Paranthropus boisei

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0.006–1.7 individuals per square kilometre (0.4 square mile). Alternatively, by multiplying the density of either bovids, elephants, or hippos by the percentage of hominin remains out of total mammal remains found at the formation, Boaz estimated a density of 0.001–2.58 individuals per square kilometre. Biologist Robert A. Martin considered population models based on the number of known specimens to be flimsy. In 1981, Martin applied equations formulated by ecologists Alton S. Harestad and Fred L. Bunnel in 1979 to estimate the home range and population density of large mammals based on weight and diet, and, using a weight of 52.4 kg (116 lb), he got: 130 ha (320 acres) and 0.769 individual per square kilometre if herbivorous; 1,295 ha (3,200 acres) and 0.077 individual if omnivorous; and 287,819 ha (711,220 acres) and 0.0004 individual if carnivorous. For comparison, he calculated 953 ha (2,350 acres) and 0.104 individual per square kilometre for omnivorous, 37.5-kilogram (83 lb) chimps.

129: 2680: 2921: 2778: 3116: 673: 2856: 2754:), and the greater surface area would have permitted the processing of larger quantities of food at once. In the upper jaw, the 1st molar averages roughly 250 mm (0.39 sq in), the 2nd molar 320 mm (0.50 sq in), and the 3rd molar 315 mm (0.488 sq in); in the lower jaw, the 1st molar averages roughly 260 mm (0.40 sq in), the 2nd molar 315 mm (0.488 sq in), and the 3rd molar 340 mm (0.53 sq in). The molars are 153: 2907:, the best proxy for estimating body mass, is missing, but using the shaft, OH 80 weighed about 50 kg (110 lb) assuming humanlike proportions, and 61.7 kg (136 lb) using the proportions of a non-human ape. The ambiguously attributed, presumed female femur KNM-ER 1500 is estimated to have been of an individual about 124 cm (4 ft 1 in) tall which would be consistent with the argument of sexual dimorphism, but if the specimen does indeed belong to 3245: 7757: 553: 7781: 7769: 3373:, as there are no australopithecine sites that were below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in elevation at the time of deposition. This would mean that, like chimps, they often inhabited areas with an average diurnal temperature of 25 °C (77 °F), dropping to 10 or 5 °C (50 or 41 °F) at night. 3304:

largely due to dental development trends. Broadly speaking, the emergence of the first permanent molar in early hominins has been variously estimated anywhere from 2.5 to 4.5 years of age, which all contrast markedly with the modern human average of 5.8 years. The tips of the mesial cusps of the 1st

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instead of the anterior branch as in earlier hominins, and considered this a derived characteristic due to increased brain capacity. It has since been demonstrated that the parietal branch could originate from either the anterior or posterior branches, sometimes both in a single specimen on opposite

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associated with facial elements, OH 80 (isolated teeth with an arm and a leg), were discovered in 2013. Previously, body remains lacking unambiguous diagnostic skull elements had been dubiously assigned to the species, namely the partial skeleton KNM-ER 1500 associated with a small jawbone fragment.

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where females are much smaller than males, though body size is difficult to estimate given only one specimen, OH 80, definitely provides any bodily elements. The presumed male OH 80 may have been 156 cm (5 ft 1 in) tall and 61.7 kg (136 lb) in weight, and the presumed female

716:

from Koobi Fora in 1970. In 1997, the first specimen with both the skull and jawbone (and also one of the largest specimens), KGA10-525, was discovered in Konso. In 1999, a jawbone was recovered from Malema, Malawi, extending the species' southernmost range over 2,000 km (1,200 mi) from

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Gully. Sometime around 11:00 AM, she noticed what appeared to be a portion of a skull poking out of the ground, OH 5. The dig team created a pile of stones around the exposed portion to protect it from further weathering. Active excavation began the following day; they had chosen to wait for

628:

Louis determined OH 5 to be a subadult or adolescent based on dental development, and he and Mary nicknamed it "Dear Boy". After they reconstructed the skull and jaws, newspapers began referring to it as "Nutcracker Man" due to the large back teeth and jaws which gave it a resemblance to vintage

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may have had a higher tooth-root formation rate. The specimen's 1st molar may have erupted 2–3 months before death, so possibly at 2.7–3.3 years of age. In modern apes (including humans), dental development trajectory is strongly correlated with life history and overall growth rate, but it is

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noticed that the relative proportions between large mammal families at the Shungura Formation are quite similar to the proportion in modern-day across sub-Saharan Africa. Boaz believed that hominins would have had about the same population density as other large mammals, which would equate to

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before it was broken and using modern humanlike proportions (which is probably an unsafe assumption), OH 80 was about 156.3 cm (5 ft 1.5 in) tall in life. For comparison, modern human men and women in the year 1900 averaged 163 cm (5 ft 4 in) and 152.7 cm

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5 years earlier, he said, "There is no reason whatever, in this case, to believe that the skull represents the victim of a cannibalistic feast by some hypothetical more advanced type of man." OH 80 seems to have been eaten by a big cat. The leg OH 35, which either belongs to

2800:

specimens, brain size varied from 444–545 cc (27.1–33.3 cu in) with an average of 487.5 cc (29.75 cu in). However, the lower-end specimen, Omo L338‐y6, is a juvenile, and many skull specimens have a highly damaged or missing

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with each other and to other australopithecines is difficult to gauge with accuracy. The jaws are the main argument for monophyly, but such anatomy is strongly influenced by diet and environment, and could in all likelihood have evolved independently in

3212:. The infrequency of such large animals at this site may explain the relative rarity of bone tools. The toolmakers were modifying bone in much the same way as they did with stone. Though the Olduvan bone tools are normally ascribed to 1937:(the then only known australopithecines) were two distinct lineages. However, remains were not firmly dated, and it was debated if there were indeed multiple hominin lineages or if there was only 1 leading to humans. In 1975, the 3356:-driven periods of relative humidity while being more rare during intervals of aridity. During the Pleistocene, there seems to have been coastal and montane forests in Eastern Africa. More expansive river valleys–namely the 2722:

to resist high stresses while chewing, though the thick palate could instead be a byproduct of facial lengthening. The skull features large rough patches (rugosities) on the cheek and jawbones, and males have pronounced

637:, a colleague of the Leakeys, has also received attribution for this nickname. The cranium was taken to Kenya after its discovery and was there until January 1965 when it was placed on display in the Hall of Man at the 3112:, which can sustain themselves entirely on lower quality fallback foods year-round, as opposed to lighter built chimps (and presumably gracile australopithecines) which require steady access to high quality foods. 3208:. In East Africa, a few have been encountered at Olduvai Gorge Beds I–IV, occurring over roughly 1.7 to 0.8 million years ago, and are usually made of limb bones and possibly teeth of large mammals, most notably 448:

is the most robust of this group. Brain size was about 450–550 cc (27–34 cu in), similar to other australopithecines. Some skulls are markedly smaller than others, which is taken as evidence of

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Valley–may have served as important refuges for forest-dwelling creatures. Being cut off from the forests of Central Africa by a savanna corridor, these East African forests would have promoted high rates of

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found that the microwearing patterns on the molars were inconsistent with a diet high in hard foods, and were effectively indistinguishable from the pattern seen in the molars of fruit-eating (

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Colcord, Devon E.; Shilling, Andrea M.; Freeman, Katherine H.; Njau, Jackson K.; Stanistreet, Ian G.; Stollhoffen, Harald; Schick, Kathy D.; Toth, Nicholas; Brassell, Simon C. (15 June 2019).

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may have been a generalist feeder with a predilection for USOs, and may have gone extinct due to an aridity trend and a resultant decline in USOs in tandem with increasing competition with

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photographer Des Bartlett to document the entire process. The partial cranium was fully unearthed August 6, though it had to be reconstructed from its fragments which were scattered in the

2848:. In 1988, Falk and Tobias demonstrated that hominins can have both an occipital/marginal and transverse/sigmoid systems concurrently or on opposite halves of the skull, such as with the 6123:

Njau, J. K.; Blumenschine, R. J. (2012). "Crocodylian and mammalian carnivore feeding traces on hominid fossils from FLK 22 and FLK NN 3, Plio-Pleistocene, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania".

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upon its description in 1964. In 2013, OH 80 was found associated with a mass of Oldowan stone tools and animal bones bearing evidence of butchery. This could potentially indicate

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By the time OH 5 was discovered, the Leakeys had spent 24 years excavating the area for early hominin remains, but had instead recovered mainly other animal remains as well as the

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have been thoroughly examined, and suggest that the heavy build of the skull was only relevant when eating less desirable fallback foods. A similar scheme may have been in use by

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are comparatively small). However, it is also possible that male gorillas and orangutans require larger temporalis muscles to achieve a wider gape to better display the canines.

3181:. Because OH 5 was associated with the tools and processed animal bones, they presumed it was the toolmaker. Attribution of the tools was promptly switched to the bigger-brained 5453:

Griffith, Cameron S.; Long, Byron L.; Sept, Jeanne M. (2010). "HOMINIDS: An agent-based spatial simulation model to evaluate behavioral patterns of early Pleistocene hominids".

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had met Dear Boy one dark night." At the time of discovery, there was resistance to erecting completely new genera based on single specimens, and the Congress largely rejected "

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Aramendi, K.; Arriaza, M. C.; Yravedra, J.; et al. (2019). "Who ate OH80 (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania)? A geometric-morphometric analysis of surface bone modifications of a

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with males being notably bigger than females. However, it is difficult to predict with accuracy the true dimensions of living males and females due to the lack of definitive

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is more towards the midline of the femur, and the mid-shaft in side-view is straighter, which likely reflect some difference in load-bearing capabilities of the leg. Unlike

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In 2015, based on OH 80, American palaeoanthropologist Michael Lague recommended assigning the isolated humerus specimens KNM-ER 739, 1504, 6020 and 1591 from Koobi Fora to

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relied on USOs as a fallback or possibly primary food source, and noted that there may be a correlation between high USO abundance and hominin occupation. In this model,

2988:, or was completely bipedal but retained an ape-like upper body condition from some ancestor species due to a lack of selective pressure to lose them. In contrast, the 3326:

possible that early hominins simply had a faster dental trajectory and slower life history due to environmental factors, such as early weaning age exhibited in modern

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which can alter brain volume estimates. The brain volume of australopithecines generally ranged from 400–500 cc (24–31 cu in), and for contemporary

2625: 786:. Louis believed the skull had a mix of traits from both genera, briefly listing 20 differences, and so used OH 5 as the basis for the new genus and species " 5302:

Cerling, Thure E.; Mbua, Emma; Kirera, Francis M.; Manthi, Fredrick Kyalo; Grine, Frederick E.; Leakey, Meave G.; Sponheimer, Matt; Unoa, Kevin T. (2011).

128: 454:

KNM-ER 1500 124 cm (4 ft 1 in) tall (though its species designation is unclear). The arm and hand bones of OH 80 and KNM-ER 47000 suggest

5859: 7626: 3163:. Like modern chimps and baboons, australopithecines likely foraged for food in the cooler morning and evening instead of in the heat of the day. 7886: 7654: 3349: 3100:

plants, such as low quality and abrasive grasses and sedges. Thick enamel is consistent with grinding abrasive foods. The microwear patterns in

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to be ancestral to the other two species, or closely related to the ancestor. Proponents of paraphyly allocate these three species to the genus

2863: 5239:

Scott, Robert S.; Ungar, Peter S.; Bergstrom, Torbjorn S.; Brown, Christopher A.; Grine, Frederick E.; Teaford, Mark F.; Walker, Alan (2005).

3553: 5375:(2005). "The rise of the hominids as an adaptive shift in fallback foods: Plant underground storage organs (USOs) and australopith origins". 2025:

was at the time the oldest-known hominin species at roughly 3.5 million years old. Now, the earliest known South African australopithecine ("

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Hatley, T.; Kappelman, J. (1980). "Bears, pigs, and Plio-Pleistocene hominids: A case for the exploitation of belowground food resources".

