1932:(r. 1112–1167), who focused on standardising administrative and economic systems. The king, also known as Sithu I, actively expanded frontier colonies and built new irrigation systems throughout the kingdom. He also introduced standardised weights and measures throughout the country to assist administration as well as trade. The standardisation provided an impetus for the monetisation of Pagan's economy, the full impact of which however would not be felt until later in the 12th century. The kingdom prospered from increased agricultural output as well as from inland and maritime trading networks. Much of the wealth was devoted to temple building. Temple building projects, which began in earnest during Kyansittha's reign, became increasingly grandiose, and began to transition into a distinctively Burman architectural style from earlier Pyu and Mon norms. By the end of Sithu I's reign, Pagan enjoyed a more synthesised culture, an efficient government and a prosperous economy. However a corresponding growth in population also put pressure on "the fixed relationship between productive land and population", forcing the later kings to expand.
2558:, the main driver for this agriculture-based economic expansion was the practice of donating tax-free lands to the Buddhist clergy. For some two hundred years between 1050 and 1250, wealthy and powerful segments of the Pagan society—members of the royalty, senior court officials, and wealthy laymen—donated to the clergy enormous acreages of agricultural land, along with hereditary tied cultivators to attain religious merit. (Both religious lands and cultivators were permanently tax exempt.) Although it ultimately became a major burden on the economy, the practice initially helped expand the economy for some two centuries. First, the monastery-temple complexes, typically located some distances away from the capital, helped anchor new population centres for the throne. Such institutions in turn stimulated associated artisan, commercial, and agricultural activities critical to the general economy.
3825:
peoples, who came down with the
Mongols, came to dominate the political landscapes of the two former empires. Whereas Myanmar would see a resurgence, the post-Mongol Khmer state was reduced to a mere shadow of her former self, never to regain her preeminence. Only in the former Khmer Empire, did the Thai/Lao ethnicity and Thai/Lao languages spread permanently at the expense of the Mon-Khmer speaking peoples, not unlike the Burman takeover of the Pyu realm four centuries earlier. In Myanmar, the result was the opposite: the Shan leadership, as well as lowland Shan immigrants of Myinsaing, Pinya, Sagaing and Ava Kingdoms came to adopt Burmese cultural norms, the Burmese language, and the Bamar ethnicity. The convergence of cultural norms around existing Pagan-centered norms, at least in the Irrawaddy valley core, in turn facilitated the latter-day political reunification drives of
3265:) traditions. While the royal patronage of Theravada Buddhism since the mid-11th century had enabled the Buddhist school to gradually gain primacy, and produce over 10,000 temples in Pagan alone in its honour, other traditions continued to thrive throughout the Pagan period to degrees later unseen. While several Mahayana, Tantric, Hindu and animist elements have remained in Burmese Buddhism to the present day, in the Pagan era, however, "Tantric, Saivite, and Vaishana elements enjoyed greater elite influence than they would later do, reflecting both the immaturity of Burmese literary culture and its indiscriminate receptivity to non-Burman traditions". In this period, "heretical" did not mean non-Buddhist, merely unfaithful to one's own scriptures, whether Brahmanic, Buddhist or whatever.
1371:
Asia's earliest urban centres. By the early centuries AD, several walled cities and towns, including
Tagaung, the birthplace of the first Burman kingdom according to the chronicles, had emerged. The architectural and artistic evidence indicates the Pyu realm's contact with Indian culture by the 4th century AD. The city-states boasted kings and palaces, moats and massive wooden gates, and always 12 gates for each of the signs of the zodiac, one of the many enduring patterns that would continue until the British occupation. Sri Ksetra emerged as the premier Pyu city-state in the 7th century AD. Although the size of the city-states and the scale of political organisation grew during the 7th to early 9th centuries, no sizeable kingdom had yet emerged by the 9th century.
1917:(r. 1084–1112) successfully melded the diverse cultural influences introduced into Pagan by Anawrahta's conquests. He patronised Mon scholars and artisans who emerged as the intellectual elite. He appeased the Pyus by linking his genealogy to the real and mythical ancestors of Sri Ksetra, the symbol of the Pyu golden past, and by calling the kingdom Pyu, even though it had been ruled by a Burman ruling class. He supported and favoured Theravada Buddhism while tolerating other religious groups. To be sure, he pursued these policies all the while maintaining the Burman military rule. By the end of his 28-year reign, Pagan had emerged a major power alongside the Khmer Empire in Southeast Asia, recognised as a sovereign kingdom by the Chinese
3373:. Such arrangements produced a male literacy rates of over 50 percent, and remarkable levels of textual Buddhist knowledge on the village level. But in the Pagan era, key 19th century elements were not yet in place. No village-level network of monasteries or meaningful interdependence between the monks and villagers existed. The monks relied on the royal donations, and those from major sects, which had vast landed holdings, did not have to rely on daily alms, inhibiting close interaction with villagers. The low levels of interaction in turn retarded literacy in Burmese, and limited most commoners' understanding of Buddhism to non-textual means: paintings at the great temples, pageants, folkloric versions of the
2562:
well-watered district south of Pagan. After these hubs had been developed, in the mid-to-late 12th century, Pagan moved into as yet undeveloped frontier areas west of the
Irrawaddy and south of Minbu. These new lands included both irrigable wet-rice areas and non-irrigable areas suitable for rain-fed rice, pulses, sesame, and millet. Agricultural expansion and temple construction in turn sustained a market in land and certain types of labour and materials. Land reclamation, religious donations, and building projects expanded slowly before 1050, increased to 1100, accelerated sharply with the opening of new lands between c. 1140 and c. 1210 and continued at a lower level from 1220 to 1300.
2588:
that Pagan did not have any interest in trade. On the contrary, Pagan closely administered its peninsular ports, which were transit points between the Indian Ocean and China. Maritime trade provided the court with revenues and prestige goods (coral, pearls, textiles). Evidence shows that Pagan imported silver from Yunnan, and that traded upland forest products, gems and perhaps metals with the coast. Still, no archaeological, textual or inscriptional evidence to indicate that such exports supported large numbers of producers or middlemen in Upper
Myanmar itself, or that trade constituted a large part of the economy.
86:
2530:. The growth of the Pagan Empire and subsequent development of irrigated lands in new lands sustained a growth in the number of population centres and a growing prosperous economy. The economy also benefited from the general absence of warfare that would stunt the economies of later dynasties. According to Victor Lieberman, the prosperous economy supported "a rich Buddhist civilization whose most spectacular feature was a dense forest of pagodas, monasteries, and temples, totaling perhaps 10,000 brick structures, of which the remains of over 2000 survive."
1334:
3737:
2028:
2400:: Arakan, Chin Hills, Kachin Hills, and Shan Hills. These were tributary lands over which the crown only had a "largely ritual" or nominal sovereignty. In general, the king of Pagan received a periodic nominal tribute but had "no substantive authority", for example, on such matters as the selection of deputies, successors, or levels of taxation. Pagan largely stayed out of the affairs of these outlying states, only interfering when there were outright revolts, such as Arakan and Martaban in the late 1250s or northern Kachin Hills in 1277.
3584:
1902:
3728:
3232:
2762:
2393:
example, Pagan made a point of appointing its governors in the
Tenasserim coast to closely supervise the ports and revenues. By the second half of the 13th century, several key ports in Lower Myanmar (Prome, Bassein, Dala) were all ruled by senior princes of the royal family. However, the escape of Lower Myanmar from Upper Myanmar's orbit in the late 13th century proves that the region was far from fully integrated. History shows that the region would not be fully integrated into the core until the late 18th century.
2874:
3415:, at least prior to Anawrahta. (Though Anawrahta is said to have driven out the Aris from his court, they were certainly back at the court by the late Pagan period, and continued to be a presence at the later Burmese courts down to the Ava period.) Ari Buddhism itself was a mix of Tantric Buddhism and local traditions. For example, ceremonial animal slaughter and alcohol consumption long antedated the Burmans' arrival, and continued in remote parts of mainland and maritime Southeast Asia until recent times.
3328:
3313:
3298:
622:
3279:
3037:
1742:
2409:
3082:
3067:
3052:
3536:
2580:
2539:
581:
6165:
2043:. But the seeds of Pagan's decline were sowed during this seemingly idyllic period. The state had stopped expanding, but the practice of donating tax-free land to religion had not. The continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth greatly reduced the tax base of the kingdom. Indeed, Htilominlo was the last of the temple builders although most of his temples were in remote lands not in the Pagan region, reflecting the deteriorating state of royal treasury.
2047:
kings to halt entirely their own or other courtiers' donations. The crown did try to reclaim some of these lands by periodically purging the clergy in the name of
Buddhist purification, and seizing previously donated lands. Although some of the reclamation efforts were successful, powerful Buddhist clergy by and large successfully resisted such attempts. Ultimately, the rate of reclamation fell behind the rate at which such lands were dedicated to the
1462:'s inscriptionally verified accession date of 1044—the chronicle reported date is likely the date of foundation, not fortification. Radiocarbon dating of Pagan's walls points to c. 980 at the earliest. (If an earlier fortification did exist, it must have been constructed using less durable materials such as mud.) Likewise, inscriptional evidence of the earliest Pagan kings points to 956. The earliest mention of Pagan in external sources occurs in
6189:
2051:. (The problem was exacerbated to a smaller degree by powerful ministers, who exploited succession disputes and accumulated their own lands at the expense of the crown.) By 1280, between one and two-thirds of Upper Myanmar's cultivatable land had been donated to religion. Thus the throne lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen, inviting a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges by
925:
3440:
3144:
1941:
1683:
ethnic distinction between
Burmans and linguistically linked Pyus seems to have existed. The city was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur. By Anawrahta's accession in 1044, Pagan had grown into a small principality—about 320 kilometres (200 mi) north to south and about 130 kilometres (81 mi) from east to west, comprising roughly the present districts of
2449:
3172:
2197:. The Mongols did not know about the dethronement until June–July 1298. In response, the Mongols launched another invasion, reaching Myinsaing on 25 January 1301, but could not break through. The besiegers took the bribes of the three brothers, and withdrew on 6 April 1301. The Mongol government at Yunnan executed their commanders but sent no more invasions. They withdrew entirely from Upper Myanmar starting on 4 April 1303.
3568:
3521:
3499:
1950:
1434:
2427:. The role and power of the Hluttaw grew greatly in the following decades. It came to manage not only day-to-day affairs but also military affairs of the kingdom. (No Pagan king after Sithu II ever took command of the army again.) The powerful ministers also became kingmakers. Their support was an important factor in the accession of the last kings of Pagan from Htilominlo (r. 1211–1235) to Kyawswa (r. 1289–1297).
1766:
2892:
constant. (The size of population in medieval times tended to stay flat over the course of many centuries. England's population between the 11th and 16th centuries remained at around 2.25 million, and China's population until the 17th century remained between 60 and 100 million for 13 centuries.) Pagan was the most populous city with an estimated population of 200,000 prior to the Mongol invasions.
2223:
1422:
6177:
2515:
3552:
1873:. The conquest of Lower Burma checked the Khmer Empire's encroachment into the Tenasserim coast, secured control of the peninsular ports, which were transit points between the Indian Ocean and China, and facilitated growing cultural exchange with the external world: Mons of Lower Burma, India and Ceylon. Equally important was Anawrahta's conversion to Theravada Buddhism from his native
2083:
3390:
3431:) venerated in pre-Buddhist times. To judge by 14th-century patterns, sacrifices to nat spirits mediated by shamans, were still a central village ritual. As elsewhere in Southeast Asia, homosexuals or transvestites (who already inhabited two "incompatible" realms) as well as women with appropriate powers provided a shamanic bridge from the human world to that of the spirits.
