555: 8538: 8532: 8514:Prawer, Joshua 8510: 8504: 8485: 8479: 8461: 8455: 8442: 8436: 8419: 8413: 8396: 8383: 8368: 8323: 8317: 8298: 8292: 8275: 8269: 8249: 8243: 8226: 8220: 8201: 8195: 8178: 8172: 8155: 8149: 8129: 8123: 8101: 8095: 8073: 8055:(2): 276–308. 8040: 8034: 8010: 8004: 7982: 7949: 7943: 7925:Davies, Norman 7921: 7915: 7895: 7889: 7872: 7866: 7849: 7811: 7805: 7786: 7772: 7750: 7744: 7720: 7714: 7694: 7688: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7663: 7651: 7639: 7627: 7615: 7603: 7599:Nicholson 2004 7591: 7579: 7567: 7565:, p. 359. 7555: 7543: 7530: 7526:Jotischky 2004 7518: 7505: 7487: 7474: 7470:Jotischky 2004 7462: 7450: 7448:, p. 138. 7438: 7423: 7419:Jotischky 2004 7411: 7407:Jotischky 2004 7399: 7397:, p. 146. 7395:Jotischky 2004 7387: 7375: 7360: 7358:, p. 468. 7348: 7344:Jotischky 2004 7336: 7324: 7320:Jotischky 2004 7312: 7300: 7288: 7276: 7264: 7252: 7240: 7228: 7226:, p. 382. 7216: 7204: 7200:Jotischky 2004 7192: 7180: 7168: 7156: 7154:, p. 127. 7144: 7142:, p. 177. 7132: 7120: 7116:Ellenblum 1998 7108: 7096: 7092:Jotischky 2004 7084: 7082:, p. 131. 7080:Jotischky 2004 7072: 7047: 7045:, p. 261. 7043:Jotischky 2004 7035: 7023: 7021:, p. 150. 7019:Jotischky 2004 7011: 6999: 6997:, p. 298. 6987: 6985:, p. 154. 6975: 6963: 6961:, p. 169. 6951: 6947:Ellenblum 1998 6934: 6922: 6910: 6908:, p. 191. 6898: 6886: 6884:, p. 251. 6874: 6872:, p. 373. 6862: 6850: 6848:, p. 222. 6838: 6826: 6814: 6802: 6798:Jotischky 2004 6790: 6778: 6776:, p. 155. 6766: 6754: 6742: 6730: 6718: 6706: 6694: 6682: 6670: 6658: 6646: 6644:, p. 820. 6634: 6632:, p. 246. 6630:Jotischky 2004 6622: 6610: 6598: 6586: 6574: 6562: 6560:, p. 268. 6550: 6538: 6526: 6524:, p. 226. 6522:Jotischky 2004 6514: 6512:, p. 139. 6502: 6500:, p. 228. 6498:Jotischky 2004 6490: 6478: 6466: 6454: 6442: 6430: 6418: 6406: 6404:, p. 122. 6391: 6379: 6375:Jotischky 2004 6367: 6355: 6351:Jotischky 2004 6343: 6341:, p. 353. 6331: 6319: 6315:Jotischky 2004 6307: 6295: 6283: 6271: 6267:Jotischky 2004 6259: 6247: 6235: 6223: 6219:Jotischky 2004 6211: 6199: 6187: 6175: 6171:Jotischky 2004 6160: 6148: 6144:Jotischky 2004 6136: 6124: 6112: 6110:, p. 267. 6100: 6085: 6073: 6061: 6049: 6047:, p. 538. 6037: 6025: 6013: 5998: 5983: 5971: 5959: 5955:Jotischky 2004 5947: 5935: 5923: 5911: 5909:, p. 330. 5899: 5887: 5885:, p. 398. 5875: 5863: 5851: 5839: 5827: 5815: 5813:, p. 198. 5803: 5799:Jotischky 2004 5791: 5779: 5767: 5755: 5743: 5731: 5719: 5717:, p. 276. 5707: 5695: 5683: 5679:Jotischky 2004 5671: 5659: 5655:Jotischky 2004 5647: 5635: 5623: 5611: 5599: 5587: 5575: 5563: 5551: 5539: 5527: 5515: 5503: 5491: 5479: 5467: 5455: 5443: 5431: 5419: 5407: 5395: 5383: 5371: 5359: 5347: 5335: 5320: 5308: 5296: 5284: 5272: 5260: 5248: 5236: 5224: 5220:Jotischky 2004 5212: 5200: 5198:, p. 130. 5188: 5186:, p. 152. 5176: 5174:, p. 187. 5164: 5152: 5140: 5128: 5116: 5104: 5102:, p. 126. 5092: 5080: 5068: 5064:Jotischky 2004 5053: 5041: 5029: 5017: 5005: 4993: 4989:Jotischky 2004 4981: 4969: 4957: 4945: 4933: 4921: 4909: 4897: 4885: 4873: 4861: 4849: 4837: 4833:Jotischky 2004 4825: 4813: 4801: 4799:, p. 298. 4789: 4787:, p. 281. 