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just north of Olduvai Gorge in 1964. Especially from 1966 to 1975, several more specimens revealing facial elements were reported from the

7502: 4472: 3139:(USOs), such as roots and tubers. Since then, hominin exploitation of USOs has gained more support. In 2005, biological anthropologists 6780: 4708: 4687: 1684: 6890: 6850: 4899:(1988). "Enlarged occipital/marginal sinuses and emissary foramina: Their significance in hominid evolution". In Grine, F. E. (ed.). 3344:

remains have been found predominantly in what were wet, wooded environments, such as wetlands along lakes and rivers, wooded or arid

1554: 7968: 7873: 7742: 7586: 6900: 1574: 943: 3305:

molar (on the side closest to the premolar) of KNM-ER 1820 were at about the same level as the cervix (where the enamel meets the

2617: 472:

of hard foods, such as nuts, due to its heavily built skull, but it was more likely a generalist feeder of predominantly abrasive

3004:(finger bones) which are typically interpreted as adaptations for climbing. Nonetheless, despite lacking a particularly forceful 2594: 7983: 7978: 7644: 6895: 1534: 7649: 7527: 6905: 6406: 6339: 4908: 4498: 3942: 3868: 3646: 2606: 6511:

Leakey, Louis (January 1960). "The Newest Link in Human Evolution: The Discovery by L.S.B. Leakey of Zinjanthropus Boisei".

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Morell, Virginia. "Ancestral Passions: The Leakey Family and the Quest for Humankind's Beginnings". Touchstone, 2011. p. 193

3309:) of its non-permanent 2nd premolar. In baboons, this stage occurs when the 1st molar is about to erupt from the gums. The 484:, the apparently specialised adaptations of the skull may have only been used with less desirable fallback foods, allowing 3097: 3000:(which allows the hand to lock into the wrist to exert more pressure), a weak thumb compared to modern humans, and curved 2614: 2611: 473: 7606: 726:. In 2020, the first associated hand bones were reported, KNM-ER 47000 (which also includes a nearly complete arm), from 6811: 5597:"Bone tools from Beds II–IV, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, and implications for the origins and evolution of bone technology" 4102:"Taxonomic identification of Lower Pleistocene fossil hominins based on distal humeral diaphyseal cross-sectional shape" 2618: 7988: 7973: 7715: 6805: 3313:

is about 5 mm (0.20 in), which is similar to most other hominins at this stage. In contrast, the root of the

3919:

The mandible was discovered by Kamoya Kimeu in 1964, during an expedition conducted by Richard Leakey and Glynn Isaac.

7841: 7581: 6676: 6657: 6631: 6605: 6579: 6560: 6432: 6387: 6365: 6313: 6291: 6268: 3573: 3284:. This contrasts with other primates which flash the typically engorged canines in agonistic display (the canines of 3034: 469: 6819: 6687: 2621: 2620: 2619: 7773: 2997: 2898:

skeletal remains, save for the presumed male OH 80. Based on an approximation of 400 mm (1.3 ft) for the

1514: 3041:

extinction for the latter half of the 20th century was that it was unable to adapt to the volatile climate of the

7725: 7621: 5596: 3401:

was associated with Oldowan tools despite not being the tool maker, Louis Leakey and colleagues, when describing

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have a larger sagittal crest than females (particularly gorillas and orangutans), the crest may be influenced by

2616: 2609: 2607: 1724: 6790: 2774:

on the cheek teeth are among the thickest of any known ape, which would help resist high stresses while biting.

7720: 7021: 5035: 4896: 4731:

Wood, B. A.; Zuckerman, L. (1981). "Tooth Size and Shape and their Relevance to Studies of Hominid Evolution".

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has been correlated with reproductive success. They extended their interpretation of the crest to the males of

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Elton, S.; Bishop, L. C.; Wood, B. (2001). "Comparative context of Plio-Pleistocene hominin brain evolution".

2623: 2622: 2612: 2608: 2604: 7963: 6843: 4568: 3760:"The Potassium-Argon Dating of Late Cenozoic Rocks in East Africa and Italy [and Comments and Reply]" 3053:

cracked open nuts and similar hard foods with its powerful teeth, giving OH 5 the nickname "Nutcracker Man".

5956: 7591: 7468: 7354: 6797: 5136: 4956: 3057: 3037:

diet specifically adapted for processing a narrow band of foods. Because of this, the predominant model of

2613: 2610: 2605: 1164: 936: 5854: 2615: 583:

Leakey had conducted excavations in Tanzania since the 1930s, though work was postponed with the start of

7785: 7689: 7507: 7028: 6882: 913: 638: 152: 7958: 7547: 7478: 7014: 7007: 7000: 5548:"Bipedality and hair loss in human evolution revisited: The impact of altitude and activity scheduling" 3475: 2679: 2366: 2252: 2119: 1617: 1351: 1343: 1335: 654: 649:

Louis preliminarily supposed OH 5 was about half a million years old, but in 1965, American geologists

2920: 821:, Democratic Republic of the Congo). Dart made his now famous joke, "... what would have happened if 7730: 7522: 3456: 2746:

and canines are reduced, which would hinder biting off chunks of large food pieces. In contrast, the

1455: 17: 7512: 6323: 5822:"Hominin palaeoecology in late Pliocene Malawi: first insights from isotopes (C, O) in mammal teeth" 7761: 7064: 6836: 3521: 2658:

comes Olduvai Gorge (OH 80) about 1.34 mya; however, due a large gap in the hominin fossil record,

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Such arguments are based on how one draws the hominin family tree, and the exact classification of

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Lee-Thorp, J.; Thackeray, J. F.; der Merwe, N. V. (2000). "The hunters and the hunted revisited".

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On the morning of July 17, 1959, Louis felt ill and stayed at camp while Mary went out to Bed I's

7699: 7636: 7596: 7483: 7042: 6801: 6619: 3483: 3269: 2870: 2777: 2650:

evolved even earlier, up to 3.3 mya, on the expansive Kenyan floodplains of the time. The oldest

2398: 1425: 929: 7917: 1640: 7930: 7891: 7803: 7694: 7669: 7664: 7557: 7473: 7035: 5174:

Ungar, Peter S.; Grine, Frederick E.; Teaford, Mark F. (April 2008). Petraglia, Michael (ed.).

4925: 3178: 2953: 2949: 2944:

femora, is quite thick, features a laterally flattened shaft, and indicates similarly arranged

1384: 6555:. Vol. 3: Excavations in Beds I & II, 1960–1963. London: Cambridge University Press. 3932: 3321:(an earlier stage of development than gum emergence), so, unless either specimen is abnormal, 428:

Robust australopithecines are characterised by heavily built skulls capable of producing high

7953: 7925: 7912: 7904: 7078: 3565: 3529: 3093: 2945: 2785: 2751: 2477: 2269: 2184: 1156: 766: 291: 6777: 5855:"Aquatic biomarkers record Pleistocene environmental changes at Paleolake Olduvai, Tanzania" 5241:"Dental microwear texture analysis shows within-species diet variability in fossil hominins" 3264:

in addition to supporting chewing muscles. Further, the size of the sagittal crest (and the

7860: 7659: 7562: 7463: 7424: 7369: 7274: 6978: 6971: 6454: 6206: 6195:"A New Horned Crocodile from the Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Sites at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania" 6079: 5975: 5918: 5868: 5657: 5497: 5319: 5255: 5193: 5090: 4740: 4384: 4326: 4280: 4268: 4216: 4054: 3982: 3759: 3124: 2985: 2813: 2732: 2639: 1793: 1594: 1441: 1310: 1295: 830: 795: 705: 8: 3470: 3431: 3201: 2556:

or if the differences stemming from archaicness justifies species distinction. The terms

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are due to OH 5 being slightly larger, and so recommended the species be reclassified as

382: 6458: 6210: 6083: 5979: 5922: 5872: 5661: 5501: 5323: 5259: 5197: 5094: 4744: 4388: 4330: 4284: 4220: 4058: 3986: 2890:

The wide range of size variation in skull specimens seems to indicate a great degree of

2770:

required an extended chewing surface for processing a lot of food at the same time. The

7616: 7458: 7334: 6726: 6536: 6478: 6421: 6327: 6280: 6229: 6194: 6105: 6043: 6018: 5999: 5884: 5802: 5754: 5727: 5681: 5627: 5572: 5547: 5520: 5481: 5435: 5427: 5342: 5303: 5279: 5216: 5175: 5113: 5074: 4756: 4522: 4450: 4350: 4296: 4232: 4183: 4128: 4101: 4077: 4038: 4006: 3833: 3806: 3787: 2961: 1704: 779: 693: 410: 320: 147: 5712: 5240: 3123:

In 1980, anthropologists Tom Hatley and John Kappelman suggested that early hominins (

1771: 790:" on August 15, 1959. The genus name derives from the medieval term for East Africa, " 7899: 7780: 7735: 7601: 7542: 7532: 7303: 7267: 7121: 6915: 6758: 6730: 6718: 6672: 6653: 6646: 6627: 6601: 6594: 6575: 6556: 6540: 6528: 6499: 6470: 6428: 6402: 6383: 6361: 6335: 6309: 6287: 6264: 6234: 6175: 6140: 6109: 6048: 5991: 5948: 5888: 5759: 5673: 5631: 5619: 5577: 5525: 5392: 5347: 5271: 5221: 5156: 5118: 5055: 4984: 4904: 4882: 4847: 4799: 4764: 4713: 4668: 4612: 4573: 4454: 4442: 4400: 4342: 4314: 4187: 4175: 4133: 4082: 4010: 3998: 3938: 3894: 3791: 3779: 3642: 3633:. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 7–15. 3619: 3569: 3281: 3115: 2891: 890: 854: 739: 450: 370: 366: 362: 137: 41: 6741:& Wakefield, Jenny (1995). "Brain evolution and neurolinguistic preconditions". 6003: 5806: 5466: 5439: 4526: 4300: 4154:

Richmond, B. G.; Green, D. J.; Lague, M. R.; et al. (2020). "The upper limb of

3626:—A Premature Discovery: Remembered by One of Its Founding Fathers, 42 Years Later". 7611: 7364: 7181: 7143: 6990: 6750: 6710: 6702: 6520: 6482: 6462: 6353: 6224: 6214: 6167: 6132: 6095: 6087: 6038: 6030: 5983: 5930: 5926: 5876: 5833: 5794: 5749: 5739: 5708: 5685: 5665: 5611: 5567: 5559: 5515: 5505: 5462: 5419: 5384: 5372: 5337: 5327: 5283: 5263: 5211: 5201: 5148: 5108: 5098: 5047: 4976: 4937: 4878: 4837: 4791: 4748: 4703: 4660: 4604: 4563: 4553: 4540:

Joordens, J. C. A.; Feibel, C. S.; Vonhof, H. B.; Schulp, A. S.; Kroon, D. (2019).