2340:. Because of the irrigated hubs, the region supported the largest population in the kingdom, which translated into the largest concentration of royal servicemen who could be called into military service. The king directly ruled the capital and its immediate environs while he appointed most trusted members of the royal family to rule Kyaukse and Minbu. Newly settled dry zone
3159:. Mainstream scholarship holds that the Burmese alphabet was developed from the Mon script in 1058, a year after Anawrahta's conquest of the Thaton Kingdom. Burmese script may have instead been derived from the Pyu script in the 10th century based on whether the Mon script found in Myanmar was sufficiently different from the older Mon script found in the Mon homelands of
2147:(Land of the Mon) independent on 30 January 1287. In the west too, Arakan stopped paying tribute. The chronicles report that the eastern territories including trans-Salween states of Keng Hung, Kengtung and Chiang Mai stopped paying tribute although most scholars attribute Pagan's limits to the Salween. At any rate, the 250-year-old Pagan Empire had ceased to exist.
3369:
used
Burmese-language manuscripts to provide youths from diverse backgrounds with basic Buddhist literacy. This was a reciprocal exchange: monks relied on villagers for their daily food, while villagers depended on monks for schooling, sermons, and an opportunity to gain merit by giving alms and inducting their young men into the community of monks, the
3821:
Upper
Myanmar and laid the foundation for their continued spread elsewhere in later centuries. The 250-year rule left a proven system of administrative and cultural norms that would be adopted and extended by successor kingdoms—not only by the Burmese-speaking Ava Kingdom but also by the Mon-speaking Hanthawaddy Kingdom and Shan-speaking Shan states.
85:
3837:
11th to 13th centuries provided the
Buddhist school, which had been in retreat elsewhere in South Asia and Southeast Asia, a much needed reprieve and a safe shelter. Not only did Pagan help restart Theravada Buddhism in Ceylon but the over two centuries of patronage by a powerful empire made Theravada Buddhism's later growth in
3913:(Ricklefs et al 2010: 45–48): The spread of Theravada Buddhism in Siam, Lan Xang and Cambodia was also aided by the interaction with Ceylon. However, the Ceylonese interaction was possible only because the Theravada monk order was restarted in 1071–1072 by the monks from Pagan per (Harvey 1925: 32–33) and (Htin Aung 1967: 35).
2103:(Mottama) in the south. The Martaban rebellion was easily put down but Macchagiri required a second expedition before it too was put down. The calm did not last long. Martaban again revolted in 1285. This time, Pagan could not do anything to retake Martaban because it was facing an existential threat from the north. The
3011:) classes, royal bondsmen and religious bondsmen were hereditary while private bondsmen were not. A private bondsman's servitude to his patron stood until his debt was fully repaid. A bondman's obligations ceased with death, and could not be perpetuated down to his descendants. On the other hand, royal servicemen (
1312:), lit. "the City that Tramples on Enemies"). The site reportedly was visited by the Buddha himself during his lifetime, and it was where he allegedly pronounced that a great kingdom would arise at this very location 651 years after his death. Thamoddarit was followed by a caretaker, and then Pyusawhti in 167 AD.
2039:(r. 1235–1249) were able to live off the stable and bountiful conditions he passed on with little state-building on their part. Htilomino hardly did any governing. A devout Buddhist and scholar, the king gave up the command of the army, and left administration to a privy council of ministers, the forebear of the
3824:
Continued cultural integration in an otherwise politically fragmented post-Pagan Myanmar set the stage for a resurgence of a unified Burmese state in the 16th century. An apt comparison can be made with the Khmer Empire, the other Southeast Asian Empire that Mongol invasions toppled. Various Tai-Shan
3348:
in 1057 in Lower Myanmar. More recently, however, Aung-Thwin has argued forcefully that Anawrahta's conquest of Thaton is a post-Pagan legend without contemporary evidence, that Lower Myanmar in fact lacked a substantial independent polity prior to Pagan's expansion, and that the Mon influence on the
2960:
Pagan's society was highly stratified among different social classes. At the top of the pyramid were the royalty (immediate royal family), followed by the upper officialdom (the extended royal family and the court), lower officialdom, artisans and crown service groups, and the commoners. The Buddhist
2130:
The Mongols invaded again in 1287. Recent research indicates that Mongol armies may not have reached Pagan itself, and that even if they did, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. But the damage was already done. All the vassal states of Pagan revolted right after the king's death, and went
2046:
By the mid-13th century, the problem had worsened considerably. The Upper Myanmar heartland over which Pagan exercised most political control had run out of easily reclaimed irrigable tracts. Yet their fervent desire to accumulate religious merit for better reincarnations made it impossible for Pagan
2007:
in the east and below the current China border in the farther north. (Burmese chronicles also claim trans-Salween Shan states, including Kengtung and Chiang Mai.) Continuing his grandfather Sithu I's policies, Sithu II expanded the agricultural base of the kingdom with new manpower from the conquered
1406:
summarises that "the Nanzhao Empire had washed up on the banks of the Irrawaddy, and would find a new life, fused with an existing and ancient culture, to produce one of the most impressive little kingdoms of the medieval world. From this fusion would result the Burmese people, and the foundations of
1394:
entered the Pyu realm in the 830s and 840s, and settled at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers, perhaps to help the Nanzhao pacify the surrounding countryside. Indeed, the naming system of the early Pagan kings—Pyusawhti and his descendants for six generations—was identical to that of
1126:
The kingdom went into decline in the mid-13th century as the continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth by the 1280s had severely affected the crown's ability to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen. This ushered in a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges
3820:
The kingdom of Pagan, the "charter polity" of Myanmar, had a lasting impact on Burmese history and the history of mainland Southeast Asia. The success and longevity of Pagan's dominance over the Irrawaddy valley enabled the ascent of Burmese language and culture, and the spread of Bamar ethnicity in
3179:
Whatever the origin of the Burmese alphabet may be, writing in Burmese was still a novelty in the 11th century. A written Burmese language became dominant in court only in the 12th century. For much of the Pagan period, written materials needed to produce large numbers of literate monks and students
2942:
Nonetheless, by the end of Pagan period, the process of Burmanization, which would continue into the 19th century, and eventually blanket the entire lowlands, was still in an early stage. The first extant Burmese language reference to "Burmans" appeared only in 1190, and the first reference to Upper
2900:
The kingdom was an "ethnic mosaic". In the late 11th century, ethnic Burmans were still "a privileged but numerically limited population", heavily concentrated in the interior dry zone of Upper Burma. They co-existed with Pyus, who dominated the dry zone, until the latter came to identify themselves
2570:
relied on its main rice basin of over 13,000 hectares.) But donations to the sangha over the 250 years of the empire accumulated to over 150,000 hectares (over 60%) of the total cultivated land. Ultimately, the practice proved unsustainable when the empire had stopped growing physically, and a major
2417:
queens and concubines. The ministers were usually drawn from more distant branches of the royal family. Their subordinates were not royal but usually hailed from top official families. Titles, ranks, insignia, fiefs and other such rewards helped maintain the loyalty-patronage structure of the court.
2389:
they generally had a freehand in the rest of the administration. They were chief justices, commanders-in-chief, and tax collectors. They made local officer appointments. In fact, no evidence of royal censuses or direct contact between the Pagan court and headmen beneath the governors has been found.
1848:
in the west. In the northeast, a series of 43 forts Anawrahta established along the eastern foothills, of which 33 still exist as villages, reveal the effective extent of his authority. Moreover, most scholars attribute Pagan's control of peripheral regions (Arakan, Shan Hills) to later kings—Arakan
1682:
By the mid-10th century, Burmans at Pagan had expanded irrigation-based cultivation while borrowing extensively from the Pyus' predominantly Buddhist culture. Pagan's early iconography, architecture and scripts suggest little difference between early Burman and Pyu cultural forms. Moreover, no sharp
3783:
Although the Burmese temple designs evolved from Indic, Pyu (and possibly Mon) styles, the techniques of vaulting seem to have developed in Pagan itself. The earliest vaulted temples in Pagan date to the 11th century while the vaulting did not become widespread in India until the late 12th century.
3464:
In the areas of city planning and temple design, Pagan architecture borrowed heavily from existing Pyu architectural practices, which in turn were based on various Indian styles. Pagan-era city planning largely followed Pyu patterns, the most notable being the use of 12 gates, for each of the signs
3460:
Burman immigrants are believed to have either introduced new water management techniques or greatly enhanced existing Pyu system of weirs, dams, sluices, and diversionary barricades. The techniques of building dams, canals and weirs found in pre-colonial Upper Myanmar trace their origins to the Pyu
3408:
monks, who enjoyed wide influence at the Pagan court. Contemporary inscriptions show that the Aris ate evening meals, and presided over public ceremonies where they drank liquor and where cattle and other animals were sacrificed—activities considered scandalous by Burmese Buddhist norms of the 18th
3368:
To be sure, the Theravada Buddhist scene of the Pagan era had little semblance to those of Toungoo and Konbaung periods. Much of the institutional mechanisms prevalent in later centuries simply did not yet exist. For instance, in the 19th century, a network of Theravada monasteries in every village
3219:, and medicine, and developed an independent school of legal studies. Most students, and probably the leading monks and nuns, came from aristocratic families. At any rate, local illiteracy probably prevented the sort of detailed village censuses and legal rulings that became a hallmark of post-1550
3114:
and the language of the ruling class of Nanzhao. But the spread of the language to the masses lagged behind the founding of the Pagan Empire by 75 to 150 years. In the early Pagan era, both Pyu and Mon were lingua francas of the Irrawaddy valley. Pyu was the dominant language of Upper Myanmar while
2492:
corps were drawn from specific hereditary villages that specialised in respective military skills. In an era of limited military specialisation, when the number of conscripted cultivators offered the best single indication of military success, Upper Myanmar with a greater population was the natural
2475:
system by later dynasties), which required local chiefs to supply their predetermined quota of men from their jurisdiction on the basis of population in times of war. This basic system of military organisation was largely unchanged down to the precolonial period although later dynasties, especially
2416:
The court was the centre of administration, representing at once executive, legislative and judiciary branches of the government. The members of the court can be divided into three general categories: royalty, ministers, and subordinate officials. At the top were the high king, princes, princesses,
3836:
The Pagan Empire also changed the history of mainland Southeast Asia. Geopolitically, Pagan checked the Khmer Empire's encroachment into the Tenasserim coast and upper Menam valley. Culturally, the emergence of Pagan as a Theravada stronghold in the face of an expanding Hindu Khmer Empire from the
2951:
ensured the continued spread of Burman ethnicity in post-Pagan Upper Burma, the similar emergence of non-Burmese speaking kingdoms elsewhere helped develop ethnic consciousness closely tied to respective ruling classes in Lower Burma, Shan states and Arakan. For example, according to Lieberman and
2930:
To be sure, the notion of ethnicity in pre-colonial Burma was highly fluid, heavily influenced by language, culture, class, locale, and indeed political power. People changed their in-group identification, depending on the social context. The success and longevity of the Pagan Empire sustained the
2587:
Internal and external trade played an important but minor role in Pagan's economy. Trade was not the main engine of economic growth for much of the Pagan period although its share of the economy probably increased in the 13th century when the agricultural sector stopped growing. That is not to say
2496:
Various sources and estimates put Pagan's military strength anywhere between 30,000 and 60,000 men. One inscription by Sithu II, who expanded the empire to its greatest extent, describes him as the lord of 17,645 soldiers while another notes 30,000 soldiers and cavalry under his command. A Chinese
2200:
By then, the city of Pagan, once home to 200,000 people, had been reduced to a small town, never to regain its preeminence. (It survived into the 15th century as a settlement.) The brothers placed one of Kyawswa's sons as the governor of Pagan. Anawrahta's line continued to rule Pagan as governors
1981:
were built during their reigns. The kingdom's borders expanded to its greatest extent. Military organisation and success reached their zenith. Monumental architecture achieved a qualitative and quantitative standard that subsequent dynasties tried to emulate but never succeeded in doing. The court
1777:
Anawrahta proved an energetic king. His acts as king were to strengthen his kingdom's economic base. In the first decade of his reign, he invested much effort into turning the arid parched lands of central Myanmar into a rice granary, successfully building/enlarging weirs and canals, mainly around
2546:
Agriculture was the primary engine of the kingdom from its beginnings in the 9th century. Burman immigrants are believed to have either introduced new water management techniques or greatly enhanced existing Pyu system of weirs, dams, sluices, and diversionary barricades. At any rate, the Kyaukse
2388:
or tributary states, governed by local hereditary rulers as well as Pagan appointed governors, drawn from princely or ministerial families. Because of their farther distances from the capital, the regions' rulers/governors had greater autonomy. They were required to send tributes to the crown but
3343:
One of the most enduring developments in Burmese history was the gradual emergence of Theravada Buddhism as the primary faith of the Pagan Empire. A key turning point came c. 1056 when the Buddhist school won the royal patronage of an ascendant empire with Anawrahta's conversion from his native
2891:
Various estimates put the population of Pagan Empire as anywhere between one and two and a half million but most estimates put it between one and a half and two million at its height. The number would be closer to the upper end, assuming that the population of pre-colonial Burma remained fairly
2596:
For all the innovations that the Pagan dynasty introduced, one area that it regressed was the use of coinage. The Pyu practice of issuing gold and silver coinage was not retained. The common medium of exchange was lump silver "coinage", followed by gold and copper lump coinage. Silver came from
2392:
Over the course of 250 years, the throne slowly tried to integrate the most strategically and economically important regions—i.e. Lower Myanmar, Tenasserim, northernmost Irrawaddy valley—into the core by appointing its governors in place of hereditary rulers. In the 12th and 13th centuries, for
1370:
The earliest archaeological evidence of civilisation far dates to 11,000 BC. Archaeological evidence shows that as early as the 2nd century BC the Pyu had built water-management systems along secondary streams in central and northern parts of the Irrawaddy basin and had founded one of Southeast
2561:
Secondly, the need to accumulate land for endowments, as well as for awards for soldiers and servicemen, drove the active development of new lands. The earliest irrigation projects focused on Kyaukse where Burmans built a large number of new weirs and diversionary canals, and Minbu a similarly
2480:
chronicles is 1174 when Sithu II founded the Palace Guards—"two companies inner and outer, and they kept watch in ranks one behind the other". The Palace Guards became the nucleus round which the mass levy assembled in war time. Most of the field levy served in the infantry but the men for the
2420:
The king as the absolute monarch was the chief executive, legislator and justice of the land. However, as the kingdom grew, the king gradually handed over responsibilities to the court, which became more extensive and complex, adding more administrative layers and officials. In the early 13th
1399:
contends that the arrival of Burmans may have been a few centuries earlier, perhaps the early 7th century. The earliest human settlement at Bagan is radiocarbon dated to c. 650 AD. But evidence is inconclusive to prove that it was specifically a Burman (and not just another Pyu) settlement.)