4777: 4765: 4753: 4741: 4729: 4717: 4705: 4693: 4681: 4677:Jotischky 2004 4669: 4657: 4645: 4633: 4621: 4609: 4597: 4585: 4573: 4561: 4549: 4537: 4525: 4513: 4501: 4497:Jotischky 2004 4489: 4477: 4465: 4453: 4441: 4429: 4417: 4405: 4393: 4381: 4369: 4357: 4345: 4333: 4321: 4309: 4297: 4285: 4281:Jotischky 2004 4273: 4261: 4249: 4237: 4225: 4213: 4201: 4189: 4177: 4165: 4153: 4141: 4115: 4103: 4091: 4076: 4072:Jotischky 2004 4064: 4052: 4050:, p. 671. 4037: 4025: 4023:, p. 910. 4013: 4011:, p. 297. 4001: 3989: 3974: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3953: 3952: 3926: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3914: 3913: 3908: 3902: 3895: 3892: 3813: 3812:Historiography 3810: 3772: 3769: 3743:Bishop of Acre 3739:Eleutheropolis 3718:Simeon II 3705: 3702: 3657: 3654: 3567:Holy Sepulchre 3554: 3551: 3394: 3391: 3349: 3346: 3331: 3328: 3311:battering rams 3272: 3269: 3199:Main article: 3196: 3193: 3189:lord of Marash 3171:, and much of 3141: 3138: 3136: 3133: 2912: 2909: 2852:at Tagliacozzo 2825:sacked Antioch 2780:sack of Aleppo 2772:sacked Baghdad 2711:failed crusade 2663: 2660: 2648:As-Salih Ayyub 2507:John of Ibelin 2495:Fourth Crusade 2476:Az-Zahir Ghazi 2463:Al-Adil I 2454:Raymond-Roupen 2376:Isaac Komnenos 2337: 2334: 2296:commanded the 2101:Oultrejourdain 2043: 2040: 1985:on grounds of 1904:, arriving in 1802: 1799: 1732:monastic order 1710:Ager Sanguinis 1567:Tower of David 1540:Fatimid vizier 1508: 1505: 1463:The crusaders 1438:Muhammad Tapar 1389:The Byzantine 1319: 1316: 1298: 1295: 1275:Janah ad-Dawla 1179:Badr al-Jamali 1097:Constantinople 918:Abbasid Caliph 793: 790: 774:full communion 746:excommunicated 605:Lower Lorraine 570: 567: 565: 562: 530:Al-Aqsa Mosque 300: 297: 134:(1099–1291). 72:Second Crusade 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9139: 9128: 9125: 9123: 9120: 9118: 9115: 9113: 9110: 9109: 9107: 9090: 9087: 9086: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9076: 9073: 9067: 9064: 9060: 9057: 9056: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9029: 9026: 9022: 9019: 9017: 9014: 9013: 9011: 9008: 9007: 9005: 9003: 8998: 8994: 8988: 8985: 8981: 8978: 8977: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8921: 8918: 8917: 8916: 8913: 8912: 8910: 8908: 8904: 8899: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8872: 8869: 8868: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8855: 8852: 8851: 8850: 8847: 8846: 8844: 8842: 8838: 8834: 8829: 8825: 8818: 8813: 8811: 8806: 8804: 8799: 8798: 8795: 8788: 8783: 8779: 8778: 8768: 8762: 8758: 8754: 8749: 8745: 8739: 8735: 8731: 8730: 8725: 8721: 8720: 8709: 8703: 8699: 8695: 8694: 8688: 8684: 8678: 8674: 8670: 8669: 8664: 8660: 8656: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8641: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8626:0-299-09140-6 8622: 8618: 8617: 8612: 8607: 8603: 8599: 8595: 8591: 8587: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8562: 8558: 8552: 8547: 8546: 8539: 8535: 8529: 8525: 8524:Phoenix Press 8521: 8520: 8515: 8511: 8507: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8492: 8486: 8482: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8462: 8458: 8452: 8448: 8443: 8439: 8433: 8428: 8427: 8420: 8416: 8410: 8406: 8402: 8397: 8386: 8380: 8376: 8375: 8369: 8365: 8361: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8345: 8341: 