4514: 4434: 4418: 4392: 4354: 4334: 4317:; Patterson, B. (1951). "Evolutionary Importance of the South African 'Man-apes'". 4288: 4236: 4224: 4167: 4123: 4113: 4072: 4062: 3990: 3884: 3828: 3818: 3771: 3634: 3561: 3507: 3437: 3353: 3261: 3144: 2841: 1376: 1325: 750: 429: 415: 5777:

Kelley, J.; Schwartz, G. T. (2012). "Life-History Inference in the Early Hominins

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predation. Other likely Oldowan predators of great apes include the hunting hyena

2869:

In 1983, French anthropologist Roger Saban stated that the parietal branch of the

2727:(on the midline) and temporonuchal (on the back) crests, which indicate a massive 672: 7418: 7391: 7289: 7247: 6859: 6823: 6784: 6641: 6416: 6219: 6136: 6091: 5880: 5669: 5615: 5563: 5510: 5388: 5206: 5103: 4664: 4558: 4541: 4438: 4368: 4171: 4067: 3912: 3823: 3318: 3249: 3193: 2855: 2833: 2728: 2718:, and a robust and deep jawbone. This is generally interpreted as having allowed 2707: 2638:

is the earliest member of the genus, with the oldest remains, from the Ethiopian

1982: 1409: 1178: 1134: 630: 599: 5838: 5821: 4542:"Relevance of the eastern African coastal forest for early hominin biogeography" 3638: 3348:, and semi-arid woodlands, with the exception of the savanna-dominated Malawian 2040:

species with each other is quite contentious. For example, if the South African

893:

and Bruce D. Patterson in 1951, who recommended limiting hominin genera to only

7238: 6942: 6928: 6867: 6589: 6375: 5952: 5006: 4960: 3385: 3365:, especially during times of climatic volatility. Australopithecines and early 3265: 3005: 2837: 2759: 2724: 2694:

is the most robust of the robust australopithecines, whereas the South African

2445: 2302: 2143: 1230: 1217: 1147: 1121: 712:, Ethiopia. Among the notable specimens found include the well preserved skull 650: 634: 525:. These were likely preyed upon by the large carnivores of the time, including 511: 340: 6754: 6706: 6648:

Ancestral Passions: The Leakey family and the Quest for Humankind's Beginnings

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Pante, M.; de la Torre, I.; d’ Errico, F.; Njau, J.; Blumenschine, R. (2020).

3934:

Ancestral Passions: The Leakey Family and the Quest for Humankind's Beginnings

625:. Louis published a short summary of the find and context the following week. 7947: 7826: 7406: 7259: 6949: 6762: 6738: 6722: 6532: 6503: 6474: 6349: 4817: 3962: 3783: 3491: 3136: 3012:, the hand was still dextrous enough to handle and manufacture simple tools. 2960:. Nonetheless, the intertrochanteric line is much more defined in OH 80, the 2929: 2925: 2845: 2567: 1749: 1417: 814: 666: 610: 477: 437: 79: 5332: 5051: 4980: 4941: 4608: 4037:

Domínguez-Rodrigo, M.; Pickering, T. R.; Baquedano, E.; et al. (2013).

405:

along with other robust australopithecines. However, it is also argued that

7412: 7400: 7342: 7216: 7164: 7129: 7054: 6961: 6442: 6301: 6256: 6238: 6179: 6171: 6144: 6052: 6034: 5995: 5944: 5763: 5677: 5645: 5623: 5581: 5529: 5396: 5351: 5275: 5225: 5152: 5122: 4851: 4803: 4795: 4752: 4672: 4577: 4446: 4396: 4372: 4346: 4204: 4179: 4137: 4086: 3966: 3898: 3499: 3237: 3001: 2940: 2802: 2771: 2545: 1986: 1977: 1960: 1878: 1874: 1825: 1399: 1366: 1280: 1204: 1191: 771: 760: 755: 658: 617: 602: 584: 580: 558: 441: 401: 386: 311: 267: 6019:"The origins of stone tool technology in Africa: a historical perspective" 5160: 5059: 5010: 4988: 4768: 4717: 4709:

10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199707)103:3<375::AID-AJPA7>3.0.CO;2-P

4616: 4002: 2580: 7852: 7835: 7296: 7223: 7195: 7188: 7136: 6816: 6615: 6548: 4404: 3447: 3061: 3042: 2969: 2911:, it would show a limb anatomy quite similar to that of the contemporary 2747: 2026: 1952: 1943: 1728: 1471: 1095: 689: 606: 576: 517: 378: 54: 6427:. Principal photography by David Brill. New York: Simon & Schuster. 6100: 5267: 3244: 2570:("in the strict sense") can be used to respectively include and exclude 1941:

skull KNM-ER 406 was demonstrated to have been contemporaneous with the

845:. Louis rejected Robinson's proposal. Following this, it was debated if 7878: 7281: 7202: 5909:

Bobe, R. (2006). "The evolution of arid ecosystems in eastern Africa".

5431: 5423: 5368: 4842: 4821: 4760: 4518: 4118: 3889: 3310: 3175: 3140: 3069: 2913: 2736: 2711: 2703: 2560: 713: 701: 697: 505: 496: 433: 214: 99: 64: 6688:"Returning Zinj: curating human origins in twentieth-century Tanzania" 6193:

Brochu, C. A.; Njau, J.; Blumenschine, R. J.; Densmore, L. D. (2010).

5744: 3317:

specimen SK 62 was 6 mm (0.24 in) when emerging through the

2666:

changed remarkably little over its nearly one-million-year existence.

552: 488:

to inhabit a wider range of habitats than gracile australopithecines.

7348: 7253: 6714: 6466: 5987: 5002: 4338: 4292: 4228: 3452: 3441: 3357: 3345: 3327: 3257: 3197: 3073: 2992:

hand is not consistent with climbing. The hand of KNM-ER 47000 shows

2977: 2957: 2904: 2817: 2042: 1809: 1486: 858: 822: 748:), and at the time, the only australopithecine genera described were 530: 244: 234: 164: 104: 48: 7797: 6490:

Leakey, Louis (September 1960). "Finding the World's Earliest Man".

5038:(1991). "Femoral lengths and stature in Plio-Pleistocene hominids". 2731:(used in biting down) placed near the front of the head (increasing 1881:). Because skeletal elements are so limited in these species, their 1857:(otherwise known as "robust australopithecines") typically includes 7820: 7209: 7174: 7151: 6872: 6524: 5184: 4036: 3958: 3775: 3362: 3306: 3209: 3065: 2781: 2763: 2755: 2643: 2431: 2068: 2050:) is considered the ancestor or closely related to the ancestor of 1660: 1108: 1082: 866: 818: 685: 459: 254: 184: 94: 89: 74: 69: 59: 6828: 5139:(1981). "Diet and teeth: Dietary hypotheses and human evolution". 3994: 3296:

Australopithecines are generally considered to have had a faster,

2654:

remains date to about 2.3 mya from Malema. The youngest record of

7359: 6935: 5699:

Martin, R. A. (1981). "On extinct hominid population densities".

3515: 3512: – Extinct hominin from the Early Pleistocene of East Africa 3488: – Two-million-year-old hominin from the Cradle of Humankind 3427: 3276:

species, with the crest and resultantly larger head (at least in

3172: 3109: 2743: 2584: 1265: 1257: 1243: 1067: 596: 526: 493: 481: 358: 204: 109: 84: 7865: 4643:

Wood, B.; Strait, D. (2004). "Patterns of resource use in early

4271:(1960). "The affinities of the new Olduvai australopithecines". 545:"OH 5" redirects here. For the Ohio congressional district, see 5819: 3156: 2973: 2715: 813:

to the 4th Pan-African Congress on Prehistory in Léopoldville,

727: 592: 588: 224: 194: 174: 6737: 6192: 5820:

Bocherens, H.; Sandrock, O.; Kullmer, O.; Schrenk, F. (2011).

2603: 503:

mainly inhabited wet, wooded environments, and coexisted with

7434: 7325: 7315: 5648:(1979). "Early Hominid Population Densities: New Estimates". 5594: 4375:(1979). "A Systematic Assessment of Early African Hominids". 3330: 3301: 3189:

was manufacturing this industry and ate meat to some degree.

2899: 798:, the Leakeys' benefactor. He initially considered the name " 709: 653:

and Jack Evernden dated OH 5 to 1.75 million years ago using

622: 534: 390: 4930:

Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris

3025:

In 1954, Robinson suggested that the heavily built skull of

7093: 6157: 5176:"Dental Microwear and Diet of the Plio-Pleistocene Hominin 5075:"Dental Microwear and Diet of the Plio-Pleistocene Hominin 3628:

The First Humans – Origin and Early Evolution of the Genus

3128: 2381: 791: 744: 662: 546: 140: 5852: 4539: 3721:

Cracraft & Donoghue, 524; Deacon, 56; Morell, 183–184.

3135:) adapted to eating abrasive and calorie-rich underground 587:. They returned in 1951, finding mostly ancient tools and 6322: 3712:

Louis Leakey, "A new fossil skull from Olduvai", 491–493.

3297: 3132: 2735:). This is typically considered to be evidence of a high 2698:

is smaller with comparatively more gracile features. The

2642:, dated to 2.6 million years ago (mya) at the end of the 2029:") dates to 3.67 million years ago, contemporaneous with 1842: 6348: 5238: 3552:

Wood, Bernard; Doherty, Dandy; Boyle, Eve (2020-05-29).

3397:, but it is unclear how they interacted. To explain why 369:

of East Africa about 2.5 to 1.15 million years ago. The

6065: 5301: 4901:

Evolutionary History of the "Robust" Australopithecines

2820:

and anthropologist Glenn Conroy suggested that, unlike

717:

Olduvai Gorge. The first definitive bodily elements of

4869:: A new level of organization in cerebral evolution". 3496: – Extinct species or subspecies of archaic human 1877:) or an invalid grouping of similar-looking hominins ( 6794:- The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program 5482:"Baboon Feeding Ecology Informs the Dietary Niche of 4954: 4926:"Les veines méningées moyennes des Australopithèques" 4421:; Kuman, K. (2019). "The skull of StW 573, a 3.67 Ma 3917:. East African Literature Bureau. 1974. p. 129. 3256:

A 2017 study postulated that, because male non-human

2984:

used a combination of terrestrial walking as well as

389:

a month later. It was originally placed into its own

5728:"Sagittal crest formation in great apes and gibbons" 3957: 3108:. Such a strategy is similar to that used by modern 2968:, the arm bones of OH 80 are heavily built, and the 2766:

resemble molars (are molarised), which may indicate

2548:

and a few jaws and isolated teeth, it is debated if

861:(edited by Louis). Tobias and Louis still retained " 6415: 5545: 5073:Ungar, P. S.; Grine, F. E.; Teaford, M. F. (2008). 4473:"Hominin Taxonomy and Phylogeny: What's In A Name?" 4039:"First Partial Skeleton of a 1.34-Million-Year-Old 3914:

Journal of Eastern African Research and Development

2706:, receding forehead, rounded bottom margins of the 908: 853:until 1967 when South African palaeoanthropologist 833:

pointed out that the supposed differences between "