2479:
The early Pagan army consisted mainly of conscripts raised just prior to or during the times of war. Although historians believe that earlier kings like Anawrahta must have had permanent troops on duty in the palace, the first specific mention of a standing military structure in the Burmese
2501:
in 1277. However, some argue that the Chinese figures, which came from eye estimates of a single battle, are greatly exaggerated. As Harvey puts it: the Mongols "erred on the side of generosity as they did not wish to diminish the glory in defeating superior numbers". But assuming that the
3349:
interior is greatly exaggerated. Instead, he argues that it is more likely that Burmans borrowed Theravada Buddhism from their neighbour Pyus, or directly from India. The Theravada school prevalent in the early and mid Pagan periods, like in the Pyu realm, was probably derived from the
2434:, to be followed as precedents by all courts of justice. A follow-up collection of judgments was compiled during the reign of Sithu II (r. 1174–1211) by a Mon monk named Dhammavilasa. As another sign of delegation of power, Sithu II also appointed a chief justice and a chief minister.
2008:
areas, ensuring the needed wealth for a growing royalty and officialdom. Pagan dispatched governors to supervise more closely ports in Lower Myanmar and the peninsula. In the early 13th century, Pagan, alongside the Khmer Empire, was one of two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia.
1877:. The Burmese king provided the Buddhist school, which had been in retreat elsewhere in South Asia and Southeast Asia, a much needed reprieve and a safe shelter. By the 1070s, Pagan had emerged as the main Theravada stronghold. In 1071, it helped to restart the Theravada Buddhism in
2180:
in 1293/94, it was the brothers, not Kyawswa, that sent a force to reclaim the former Pagan territory in 1295–96. Though the army was driven back, it left no doubt as to who held the real power in central Myanmar. In the following years, the brothers, especially the youngest,
1441:
Evidence shows that the actual pace of Burman migration into the Pyu realm was gradual. Indeed, no firm indications have been found at Sri Ksetra or at any other Pyu site to suggest a violent overthrow. Radiocarbon dating shows that human activity existed until c. 870 at
1795:
By the mid-1050s, Anawrahta's reforms had turned Pagan into a regional power, and he looked to expand. Over the next ten years, he founded the Pagan Empire, the Irrawaddy valley at the core, surrounded by tributary states. Anawrahta began his campaigns in the nearer
3691:
with a lotus bud. The lotus bud design then evolved into the "banana bud", which forms the extended apex of most Burmese pagodas. Three or four rectangular terraces served as the base for a pagoda, often with a gallery of terra-cotta tiles depicting Buddhist
1912:
Anawrahta was followed by a line of able kings who cemented Pagan's place in history. Pagan entered a golden age that would last for the next two centuries. Aside from a few occasional rebellions, the kingdom was largely peaceful during the period. King
2974:) of the king, and were often assigned to individual headmen and officials who acted as the king's representatives. They received land grants from the crown, and were exempt from most personal taxes in exchange for regular or military service. Second,
1944:
Pagan Empire during Sithu II's reign. Burmese chronicles also claim Kengtung and Chiang Mai. Core areas shown in darker yellow. Peripheral areas in light yellow. Pagan incorporated key ports of Lower Myanmar into its core administration by the 13th
1756:
came to power. Over the next three decades, he turned this small principality into the First Burmese Empire—the "charter polity" that formed the basis of modern-day Burma/Myanmar. Historically verifiable Burmese history begins with his accession.
3119:
of the kingdom only in the early 12th century, and perhaps the late 12th century when the use of Pyu and Mon in official usage declined. Mon continued to flourish in Lower Myanmar but Pyu as a language had died out by the early 13th century.
1395:
the Nanzhao kings where the last name of the father became the first name of the son. The chronicles date these early kings to between the 2nd and 5th centuries AD, scholars to between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. (A minority view led by
2167:
emerged as king of Pagan in May 1289. But the new "king" controlled just a small area around the capital, and had no real army. The real power in Upper Myanmar now rested with three brothers, who were former Pagan commanders, of nearby
1066:
founded the Pagan Empire, presumably for the first time unifying under one polity the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. By the late 12th century, Anawrahta's successors had extended their influence farther to the south into the upper
3473:
Pagan stands out not only for the sheer number of religious edifices but also for the magnificent architecture of the buildings, and their contribution to Burmese temple design. Pagan temples fall into one of two broad categories: the
3803:
Another architectural innovation originated in Pagan is the Buddhist temple with a pentagonal floor plan. This design grew out of hybrid (between one-face and four-face designs) designs. The idea was to include the veneration of the
1861:. (Even those latter-day kings may not have had more than nominal control over the farther peripheral regions. For example, some scholars such as Victor Lieberman argue that Pagan did not have any "effective authority" over Arakan.)
1816:. Estimates of the extent of his empire vary greatly. The Burmese and Siamese chronicles report an empire which covered the present-day Myanmar and northern Thailand. The Siamese chronicles assert that Anawrahta conquered the entire
3426:
pantheon that sought to assimilate local deities and persons of prowess to a more unified cultus. The Burmans may have derived the concept of an official pantheon from Mon tradition. Likewise, the early Pagan court worshiped snakes
3451:
Bagan is well known today for its architecture, and over 2000 remaining temples that dot the modern-day Pagan (Bagan) plains today. Other, non-religious aspects of Pagan architecture were equally important to later Burmese states.
3800:, in the form of spacious vaulted chambered temple but failed as craftsmen and masons of the later era had lost the knowledge of vaulting and keystone arching to reproduce the spacious interior space of the Pagan hollow temples.)
1122:
practices remained heavily entrenched at all social strata. Pagan's rulers built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Bagan Archaeological Zone of which over 2000 remain. The wealthy donated tax-free land to religious authorities.
3770:
temples come in two basic styles: "one-face" design and "four-face" design—essentially one main entrance and four main entrances. Other styles such as five-face and hybrids also exist. The one-face style grew out of 2nd century
2927:) although Shan migrants were changing the ethnic makeup of the hill region. In the south, Mons were dominant in Lower Burma by the 13th century, if not earlier. In the west, an Arakanese ruling class who spoke Burmese emerged.
2086:
Rise of small kingdoms after the fall of Pagan Empire c. 1310. Tai-Shan Realm of Shan states, Lan Na and Sukhothai as well as Ramanya in Lower Myanmar were Mongol vassals. Myinsaing was the only non-Mongol vassal state in the
2565:
By the second half of the 13th century, Pagan had developed an enormous amount of cultivated lands. Estimates based on surviving inscriptions alone range from 200,000 to 250,000 hectares. (In comparison, Pagan's contemporary
2209:
until 1368/69. The male side of Pagan ended there although the female side passed into Pinya and Ava royalty. But the Pagan line continued to be claimed by successive Burmese dynasties down to the last Burmese dynasty
1831:
Archaeological evidence however confirms only a smaller empire of the Irrawaddy valley and nearer periphery. Anawrahta's victory terracotta votive tablets emblazoned with his name in Sanskrit have been found along the
1864:
At any rate, all scholars accept that during the 11th century, Pagan consolidated its hold of Upper Burma, and established its authority over Lower Burma. The emergence of Pagan Empire would have a lasting impact on
3686:
had developed into a more bell-shaped form in which the parasols morphed into a series of increasingly smaller rings placed on one top of the other, rising to a point. On top the rings, the new design replaced the
2376:). The governors and taik-leaders lived off apanage grants and local taxes. But unlike their frontier counterparts, the core zone governors did not have much autonomy because of the close proximity to the capital.
2192:
as viceroy of Pagan on 20 March 1297. The brothers resented the new arrangement as a Mongol vassalage as it directly reduced their power. On 17 December 1297, the three brothers overthrew Kyawswa, and founded the
2015:(Burmans) was openly used in Burmese language inscriptions. Burmese became the primary written language of the kingdom, replacing Pyu and Mon. His reign also saw the realignment of Burmese Buddhism with Ceylon's
2547:
agricultural basin's development in the 10th and 11th centuries enabled the kingdom of Pagan to expand beyond the dry zone of Upper Myanmar, and to dominate its periphery, including the maritime Lower Myanmar.
2939:", evidenced by "the growth of Burmese writing, the concomitant decline in Pyu (and perhaps Mon) culture, new trends in art and architecture, and the expansion of Burmese-speaking cultivators into new lands".
103:'s reign. Kengtung and Chiang Mai are also claimed to be part of the Empire according to the Burmese chronicles. Pagan incorporated key ports of Lower Burma into its core administration by the 13th century.
2127:). In 1283–85, their forces moved south and occupied the land down to Hanlin. Instead of defending the country, the king fled Pagan for Lower Myanmar, where he was assassinated by one of his sons in 1287.
1446:, the Pyu city reportedly destroyed by an 832 Nanzhao raid. The region of Pagan received waves of Burman settlements in the mid-to-late 9th century, and perhaps well into the 10th century. Though
2935:, which Lieberman describes as "assimilation by bi-lingual peoples, eager to identify with the imperial elite". According to Lieberman, Pagan's imperial power enabled the "construction of Burman
1782:, east of Pagan. The newly irrigated regions attracted people, giving him an increased manpower base. He graded every town and village according to the levy it could raise. The region, known as
2467:. The army was organised into a small standing army of a few thousand, which defended the capital and the palace, and a much larger conscript-based wartime army. Conscription was based on the
2163:
never sanctioned an actual occupation of Pagan. His real aim appeared to have been "to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented." At Pagan, one of Narathihapate's sons
3115:
Mon was sufficiently prestigious for Pagan rulers to employ the language frequently for inscriptions and perhaps court usages. Inscriptional evidence indicates that Burmese became the
3775:, and the four-face out of 7th-century Sri Ksetra. The temples, whose main features were the pointed arches and the vaulted chamber, became larger and grander in the Pagan period.