8337: 8336: 8330: 8324: 8320: 8314: 8310: 8306: 8305: 8299: 8295: 8289: 8284: 8283: 8276: 8272: 8266: 8262: 8258: 8254: 8250: 8246: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8227: 8223: 8217: 8213: 8209: 8208: 8202: 8198: 8192: 8188: 8184: 8179: 8175: 8169: 8165: 8161: 8156: 8152: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8120: 8116: 8112: 8111: 8106: 8102: 8098: 8092: 8088: 8084: 8083: 8078: 8074: 8070: 8066: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8041: 8037: 8031: 8027: 8022: 8021: 8015: 8011: 8007: 8001: 7997: 7993: 7992: 7987: 7983: 7979: 7975: 7971: 7967: 7963: 7959: 7955: 7950: 7946: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7931: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7900: 7899:Cobb, Paul M. 7896: 7892: 7886: 7882: 7878: 7873: 7869: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7850: 7846: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7825: 7817: 7812: 7808: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7793: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7775: 7769: 7765: 7761: 7760: 7755: 7751: 7747: 7741: 7737: 7732: 7731: 7725: 7721: 7717: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7685: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7672: 7660: 7655: 7648: 7647:MacEvitt 2008 7643: 7636: 7631: 7624: 7623:MacEvitt 2008 7619: 7612: 7611:MacEvitt 2008 7607: 7601:, p. 96. 7600: 7595: 7588: 7583: 7576: 7571: 7564: 7559: 7552: 7547: 7540: 7534: 7527: 7522: 7515: 7509: 7502: 7496: 7494: 7492: 7484: 7483:Die Kreuzzüge 7478: 7471: 7466: 7459: 7458:MacEvitt 2010 7454: 7447: 7446:MacEvitt 2008 7442: 7435: 7434:Asbridge 2012 7430: 7428: 7420: 7415: 7408: 7403: 7396: 7391: 7384: 7379: 7372: 7367: 7365: 7357: 7352: 7345: 7340: 7333: 7328: 7321: 7316: 7310:, p. 25. 7309: 7304: 7297: 7292: 7285: 7280: 7273: 7268: 7262:, p. 61. 7261: 7256: 7249: 7244: 7238:, p. 76. 7237: 7232: 7225: 7220: 7213: 7208: 7201: 7196: 7189: 7184: 7178:, p. 81. 7177: 7172: 7165: 7164:MacEvitt 2008 7160: 7153: 7148: 7141: 7140:Asbridge 2012 7136: 7129: 7128:MacEvitt 2008 7124: 7117: 7112: 7105: 7100: 7093: 7088: 7081: 7076: 7061: 7057: 7051: 7044: 7039: 7032: 7027: 7020: 7015: 7008: 7003: 6996: 6991: 6984: 6979: 6972: 6967: 6960: 6955: 6949:, p. 31. 6948: 6943: 6941: 6939: 6931: 6926: 6919: 6914: 6907: 6902: 6895: 6890: 6883: 6878: 6871: 6866: 6859: 6854: 6847: 6842: 6836:, p. 71. 6835: 6830: 6823: 6818: 6811: 6806: 6799: 6794: 6787: 6782: 6775: 6770: 6763: 6758: 6751: 6746: 6739: 6734: 6727: 6722: 6715: 6710: 6703: 6698: 6691: 6686: 6679: 6674: 6667: 6662: 6655: 6650: 6643: 6638: 6631: 6626: 6619: 6614: 6607: 6602: 6595: 6590: 6583: 6578: 6571: 6566: 6559: 6554: 6547: 6542: 6535: 6530: 6523: 6518: 6511: 6510:MacEvitt 2008 6506: 6499: 6494: 6487: 6482: 6475: 6470: 6463: 6458: 6451: 6446: 6439: 6434: 6427: 6426:MacEvitt 2006 6422: 6416:, p. 74. 