7338:(archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans) 6645: 6593: 6445:(August 1959). "A new fossil skull from Olduvai". 6420: 6279: 5943: 4692:: Examination of alternative developmental models" 4590: 4492: 4490: 4153: 3534: – Extinct species of hominin of South Africa 3504: – Archaic human species from 2.8 to 1.65 mya 857:gave a far more detailed description of OH 5 in a 595:for the next few years. In 1955, they unearthed a 6614: 6023:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 5860:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5725: 5173: 5141:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 5072: 5001: 4733:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 4569:20.500.11820/6c1ee960-79ba-45df-9e12-3350c768a497 4425:skeleton from Sterkfontein Caves, South Africa". 4313: 3686: 3684: 3526: – Extinct species of hominin of East Africa 7945: 6122: 5452: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4024: 4022: 4020: 3551: 2882:sides of the skull as in KNM-ER 23000 and OH 5. 5409: 5312:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4781: 4496: 4487: 4149: 4147: 3930: 3866: 2702:skull is heavily built, and features a defined 5776: 4466: 4464: 4249:Johanson, Edgar & Brill, 156; Morell, 183. 3757: 3742: 3681: 3369:likely preferred cooler conditions than later 3200:. In South Africa, these are unearthed in the 2864:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History 2544:is only confidently identified from the skull 6844: 5726:Balolia, K. L.; Soligo, C.; Wood, B. (2017). 5367: 4730: 4367: 4199: 4197: 4017: 3807:"Garniss Curtis (1919–2012): Dating Our Past" 3703:Cela-Conde & Ayala, 158; Morell, 183–184. 1993:was instead the last common ancestor between 1929:), Broom and Robinson continued arguing that 937: 419:, so the species is also often classified as 6277: 5546:Dávid-Barrett, T.; Dunbar, R. I. M. (2016). 5541: 5539: 5363: 5361: 5167: 5028: 4591:Wood, B.; Wood, C.; Konigsberg, L. (1994). " 4533: 4144: 3614: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3558:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology 3413:, perhaps as food. However, when describing 3405:in 1964, suggested that one possibility was 3236:In 1979, American biological anthropologist 7323: 6016: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4628: 4626: 4461: 4417: 4207:(1959). "A new fossil skull from Olduvai". 2088:evolved at a time in East Africa when only 665:(volcanic ash) bed. Such an application of 6851: 6837: 6685: 6186: 5937: 5770: 5297: 5295: 5293: 4858: 4642: 4194: 3969:; et al. (1997). "The first skull of 3924: 944: 930: 794:", and the specific name was in honour of 127: 6396: 6308:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6228: 6218: 6099: 6042: 6010: 5837: 5813: 5753: 5743: 5571: 5536: 5519: 5509: 5358: 5341: 5331: 5215: 5205: 5112: 5102: 5040:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4969:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4967:calvaria from East Lake Turkana, Kenya". 4841: 4830:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4707: 4696:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4597:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4567: 4557: 4127: 4117: 4076: 4066: 3888: 3877:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 3867:Wood, Bernard; Constantino, Paul (2007). 3832: 3822: 3601: 3480: – Extinct hominid from South Africa 3352:. Its abundance likely increased during 3119:Reconstruction of MGL 95211 skull and jaw 3056:However, in 1981, English anthropologist 2809:500–900 cc (31–55 cu in). 1971:species, which at the time only included 871:Australopithecus ("Zinjanthropus") boisei 377:, was discovered by palaeoanthropologist 27:Extinct species of hominin of East Africa 7743:Human evolutionary developmental biology 6116: 5308:in the early Pleistocene of East Africa" 4685: 4623: 4497:Constantino, P. J.; Wood, B. A. (2007). 4267: 3951: 3862: 3860: 3858: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3844: 3243: 3114: 2919: 2873:originated from the posterior branch in 2854: 2816:, in 1983, American neuroanthropologist 2776: 2678: 2578:when discussing the lineage as a whole. 1955:, which is generally taken to show that 671: 551: 6666: 5290: 5034: 4895: 4688:"Palatal thickening and facial form in 4595:: an example of evolutionary stasis?". 4470: 3873:: Fifty years of evidence and analysis" 3804: 3758:Evernden, J. F.; Curtis, G. H. (1965). 889:was first suggested by anthropologists 613:, catalogue ID Olduvai Hominin (OH) 3. 476:plants, such as grasses or underground 468:was originally believed to have been a 381:in 1959 at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and 14: 7946: 6640: 6588: 6572:Olduvai Gorge: My Search for Early Man 6569: 6547: 6510: 6489: 6441: 6374: 6300: 5698: 5135: 4864: 4203: 3618: 3566:10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.194 2840:) sinuses, completely supplanting the 1838: 849:was simply an East African variant of 7802: 7801: 7528:Evolutionary models of human drug use 6832: 6332:Human Evolution: Trails from the Past 6261:Quarry Closing In On the Missing Link 5479: 4923: 4816: 4099: 4043:from Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania" 3841: 2972:shows similarities to that of modern 2058:to be placed more closely related to 2009:lineage or at least was ancestral to 922: 633:. South African palaeoanthropologist 7768: 6255: 5908: 5787:International Journal of Primatology 5644: 4865:Tobias, P. V. (1987). "The brain of 3598:, 52–53, 83; Lewin & Foley, 234. 2938:Instead, the OH 80 femur, more like 2791: 2540:are both known from East Africa and 1781: 1759: 1737: 1713: 1693: 1673: 1649: 1629: 1606: 1583: 1563: 1543: 1523: 1503: 911: 829:". In 1960, American anthropologist 6858: 6360:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6334:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3937:. Simon and Schuster. p. 303. 3931:Virginia Morell (11 January 2011). 3231: 3092:, very rarely ever ate hard foods. 1975:. In 1979, a year after describing 1894:. Proponents of monophyly consider 540: 24: 6806:National Museum of Natural History 6695:Journal of Eastern African Studies 6652:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 6263:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 2980:. This could either indicate that 2934:Scale bar=1 cm (0.39 in) 2903:(5.01 ft), respectively. The 1981:from East Africa, anthropologists 865:", but recommended demoting it to 644: 25: 8000: 6771: 3080:molars is different from that on 3045:, unlike the much more adaptable 2066:. This would leave the Ethiopian 904: 7779: 7767: 7756: 7755: 6669:History of Physical Anthropology 6380:Human beginnings in South Africa 5826:South African Journal of Science 3336: 3196:of Africa coincides with simple 3015: 2998:third metacarpal styloid process 2662:may have persisted until 1 mya. 2524:Three example family trees with 802:" ("wonderful Titan-like man"). 774:, and there were arguments that 151: 52: 7969:Pleistocene species extinctions 6626:(2 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 6248: 6151: 6059: 5902: 5846: 5719: 5692: 5638: 5588: 5473: 5467:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2009.11.009 5446: 5403: 5232: 5129: 5066: 4995: 4948: 4917: 4903:. Routledge. pp. 133–148. 4889: 4810: 4775: 4724: 4679: 4584: 4411: 4361: 4307: 4261: 4252: 4243: 4093: 3905: 3798: 3751: 3733: 3724: 3661:Bowman-Kruhm, 66; Mary Leakey, 3248:Male (left) and female (right) 3096:report a diet of predominantly 2005:was the earliest member of the 669:was unprecedented at the time. 6686:Staniforth, Amy (March 2009). 6401:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 6286:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 5931:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.01.010 3715: 3706: 3697: 3668: 3655: 3588: 3545: 3518: – Archaeological culture 3291: 3280:) being used for some kind of 3204:and are largely attributed to 2885: 2017:inhabited South Africa before 1502: 684:The first identified jawbone, 13: 1: 7984:Pleistocene mammals of Africa 7979:Fossil taxa described in 1959 6743:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6624:Principles of Human Evolution 5713:10.1016/s0047-2484(81)80006-1 3539: 3166: 2862:facial reconstruction at the 2528:(note, they are not absolute) 1873:is a valid natural grouping ( 805:Soon after, Louis presented " 6798:Human Timeline (Interactive) 6220:10.1371/journal.pone.0009333 6137:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.05.008 6092:10.1016/j.quaint.2019.05.029 5957:"A New Species of the Genus 5911:Journal of Arid Environments 5881:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.04.001 5670:10.1126/science.206.4418.592 5616:10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102885 5564:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.006 5511:10.1371/journal.pone.0084942 5389:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.05.007 5207:10.1371/journal.pone.0002044 5104:10.1371/journal.pone.0002044 4883:10.1016/0047-2484(87)90022-4 4665:10.1016/j.jhevol.2003.11.004 4559:10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.03.012 4439:10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.06.005 4172:10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.102727 4068:10.1371/journal.pone.0080347 3824:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001650 3029:(at the time only including 2758:, featuring low and rounded 2750:of both sexes are enormous ( 2054:, then this could allow for 1967:, both developing from some 570: 7: 7786:Evolutionary biology Portal 6358:Assembling the Tree of Life 6306:Primate and Human Evolution 6278:Bowman-Kruhm, Mary (2005). 5480:Macho, Gabriele A. (2014). 4423:Australopithecus prometheus 3639:10.1007/978-1-4020-9980-9_2 3463: 3084:molars, and indicates that 3049:. It was also once thought 2563:("in the broad sense") and 1839: 1061: 661:crystals from an overlying 639:National Museum of Tanzania 492:may have been able to make 409:is an invalid grouping and 399:", but is now relegated to 10: 8005: 6600:. London: Michael Joseph. 6160:Journal of Human Evolution 6125:Journal of Human Evolution 5701:Journal of Human Evolution 5604:Journal of Human Evolution 5552:Journal of Human Evolution 5377:Journal of Human Evolution 4871:Journal of Human Evolution 4784:Journal of Human Evolution 4653:Journal of Human Evolution 4546:Journal of Human Evolution 4477:Nature Education Knowledge 4427:Journal of Human Evolution 4160:Journal of Human Evolution 3477:Australopithecus africanus 2996:-like anatomy lacking the 2669: 2084:is monophyletic, and that 544: 436:, and some of the largest 7989:Taxa named by Mary Leakey 7974:Mammals described in 1959 7810: 7751: 7731:Evolutionary anthropology 7708: 7682: 7635: 7573: 7492: 7451: 7444: 7390: 7314: 7237: 7162: 7116: 7109: 7092: 7052: 6988: 6959: 6923: 6914: 6881: 6866: 6755:10.1017/s0140525x00037924 6707:10.1080/17531050902717203 6397:Dunsworth, Holly (2007). 