3184:, even in the 13th century, "the art of writing was then still in its infancy with the Burmans". Manuscripts were rare and extremely costly. As late as 1273, a complete set of the
2011:
His reign also saw the rise of Burmese culture which finally emerged from the shadows of Mon and Pyu cultures. With the Burman leadership of the kingdom now unquestioned, the term
3197:
At Pagan and at main provincial centres, Buddhist temples supported an increasingly sophisticated Pali scholarship, which specialised in grammar and philosophical-psychological (
3194:
of silver, which could buy over 2000 hectares of paddy fields. Literacy in Burmese, not to mention Pali, was the effective monopoly of the aristocracy and their monastic peers.
2316:
of Upper Myanmar, measuring approximately 150 to 250 kilometres (93 to 155 mi) in radius from the capital. The region consisted of the capital and the key irrigated hubs (
1982:
finally developed a complex organisation that became the model for later dynasties. the agricultural economy reached its potential in Upper Myanmar. The Buddhist clergy, the
3019:) were hereditary, and were exempt from personal taxes and royal service in exchange for maintaining the affairs of monasteries and temples. Unlike royal servicemen or even
1280:) succeeded his father, and was followed by a dynasty of 31 kings, and then another dynasty of 17 kings. Some three and a half centuries later, in 483 BC, scions of Tagaung
3461:
era and the Pagan era. Pagan's several water management projects in the dry zone provided Upper Myanmar with an enduring economic base to dominate the rest of the country.
1792:, lit. "rice country"), became the granary, the economic key of the north country. History shows that one who gained control of Kyaukse became kingmaker in Upper Myanmar.
561:
547:
533:
519:
494:
480:
466:
1292:(Prome). Sri Ksetra lasted nearly six centuries, and was succeeded in turn by the Kingdom of Pagan. The Glass Palace Chronicle goes on to relate that around 107 AD,
1147:(1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287. The collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century.
2430:
The court was also the chief justice of the land. Sithu I (r. 1112–1167) was the first Pagan king to issue an official collection of judgments, later known as the
6245:
3402:
Other traditions also continued to thrive not only at the village level but also at the nominally Theravadin court. One powerful group was the Forest Dweller or
2952:
Aung-Thwin, "the very notion of Mons as a coherent ethnicity may have emerged only in the 14th and 15th centuries after the collapse of Upper Burman hegemony".
1999:
in 1174, the first extant record of a standing army, and pursued an expansionist policy. Over his 27-year reign, Pagan's influence reached further south to the
6250:
32:
1215:
The Glass Palace Chronicle traces the origins of the Pagan kingdom to India during the 9th century BC, more than three centuries before the Buddha was born.
3624:. The Pagan-era stupas in turn were the prototypes for later Burmese stupas in terms of symbolism, form and design, building techniques and even materials.
1359:, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant; and that Pagan kings had adopted the Pyu histories and legends as their own. Indeed, the
3344:
Tantric Buddhism. According to mainstream scholarship, Anawrahta proceeded to revitalise Theravada Buddhism in Upper Myanmar with help from the conquered
3135:. The use of Sanskrit, which had been prevalent in the Pyu realm and in the early Pagan era, declined after Anawrahta's conversion to Theravada Buddhism.
3809:
3203:) studies, and which reportedly won the admiration of Sinhalese experts. Besides religious texts, Pagan's monks read works in a variety of languages on
1820:
valley, and received tribute from the Khmer king. One Siamese chronicle states that Anawrahta's armies invaded the Khmer kingdom and sacked the city of
4412:
2270:). In general, the crown's authority diffused away with the increasing distance from the capital. Each state was administered at three general levels:
1062:/Burmans. Over the next two hundred years, the small principality gradually grew to absorb its surrounding regions until the 1050s and 1060s when King
2984:) commoners lived not on royal land but on communally-held land, and owed no regular royal service but paid substantial head taxes. Private bondsmen (
778:
1429:
at Bagan (Pagan), the only remaining section of the old walls. The main walls are dated to c. 1020 and the earliest pieces of the walls to c. 980.
540:
499:
2188:
To check the increasing power of the three brothers, Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297, and was recognised by the Mongol emperor
3239:
The religion of Pagan was fluid, syncretic and by later standards, unorthodox—largely a continuation of religious trends in the Pyu era where
2506:
are not improbable, and are in line with figures given for the Burmese military between the 16th and 19th centuries in a variety of sources.
1382:
of Yunnan between the 750s and 830s AD. Like that of the Pyu, the original home of Burmans prior to Yunnan is believed to be in present-day
6265:
6225:
2356:) areas on the west bank of the Irrawaddy were entrusted to the men of lesser rank, as well as those from powerful local families known as
953:
6230:
2609:), which was not a unit of value but rather a unit of weight at approximately 16.3293 grams. Other weight-based units in relation to the
5174:
3706:
are the earliest examples of this type. Examples of the trend toward a more bell-shaped design gradually gained primacy as seen in the
1144:
2035:
Sithu II's success in state building created stability and prosperity throughout the kingdom. His immediate successors Htilominlo and
6260:
5624:
5475:
2189:
5644:
866:
816:
3788:
more or less intact. (Unfortunately, the vaulting techniques of the Pagan era were lost in the later periods. Only much smaller
1736:
6104:
5831:
5352:
5330:
5311:
5225:
5163:
1235:) – the clan of the Buddha – left his homeland with followers in 850 BC after military defeat by the neighbouring kingdom of
3784:
The masonry of the buildings shows "an astonishing degree of perfection", where many of the immense structures survived the
2994:) owed labour only to their individual patron, and lay outside the system of royal obligation. Finally, religious bondsmen (
5850:
5659:
5392:
1390:. After the Nanzhao attacks had greatly weakened the Pyu city-states, large numbers of Burman warriors and their families
5769:
5654:
5634:
860:
598:
594:
2947:) in 1235. The notion of ethnicity continued to be highly fluid, and closely tied to political power. While the rise of
1925:. Several diverse elements—art, architecture, religion, language, literature, ethnic plurality—had begun to synthesize.
6235:
5872:
5723:
5382:
3015:) were hereditary, and were exempt from personal taxes in exchange for royal service. Similarly, religious servicemen (
2753:
with varying degrees of purity were in use. Records show that people also used a system of barter to conduct commerce.
2019:
school. The Pyus receded into the background, and by the early 13th century, had largely assumed the Burman ethnicity.
3808:, the future and fifth Buddha of this era, in addition to the four who had already appeared. The Dhammayazika and the
2901:
as Burmans by the early 13th century. Inscriptions also mention a variety of ethnic groups in and around Upper Burma:
5444:
5277:
5203:
5132:
5113:
4247:
Cham epigraphic mentions of Pokam (Pagan) date to 1155 Śaka (1233/34 AD) and thirteenth century AD, rather than 1050.
2964:
The majority of the people belonged to one of four broad groups of commoners. First, royal servicemen were bondsmen (
2443:
1170:
tradition. Considerable differences exist between the views of modern scholarship and various chronicle narratives.
5981:
5402:
3858:
3766:-style temple is a structure used for meditation, devotional worship of the Buddha and other Buddhist rituals. The
946:
854:
848:
4221:
Griffiths, Arlo; Lepoutre, Amandine (2013). "Campa Epigraphical Data on Polities and Peoples of Ancient Myanmar".
822:
5976:
392:
2695:. Other metals were also in use. The value of other metal currencies vis-a-vis the silver kyat are shown below.
5738:
5619:
5373:
Ricklefs, M.C.; Bruce McFarland Lockhart; Albert Lau; Portia Reyes; Maitrii Aung-Thwin; Bruce Lockhart (2010).
2077:
362:
5649:
3895:; Harvey's map of Pagan Empire on p. 21 shows present-day Kyaukpru District (specifically, Ann) as Macchagiri.
1773:; Minimal, if any, control over Arakan; Pagan's suzerainty over Arakan confirmed four decades after his death.
1188:
According to the local myth and chronicles written down in the 18th century trace its origins to 167 AD, when
5915:
5860:
5703:
5437:
Money, markets, and trade in early Southeast Asia: the development of indigenous monetary systems to AD 1400
4408:
1355:
in the mid-to-late 9th century AD; that the earlier parts of the chronicle are the histories and legends of
5991:
5935:
5843:
5804:
5789:
5743:
5718:
5614:
5589:
5468:
3151:. The old Burmese style of writing did not have cursive features, which are hallmarks of the modern script.
1416:
872:
828:
786:
17:
6255:
6124:
6049:
5949:
5910:
5708:
5683:
2095:'s accession in 1256. The inexperienced king faced revolts in Arakanese state of Macchagiri (present-day
939:
906:
891:
886:
842:
1106:
norms by the late 12th century. Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level although
6129:
6016:
5304:
Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland
3163:
and on whether a recast 18th century copy of an original stone inscription is permissible as evidence.
2497:
account mentions a Burmese army of 40,000 to 60,000 (including 800 elephants and 10,000 horses) at the
2136:
2111:
demanded tribute, in 1271 and again in 1273. When Narathihapate refused both times, the Mongols under
1491:(the Royal Horoscopes Chronicle). Prior to Anawrahta, inscriptional evidence exists thus far only for
1253:. The chronicle does not claim that he had arrived in an empty land, only that he was the first king.
1166:
The origins of the Pagan kingdom have been reconstructed using archaeological evidence as well as the
705:
6240:
5867:
5728:
5713:
5688:
3703:
2961:
clergy was not a class in the secular society but nonetheless represented an important social class.
2231:
3904:(Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 148, footnote 8): Thursday, Full moon of Tabodwe 648 ME = 30 January 1287
2749:
The lack of standardised coinage certainly complicated commerce. For instance, many types of silver
2502:
precolonial population of Myanmar was relatively constant, the estimates of 40,000 to 60,000 of the
1988:, enjoyed one of its most wealthy periods. Civil and criminal laws were codified in the vernacular,
6270:
6181:
5826:
5698:
3004:) were also private bondsmen who owed labour only to monasteries and temples but not to the crown.
1746:
911:
3318:
2917:. The peoples who lived in the highland perimeter were collectively classified as "hill peoples" (
6139:
6011:
5966:
5905:
5794:
5774:
5461:
3604:, also called a pagoda, is a massive structure, typically with a relic chamber inside. The Pagan
3107:
2027:
1974:
1870:
1048:
896:
1315:
The chronicle narratives then merge, and agree that a dynasty of kings followed Pyusawhti. King
6220:
5900:
5799:
2498:
2116:
3418:
The state also accommodated the powerful animist traditions, as shown in the official spirit (
6064:
6044:
5779:
5609:
5522:
5178:
3785:
3204:
804:
631:
1019:) was the first Burmese kingdom to unify the regions that would later constitute modern-day
6134:
5996:
5971:
5930:
5855:
5816:
5784:
5671:
5582:
3111:
2787:
away from the capital. Construction of a large temple in the reign of Sithu II cost 44,027
2300:, village), with the high king's court at the centre. The kingdom consisted of at least 14
2115:
systematically invaded the country. The first invasion in 1277 defeated the Burmese at the
1095:
772:
139:
2931:
spread of Burman ethnicity and culture in Upper Burma in a process that came to be called
1957:
Pagan reached the height of political and administrative development during the reigns of
8:
6144:
6001:
5757:
5733:
5567:
5364:
3750:
3707:
3574:
3128:
2173:
2144:
1833:
1161:
746:
697:
526:
1333:
6199:
6109:
6026:
5925:
5888:
5838:
5693:
5639:
5572:
5514:
5488:
4238:
3746:
3711:
3656:
3590:
3240:
3132:
2551:
2464:
2313:
2234:
system in which the sovereign exercised direct political authority in the core region (
1996:
1970:
1885:. Another key development according to traditional scholarship was the creation of the
1617:
1527:
1496:
1487:
1281:
1183:
1167:
1075:, in the farther north to below the current China border, and to the west, in northern
1044:
901:
810:
758:
679:
647:
613:
149:
5372:
5263:(in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2006, 4th printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing.