6415: 6414:Burgtorf 2006 6410: 6403: 6398: 6396: 6388: 6387:Asbridge 2000 6383: 6376: 6371: 6364: 6359: 6352: 6347: 6340: 6335: 6328: 6323: 6316: 6311: 6304: 6299: 6292: 6287: 6280: 6275: 6268: 6263: 6256: 6251: 6244: 6243:Asbridge 2012 6239: 6232: 6227: 6220: 6215: 6208: 6203: 6196: 6195:Asbridge 2012 6191: 6184: 6179: 6172: 6167: 6165: 6157: 6152: 6145: 6140: 6133: 6132:Burgtorf 2016 6128: 6121: 6116: 6109: 6104: 6097: 6096:Burgtorf 2016 6092: 6090: 6082: 6081:Asbridge 2012 6077: 6070: 6065: 6058: 6057:Burgtorf 2016 6053: 6046: 6045:Asbridge 2012 6041: 6034: 6033:Burgtorf 2016 6029: 6022: 6017: 6010: 6005: 6003: 5995: 5990: 5988: 5980: 5975: 5968: 5963: 5956: 5951: 5944: 5939: 5932: 5927: 5920: 5915: 5908: 5903: 5896: 5891: 5884: 5883:Asbridge 2012 5879: 5872: 5867: 5860: 5855: 5848: 5843: 5836: 5831: 5824: 5819: 5812: 5811:Burgtorf 2016 5807: 5800: 5795: 5788: 5783: 5776: 5771: 5764: 5763:Burgtorf 2016 5759: 5752: 5747: 5740: 5735: 5728: 5723: 5716: 5711: 5704: 5699: 5692: 5687: 5680: 5675: 5668: 5663: 5656: 5651: 5644: 5639: 5632: 5627: 5620: 5615: 5608: 5603: 5596: 5591: 5584: 5579: 5573:, p. 53. 5572: 5567: 5560: 5555: 5548: 5543: 5536: 5531: 5524: 5519: 5512: 5507: 5500: 5495: 5488: 5483: 5476: 5471: 5464: 5459: 5452: 5447: 5440: 5435: 5428: 5423: 5416: 5411: 5404: 5399: 5392: 5387: 5380: 5375: 5368: 5363: 5356: 5351: 5344: 5339: 5333:, p. 42. 5332: 5327: 5325: 5317: 5312: 5305: 5300: 5293: 5288: 5281: 5276: 5269: 5264: 5257: 5252: 5245: 5240: 5233: 5228: 5221: 5216: 5209: 5204: 5197: 5192: 5185: 5180: 5173: 5168: 5161: 5156: 5149: 5144: 5137: 5132: 5125: 5120: 5113: 5108: 5101: 5096: 5089: 5084: 5077: 5072: 5066:, p. 74. 5065: 5060: 5058: 5051:, p. 97. 5050: 5045: 5038: 5033: 5026: 5021: 5014: 5009: 5002: 4997: 4991:, p. 71. 4990: 4985: 4978: 4977:Asbridge 2012 4973: 4966: 4961: 4954: 4953:Asbridge 2012 4949: 4942: 4937: 4930: 4925: 4918: 4913: 4906: 4901: 4894: 4889: 4882: 4877: 4870: 4865: 4858: 4853: 4847:, p. 23. 4846: 4841: 4834: 4829: 4822: 4821:Asbridge 2012 4817: 4810: 4805: 4798: 4793: 4786: 4781: 4774: 4769: 4762: 4761:Asbridge 2012 4757: 4751:, p. 78. 4750: 4745: 4738: 4737:MacEvitt 2008 4733: 4726: 4725:MacEvitt 2008 4721: 4714: 4713:MacEvitt 2008 4709: 4702: 4701:Asbridge 2012 4697: 4690: 4689:Asbridge 2012 4685: 4678: 4673: 4666: 4665:Asbridge 2012 4661: 4654: 4653:Asbridge 2004 4649: 4642: 4637: 4630: 4625: 4618: 4617:Asbridge 2004 4613: 4606: 4601: 4594: 4589: 4582: 4577: 4570: 4565: 4558: 4553: 4546: 4541: 4535:, p. 33. 4534: 4529: 4522: 4517: 4511:, p. 27. 4510: 4509:Asbridge 2012 4505: 4498: 4493: 4486: 4485:MacEvitt 2008 4481: 4475:, p. 18. 4474: 4473:Asbridge 2012 4469: 4462: 4457: 4450: 4445: 4439:, p. 46. 4438: 4433: 4426: 4421: 4415:, p. 12. 4414: 4409: 4402: 4397: 4391:, p. 27. 4390: 4385: 4378: 4373: 4366: 4361: 4355:, p. 71. 4354: 4349: 4342: 4337: 4330: 4325: 4318: 4313: 4306: 4301: 4294: 4289: 4282: 4277: 4270: 4265: 4258: 4253: 4246: 4241: 4234: 4229: 4223:, p. 54. 4222: 4217: 4210: 4205: 4198: 4193: 4186: 4181: 4174: 4169: 4162: 4157: 4150: 4145: 4130: 4129:Life in Italy 4126: 4119: 4112: 4107: 4100: 4095: 4088: 4083: 4081: 4073: 4068: 4061: 4056: 4049: 4044: 4042: 4034: 4029: 4022: 4017: 4010: 4005: 3998: 3993: 3986: 3981: 3979: 3971: 3970:Asbridge 2012 3966: 3962: 3949: 3945: 3944:Nizam al-Mulk 3941: 3937: 3931: 3927: 3912: 3909: 3906: 3905:Terra Mariana 3903: 3901: 3898: 3897: 3891: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3875:Denys Pringle 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3851:Joshua Prawer 3843: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3819: 3809: 3807: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3777: 