5839:10.4102/sajs.v107i3/4.331 5799:10.1007/s10764-012-9607-2 4507:Evolutionary Anthropology 3554:"Hominin Taxic Diversity" 3457:Crocodylus anthropophagus 2836:and marginal (around the 2552:should be subsumed under 2474: 2457: 2450: 2428: 2421: 2395: 2378: 2371: 2359: 2316: 2299: 2292: 2266: 2249: 2242: 2181: 2164: 2157: 2140: 2133: 2116: 2109: 738:The remains were clearly 733: 326: 319: 297: 290: 148:Scientific classification 146: 135: 126: 34: 6817:Archaeology Info on OH 5 6671:. Taylor & Francis. 6282:The Leakeys: A Biography 6072:Quaternary International 6017:de la Torre, I. (2011). 4686:McCollum, M. A. (1998). 3523:Paranthropus aethiopicus 3433:Chasmaporthetes nitidula 3300:growth rate than modern 3270:western lowland gorillas 3228:obfuscates attribution. 2674: 954: 7842:Australopithecus boisei 7637:Origin of modern humans 6667:Spencer, Frank (1997). 5333:10.1073/pnas.1104627108 5052:10.1002/ajpa.1330850204 4981:10.1002/ajpa.1330910202 4965:Australopithecus boisei 4942:10.3406/bmsap.1983.3905 4824:Australopithecus boisei 4822:"No brain expansion in 4609:10.1002/ajpa.1330950202 4471:McNulty, K. P. (2016). 3971:Australopithecus boisei 3805:Gilbert, W. H. (2013). 3665:, 227; Morell, 180–181. 3485:Australopithecus sediba 3220:, the presence of both 3094:Carbon isotope analyses 3020: 2871:middle meningeal artery 2852:specimen KNM-ER 23000. 2710:, inflated and concave 2399:Australopithecus sediba 1925:was the only member of 1826:P a r a n t h r o p u s 1685:Dispersal beyond Africa 499:and butcher carcasses. 422:Australopithecus boisei 335:Australopithecus boisei 6419:; Blake Edgar (1996). 6172:10.1006/jhev.2000.0436 6035:10.1098/rstb.2010.0350 5153:10.1098/rstb.1981.0013 4796:10.1006/jhev.2001.0475 4753:10.1098/rstb.1981.0014 4397:10.1126/science.104384 3253: 3120: 3076:. The microwearing on 3033:) was indicative of a 2935: 2866: 2824:or modern humans, all 2788: 2688: 2646:. It is possible that 957:−10 — 877:to be synonymous with 681: 655:potassium–argon dating 575:Palaeoanthropologists 567: 136:Reconstruction of the 7926:Paleobiology Database 7913:Paleobiology Database 7645:Recent African origin 6883:Last common ancestors 6570:Leakey, Mary (1979). 6423:From Lucy to Language 4158:from Ileret, Kenya". 4100:Lague, M. R. (2015). 3531:Paranthropus robustus 3247: 3118: 2923: 2858: 2786:postcanine megadontia 2780: 2752:postcanine megadontia 2682: 1047:−1 — 1037:−2 — 1027:−3 — 1017:−4 — 1007:−5 — 997:−6 — 987:−7 — 977:−8 — 967:−9 — 675: 555: 7964:Pleistocene primates 7660:Behavioral modernity 7650:Multiregional origin 7430:archaic Homo sapiens 7425:Homo heidelbergensis 7370:Red Deer Cave people 6513:Current Anthropology 5455:Ecological Modelling 4501:Zinjanthropus boisei 3883:(Suppl 45): 106–32. 3764:Current Anthropology 3426:, shows evidence of 2986:suspensory behaviour 2814:dural venous sinuses 2733:mechanical advantage 2640:Omo Kibish Formation 2046:(which evolved from 1641:Earliest stone tools 831:John Talbot Robinson 800:Titanohomo mirabilis 796:Charles Watson Boise 788:Zinjanthropus boisei 396:Zinjanthropus boisei 330:Zinjanthropus boisei 7812:Paranthropus boisei 7297:H. neanderthalensis 7217:H. e. tautavelensis 6791:Paranthropus boisei 6574:. London: Collins. 6492:National Geographic 6459:1959Natur.184..491L 6382:. Rowman Altamira. 6211:2010PLoSO...5.9333B 6084:2019QuInt.517..118A 6068:Paranthropus boisei 5980:1964Natur.202....7L 5961:from Olduvai Gorge" 5923:2006JArEn..66..564B 5873:2019PPP...524..250C 5662:1979Sci...206..592B 5502:2014PLoSO...984942M 5484:Paranthropus boisei 5324:2011PNAS..108.9337C 5306:Paranthropus boisei 5268:10.1038/nature03822 5260:2005Natur.436..693S 5198:2008PLoSO...3.2044U 5178:Paranthropus boisei 5095:2008PLoSO...3.2044U 5077:Paranthropus boisei 4745:1981RSPTB.292...65W 4593:Paranthropus boisei 4389:1979Sci...203..321J 4331:1951Natur.167..650W 4285:1960Natur.186..456R 4221:1959Natur.184..491L 4156:Paranthropus boisei 4059:2013PLoSO...880347D 4041:Paranthropus boisei 3987:1997Natur.389..489S 3871:Paranthropus boisei 3471:African archaeology 3202:Cradle of Humankind 2860:Paranthropus boisei 2598: 2446:P. aethiopicus 2349: 2232: 2099: 2072:as the ancestor of 1921:was described (and 1869:. It is debated if 764:(the South African 354:Paranthropus boisei 304:Paranthropus boisei 36:Paranthropus boisei 7484:Self-domestication 7275:H. heidelbergensis 7224:H. e. yuanmouensis 7189:H. e. lantianensis 6916:Australopithecines 6822:2011-05-16 at the 6783:2011-05-16 at the 6324:Cela-Conde, Camilo 5732:Journal of Anatomy 5424:10.1007/BF01561000 4924:Saban, R. (1983). 4843:10.1002/ajpa.21420 4519:10.1002/evan.20130 4499:"The Evolution of 4119:10.7717/peerj.1084 3890:10.1002/ajpa.20732 3254: 3192:Additionally, the 3121: 2962:gluteal tuberosity 2936: 2867: 2796:In a sample of 10 2789: 2689: 2683:Reconstruction of 2581: 2347: 2230: 2097: 1442:H. heidelbergensis 742:(not of the genus 694:Shungura Formation 682: 641:in Dar es Salaam. 568: 470:specialist species 444:of any known ape. 440:with the thickest 7959:Pliocene primates 7941: 7940: 7900:Open Tree of Life 7804:Taxon identifiers 7795: 7794: 7736:Paleoanthropology 7678: 7677: 7655:Archaic admixture 7533:Stoned ape theory 7469:Endurance running 7386: 7385: 7382: 7381: 7378: 7377: 7233: 7232: 7196:H. e. nankinensis 7152:H. tsaichangensis 7088: 7087: 6453:(4685): 491–493. 6408:978-0-313-33673-7 6399:Human Origins 101 6341:978-0-19-856780-6 5745:10.1111/joa.12609 5656:(4418): 592–595. 5015:Our World in Data 4910:978-1-351-52126-0 4383:(4378): 321–330. 4325:(4251): 650–651. 4279:(4723): 456–458. 3981:(6650): 489–492. 3944:978-1-4391-4387-2 3739:Bowman-Kruhm, 66. 3648:978-1-4020-9980-9 3438:sabertoothed cats 2956:lines around the 2954:intertrochanteric 2892:sexual dimorphism 2792:Brain and sinuses 2630: 2629: 2597: 2591: 2521: 2520: 2516: 2515: 2507: 2506: 2498: 2497: 2489: 2488: 2410: 2409: 2367:A. africanus 2345: 2344: 2340: 2339: 2331: 2330: 2281: 2280: 2228: 2227: 2223: 2222: 2214: 2213: 2205: 2204: 2196: 2195: 1851: 1850: 1843:million years ago 1802: 1801: 1780: 1779: 1758: 1757: 1750:Earliest rock art 1736: 1735: 1712: 1711: 1705:Earliest language 1692: 1691: 1672: 1671: 1648: 1647: 1628: 1627: 1618:Earliest sign of 1605: 1604: 1595:Earliest sign of 1582: 1581: 1562: 1561: 1542: 1541: 1522: 1521: 1165:Ou. macedoniensis 891:Sherwood Washburn 855:Phillip V. Tobias 740:australopithecine 688:, was discovered 451:sexual dimorphism 371:holotype specimen 367:Early Pleistocene 363:australopithecine 350: 349: 138:holotype specimen 42:Early Pleistocene 16:(Redirected from 7996: 7934: 7933: 7921: 7920: 7908: 7907: 7895: 7894: 7882: 7881: 7869: 7868: 7856: 7855: 7846: 7845: 7844: 7831: 7830: 7829: 7799: 7798: 7783: 7771: 7770: 7759: 7758: 7695:Human prehistory 7670:Recent evolution 7665:Early migrations 7607:Thermoregulation 7508:Expensive tissue 7479:Sexual selection 7449: 7448: 7321: 7320: 7203:H. e. pekinensis 7114: 7113: 7107: 7106: 7022:A. bahrelghazali 6991:Australopithecus 6921: 6920: 6891:Chimpanzee–human 6879: 6878: 6853: 6846: 6839: 6830: 6829: 6778:Archaeology Info 6766: 6734: 6692: 6682: 6663: 6651: 6642:Morell, Virginia 6637: 6611: 6599: 6585: 6566: 6544: 6507: 6486: 6467:10.1038/184491a0 6438: 6426: 6417:Johanson, Donald 6412: 6393: 6371: 6354:Michael Donoghue 6345: 6319: 6297: 6285: 6274: 6243: 6242: 6232: 6222: 6190: 6184: 6183: 6155: 6149: 6148: 6120: 6114: 6113: 6103: 6063: 6057: 6056: 6046: 6014: 6008: 6007: 5988:10.1038/202007a0 5965: 5941: 5935: 5934: 5906: 5900: 5899: 5897: 5895: 5850: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5817: 5811: 5810: 5793:(6): 1332–1363. 5779:Australopithecus 5774: 5768: 5767: 5757: 5747: 5723: 5717: 5716: 5696: 5690: 5689: 5642: 5636: 5635: 5601: 5592: 5586: 5585: 5575: 5543: 5534: 5533: 5523: 5513: 5477: 5471: 5470: 5450: 5444: 5443: 5407: 5401: 5400: 5365: 5356: 5355: 5345: 5335: 5299: 5288: 5287: 5245: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5219: 5209: 5171: 5165: 5164: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5116: 5106: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5032: 5026: 5025: 5023: 5021: 4999: 4993: 4992: 4952: 4946: 4945: 4921: 4915: 4914: 4893: 4887: 4886: 4877:(7–8): 741–761. 4862: 4856: 4855: 4845: 4814: 4808: 4807: 4779: 4773: 4772: 4728: 4722: 4721: 4711: 4683: 4677: 4676: 4640: 4621: 4620: 4588: 4582: 4581: 4571: 4561: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4494: 4485: 4484: 4468: 4459: 4458: 4415: 4409: 4408: 4365: 4359: 4358: 4339:10.1038/167650a0 4311: 4305: 4304: 4293:10.1038/186456a0 4265: 4259: 4256: 4250: 4247: 4241: 4240: 4229:10.1038/184491a0 4205:Leakey, L. S. B. 4201: 4192: 4191: 4151: 4142: 4141: 4131: 4121: 4097: 4091: 4090: 4080: 4070: 4034: 4015: 4014: 3955: 3949: 3948: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3892: 3864: 3839: 3838: 3836: 3826: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3755: 3749: 3748:Staniforth, 155. 3746: 3740: 3737: 3731: 3728: 3722: 3719: 3713: 3710: 3704: 3701: 3695: 3688: 3679: 3672: 3666: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3616: 3599: 3592: 3586: 3585: 3583: 3582: 3549: 3509:Homo rudolfensis 3262:sexual selection 3232:Social structure 3145:Richard Wrangham 2994:Australopithecus 2687:by Cicero Moraes 2599: 2593: 2589: 2453: 2452: 2424: 2423: 2374: 2373: 2362: 2361: 2355: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2295: 2294: 2245: 2244: 2238: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2160: 2159: 2136: 2135: 2112: 2111: 2105: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092:existed there). 2038:Australopithecus 1969:Australopithecus 1900:Australopithecus 1831: 1829: 1828: 1814: 1812: 1796: 1787: 1782: 1774: 1772:Earliest clothes 1765: 1760: 1752: 1743: 1738: 1719: 1714: 1699: 1694: 1679: 1674: 1661:Earliest sign of 1655: 1650: 1635: 1630: 1620:Australopithecus 1612: 1607: 1589: 1584: 1575:Earliest bipedal 1569: 1564: 1555:Chimpanzee split 1549: 1544: 1529: 1524: 1509: 1504: 1490: 1489: 1475: 1474: 1458: 1444: 1430: 1402: 1389: 1369: 1356: 1328: 1326:Australopithecus 1315: 1300: 1283: 1270: 1246: 1233: 1220: 1207: 1194: 1181: 1169: 1150: 1137: 1124: 1112: 1098: 1085: 1072: 1070: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 958: 946: 939: 932: 926: 916: 915:Hominin timeline 909: 895:Australopithecus 887:Australopithecus 879:Australopithecus 784:Australopithecus 751:Australopithecus 541:Research history 416:Australopithecus 306: 302: 266: 156: 155: 131: 121: 51: 40:Temporal range: 32: 31: 21: 8004: 8003: 7999: 7998: 7997: 7995: 7994: 7993: 7944: 7943: 7942: 7937: 7929: 7924: 7916: 7911: 7903: 7898: 7890: 7885: 7877: 7872: 7864: 7859: 7851: 7849: 7840: 7839: 7834: 7825: 7824: 7819: 7806: 7796: 7791: 7747: 7704: 7690:Human evolution 7674: 7631: 7575: 7569: 7548:Cooperative eye 7493:Specific models 7488: 7440: 7419:Homo antecessor 7374: 7310: 7304:H. rhodesiensis 7268:H. floresiensis 7229: 7210:H. e. soloensis 7182:H. e. georgicus 7158: 7122:H. gautengensis 7097: 7095: 7084: 7048: 6984: 6955: 6910: 6901:Orangutan–human 6870: 6862: 6860:Human evolution 6857: 6824:Wayback Machine 6785:Wayback Machine 6774: 6769: 6690: 6679: 6660: 6634: 6608: 6590:Leakey, Richard 6582: 6563: 6435: 6409: 6390: 6376:Deacon, Janette 6368: 6342: 6328:Francisco Ayala 6316: 6294: 6271: 6251: 6246: 6191: 6187: 6156: 6152: 6121: 6117: 6064: 6060: 6015: 6011: 5963: 5942: 5938: 5907: 5903: 5893: 5891: 5851: 5847: 5818: 5814: 5775: 5771: 5724: 5720: 5697: 5693: 5643: 5639: 5599: 5593: 5589: 5544: 5537: 5478: 5474: 5451: 5447: 5408: 5404: 5366: 5359: 5318:(23): 9337–41. 