5144:
Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and the Throne in Burma's Last Dynasty, 1752–1885
3357:. It was the predominant Theravada school in Myanmar until the late 12th century when
3123:
Another important development in Burmese history and Burmese language was the rise of
6188:
6094:
6069:
5986:
5542:
5440:
5378:
5348:
5326:
5307:
5273:
5221:
5199:
5159:
5128:
5109:
4242:
3842:
3542:
3411:
3244:
2936:
2194:
2177:
2159:
but refused to fill the power vacuum they had created farther south. Indeed, Emperor
2156:
2096:
2000:
1984:
1978:
1601:
1492:
1246:
716:
512:
377:
153:
3736:
3678:
such as the Bupaya (c. 9th century) were the direct descendants of the Pyu style at
6169:
6119:
6114:
6089:
6074:
6054:
6006:
5961:
5811:
5594:
5299:
4230:
3830:
3727:
3699:
3583:
3558:
3507:
3248:
3231:
3156:
3148:
3103:
3043:
2372:
2352:
2333:
2328:
2266:
2246:
2211:
2164:
2120:
1989:
1886:
1805:
1779:
1383:
1192:
founded the dynasty at Pagan (Bagan). But the 19th-century Glass Palace Chronicle (
1094:
and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the
1091:
1028:
983:
971:
792:
602:
588:
319:
286:
5151:
3353:
region in southeast India, associated with the famous Theravada Buddhist scholar,
3023:
commoners, the religious bondsmen could not be conscripted into military service.
2761:
1719:. To the north lay the Nanzhao Kingdom, and to the east still largely uninhabited
6099:
6079:
5577:
5552:
5527:
5397:
3863:
3826:
3805:
3613:
3444:
3358:
3220:
2873:
1966:
1866:
1809:
1704:
1553:
1518:
1379:
1352:
1342:
1250:
1194:
1179:
1068:
1032:
1024:
766:
726:
651:
637:
485:
471:
1901:
1378:, the millennium-old Pyu realm came crashing down under repeated attacks by the
6193:
6059:
6034:
5604:
5557:
5532:
3617:
3350:
3345:
3333:
3288:
2906:
2337:
1854:
1841:
1387:
1302:), nephew of the last king of Sri Ksetra, founded the city of Pagan (formally,
1128:
929:
732:
670:
248:
3327:
3312:
3297:
3278:
3036:
1741:
621:
6214:
6084:
5629:
5562:
5547:
5340:
5213:
3849:(Laos), and Khmer Empire (Cambodia) in the 13th and 14th centuries possible.
3797:
3792:
style temples were built after Pagan. In the 18th century, for example, King
3632:
3608:
or pagodas evolved from earlier Pyu designs, which in turn were based on the
3526:
3284:
3186:
3116:
2797:
2795:. Manuscripts were rare and extremely costly. In 1273, a complete set of the
2457:
2421:
century, c. 1211, part of the court evolved into the king's privy council or
2202:
2092:
2056:
2004:
1958:
1922:
1906:
1882:
1858:
1813:
1801:
1443:
1426:
1403:
1267:
1076:
1072:
1040:
738:
720:
710:
233:
221:
100:
47:
34:
3887:(Harvey 1925: 326–327): The location of Macchagiri is likely to the west of
2476:
the Toungoo dynasty, did introduce standardisation and other modifications.
2408:
1727:. The size of the principality is about 6% of that of modern Burma/Myanmar.
6039:
5920:
3404:
3395:
3261:
3081:
2567:
2453:
2251:
2140:
2108:
1940:
1918:
1874:
1837:
1569:
1463:
1203:
1136:
1099:
1084:
1036:
660:
135:
4234:
3422:) propitiation ceremonies, and in the court's sponsorship of an elaborate
3377:
stories of the Buddha's life, etc. Most commoners retained the worship of
3066:
3051:
2597:
domestic mines as well as Yunnan. The base unit of currency of the silver
5599:
5391:
3892:
3868:
3663:
while the umbrella mounted on the brickwork represents the world's axis.
3535:
3354:
3256:
2948:
2914:
2599:
2523:
2206:
2160:
2112:
2060:
1929:
1850:
1375:
1293:
1271:
1266:) ventured south, and in 825 BC founded his own kingdom in what is today
1257:
1140:
752:
554:
272:
209:
131:
4409:"KING ANAWRAHTA AND THE RISE AND FALL OF BAGAN | Facts and Details"
2538:
3679:
3667:
3660:
3640:
3511:
3362:
3303:
3199:
3073:
3058:
2902:
2579:
2481:
2052:
2016:
1962:
1914:
1890:
1797:
1724:
1720:
1470:
in 1004. Mon inscriptions first mentioned Pagan in 1093, respectively.
1433:
1364:
1356:
1285:
1132:
1080:
261:
252:
197:
2769:
Surviving records provide a glimpse of the kingdom's economic life. A
1466:
records, which report that envoys from Pagan visited the Song capital
5368:(in Burmese) (8th printing, 2004 ed.). Yangon: Armanthit Sarpay.
5287:
5244:
5196:
Seventeenth-century Burma and the Dutch East India Company, 1634–1680
3888:
3793:
3772:
3439:
3212:
3208:
3160:
2910:
2169:
1770:
1753:
1665:
1459:
1396:
1189:
1115:
1107:
1063:
334:
185:
2155:
After their 1287 invasion, the Mongols continued to control down to
2123:(modern-day Yingjiang, Yunnan, 112 kilometres (70 mi) north of
1824:, and another one goes so far as to say that Anawrahta even visited
5821:
5453:
5410:
3846:
3674:
gradually developed a longer, cylindrical form. The earliest Pagan
3252:
3181:
3143:
2878:
2555:
2448:
2182:
1700:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1585:
1347:
Modern scholarship holds that the Pagan dynasty was founded by the
1236:
1216:
1111:
157:
3171:
5484:
3216:
2485:
2423:
2104:
2100:
2040:
1716:
1708:
1696:
1649:
1538:
1500:
1467:
1316:
1119:
1020:
303:
257:
161:
3567:
3520:
3498:
2082:
1765:
5345:
The River of Lost Footsteps – Histories of Burma
5256:
5127:(illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
3838:
3694:
3621:
2514:
2222:
2132:
2036:
1949:
1878:
1821:
1421:
1226:
1199:
3666:
The original Indic design was gradually modified first by the
3639:, "the egg") on which a rectangular box surrounded by a stone
3620:
in present-day southeastern India, and to a smaller extent to
3155:
The spread of Burmese language was accompanied by that of the
3476:
2527:
2250:), and administered farther surrounding regions as tributary
2124:
1845:
1817:
1712:
1633:
1360:
1348:
1059:
1055:
120:
3551:
3409:
and 19th centuries. Aris reportedly also enjoyed a form of
3124:
3088:
2668:
2489:
1825:
1723:, to the south and the west Pyus, and farther south still,
1289:
1103:
436:
5237:
History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824
3389:
2779:, 0.71 hectare) of fertile land near Pagan cost 20 silver
1087:, was one of two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia.
1054:
The kingdom grew out of a small 9th-century settlement at
3651:
was a shaft supporting several ceremonial umbrellas. The
1992:, to become the basic jurisprudence for subsequent ages.
1896:
5272:(illustrated ed.). Hunter Publishing. p. 255.
5158:. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.
4907:
1367:
became mixed after years of immigration and settlement.
1027:
and its periphery laid the foundation for the ascent of
4080:
Cooler 2002: Chapter I: Prehistoric and Animist Periods
1083:. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Pagan, alongside the
3102:
The primary language of the ruling class of Pagan was
5413:(December 1959). "History of Burma: A.D. 1300–1400".
5401:(in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2003 ed.). Yangon:
5125:
The mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma
3175:
Frescoes of Buddhist Jataka stories at a Pagan temple
2518:
Pagan's prosperous economy built over 10,000 temples.
2230:
Pagan's government can be generally described by the
2031:
Cumulative donations to the Sangha in 25-year periods
4990:
4988:
1198:) connects the dynasty's origins to the clan of the
4628:
4626:
3180:in the villages simply did not exist. According to
2791:while a large "Indian style" monastery cost 30,600
5500:
5251:. New York and London: Cambridge University Press.
4978:
4976:
4974:
4694:
4692:
4600:
4598:
2396:The royal authority attenuated further in farther
5267:
5022:
5013:
5006:
5004:
5002:
5000:
4985:
4803:
4801:
4367:
4365:
4220:
3235:Statute of Vishnu at the Nat-Hlaung Kyaung Temple
2143:-speaking regions of Lower Myanmar, and declared
6212:
4635:
4623:
4586:
2091:The first signs of disorder appeared soon after
1893:in 1058, one year after the conquest of Thaton.
1881:whose Buddhist clergy had been wiped out by the
5220:(3rd ed.). Hutchinson University Library.
4971:
4689:
4595:
4529:
3455:
6246:States and territories established in the 840s
5430:(in Burmese). Vol. 1. Yangon: Maha Dagon.
5294:(in Burmese). Yangon: Yangon University Press.
5198:(illustrated ed.). Singapore: NUS Press.
5177:. Northern Illinois University. Archived from
4997:
4964:
4962:
4925:
4923:
4921:
4919:
4871:
4853:
4828:
4826:
4824:
4822:
4798:
4715:
4713:
4616:
4614:
4612:
4610:
4392:
4362:
4252:
4187:
3956:
3954:
3944:
3942:
3940:
3938:
6251:States and territories disestablished in 1297
5469:
4777:
4775:
3996:
3994:
3992:
3990:
3485:
2999:
2989:
2979:
2969:
2922:
2774:
2673:
2653:
2635:
2604:
2412:Burmese nobles partaking in equestrian sports
2365:
2345:
2321:
2295:
2285:
2275:
2259:
2239:
1787:
1320:
1307:
1297:
1275:
1261:
1240:
1230:
1220:
1207:
947:
69:
5058:
5040:
4738:
4731:
4729:
4727:
4725:
4570:
4568:
4522:
4520:
4432:
4430:
4289:
4287:
4277:
4275:
4273:
4261:
4178:
4160:
4153:
4151:
4149:
4040:
4038:
4036:
3647:) was set. Extending up from the top of the
2522:The economy of Pagan was based primarily on
1437:Pagan realm at Anawrahta's accession in 1044
5067:
4959:
4916:
4880:
4844:
4819:
4810:
4710:
4662:
4607:
4538:
4448:
4374:
4205:
4196:
4015:
4008:
4006:
3980:
3978:
3951:
3935:
3612:designs of the Andhra region, particularly
1328:
988:
5476:
5462:
5122:
5103:
5085:
5049:
4791:
4789:
4787:
4772:
4547:
4383:
4119:
3987:
3026:
2691:, unless specified, always meant a silver
2150:
954:
940:
84:
5298:
5286:
5243:
5108:. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
4950:
4941:
4932:
4835:
4765:
4763:
4761:
4759:
4747:
4722:
4680:
4671:
4565:
4517:
4492:
4490:
4478:
4462:
4460:
4427:
4344:
4328:
4326:
4296:
4284:
4270:
4146:
4033:
3926:
3670:, and then by Burmans at Pagan where the
1745:Statue of King Anawrahta in front of the
1477:list of early Pagan kings as reported by
1454:in 849—or more accurately, 876 after the
5425:
5409:
5076:
4499:
4335:
4056:
4003:
3975:
3968:
3966:
3438:
3388:
3230:
3170:
3142:
2872:
2760:
2578:
2537:
2513:
2447:
2407:
2221:
2081:
2026:
1948:
1939:
1900:
1764:
1740:
1432:
1420:
1332:
5361:
5339:
5156:The Indianized States of Southeast Asia
5141:
5031:
4898:
4862:
4784:
4701:
4577:
4169:
4137:
4110:
4092:
4065:
3812:are examples of the pentagonal design.