3768: 3766: 3761: 3757: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3701: 3698: 3694: 3688: 3686: 3682: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3653: 3647: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3625: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3611: 3610: 3603: 3601: 3584: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3559: 3550: 3546: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3523: 3518: 3517: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3492:and wrote in 3491: 3486: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3455: 3449: 3443: 3437: 3432: 3424: 3419: 3417: 3413: 3404: 3400: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3354: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3327: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3303:siege engines 3299: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3283: 3279: 3268: 3266: 3262: 3261:standing army 3256: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3231: 3228: 3223: 3216: 3212: 3207: 3202: 3192: 3190: 3185: 3184: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3132: 3128: 3122: 3114: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3096: 3093: 3083: 3079: 3074: 3073: 3066: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3041: 3036: 3035: 3028: 3027: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3007: 3003: 3002:Oultrejordain 2994: 2990: 2982: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2908: 2906: 2901: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2840: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2823:in 1266, and 2822: 2818: 2813: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2790: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2760: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2729: 2724: 2720: 2719:Bahri Mamluks 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2682: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2668:Mongol Empire 2659: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2627: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2585: 2576: 2572: 2569: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2531: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2491: 2489: 2485: 2477: 2468: 2464: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2431: 2418: 2414: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2379: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2351: 2342: 2333: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2313: 2311: 2308:called for a 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2286: 2277: 2271: 2269: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2244: 2236: 2235:Matthew Paris 2231: 2227: 2221: 2207: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2172: 2167: 2165: 2161: 2160:Ibelin family 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2126: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2092: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2065: 2052: 2049: 2039: 2037: 2029: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1987:consanguinity 1984: 1980: 1971: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1939: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1915: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1887: 