5300: 5291: 5254:(7051): 693–5. 5243: 5237: 5233: 5172: 5168: 5147:(1057): 60–61. 5134: 5130: 5071: 5067: 5033: 5029: 5019: 5017: 5000: 4996: 4959:; Ward, C. V.; 4953: 4949: 4922: 4918: 4911: 4894: 4890: 4863: 4859: 4815: 4811: 4780: 4776: 4729: 4725: 4684: 4680: 4641: 4624: 4589: 4585: 4538: 4534: 4495: 4488: 4469: 4462: 4416: 4412: 4369:Johanson, D. C. 4366: 4362: 4315:Washburn, S. L. 4312: 4308: 4269:Robinson, J. T. 4266: 4262: 4257: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4202: 4195: 4152: 4145: 4098: 4094: 4035: 4018: 3956: 3952: 3945: 3929: 3925: 3911: 3910: 3906: 3865: 3842: 3817:(9): e1001650. 3803: 3799: 3756: 3752: 3747: 3743: 3738: 3734: 3729: 3725: 3720: 3716: 3711: 3707: 3702: 3698: 3689: 3682: 3673: 3669: 3660: 3656: 3649: 3617: 3602: 3593: 3589: 3580: 3578: 3576: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3537: 3466: 3379:coexisted with 3339: 3319:dental alveolus 3294: 3266:gluteus muscles 3250:western gorilla 3234: 3194:Early Stone Age 3169: 3023: 3018: 2933: 2888: 2846:sigmoid sinuses 2832:) had expanded 2794: 2729:masseter muscle 2677: 2672: 2632: 2626: 2624: 2595:View references 2592: 2530: 2529: 2522: 2517: 2508: 2499: 2490: 2411: 2341: 2332: 2282: 2224: 2215: 2206: 2197: 1989:suggested that 1983:Donald Johanson 1847: 1846: 1834: 1833: 1832: 1824: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1816: 1815: 1810:H o m i n i d s 1808: 1806: 1798: 1797: 1792: 1785: 1776: 1775: 1770: 1763: 1754: 1753: 1748: 1741: 1732: 1731: 1717: 1708: 1707: 1697: 1688: 1687: 1677: 1668: 1667: 1662: 1653: 1644: 1643: 1633: 1624: 1623: 1610: 1601: 1600: 1587: 1578: 1577: 1567: 1558: 1557: 1547: 1538: 1537: 1527: 1518: 1517: 1507: 1500: 1499: 1498: 1493: 1492: 1491: 1485: 1484: 1480: 1478: 1477: 1476: 1470: 1469: 1465: 1463: 1462: 1461: 1454: 1448: 1447: 1446: 1440: 1435: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1422: 1414: 1406: 1405: 1398: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1381: 1373: 1372: 1365: 1359: 1358: 1357: 1348: 1340: 1332: 1331: 1324: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1307: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1292: 1288: 1287: 1286: 1279: 1273: 1272: 1271: 1262: 1254: 1250: 1249: 1248: 1242: 1237: 1236: 1235: 1229: 1224: 1223: 1222: 1216: 1211: 1210: 1209: 1203: 1198: 1197: 1196: 1190: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1179:Chororapithecus 1177: 1172: 1171: 1170: 1161: 1153: 1152: 1146: 1141: 1140: 1139: 1135:Samburupithecus 1133: 1128: 1127: 1126: 1120: 1115: 1114: 1113: 1106: 1102: 1101: 1100: 1094: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1081: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1068: 1066: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1019: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 999: 996: 994: 991: 989: 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 971: 969: 966: 964: 961: 959: 956: 950: 924: 918: 914: 907: 881:. Synonymising 736: 647: 645:Other specimens 573: 550: 543: 385:by her husband 315: 308: 300: 299: 286: 264: 150: 122: 120: 119: 118: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 46: 45: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8002: 7992: 7991: 7986: 7981: 7976: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7939: 7938: 7936: 7935: 7922: 7909: 7896: 7883: 7870: 7857: 7847: 7832: 7816: 7814: 7808: 7807: 7793: 7792: 7790: 7789: 7777: 7765: 7752: 7749: 7748: 7746: 7745: 7740: 7739: 7738: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7712: 7710: 7706: 7705: 7703: 7702: 7700:Human timeline 7697: 7692: 7686: 7684: 7680: 7679: 7676: 7675: 7673: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7641: 7639: 7633: 7632: 7630: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7578: 7576: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7567: 7566: 7565: 7560: 7552: 7551: 7550: 7545: 7537: 7536: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7523:Drunken monkey 7517: 7516: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7496: 7494: 7490: 7489: 7487: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7455: 7453: 7452:General models 7446: 7442: 7441: 7439: 7438: 7396: 7394: 7388: 7387: 7384: 7383: 7380: 7379: 7376: 7375: 7373: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7345: 7340: 7331: 7329: 7318: 7312: 7311: 7309: 7308: 7300: 7293: 7286: 7278: 7271: 7264: 7256: 7251: 7243: 7241: 7239:Archaic humans 7235: 7234: 7231: 7230: 7228: 7227: 7220: 7213: 7206: 7199: 7192: 7185: 7178: 7170: 7168: 7160: 7159: 7157: 7156: 7148: 7144:H. rudolfensis 7140: 7133: 7126: 7117: 7111: 7104: 7090: 7089: 7086: 7085: 7083: 7082: 7075: 7068: 7065:P. aethiopicus 7060: 7058: 7050: 7049: 7047: 7046: 7039: 7032: 7025: 7018: 7011: 7004: 6996: 6994: 6986: 6985: 6983: 6982: 6975: 6967: 6965: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6953: 6946: 6943:Sahelanthropus 6939: 6932: 6929:Nakalipithecus 6924: 6918: 6912: 6911: 6909: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6887: 6885: 6876: 6864: 6863: 6856: 6855: 6848: 6841: 6833: 6827: 6826: 6814: 6812:Images of OH 5 6809: 6808:(August 2016). 6795: 6787: 6773: 6772:External links 6770: 6768: 6767: 6739:Wilkins, Wendy 6735: 6701:(1): 153–173. 6683: 6677: 6664: 6658: 6638: 6632: 6612: 6606: 6586: 6580: 6567: 6561: 6545: 6525:10.1086/200077 6508: 6487: 6439: 6433: 6413: 6407: 6394: 6388: 6372: 6366: 6350:Cracraft, Joel 6346: 6340: 6320: 6314: 6298: 6292: 6275: 6269: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6244: 6185: 6166:(6): 565–576. 6150: 6131:(2): 408–417. 6115: 6058: 6029:(1567): 1030. 6009: 5936: 5917:(3): 564–584. 5901: 5845: 5812: 5769: 5738:(6): 820–832. 5718: 5707:(5): 427–428. 5691: 5637: 5587: 5535: 5472: 5445: 5418:(4): 371–387. 5402: 5383:(4): 482–498. 5357: 5289: 5231: 5166: 5128: 5065: 5046:(2): 149–158. 5036:McHenry, H. M. 5027: 5011:"Human Height" 4994: 4947: 4936:(3): 313–323. 4916: 4909: 4897:McHenry, H. M. 4888: 4857: 4836:(2): 155–160. 4809: 4774: 4723: 4702:(3): 375–392. 4678: 4659:(2): 119–162. 4622: 4603:(2): 117–136. 4583: 4532: 4486: 4460: 4410: 4360: 4306: 4260: 4251: 4242: 4193: 4143: 4092: 4053:(12): e80347. 4016: 3965:; Beyene, Y.; 3950: 3943: 3923: 3904: 3840: 3797: 3776:10.1086/200619 3770:(4): 342–385. 3750: 3741: 3732: 3723: 3714: 3705: 3696: 3680: 3667: 3654: 3647: 3600: 3587: 3574: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3535: 3527: 3519: 3513: 3505: 3497: 3489: 3481: 3473: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3409:was killed by 3386:H. rudolfensis 3338: 3335: 3293: 3290: 3233: 3230: 3168: 3165: 3147:proposed that 3137:storage organs 3022: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3006:precision grip 2887: 2884: 2838:foramen magnum 2812:Regarding the 2793: 2790: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2668: 2648:P. aethiopicus 2636:P. aethiopicus 2628: 2627: 2602: 2572:P. aethiopicus 2550:P. aethiopicus 2542:P. aethiopicus 2538:P. aethiopicus 2523: 2519: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2510: 2509: 2505: 2504: 2501: 2500: 2496: 2495: 2492: 2491: 2487: 2486: 2483: 2482: 2473: 2470: 2469: 2466: 2465: 2456: 2451: 2449: 2441: 2440: 2437: 2436: 2427: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2416: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2394: 2391: 2390: 2387: 2386: 2377: 2372: 2370: 2360: 2358: 2353: 2343: 2342: 2338: 2337: 2334: 2333: 2329: 2328: 2325: 2324: 2315: 2312: 2311: 2308: 2307: 2303:P. aethiopicus 2298: 2293: 2291: 2288: 2287: 2284: 2283: 2279: 2278: 2275: 2274: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2258: 2257: 2248: 2243: 2241: 2236: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2220: 2217: 2216: 2212: 2211: 2208: 2207: 2203: 2202: 2199: 2198: 2194: 2193: 2190: 2189: 2180: 2177: 2176: 2173: 2172: 2163: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2144:P. aethiopicus 2139: 2134: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2115: 2110: 2108: 2103: 2095: 2094: 2086:P. aethiopicus 2074:P. aethiopicus 1908:A. aethiopicus 1896:P. aethiopicus 1863:P. aethiopicus 1849: 1848: 1840: 1836: 1835: 1820: 1819: 1818: 1805: 1804: 1803: 1800: 1799: 1791: 1790: 1788: 1778: 1777: 1769: 1768: 1766: 1756: 1755: 1747: 1746: 1744: 1734: 1733: 1723: 1722: 1720: 1710: 1709: 1703: 1702: 1700: 1690: 1689: 1683: 1682: 1680: 1670: 1669: 1659: 1658: 1656: 1646: 1645: 1639: 1638: 1636: 1626: 1625: 1616: 1615: 1613: 1603: 1602: 1593: 1592: 1590: 1580: 1579: 1573: 1572: 1570: 1560: 1559: 1553: 1552: 1550: 1540: 1539: 1533: 1532: 1530: 1520: 1519: 1513: 1512: 1510: 1501: 1496: 1495: 1494: 1483: 1482: 1481: 1479: 1468: 1467: 1466: 1464: 1451: 1450: 1449: 1438: 1437: 1436: 1434: 1395: 1394: 1393: 1377:H. rudolfensis 1362: 1361: 1360: 1321: 1320: 1319: 1306: 1305: 1304: 1291: 1290: 1289: 1276: 1275: 1274: 1253: 1252: 1251: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1231:Graecopithecus 1227: 1226: 1225: 1218:Sahelanthropus 1214: 1213: 1212: 1201: 1200: 1199: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1175: 1174: 1173: 1148:Ouranopithecus 1144: 1143: 1142: 1131: 1130: 1129: 1122:Nakalipithecus 1118: 1117: 1116: 1105: 1104: 1103: 1092: 1091: 1090: 1079: 1078: 1077: 1064: 1063: 1062: 1060: 1057:0 — 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1020: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 960: 955: 952: 951: 949: 948: 941: 934: 923: 920: 919: 912: 906: 905:Classification 903: 873:, considering 735: 732: 651:Garniss Curtis 646: 643: 635:Phillip Tobias 572: 569: 542: 539: 512:H. rudolfensis 478:storage organs 348: 347: 346: 345: 341:P. aethiopicus 337: 332: 324: 323: 317: 316: 309: 295: 294: 288: 287: 283:P. boisei 279: 277: 273: 272: 262: 258: 257: 252: 248: 247: 242: 238: 237: 232: 228: 227: 222: 218: 217: 212: 208: 207: 202: 198: 197: 192: 188: 187: 182: 178: 177: 172: 168: 167: 162: 158: 157: 144: 143: 133: 132: 124: 123: 115: 114: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 47:2.5–1.15 39: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8001: 7990: 7987: 7985: 7982: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7951: 7949: 7932: 7927: 7923: 7919: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7901: 7897: 7893: 7888: 7884: 7880: 7875: 7871: 7867: 7862: 7858: 7854: 7848: 7843: 7837: 7833: 7828: 7822: 7818: 7817: 7815: 7813: 7809: 7805: 7800: 7788: 7787: 7782: 7778: 7776: 7775: 7766: 7764: 7763: 7754: 7753: 7750: 7744: 7741: 7737: 7734: 7733: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7713: 7711: 7707: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7687: 7685: 7681: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7642: 7640: 7638: 7634: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7579: 7577: 