2463:Pagan's military was the origin of the
1752:In December 1044, a Pagan prince named
1485:dates adjusted to 1044 and the list of
599:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
14:
6213:
5234:
5172:
5150:
4889:
4756:
4653:
4644:
4556:
4508:
4487:
4469:
4457:
4439:
4353:
4323:
4314:
4305:
4128:
4083:
4047:
4024:
2863:
2185:, increasingly acted like sovereigns.
1897:Cultural synthesis and economic growth
1503:, the fortifier of Pagan according to
1173:
5457:
5434:
5320:
4101:
4074:
3963:
3268:
3259:) schools as well as native animist (
2886:
2384:Surrounding the core region were the
2379:
2371:
2351:
2327:
2265:
2245:
1256:Abhiraja had two sons. The elder son
982:
6176:
5483:
5393:Royal Historical Commission of Burma
5268:Köllner, Helmut; Axel Bruns (1998).
5255:
5212:
5193:
5146:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
2943:Burma as "the land of the Burmans" (
2312:The core region was the present-day
2176:of Lower Myanmar became a vassal of
1249:in present-day northern Myanmar and
6266:Former monarchies of Southeast Asia
6226:Former countries in Burmese history
5635:State Peace and Development Council
5377:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 544.
5239:. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
4415:from the original on 28 August 2019
3447:followed its Pagan era predecessors
3384:
2526:, and to a much smaller degree, on
2071:
1284:much farther down the Irrawaddy at
24:
6231:Former countries in Southeast Asia
5106:Pagan: The Origins of Modern Burma
3393:Mt. Popa, home of the pantheon of
3361:led the realignment with Ceylon's
25:
6282:
5415:Journal of Burma Research Society
4913:Aung-Thwin 2005: 167–178, 197–200
3717:
2955:
2571:factor in the empire's downfall.
2444:Military history of Pagan Dynasty
1374:According to a reconstruction by
1023:. Pagan's 250-year rule over the
6187:
6175:
6164:
6163:
5403:Ministry of Information, Myanmar
3907:
3735:
3726:
3627:Originally, an Indian/Ceylonese
3582:
3566:
3550:
3534:
3519:
3497:
3326:
3311:
3296:
3277:
3080:
3065:
3050:
3035:
2905:, Thets, Kadus, Sgaws, Kanyans,
2895:
1325:) fortified the city in 849 AD.
923:
620:
579:
559:
545:
531:
517:
492:
478:
464:
6261:1290s disestablishments in Asia
5375:A New History of Southeast Asia
5154:(1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.).
5097:
4401:
4214:
3898:
3881:
3505:Evolution of the Burmese stupa:
3434:
1730:
1711:, and the riverine portions of
27:First Burmese Empire (849–1297)
5306:. Cambridge University Press.
5175:"The Art and Culture of Burma"
3778:
2542:Development of irrigated lands
2533:
2307:
2078:First Mongol invasion of Burma
1995:Sithu II formally founded the
1410:
1071:, to the east at least to the
13:
1:
5347:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
3920:
3859:Burmese monarchs' family tree
3166:
2868:
2493:centre of political gravity.
2226:Ruins of the old Pagan Palace
2217:
2135:, the man who had seized the
2131:their own way. In the south,
1961:(Sithu II; r. 1174–1211) and
1928:Pagan's rise continued under
91:
5844:State Administration Council
5590:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom
5321:Moore, Elizabeth H. (2007).
5142:Charney, Michael W. (2006).
5123:Aung-Thwin, Michael (2005).
5104:Aung-Thwin, Michael (1985).
5010:Köllner, Bruns 1998: 118–120
3710:(late 12th century) and the
3480:-style solid temple and the
3456:Irrigation and city planning
3097:
2807:
2697:
2615:
2119:, and secured their hold of
1800:, and extended conquests to
1760:
1509:
1417:List of early Pagan monarchs
1337:Southeast Asia around 700 CE
1202:and the first Buddhist king
7:
5645:2011–2015 political reforms
5323:Early Landscapes of Myanmar
5173:Cooler, Richard M. (2002).
3891:on the western side of the
3852:
3682:. By the 11th century, the
3655:is a representation of the
3636:
3381:spirits and other beliefs.
3226:
3042:Myazedi inscription in the
2591:
2437:
1481:, shown in comparison with
1458:dates are adjusted to King
1282:founded yet another kingdom
10:
6287:
5428:Studies in Burmese History
5091:Ricklefs et al 2010: 43–45
4267:Maha Yazawin 2006: 346–347
3138:
2509:
2441:
2258:, lit. "conquered lands",
2075:
2022:
1869:as well as the history of
1734:
1676:Son of Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu
1414:
1340:
1177:
1159:
1155:
1150:
6236:Former monarchies of Asia
6159:
6025:
5957:
5948:
5896:
5887:
5765:
5756:
5679:
5670:
5513:
5501:Myanmar is also known as
5499:
5495:
5435:Wicks, Robert S. (1992).
3948:Lieberman 2003: 90–91, 94
3815:
3486:
3468:
3007:Of the three bonded (non-
3000:
2990:
2980:
2970:
2923:
2813:
2810:
2775:
2756:
2703:
2700:
2674:
2654:
2636:
2621:
2618:
2605:
2366:
2346:
2322:
2296:
2286:
2276:
2260:
2240:
1935:
1788:
1644:Son of Nyaung-u Sawrahan
1407:modern Burmese culture."
1321:
1308:
1298:
1276:
1262:
1241:
1231:
1221:
1208:
1056:Pagan (present-day Bagan)
975:
443:
430:
426:
416:
412:
407:
403:
388:
373:
358:
345:
330:
314:
299:
282:
278:
268:
243:
239:
227:
215:
203:
191:
179:
175:
167:
145:
127:
116:
108:
83:
78:
70:
64:
5770:Administrative divisions
5325:. Bangkok: River Books.
5028:Aung-Thwin 2005: 224–225
5019:Aung-Thwin 2005: 210–213
4994:Aung-Thwin 2005: 233–235
4698:Aung-Thwin 1985: 93, 163
4641:Aung-Thwin 1985: 130–131
4632:Aung-Thwin 1985: 104–105
4592:Aung-Thwin 1985: 196–197
4574:Köllner, Bruns 1998: 115
4505:Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 360
4223:Journal of Burma Studies
4062:Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 188
3874:
3631:had a hemispheric body (
2574:
2403:
2137:governorship of Martaban
1836:coastline in the south,
1828:to receive his tribute.
1532:
1524:
1515:
1512:
1329:Scholarly reconstruction
6140:Twelve Auspicious Rites
5921:Myanmar kyat (currency)
5064:Lieberman 2003: 122–123
5046:Lieberman 2003: 131–139
4968:Lieberman 2003: 117–118
4929:Lieberman 2003: 115–116
4886:Lieberman 2003: 133–134
4850:Lieberman 2003: 130–131
4832:Lieberman 2003: 114–115
4719:Lieberman 2003: 100–101
4620:Lieberman 2003: 112–113
4604:Aung-Thwin 1985: 99–101
4000:Lieberman 2003: 119–120
3796:attempted to build the
3749:(left) and "four-face"
3659:: its shape symbolises
3443:Design of 19th century
3027:Language and literature
2151:Disintegration and fall
2066:
1871:mainland Southeast Asia
1499:. The list starts from
1049:mainland Southeast Asia
805:British colonial period
287:Burmese calendar begins
5235:Harvey, G. E. (1925).
4982:Aung-Thwin 2005: 26–31
4938:Aung-Thwin 2005: 31–34
4877:Aung-Thwin 1985: 81–91
4859:Aung-Thwin 1985: 71–73
4807:Aung-Thwin 1985: 95–96
4781:Than Tun 1964: 182–183
4535:Than Tun 1959: 119–120
4398:Aung-Thwin 1985: 25–26
4371:Aung-Thwin 1985: 23–24
4258:Aung-Thwin 1985: 21–22
4193:Aung-Thwin 2005: 36–37
3932:Lieberman 2003: 88–123
3448:
3399:
3236:
3221:Toungoo administration
3176:
3152:
3108:Tibeto-Burman language
2883:
2882:New Year's festivities
2766:
2584:
2543:
2519:
2499:battle of Ngasaunggyan
2460:
2432:Alaungsithu hpyat-hton
2413:
2227:
2139:in 1285, consolidated
2117:Battle of Ngasaunggyan
2088:
2032:
1954:
1946:
1909:
1774:
1749:
1737:List of Pagan monarchs
1670:1017–1059 / 1044–1086
1450:states that Pagan was
1438:
1430:
1338:
587:This article contains
363:First Mongol invasions
5439:. SEAP Publications.
5362:Pan Hla, Nai (1968).
5194:Dijk, Wil O. (2006).
5055:Htin Aung 1967: 82–83
4947:Htin Aung 1967: 15–17
4753:Lieberman 2003: 94–95
4735:Lieberman 2003: 95–97
4686:Lieberman 2003: 88–89
4526:Htin Aung 1967: 73–75
4436:Htin Aung 1967: 51–52
4389:Coedès 1968: 178, 183
4341:Kyaw Thet 1962: 41–42
4281:Lieberman 2003: 90–91
4235:10.1353/jbs.2013.0014
4012:Htin Aung 1967: 63–65
3984:Lieberman 2003: 92–97
3841:(northern Thailand),
3714:(late 13th century).
3442:
3392:
3306:Buddha – North facing
3234:
3174:
3146:
2876:
2765:The Htilominlo Temple
2764:
2582:
2541:
2517:
2451:
2411:
2225:
2085:
2030:
1952:
1943:
1904:
1768:
1744:
1654:992–1017 / 1020–1044
1436:
1424:
1336:
1232:သကျ သာကီဝင် မင်းမျိုး
779:Nyaungyan Restoration
706:Warring states period
632:Prehistory of Myanmar
393:Final Mongol invasion
128:Common languages
48:21.17222°N 94.86028°E
5977:Environmental issues
5936:Units of measurement
5583:First Toungoo Empire
5302:, Victor B. (2003).