1883: 1874: 1870: 1868: 1864: 1856: 1852: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1798: 1796: 1791: 1787: 1786:Fulk of Anjou 1783: 1779: 1775: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1753:Flemish count 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1712: 1711: 1700: 1698: 1694: 1689: 1687: 1682: 1676: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1645: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1630: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1604: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1583: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1525:Orontes River 1517: 1513: 1504: 1502: 1497: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1481: 1480: 1474: 1470: 1469:after a siege 1466: 1461: 1458: 1453: 1451: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1427: 1422: 1418: 1416: 1411: 1410: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1352: 1349: 1345: 1344:bellum sacrum 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1314: 1310: 1304: 1294: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1263:succeeded in 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1237: 1236: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1147: 1146: 1140: 1136: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1103:century, the 1098: 1094: 1090: 1085: 1084: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1062: 1056: 1052: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1009: 1006: 1000: 994: 987: 986: 979: 973: 967: 961: 960: 953: 948: 945: 944: 938: 934: 930: 929:Danishmendids 924: 919: 915: 910: 909: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 870: 867: 860: 854: 853: 846: 845: 839: 838:Central Asian 835: 831: 823: 816: 812: 807: 803: 799: 789: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 752:in 1054. The 751: 747: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 711: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 682:to fight the 681: 677: 676:Muslim rulers 673: 669: 665: 660: 657: 653: 649: 648:Islamic world 645: 640: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 580: 576: 561: 559: 555: 554:religious war 551: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 478:New Testament 475: 471: 466: 464: 459: 454: 448: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 415: 411: 407: 402: 398: 395: 391: 386: 381: 372: 363: 358: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 324:First Crusade 321: 315: 310: 306: 296: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 249: 247: 246:Third Crusade 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 170: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 135: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 100:First Crusade 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 48: 44: 40: 33: 19: 9054:Dobrzyń Land 8970:Stato da Màr 8823: 8752: 8728: 8692: 8667: 8639: 8615: 8569: 8565: 8544: 8518: 8491:The Crusades 8490: 8466: 8446: 8425: 8400: 8388:. Retrieved 8373: 8339: 8333: 8303: 8281: 8256: 8230: 8206: 8183:The Crusades 8182: 8159: 8136: 8109: 8081: 8052: 8048: 8019: 7990: 7961: 7957: 7929: 7902: 7876: 7853: 7828: 7822: 7791: 7758: 7729: 7701: 7679: 7668:Bibliography 7659:Tyerman 