7572: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7555: 7554:Life history 7553: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7540: 7538: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7518: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7500: 7498: 7497: 7495: 7491: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7456: 7454: 7450: 7447: 7443: 7437: 7436: 7431: 7427: 7426: 7421: 7420: 7415: 7414: 7409: 7408: 7407:Homo ergaster 7403: 7402: 7398: 7397: 7395: 7393: 7389: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7350: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7337: 7336:H. s. sapiens 7333: 7332: 7330: 7328: 7327: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7316:Modern humans 7313: 7306: 7305: 7301: 7299: 7298: 7294: 7292: 7291: 7290:H. luzonensis 7287: 7284: 7283: 7279: 7277: 7276: 7272: 7270: 7269: 7265: 7262: 7261: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7249: 7248:H. antecessor 7245: 7244: 7242: 7240: 7236: 7226: 7225: 7221: 7219: 7218: 7214: 7212: 7211: 7207: 7205: 7204: 7200: 7198: 7197: 7193: 7191: 7190: 7186: 7184: 7183: 7179: 7177: 7176: 7175:H. e. erectus 7172: 7171: 7169: 7167: 7166: 7161: 7154: 7153: 7149: 7146: 7145: 7141: 7139: 7138: 7134: 7132: 7131: 7127: 7124: 7123: 7119: 7118: 7115: 7112: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7101: 7091: 7081: 7080: 7076: 7074: 7073: 7069: 7067: 7066: 7062: 7061: 7059: 7057: 7056: 7051: 7045: 7044: 7040: 7038: 7037: 7033: 7031: 7030: 7029:A. deyiremeda 7026: 7024: 7023: 7019: 7017: 7016: 7012: 7010: 7009: 7005: 7003: 7002: 6998: 6997: 6995: 6993: 6992: 6987: 6981: 6980: 6976: 6974: 6973: 6969: 6968: 6966: 6964: 6963: 6958: 6952: 6951: 6950:Kenyanthropus 6947: 6945: 6944: 6940: 6938: 6937: 6933: 6931: 6930: 6926: 6925: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6913: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6896:Gorilla–human 6894: 6892: 6889: 6888: 6886: 6884: 6880: 6877: 6874: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6854: 6849: 6847: 6842: 6840: 6835: 6834: 6831: 6825: 6821: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6796: 6793: 6792: 6788: 6786: 6782: 6779: 6776: 6775: 6764: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6748: 6744: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6696: 6689: 6684: 6680: 6678:0-8153-0490-0 6674: 6670: 6665: 6661: 6659:0-684-82470-1 6655: 6650: 6649: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6633:0-632-04704-6 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6607:0-7181-2247-X 6603: 6598: 6597: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6581:0-00-211613-8 6577: 6573: 6568: 6564: 6562:0-521-07723-0 6558: 6554: 6553:Olduvai Gorge 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6443:Leakey, Louis 6440: 6436: 6434:0-684-81023-9 6430: 6425: 6424: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6404: 6400: 6395: 6391: 6389:0-7619-9086-0 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6367:0-19-517234-5 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6315:0-521-82942-9 6311: 6307: 6303: 6302:Cachel, Susan 6299: 6295: 6293:0-313-32985-0 6289: 6284: 6283: 6276: 6272: 6270:0-684-86378-2 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6253: 6240: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6189: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6154: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6119: 6111: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6062: 6054: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6013: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5974:(4927): 7–9. 5973: 5969: 5962: 5960: 5954: 5953:Napier, J. R. 5950: 5949:Tobias, P. V. 5946: 5940: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5905: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5861: 5856: 5849: 5840: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5816: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5773: 5765: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5722: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5695: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5641: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5598: 5591: 5583: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5542: 5540: 5531: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5485: 5476: 5468: 5464: 5461:(5): 738–60. 5460: 5456: 5449: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5412:Human Ecology 5406: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5364: 5362: 5353: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5307: 5298: 5296: 5294: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5242: 5235: 5227: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5186: 5181: 5179: 5170: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5132: 5124: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5078: 5069: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5031: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5005:; Appel, C.; 5004: 4998: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4963:(1993). "New 4962: 4961:Leakey, R. E. 4958: 4951: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4932:(in French). 4931: 4927: 4920: 4912: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4892: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4861: 4853: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4825: 4819: 4813: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4778: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4727: 4719: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4691: 4682: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4587: 4579: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4536: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4502: 4493: 4491: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4467: 4465: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4419:Clarke, R. J. 4414: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4364: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4310: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4264: 4255: 4246: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4215:(4685): 491. 4214: 4210: 4206: 4200: 4198: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4150: 4148: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4096: 4088: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4042: 4033: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4025: 4023: 4021: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3995:10.1038/39037 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3954: 3946: 3940: 3936: 3935: 3927: 3920: 3916: 3915: 3908: 3900: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3872: 3863: 3861: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3801: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3754: 3745: 3736: 3727: 3718: 3709: 3700: 3693: 3690:Mary Leakey, 3687: 3685: 3677: 3674:Mary Leakey, 3671: 3664: 3658: 3650: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3620:Tobias, P. V. 3615: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3597: 3594:Mary Leakey, 3591: 3577: 3575:9780190854584 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3548: 3544: 3533: 3532: 3528: 3525: 3524: 3520: 3517: 3514: 3511: 3510: 3506: 3503: 3502: 3498: 3495: 3494: 3493:Homo ergaster 3490: 3487: 3486: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3468: 3461: 3459: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3449: 3444: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3434: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3387: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3350:Chiwondo Beds 3347: 3343: 3337:Palaeoecology 3334: 3332: 3329: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3303: 3299: 3289: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3239: 3229: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3190: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3177: 3174: 3164: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3117: 3113: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3054: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3016:Palaeobiology 3013: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2942: 2931: 2927: 2926:femoral shaft 2922: 2918: 2916: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2883: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2810: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2686: 2681: 2667: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2601: 2600: 2596: 2588: 2586: 2579: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2568:sensu stricto 2566: 2562: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2527: 2512: 2511: 2503: 2502: 2494: 2493: 2485: 2484: 2481: 2480: 2479: 2472: 2471: 2468: 2467: 2464: 2463: 2462: 2455: 2454: 2448: 2447: 2443: 2442: 2439: 2438: 2435: 2434: 2433: 2426: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2415: 2414: 2406: 2405: 2402: 2401: 2400: 2393: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2385: 2384: 2383: 2376: 2375: 2369: 2368: 2364: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2352: 2351: 2336: 2335: 2327: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2321: 2314: 2313: 2310: 2309: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2297: 2296: 2290: 2289: 2286: 2285: 2277: 2276: 2273: 2272: 2271: 2264: 2263: 2260: 2259: 2256: 2255: 2254: 2247: 2246: 2240: 2239: 2235: 2234: 2219: 2218: 2210: 2209: 2201: 2200: 2192: 2191: 2188: 2187: 2186: 2179: 2178: 2175: 2174: 2171: 2170: 2169: 2162: 2161: 2155: 2154: 2151: 2150: 2147: 2146: 2145: 2138: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2127: 2126: 2123: 2122: 2121: 2114: 2113: 2107: 2106: 2102: 2101: 2093: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2070: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2044: 2039: 2034: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1945: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1915: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1844: 1837: 1830: 1827: 1813: 1811: 1795: 1794:Modern humans 1789: 1784: 1783: 1773: 1767: 1762: 1761: 1751: 1745: 1740: 1739: 1730: 1726: 1725:Earliest fire 1721: 1716: 1715: 1706: 1701: 1696: 1695: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1675: 1666: 1665: 1657: 1652: 1651: 1642: 1637: 1632: 1631: 1622: 1621: 1614: 1609: 1608: 1599: 1598: 1591: 1586: 1585: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1565: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1545: 1536: 1535:Gorilla split 1531: 1526: 1525: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1505: 1488: 1473: 1460: 1459: 1457: 1445: 1443: 1429: 1427: 1421: 1419: 1413: 1411: 1410:H. antecessor 1404: 1403: 1401: 1388: 1386: 1380: 1378: 1371: 1370: 1368: 1355: 1353: 1352:Au. anamensis 1347: 1345: 1344:Au. afarensis 1339: 1337: 1336:Au. africanus 1330: 1329: 1327: 1314: 1312: 1299: 1297: 1285: 1284: 1282: 1269: 1267: 1266:O. tugenensis 1261: 1259: 1247: 1245: 1234: 1232: 1221: 1219: 1208: 1206: 1195: 1193: 1182: 1180: 1168: 1166: 1160: 1158: 1151: 1149: 1138: 1136: 1125: 1123: 1111: 1110: 1099: 1097: 1086: 1084: 1073: 1071: 953: 947: 942: 940: 935: 933: 928: 927: 921: 917: 910: 902: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 863:Zinjanthropus 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 835:Zinjanthropus 832: 828: 827:Zinjanthropus 824: 820: 816: 815:Belgian Congo 812: 808: 803: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 768: 763: 762: 757: 753: 752: 747: 746: 741: 731: 729: 725: 720: 715: 711: 707: 704:, Kenya; and 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 679: 674: 670: 668: 667:geochronology 664: 660: 656: 652: 642: 640: 636: 632: 626: 624: 619: 614: 612: 611:Olduvai Gorge 608: 604: 601: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 565: 561: 560: 554: 548: 538: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 519: 514: 513: 508: 507: 502: 498: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 462:to a degree. 