4744:Aung-Thwin 1985: 190
4668:Harvey 1925: 323–324
4553:Coedès 1968: 210–211
4184:Aung-Thwin 2005: 185
4166:Aung-Thwin 1985: 205
4125:Coedès 1968: 105–106
3960:Aung-Thwin 1985: 197
3845:(central Thailand),
3110:related to both the
2550:As reconstructed by
1965:(r. 1211–1235). The
1638:986–992 / 1014–1020
1043:, and the growth of
1003:; also known as the
984:[bəɡàɰ̃kʰɪʔ]
823:Nationalist movement
787:Restored Hanthawaddy
773:First Toungoo Empire
749:1287–1539, 1550–1552
335:Pagan Empire founded
99:Pagan Empire during
5615:Japanese occupation
5568:Hanthawaddy Kingdom
5365:Razadarit Ayedawbon
5181:on 26 December 2016
5082:Lieberman 2003: 188
4868:Lieberman 2003: 113
4841:Myint-U 2006: 72–73
4816:Aung-Thwin 1985: 71
4795:Lieberman 2003: 118
4484:Myint-U 2006: 60–62
4454:Aung-Thwin 1985: 26
4380:Wicks 1992: 130–131
4211:Aung-Thwin 1985: 21
4202:Aung-Thwin 2005: 38
4175:Htin Aung 1967: 367
4157:Myint-U 2006: 56–57
4044:Myint-U 2006: 44–45
4030:Lieberman 2003: 196
4021:Than Tun 1964: ix–x
3758:In contrast to the
3751:Dhammayangyi Temple
3708:Dhammayazika Pagoda
3129:liturgical language
2864:Culture and society
2471:system (called the
2373:[taiʔðədʑí]
2174:Hanthawaddy Kingdom
2099:) in the west, and
1769:Pagan Empire under
1622:964–986 / 992–1014
1245:). They settled at
1174:Chronicle tradition
1162:Early Pagan Kingdom
855:Ne Win dictatorship
829:Japanese occupation
817:Resistance movement
747:Hanthawaddy Kingdom
698:Early Pagan Kingdom
527:Hanthawaddy Kingdom
304:Founding of Kingdom
44: /
6256:849 establishments
6200:Outline of Myanmar
5916:Telecommunications
5832:commander-in-chief
5625:Socialist Republic
5573:Kingdom of Mrauk U
5249:A History of Burma
5037:Lieberman 2003: 88
4956:Harvey 1925: 55–56
4769:Htin Aung 1967: 57
4650:Htin Aung 1967: 45
4562:Than Tun 1964: 137
4544:Than Tun 1959: 122
4514:Htin Aung 1967: 83
4466:Htin Aung 1967: 55
4359:Lieberman 2003: 92
4350:Harvey 1925: 29–30
4332:Htin Aung 1967: 34
4302:Harvey 1925: 23–34
4293:Harvey 1925: 24–25
4134:Lieberman 2003: 90
4089:Lieberman 2003: 89
4053:Lieberman 2003: 91
3972:Lieberman 2003: 24
3747:Gawdawpalin Temple
3712:Mingalazedi Pagoda
3545:(pre-11th century)
3529:(pre-11th century)
3449:
3400:
3269:Theravada Buddhism
3241:Theravada Buddhism
3237:
3177:
3153:
3133:Theravada Buddhism
2887:Size of population
2884:
2822:1 basket of paddy
2767:
2613:were also in use.
2585:
2552:Michael Aung-Thwin
2544:
2520:
2465:Royal Burmese Army
2461:
2456:in the service of
2414:
2380:Peripheral regions
2238:, lit. "country",
2228:
2089:
2033:
2003:, at least to the
1971:Gawdawpalin Temple
1955:
1953:Pagan plains today
1947:
1910:
1775:
1750:
1618:Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu
1606:931–964 / 959–992
1590:915–931 / 943–959
1574:906–915 / 934–943
1558:878–906 / 906–934
1543:846–878 / 874–906
1528:Zatadawbon Yazawin
1497:Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu
1488:Zatadawbon Yazawin
1439:
1431:
1339:
1270:. The younger son
1184:Sri Ksetra Kingdom
1047:in Myanmar and in
1045:Theravada Buddhism
930:Myanmar portal
861:SLORC / SPDC junta
811:Anglo-Burmese Wars
759:Kingdom of Mrauk U
680:Arakanese kingdoms
648:Sri Ksetra Kingdom
614:History of Myanmar
378:Myinsaing takeover
150:Theravada Buddhism
123:(Bagan) (849–1297)
53:21.17222; 94.86028
6208:
6207:
6155:
6154:
5992:Human trafficking
5944:
5943:
5883:
5882:
5851:Political parties
5790:Foreign relations
5752:
5751:
5543:Myinsaing Kingdom
5509:
5508:
5426:Than Tun (1964).
5354:978-0-374-16342-6
5332:978-974-9863-31-2
5313:978-0-521-80496-7
5227:978-1-4067-3503-1
5216:, D.G.E. (1960).
5165:978-0-8248-0368-1
3810:Ngamyethna Pagoda
3745:"One-face"-style
3704:Shwesandaw Pagoda
3490:) hollow temple.
3412:ius primae noctis
3346:kingdom of Thaton
3319:Koṇāgamana Buddha
3251:, various Hindu (
3245:Mahayana Buddhism
2937:cultural hegemony
2861:
2860:
2783:but only 1 to 10
2747:
2746:
2685:
2684:
2329:[kʰəjàiɴ]
2267:[nàiɴŋàɴ]
2201:under Myinsaing,
2195:Myinsaing Kingdom
2097:Kyaukpyu District
2001:Strait of Malacca
1979:Htilominlo Temple
1921:, and the Indian
1680:
1679:
1602:Nyaung-u Sawrahan
1493:Nyaung-u Sawrahan
1251:founded a kingdom
1168:Burmese chronicle
964:
963:
867:Political reforms
640:200 BCE – 1050 CE
595:rendering support
575:
574:
571:
570:
567:
566:
513:Myinsaing Kingdom
505:
504:
229:• 1256–1287
217:• 1174–1211
205:• 1112–1167
193:• 1084–1112
181:• 1044–1077
154:Mahayana Buddhism
16:(Redirected from
6278:
6241:Burmese monarchy
6191:
6179:
6178:
6167:
6166:
6125:National symbols
5955:
5954:
5911:Opium production
5894:
5893:
5763:
5762:
5677:
5676:
5595:Konbaung dynasty
5497:
5496:
5478:
5471:
5464:
5455:
5454:
5450:
5431:
5422:
5406:
5388:
5369:
5358:
5343:, Thant (2006).
5336:
5317:
5295:
5292:History of Burma
5283:
5264:
5261:Maha Yazawin Gyi
5252:
5247:, Maung (1967).
5240:
5231:
5209:
5190:
5188:
5186:
5169:
5147:
5138:
5119:
5092:
5089:
5083:
5080:
5074:
5073:Hall 1960: 30–31
5071:
5065:
5062:
5056:
5053:
5047:
5044:
5038:
5035:
5029:
5026:
5020:
5017:
5011:
5008:
4995:
4992:
4983:
4980:
4969:
4966:
4957:
4954:
4948:
4945:
4939:
4936:
4930:
4927:
4914:
4911:
4905:
4904:Harvey 1925: 307
4902:
4896:
4893:
4887:
4884:
4878:
4875:
4869:
4866:
4860:
4857:
4851:
4848:
4842:
4839:
4833:
4830:
4817:
4814:
4808:
4805:
4796:
4793:
4782:
4779:
4770:
4767:
4754:
4751:
4745:
4742:
4736:
4733:
4720:
4717:
4708:
4707:Harvey 1925: 333
4705:
4699:
4696:
4687:
4684:
4678:
4677:Dijk 2006: 37–38
4675:
4669:
4666:
4660:
4657:
4651:
4648:
4642:
4639:
4633:
4630:
4621:
4618:
4605:
4602:
4593:
4590:
4584:
4583:Harvey 1925: 365
4581:
4575:
4572:
4563:
4560:
4554:
4551:
4545:
4542:
4536:
4533:
4527:
4524:
4515:
4512:
4506:
4503:
4497:
4494:
4485:
4482:
4476:
4473:
4467:
4464:
4455:
4452:
4446:
4443:
4437:
4434:
4425:
4424:
4422:
4420:
4405:
4399:
4396:
4390:
4387:
4381:
4378:
4372:
4369:
4360:
4357:
4351:
4348:
4342:
4339:
4333:
4330:
4321:
4320:Coedès 1968: 149
4318:
4312:
4309:
4303:
4300:
4294:
4291:
4282:
4279:
4268:
4265:
4259:
4256:
4250:
4249:
4218:
4212:
4209:
4203:
4200:
4194:
4191:
4185:
4182:
4176:
4173:
4167:
4164:
4158:
4155:
4144:
4143:Harvey 1925: 308
4141:
4135:
4132:
4126:
4123:
4117:
4114:
4108:
4105:
4099:
4096:
4090:
4087:
4081:
4078:
4072:
4071:Harvey 1925: 349
4069:
4063:
4060:
4054:
4051:
4045:
4042:
4031:
4028:
4022:
4019:
4013:
4010:
4001:
3998:
3985:
3982:
3973:
3970:
3961:
3958:
3949:
3946:
3933:
3930:
3914:
3911:
3905:
3902:
3896:
3885:
3739:
3730:
3700:Shwezigon Pagoda
3586:
3570:
3554:
3538:
3523:
3508:Bawbawgyi Pagoda
3501:
3489:
3488:
3385:Other traditions
3330:
3315:
3300:
3281:
3249:Tantric Buddhism
3243:co-existed with
3157:Burmese alphabet
3149:Burmese alphabet
3084:
3069:
3054:
3044:Burmese alphabet
3039:
3003:
3002:
2993:
2992:
2983:
2982:
2973:
2972:
2926:
2925:
2854:1000 betal nuts
2808:
2778:
2777:
2698:
2677:
2676:
2657:
2656:
2639:
2638:
2616:
2608:
2607:
2554:, G.H. Luce and
2452:Pagan commander
2375:
2369:
2368:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2299:
2298:
2289:
2288:
2279:
2278:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2072:Mongol invasions
1975:Mahabodhi Temple
1887:Burmese alphabet
1844:in the east and
1806:Tenasserim coast
1791:
1790:
1780:Kyaukse district
1510:
1324:
1323:
1311:
1310:
1301:
1300:
1279:
1278:
1265:
1264:
1244:
1243:
1234:
1233:
1224:
1223:
1211:
1210:
1145:Mongol invasions
1092:Burmese language
1035:, the spread of
1029:Burmese language
1025:Irrawaddy valley
1002:
999:
996:
993:
990:
986:
981:
977:
968:Kingdom of Pagan
956:
949:
942:
928:
927:
926:
907:Military history
902:Royal chronicles
892:List of capitals
849:AFPFL government
793:Konbaung dynasty
674:
655:
624:
610:
609:
601: instead of
583:
582:
563:
562:
549:
548:
535:
534:
521:
520:
509:
508:
496:
495:
482:
481:
468:
467:
461:
460:
445:
444:
422:1.5 to 2 million
395:
384:17 December 1297
380:
365:
350:
337:
322:
320:Burmese alphabet
306:
295:
289:
96:
93:
88:
73:
72:
66:Kingdom of Pagan
62:
61:
59:
58:
56:
55:
54:
49:
45:
42:
41:
40:
37:
21:
6286:
6285:
6281:
6280:
6279:
6277:
6276:
6275:
6271:Former kingdoms
6211:
6210:
6209:
6204:
6151:
6130:Public holidays
6021:
6017:Sex trafficking
5940:
5879:
5817:Law enforcement
5748:
5724:Protected areas
5666:
5578:Toungoo dynasty
5553:Sagaing Kingdom
5528:Pyu city-states
5505:
5491:
5482:
5447:
5398:Hmannan Yazawin
5385:
5355:
5333:
5314:
5280:
5270:Myanmar (Burma)
5228:
5206:
5184:
5182:
5166:
5135:
5116:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5086:
5081:
5077:
5072:
5068:
5063:
5059:
5054:
5050:
5045:
5041:
5036:
5032:
5027:
5023:
5018:
5014:
5009:
4998:
4993:
4986:
4981:
4972:
4967:
4960:
4955:
4951:
4946:
4942:
4937:
4933:
4928:
4917:
4912:
4908:
4903:
4899:
4895:Harvey 1925: 29
4894:
4890:
4885:
4881:
4876:
4872:
4867:
4863:
4858:
4854:
4849:
4845:
4840:
4836:
4831:
4820:
4815:
4811:
4806:
4799:
4794:
4785:
4780:
4773:
4768:
4757:
4752:
4748:
4743:
4739:
4734:
4723:
4718:
4711:
4706:
4702:
4697:
4690:
4685:
4681:
4676:
4672:
4667:
4663:
4659:Harvey 1925: 58
4658:
4654:
4649:
4645:
4640:
4636:
4631:
4624:
4619:
4608:
4603:
4596:
4591:
4587:
4582:
4578:
4573:
4566:
4561:
4557:
4552:
4548:
4543:
4539:
4534:
4530:
4525:
4518:
4513:
4509:
4504:
4500:
4496:Harvey 1925: 68
4495:
4488:
4483:
4479:
4475:Harvey 1925: 62
4474:
4470:
4465:
4458:
4453:
4449:
4445:Harvey 1925: 56
4444:
4440:
4435:
4428:
4418:
4416:
4407:
4406:
4402:
4397:
4393:
4388:
4384:
4379:
4375:
4370:
4363:
4358:
4354:
4349:
4345:
4340:
4336:
4331:
4324:
4319:
4315:
4311:Harvey 1925: 19
4310:
4306:
4301:
4297:
4292:
4285:
4280:
4271:
4266:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4219:
4215:
4210:
4206:
4201:
4197:
4192:
4188:
4183:
4179:
4174:
4170:
4165:
4161:
4156:
4147:
4142:
4138:
4133:
4129:
4124:
4120:
4115:
4111:
4106:
4102:
4098:Moore 2007: 236
4097:
4093:
4088:
4084:
4079:
4075:
4070:
4066:
4061:
4057:
4052:
4048:
4043:
4034:
4029:
4025:
4020:
4016:
4011:
4004:
3999:
3988:
3983:
3976:
3971:
3964:
3959:
3952:
3947:
3936:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3918:
3917:
3912:
3908:
3903:
3899:
3886:
3882:
3877:
3864:Mrauk-U Kingdom
3855:
3818:
3806:Maitreya Buddha
3786:1975 earthquake
3781:
3756:
3755:
3754:
3753:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3732:
3731:
3720:
3657:Buddhist cosmos
3614:Amaravati Stupa
3598:
3597:
3596:
3595:
3594:
3587:
3579:
3578:
3571:
3563:
3562:
3555:
3547:
3546:
3539:
3531:
3530:
3524:
3516:
3515:
3502:
3471:
3465:of the zodiac.