2011 7654: 7642: 7635:Tyerman 2011 7630: 7618: 7606: 7594: 7582: 7575:Housley 2006 7570: 7558: 7546: 7538: 7533: 7521: 7513: 7508: 7500: 7482: 7477: 7465: 7453: 7441: 7414: 7402: 7390: 7378: 7351: 7339: 7327: 7315: 7303: 7296:Tyerman 2019 7291: 7279: 7267: 7255: 7243: 7231: 7219: 7212:Tyerman 2019 7207: 7195: 7188:Tyerman 2019 7183: 7171: 7159: 7152:Tyerman 2019 7147: 7135: 7123: 7111: 7099: 7087: 7075: 7063:. Retrieved 7059: 7050: 7038: 7026: 7014: 7002: 6995:Russell 1985 6990: 6978: 6966: 6954: 6925: 6913: 6901: 6889: 6877: 6870:Tyerman 2019 6865: 6853: 6841: 6829: 6822:Tyerman 2019 6817: 6805: 6793: 6786:Jaspert 2006 6781: 6774:Tyerman 2019 6769: 6762:Jaspert 2006 6757: 6750:Tyerman 2019 6745: 6738:Jaspert 2006 6733: 6726:Jaspert 2006 6721: 6714:Tyerman 2019 6709: 6697: 6685: 6673: 6661: 6649: 6642:Tyerman 2007 6637: 6625: 6618:Tyerman 2007 6613: 6601: 6589: 6577: 6565: 6558:Tyerman 2019 6553: 6541: 6529: 6517: 6505: 6493: 6481: 6469: 6457: 6445: 6438:Richard 2006 6433: 6421: 6409: 6389:, p. 4. 6382: 6370: 6363:Tyerman 2007 6358: 6346: 6339:Tyerman 2019 6334: 6327:Tyerman 2007 6322: 6310: 6298: 6286: 6279:Tyerman 2007 6274: 6262: 6250: 6238: 6226: 6214: 6202: 6190: 6183:Tyerman 2019 6178: 6151: 6139: 6127: 6120:Tyerman 2019 6115: 6108:Tyerman 2019 6103: 6076: 6064: 6052: 6040: 6028: 6016: 5974: 5962: 5950: 5938: 5926: 5919:Tyerman 2007 5914: 5902: 5890: 5878: 5866: 5859:Tyerman 2019 5854: 5842: 5835:Tyerman 2007 5830: 5818: 5806: 5794: 5782: 5770: 5758: 5746: 5734: 5722: 5710: 5698: 5686: 5674: 5662: 5650: 5638: 5626: 5614: 5602: 5590: 5578: 5566: 5554: 5542: 5530: 5518: 5506: 5494: 5482: 5470: 5458: 5446: 5434: 5422: 5410: 5398: 5386: 5374: 5367:Tyerman 2007 5362: 5350: 5338: 5311: 5299: 5287: 5275: 5263: 5251: 5239: 5227: 5215: 5203: 5191: 5179: 5172:Tyerman 2019 5167: 5155: 5143: 5136:Tyerman 2007 5131: 5119: 5107: 5095: 5083: 5071: 5044: 5032: 5020: 5013:Tyerman 2007 5008: 4996: 4984: 4972: 4960: 4948: 4936: 4924: 4912: 4905:Tyerman 2019 4900: 4893:Tyerman 2019 4888: 4876: 4869:Tyerman 2019 4864: 4859:, p. 7. 4852: 4840: 4828: 4816: 4809:Tyerman 2007 4804: 4792: 4780: 4773:Tyerman 2019 4768: 4756: 4744: 4732: 4720: 4708: 4696: 4684: 4672: 4660: 4648: 4643:, p. 9. 4636: 4629:Tyerman 2019 4624: 4612: 4600: 4588: 4576: 4564: 4552: 4540: 4528: 4516: 4504: 4492: 4480: 4468: 4456: 4444: 4432: 4420: 4413:Tyerman 2007 4408: 4396: 4384: 4372: 4360: 4353:Findley 2005 4348: 4336: 4329:Findley 2005 4324: 4312: 4305:Findley 2005 4300: 4293:Jaspert 2006 4288: 4276: 4269:Jaspert 2006 4264: 4257:Tyerman 2007 4252: 4245:Tyerman 2007 4240: 4233:Jaspert 2006 4228: 4221:Tyerman 2007 4216: 4209:Jaspert 2006 4204: 4197:Jaspert 2006 4192: 4185:Tyerman 2007 4180: 4173:Tyerman 2007 4168: 4156: 4149:Tyerman 2007 4144: 4132:. Retrieved 4128: 4118: 4111:Tyerman 2019 4106: 4094: 4067: 4055: 4028: 4016: 4004: 3992: 3965: 3930: 3900:Frankokratia 3888:Jean Richard 3884:Claude Cahen 3858: 3821: 3778: 3774: 3755: 3750: 3713: 3707: 3689: 3677: 3627:The Italian 3626: 3614: 3607: 3604: 3580: 3547: 3536: 3521: 3487: 3420: 3396: 3387: 3383: 3370:North Africa 3355: 3351: 3333: 3307:siege towers 3286: 3274: 3265:Beth Gibelin 3257: 3219: 3177: 3143: 3129: 3113:Hohenstaufen 3097: 3077: 3067: 2999: 2983: 2967:Monophysites 2950:Italo-Norman 