461: 457: 452: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 426: 424: 423: 418: 417: 412: 408: 404: 403: 398: 397: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 355: 343: 342: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 327: 325: 322: 318: 313: 307: 305: 296: 293: 292:Binomial name 289: 285: 284: 278: 275: 274: 271: 270: 263: 260: 259: 256: 253: 250: 249: 246: 243: 240: 239: 236: 233: 230: 229: 226: 223: 220: 219: 216: 213: 210: 209: 206: 203: 200: 199: 196: 193: 190: 189: 186: 183: 180: 179: 176: 173: 170: 169: 166: 163: 160: 159: 154: 149: 145: 142: 139: 134: 130: 125: 111: 106: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 50: 43: 37: 33: 30: 19: 7954:Paranthropus 7811: 7784: 7772: 7760: 7627:Gender roles 7622:Intelligence 7435:Homo sapiens 7433: 7429: 7423: 7417: 7413:Homo erectus 7411: 7405: 7401:Homo habilis 7399: 7360:Manot people 7349:H. s. idaltu 7347: 7343:Jebel Irhoud 7335: 7326:Homo sapiens 7324: 7302: 7295: 7288: 7280: 7273: 7266: 7258: 7246: 7222: 7215: 7208: 7201: 7194: 7187: 7180: 7173: 7165:Homo erectus 7163: 7150: 7142: 7135: 7128: 7120: 7110:Proto-humans 7099: 7096:proto-humans 7077: 7071: 7070: 7063: 7055:Paranthropus 7053: 7041: 7034: 7027: 7020: 7015:A. anamensis 7013: 7008:A. africanus 7006: 7001:A. afarensis 6999: 6989: 6977: 6970: 6962:Ardipithecus 6960: 6948: 6941: 6934: 6927: 6906:Gibbon–human 6789: 6746: 6742: 6698: 6694: 6668: 6647: 6623: 6620:Robert Foley 6616:Lewin, Roger 6595: 6571: 6552: 6549:Leakey, Mary 6519:(1): 76–77. 6516: 6512: 6495: 6491: 6450: 6446: 6422: 6398: 6379: 6357: 6331: 6305: 6281: 6260: 6249:Bibliography 6205:(2): e9333. 6202: 6198: 6188: 6163: 6159: 6153: 6128: 6124: 6118: 6101:10366/155561 6075: 6071: 6067: 6061: 6026: 6022: 6012: 5971: 5967: 5958: 5939: 5914: 5910: 5904: 5892:. Retrieved 5864: 5858: 5848: 5832:(3–4): 1–6. 5829: 5825: 5815: 5790: 5786: 5783:Paranthropus 5782: 5778: 5772: 5735: 5731: 5721: 5704: 5700: 5694: 5653: 5649: 5640: 5607: 5603: 5590: 5555: 5551: 5496:(1): 84942. 5493: 5489: 5483: 5475: 5458: 5454: 5448: 5415: 5411: 5405: 5380: 5376: 5373:Wrangham, R. 5315: 5311: 5305: 5251: 5247: 5234: 5192:(4): e2044. 5189: 5183: 5177: 5169: 5144: 5140: 5131: 5089:(4): e2044. 5086: 5082: 5076: 5068: 5043: 5039: 5030: 5018:. Retrieved 5014: 4997: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4950: 4933: 4929: 4919: 4900: 4891: 4874: 4870: 4867:Homo habilis 4866: 4860: 4833: 4829: 4823: 4812: 4787: 4783: 4777: 4739:(1057): 71. 4736: 4732: 4726: 4699: 4695: 4690:Paranthropus 4689: 4681: 4656: 4652: 4649:Paranthropus 4648: 4644: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4586: 4549: 4545: 4535: 4513:(2): 49–62. 4510: 4506: 4500: 4480: 4476: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4413: 4380: 4376: 4373:White, T. D. 4363: 4322: 4318: 4309: 4276: 4272: 4263: 4254: 4245: 4212: 4208: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4109: 4105: 4095: 4050: 4046: 4040: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3967:White, T. D. 3953: 3933: 3926: 3918: 3913: 3907: 3880: 3876: 3870: 3814: 3811:PLOS Biology 3810: 3800: 3767: 3763: 3753: 3744: 3735: 3726: 3717: 3708: 3699: 3691: 3675: 3670: 3662: 3657: 3631: 3627: 3624:Homo habilis 3623: 3595: 3590: 3579:. Retrieved 3557: 3547: 3530: 3522: 3508: 3501:Homo habilis 3500: 3492: 3484: 3476: 3455: 3446: 3440: 3432: 3423: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3375: 3370: 3366: 3341: 3340: 3322: 3314: 3295: 3286:Paranthropus 3285: 3277: 3274:Paranthropus 3273: 3255: 3238:Noel T. 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T. 5007:Ritchie, H. 4955:Brown, B.; 4552:: 176–202. 3730:Cachel, 48. 3692:Excavations 3663:Excavations 3448:Megantereon 3391:H. ergaster 3323:P. robustus 3315:P. robustus 3292:Development 3214:H. ergaster 3206:P. robustus 3102:P. robustus 3090:P. robustus 3082:P. robustus 3070:chimpanzees 3062:frugivorous 3058:Alan Walker 3043:Pleistocene 3031:P. robustus 2990:P. robustus 2970:elbow joint 2966:P. robustus 2928:(left) and 2886:Postcranium 2879:P. robustus 2748:cheek teeth 2712:cheek bones 2708:eye sockets 2696:P. robustus 2478:P. robustus 2270:P. robustus 2185:P. robustus 2076:instead of 2027:Little Foot 2019:P. robustus 2011:P. robustus 1953:KNM ER 3733 1944:H. ergaster 1931:P. robustus 1923:P. robustus 1912:A. robustus 1892:P. robustus 1867:P. robustus 1418:H. ergaster 1311:Ar. ramidus 1296:Ar. kadabba 1258:O. praegens 1096:Pleistocene 925:This box: 851:P. robustus 767:P. robustus 690:Lake Natron 659:anortoclase 631:nutcrackers 607:molar tooth 591:of extinct 518:H. ergaster 497:stone tools 434:bite forces 379:Mary Leakey 241:Subfamily: 225:Simiiformes 7948:Categories 7597:Skin color 7582:Bipedalism 7543:Killer ape 7355:Cro-Magnon 7254:Denisovans 7130:H. habilis 7094:Humans and 6979:A. ramidus 6972:A. kadabba 6749:(1): 161. 6257:Boaz, Noel 5945:Leakey, L. 5610:: 102885. 5137:Walker, A. 4975:(2): 157. 4957:Walker, A. 4433:: 102634. 4166:: 102727. 3581:2021-04-19 3540:References 3451:, and the 3424:H. habilis 3411:H. habilis 3403:H. habilis 3381:H. habilis 3354:precession 3346:shrublands 3311:tooth root 3268:) in male 3258:great apes 3226:H. habilis 3198:bone tools 3183:H. habilis 3176:stone tool 3167:Technology 3141:Greg Laden 3074:orangutans 3035:specialist 2978:orangutans 2941:H. erectus 2914:H. habilis 2842:transverse 2737:bite force 2714:, a thick 2704:brow ridge 2561:sensu lato 2080:(assuming 2013:, because 1883:affinities 1853:The genus 1487:Denisovans 1426:Au. sediba 1400:H. erectus 1367:H. habilis 1157:Ou. turkae 780:synonymous 714:KNM-ER 406 702:Chesowanja 698:Koobi Fora 605:and large 531:crocodiles 506:H. habilis 411:synonymous 215:Haplorhini 211:Suborder: 7716:Theorists 7683:Timelines 7563:Patriarch 7539:Behavior 7464:Gathering 7392:Ancestors 7137:H. naledi 7072:P. boisei 7043:A. sediba 6763:0140-525X 6731:145575347 6723:1753-1055 6715:2160/1932 6541:144334361 6533:1537-5382 6504:0027-9358 6475:0028-0836 6110:181391867 5889:133690020 5632:222351728 5558:: 72–82. 5369:Laden, G. 5304:"Diet of 5003:Roser, M. 4818:Hawks, J. 4790:(1): 16. 4455:201209318 4188:211233056 4112:: e1084. 4011:205026898 3963:Asfaw, B. 3792:143456420 3784:0011-3204 3676:My Search 3622:(2009). " 3596:My Search 3453:crocodile 3442:Dinofelis 3420:P. boisei 3415:P. boisei 3407:P. boisei 3399:P. boisei 3377:P. boisei 3358:Omo River 3342:P. boisei 3278:P. boisei 3222:P. boisei 3210:elephants 3187:P. boisei 3153:P. boisei 3106:P. boisei 3088:, unlike 3086:P. boisei 3078:P. boisei 3066:mandrills 3051:P. boisei 3002:phalanges 2982:P. boisei 2958:hip joint 2950:pectineal 2909:P. boisei 2896:P. boisei 2875:P. boisei 2850:P. boisei 2834:occipital 2818:Dean Falk 2798:P. boisei 2768:P. boisei 2764:premolars 2720:P. boisei 2700:P. boisei 2692:P. boisei 2685:P. boisei 2664:P. boisei 2660:P. boisei 2656:P. boisei 2652:P. boisei 2576:P. boisei 2565:P. boisei 2558:P. boisei 2554:P. boisei 2534:P. boisei 2526:P. boisei 2461:P. boisei 2348:Monophyly 2320:P. boisei 2231:Paraphyly 2168:P. boisei 2098:Monophyly 2043:A. sediba 1939:P. boisei 1919:P. boisei 1904:A. boisei 1888:P. boisei 1859:P. boisei 1385:Au. garhi 869:level as 859:monograph 847:P. boisei 843:P. boisei 823:Mrs. Ples 730:, Kenya. 724:P. boisei 719:P. boisei 680:specimens 678:P. boisei 571:Discovery 564:P. boisei 501:P. boisei 490:P. boisei 486:P. boisei 466:P. boisei 456:P. boisei 446:P. boisei 383:described 365:from the 276:Species: 245:Homininae 235:Hominidae 171:Kingdom: 165:Eukaryota 18:P. boisei 7892:10992869 7850:BioLib: 7821:Wikidata 7762:Category 7617:Language 7587:Skeleton 7282:H. longi 7036:A. garhi 6873:Hominins 6868:Taxonomy 6820:Archived 6781:Archived 6644:(1995). 6622:(2004). 6596:One Life 6592:(1983). 6551:(1965). 6378:(1999). 6356:(2004). 6330:(2007). 6304:(2006). 6259:(1998). 6239:20195356 6199:PLOS ONE 6180:11102267 6145:21937084 6053:21357225 6004:12836722 5996:14166722 5955:(1964). 5807:16288970 5764:28418109 5678:17759430 5624:33049586 5582:27178459 5530:24416315 5490:PLOS ONE 5440:86632664 5397:16085279 5352:21536914 5276:16079844 5226:18446200 5185:PLoS ONE 5123:18446200 5083:PLOS ONE 5009:(2013). 4852:21915845 4820:(2011). 4804:11414771 4673:14871560 4578:31182201 4527:53574805 4447:31446970 4347:14826894 4301:42964741 4180:32078931 4138:26213653 4087:24339873 4047:PLOS ONE 3959:Suwa, G. 3899:18046746 3464:See also 3363:endemism 3307:cementum 3179:industry 3110:gorillas 2784:showing 2782:Peninj 1 2756:bunodont 2744:incisors 2725:sagittal 2644:Pliocene 2590:(in mya) 2587:timeline 2583:African 2532:Because 2432:A. garhi 2090:A. garhi 2069:A. garhi 2062:than to 1109:Hominini 1083:Pliocene 867:subgenus 819:Kinshasa 686:Peninj 1 676:Various 527:big cats 482:gorillas 460:arboreal 430:stresses 321:Synonyms 255:Hominini 231:Family: 205:Primates 195:Mammalia 185:Chordata 181:Phylum: 175:Animalia 161:Domain: 7905:3607689 7879:4827634 7866:4454137 7827:Q310531 7774:Commons 7726:Fossils 7592:Muscles 7503:Cooking 7459:Hunting 6936:Orrorin 6483:4217460 6455:Bibcode 6230:2827537 6207:Bibcode 6080:Bibcode 6044:3049100 5976:Bibcode 5919:Bibcode 5869:Bibcode 5755:5442144 5686:1531319 5658:Bibcode 5650:Science 5573:4874949 5521:3885648 5498:Bibcode 5432:4602571 5343:3111323 5320:Bibcode 5284:4431062 5256:Bibcode 5217:2315797 5194:Bibcode 5161:6115407 5114:2315797 5091:Bibcode 5060:1882979 5020:16 June 4989:8317557 4769:6115408 4761:2398644 4741:Bibcode 4718:9261500 4617:7802091 4483:(1): 2. 4385:Bibcode 4377:Science 4355:4207075 4327:Bibcode 4281:Bibcode 4237:4217460 4217:Bibcode 4129:4512774 4078:3855051 4055:Bibcode 4003:9333236 3983:Bibcode 3834:3769222 3516:Oldowan 3428:leopard 3395:erectus 3328:indriid 3298:apelike 3282:display 3218:erectus 3173:Oldowan 3157:baboons 2974:gibbons 2946:gluteal 2932:(right) 2670:Anatomy 2585:hominin 1949:erectus 1917:Before 1786:← 1764:← 1742:← 1729:cooking 1718:← 1698:← 1678:← 1654:← 1634:← 1611:← 1588:← 1568:← 1548:← 1528:← 1508:← 1244:Orrorin 1069:Miocene 1052:– 1042:– 1032:– 1022:– 1012:– 1002:– 992:– 982:– 972:– 962:– 597:hominin 593:mammals 589:fossils 566:in red) 562:finds ( 556:Map of 523:erectus 494:Oldowan 480:. 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