2914: 2841: 2807:Golden Horde 2795:at Ain Jalut 2742: 2703:at La Forbie 2665: 2617:Temple Mount 2581: 2527: 2492: 2423: 2380: 2364:Saleph River 2354:grand master 2347: 2314: 2272: 2240: 2237:'s chronicle 2168: 2152:their family 2129: 2103:by marrying 2093: 2045: 1972: 1935: 1891: 1879: 1827:II of Edessa 1804: 1761: 1729: 1701: 1690: 1677: 1646: 1631: 1607: 1579: 1564: 1537: 1533:condominiums 1521: 1492: 1477: 1462: 1454: 1446: 1431: 1425: 1388: 1380:Roman Empire 1365:Italo-Norman 1359:, nominally 1353: 1343: 1321: 1249:Banu Munqidh 1225: 1128: 1099:. In the 5th 1053: 1010: 949: 912:—'power' in 871: 820: 743:papal legate 712: 661: 641: 582: 552:ideology of 534:Muslim world 514:resurrection 467: 433: 426:Jordan River 419: 379: 370: 364:sources use 302: 250: 238:Acre in 1291 178:Syria region 171: 166: 136: 104:Latin Church 86:, were four 83: 79: 77: 43: 8572:: 179–204. 7964:: 328–356. 7782:j.ctt32bvs5 7587:Davies 1997 7563:Davies 1997 7551:Prawer 1972 7383:Prawer 1972 7371:Prawer 1972 7356:Prawer 1972 7332:Prawer 1972 7284:Prawer 1972 7272:Prawer 1972 7248:Prawer 1972 7224:Prawer 1972 7176:Prawer 1972 7104:Prawer 1972 7065:26 November 7031:Jacoby 2007 7007:Jacoby 2007 6983:Morton 2020 6971:Morton 2020 6959:Jacoby 2007 6930:Morton 2020 6918:Morton 2020 6906:Morton 2020 6894:Morton 2020 6882:Morton 2020 6858:Morton 2020 6846:Morton 2020 6834:Barber 2012 6810:Morton 2020 6702:Morton 2020 6690:Morton 2020 6678:Morton 2020 6666:Edbury 1977 6654:Morton 2020 6606:Morton 2020 6594:Morton 2020 6582:Morton 2020 6570:Prawer 1972 6546:Prawer 1972 6486:Prawer 1972 6474:Prawer 1972 6462:Prawer 1972 6450:Prawer 1972 6402:Prawer 1972 6021:Köhler 2013 5979:Barber 2012 5967:Barber 2012 5943:Barber 2012 5931:Barber 2012 5907:Barber 2012 5895:Barber 2012 5871:Barber 2012 5847:Barber 2012 5823:Barber 2012 5787:Barber 2012 5775:Barber 2012 5739:Barber 2012 5727:Barber 2012 5715:Barber 2012 5703:Köhler 2013 5691:Barber 2012 5643:Barber 2012 5631:Köhler 2013 5595:Köhler 2013 5583:Barber 2012 5559:Barber 2012 5535:Barber 2012 5475:Barber 2012 5463:Barber 2012 5439:Köhler 2013 5427:Barber 2012 5391:Barber 2012 5379:Köhler 2013 5355:Barber 2012 5343:Barber 2012 5280:Barber 2012 5256:Barber 2012 5232:Barber 2012 5208:Barber 2012 5184:Barber 2012 5160:Barber 2012 5148:Barber 2012 5124:Barber 2012 5112:Barber 2012 5049:Köhler 2013 5025:Köhler 2013 5001:Barber 2012 4965:Barber 2012 4941:Barber 2012 4929:Köhler 2013 4881:Köhler 2013 4857:Köhler 2013 4797:France 1970 4785:France 1970 4641:Barber 2012 4605:Köhler 2013 4593:Köhler 2013 4569:Köhler 2013 4437:Barber 2012 4425:Barber 2012 4134:9 September 4021:Murray 2006 3985:Murray 2013 3822:In the 19th 3806:Renaissance 3583:Mesopotamia 3294:shield-roof 3151:at Hastings 3100:Montbéliard 3026:Curia regis 2934:chamberlain 2918:Christendom 2709:launched a 2635:new crusade 2559:Nile floods 2383:attritional 2310:new crusade 2077:Gümüshtekin 2023:with Venice 1894:new crusade 1882:Kara Arslan 1855:Montferrand 1744:Hospitaller 1324:mercenaries 1247:, the Arab 1109:Monophysite 1055:Islamic law 939:was titled 890:Transoxiana 878:Oghuz Turks 719:Saint Peter 692:city-states 652:Middle East 496:visited by 414:Christendom 373:and Arabic 208:. 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