3458:
3445:Mandalay Palace
3437:
3387:
3359:Shin Uttarajiva
3341:
3340:
3339:
3338:
3337:
3331:
3323:
3322:
3316:
3308:
3307:
3301:
3293:
3292:
3282:
3271:
3229:
3169:
3141:
3100:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3085:
3077:
3076:
3070:
3062:
3061:
3055:
3047:
3046:
3040:
3029:
2958:
2898:
2889:
2871:
2866:
2759:
2594:
2577:
2536:
2512:
2504:entire military
2446:
2440:
2406:
2382:
2310:
2220:
2153:
2080:
2074:
2069:
2025:
1967:Sulamani Temple
1938:
1899:
1867:Burmese history
1763:
1739:
1733:
1519:Hmannan Yazawin
1419:
1413:
1388:Gansu provinces
1380:Nanzhao Kingdom
1353:Nanzhao Kingdom
1345:
1343:Pyu city-states
1331:
1304:Arimaddana-pura
1195:Hmannan Yazawin
1186:
1180:Tagaung Kingdom
1176:
1164:
1158:
1153:
1069:Malay Peninsula
1037:Bamar ethnicity
1000:
997:
994:
991:
979:
960:
924:
922:
767:Toungoo dynasty
727:Sagaing Kingdom
668:
652:Tagaung Kingdom
645:
638:Pyu city-states
608:
607:
606:
593:Without proper
584:
580:
560:
546:
532:
518:
493:
486:Mon city-states
479:
472:Pyu city-states
465:
419:
418:• c. 1210
396:
391:
381:
376:
366:
361:
351:
348:
338:
333:
323:
317:
310:23 December 849
307:
302:
293:
290:
285:
256:
230:
218:
206:
194:
182:
104:
98:
94:
74:
67:
52:
50:
46:
43:
38:
35:
33:
31:
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6284:
6274:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6206:
6205:
6203:
6202:
6197:
6185:
6173:
6160:
6157:
6156:
6153:
6152:
6150:
6149:
6148:
6147:
6137:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6031:
6029:
6023:
6022:
6020:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5958:
5952:
5946:
5945:
5942:
5941:
5939:
5938:
5933:
5931:Transportation
5928:
5923:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5897:
5891:
5885:
5884:
5881:
5880:
5878:
5877:
5876:
5875:
5868:Prime Minister
5865:
5864:
5863:
5853:
5848:
5847:
5846:
5836:
5835:
5834:
5829:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5808:
5807:
5805:Women's rights
5802:
5792:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5766:
5760:
5754:
5753:
5750:
5749:
5747:
5746:
5741:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5716:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5696:
5691:
5686:
5680:
5674:
5668:
5667:
5665:
5664:
5663:
5662:
5657:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5620:Union of Burma
5617:
5612:
5607:
5605:Karenni States
5602:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5586:
5585:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5558:Kingdom of Ava
5555:
5550:
5545:
5540:
5535:
5533:Thaton Kingdom
5530:
5525:
5519:
5517:
5511:
5510:
5507:
5506:
5493:
5492:
5481:
5480:
5473:
5466:
5458:
5452:
5451:
5445:
5432:
5423:
5407:
5389:
5384:978-0230212145
5383:
5370:
5359:
5353:
5337:
5331:
5318:
5312:
5296:
5284:
5278:
5265:
5253:
5241:
5232:
5226:
5210:
5204:
5191:
5170:
5164:
5152:Coedès, George
5148:
5139:
5133:
5120:
5114:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5093:
5084:
5075:
5066:
5057:
5048:
5039:
5030:
5021:
5012:
4996:
4984:
4970:
4958:
4949:
4940:
4931:
4915:
4906:
4897:
4888:
4879:
4870:
4861:
4852:
4843:
4834:
4818:
4809:
4797:
4783:
4771:
4755:
4746:
4737:
4721:
4709:
4700:
4688:
4679:
4670:
4661:
4652:
4643:
4634:
4622:
4606:
4594:
4585:
4576:
4564:
4555:
4546:
4537:
4528:
4516:
4507:
4498:
4486:
4477:
4468:
4456:
4447:
4438:
4426:
4400:
4391:
4382:
4373:
4361:
4352:
4343:
4334:
4322:
4313:
4304:
4295:
4283:
4269:
4260:
4251:
4229:(2): 373–390.
4213:
4204:
4195:
4186:
4177:
4168:
4159:
4145:
4136:
4127:
4118:
4109:
4107:Harvey 1925: 3
4100:
4091:
4082:
4073:
4064:
4055:
4046:
4032:
4023:
4014:
4002:
3986:
3974:
3962:
3950:
3934:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3916:
3915:
3906:
3897:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3854:
3851:
3817:
3814:
3780:
3777:
3744:
3743:
3734:
3733:
3725:
3724:
3723:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3718:Hollow temples
3716:
3618:Nagarjunakonda
3593:(13th century)
3588:
3581:
3580:
3577:(12th century)
3572:
3565:
3564:
3561:(11th century)
3556:
3549:
3548:
3540:
3533:
3532:
3525:
3518:
3517:
3503:
3496:
3495:
3494:
3493:
3492:
3470:
3467:
3457:
3454:
3436:
3433:
3386:
3383:
3334:Gautama Buddha
3332:
3325:
3324:
3317:
3310:
3309:
3302:
3295:
3294:
3291:– South facing
3289:Kassapa Buddha
3283:
3276:
3275:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3228:
3225:
3168:
3165:
3140:
3137:
3099:
3096:
3086:
3079:
3078:
3071:
3064:
3063:
3056:
3049:
3048:
3041:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3025:
2957:
2956:Social classes
2954:
2897:
2894:
2888:
2885:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2859:
2858:
2855:
2851:
2850:
2847:
2839:
2838:
2835:
2834:of cow's milk
2827:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2812:
2758:
2755:
2745:
2744:
2741:
2733:
2732:
2729:
2721:
2720:
2717:
2709:
2708:
2702:
2683:
2682:
2679:
2663:
2662:
2659:
2645:
2644:
2641:
2627:
2626:
2620:
2593:
2590:
2583:Ruins of Pagan
2576:
2573:
2535:
2532:
2511:
2508:
2442:Main article:
2439:
2436:
2405:
2402:
2381:
2378:
2353:[taiʔ]
2309:
2306:
2219:
2216:
2152:
2149:
2076:Main article:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2024:
2021:
1937:
1934:
1898:
1895:
1857:Shan Hills to
1840:in the north,
1762:
1759:
1732:
1729:
1678:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1628:Son of Tannet
1626:
1623:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1566:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1523:
1514:
1412:
1409:
1341:Main article:
1330:
1327:
1288:, near modern
1175:
1172:
1160:Main article:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
962:
961:
959:
958:
951:
944:
936:
933:
932:
919:
918:
917:
916:
915:
914:
904:
899:
894:
889:
881:
880:
879:
878:
877:
876:
870:
864:
858:
852:
837:
836:
835:
834:
833:
832:
826:
820:
814:
799:
798:
797:
796:
790:
784:
783:
782:
776:
764:
763:
762:
756:
750:
744:
743:
742:
736:
733:Kingdom of Ava
730:
724:
721:Pinya Kingdoms
703:
702:
701:
686:
685:
684:
683:
676:
675:
671:Thaton Kingdom
665:
664:
657:
656:
642:
641:
635:
634:11,000–200 BCE
626:
625:
617:
616:
603:Burmese script
597:, you may see
589:Burmese script
585:
578:
577:
576:
573:
572:
569:
568:
565:
564:
557:
551:
550:
543:
537:
536:
529:
523:
522:
515:
506:
503:
502:
497:
489:
488:
483:
475:
474:
469:
457:
456:
451:
441:
440:
432:
428:
427:
424:
423:
420:
417:
414:
413:
410:
409:
405:
404:
401:
400:
397:
389:
386:
385:
382:
374:
371:
370:
367:
359:
356:
355:
352:
346:
343:
342:
339:
331:
328:
327:
324:
315:
312:
311:
308:
300:
297:
296:
291:
283:
280:
279:
276:
275:
270:
269:Historical era
266:
265:
249:rule by decree
245:
241:
240:
237:
236:
231:
228:
225:
224:
219:
216:
213:
212:
207:
204:
201:
200:
195:
192:
189:
188:
183:
180:
177:
176:
173:
172:
169:
165:
164:
147:
143:
142:
129:
125:
124:
118:
114:
113:
110:
106:
105:
90:Pagan Empire,
89:
81:
80:
76:
75:
68:
65:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6283:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6221:Pagan Kingdom
6219:
6218:
6216:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6195:
6190:
6186:
6184:
6183:
6174:
6172:
6171:
6162:
6161:
6158:
6146:
6143:
6142:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6032:
6030:
6028:
6024:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5982:Ethnic groups
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5959:
5956:
5953:
5951:
5947:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5898:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5886:
5874:
5871:
5870:
5869:
5866:
5862:
5859:
5858:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5845:
5842:
5841:
5840:
5837:
5833:
5830:
5828:
5827:military rule
5825:
5824:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5806:
5803:
5801:
5798:
5797:
5796:
5793:
5791:
5788:
5786:
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5767:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5755:
5745:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5699:Deforestation
5697:
5695:
5692:
5690:
5687:
5685:
5682:
5681:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5669:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5652:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5640:2007 protests
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5630:8888 Uprising
5628:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5584:
5581:
5580:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5563:Prome Kingdom
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5548:Pinya Kingdom
5546:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5538:Pagan Kingdom
5536:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5520:
5518:
5516:
5512:
5504:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5479:
5474:
5472:
5467:
5465:
5460:
5459:
5456:
5448:
5446:9780877277101
5442:
5438:
5433:
5429:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5400:
5399:
5395:(1829–1832).
5394:
5390:
5386:
5380:
5376:
5371:
5367:
5366:
5360:
5356:
5350:
5346:
5342:
5338:
5334:
5328:
5324:
5319:
5315:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5279:9783886184156
5275:
5271:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5233:
5229:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5205:9789971693046
5201:
5197:
5192:
5180:
5176:
5171:
5167:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5140:
5136:
5134:9780824828868
5130:
5126:
5121:
5117:
5115:0-8248-0960-2
5111:
5107:
5102:
5101:
5088:
5079:
5070:
5061:
5052:
5043:
5034:
5025:
5016:
5007:
5005:
5003:
5001:
4991:
4989:
4979:
4977:
4975:
4965:
4963:
4953:
4944:
4935:
4926:
4924:
4922:
4920:
4910:
4901:
4892:
4883:
4874:
4865:
4856:
4847:
4838:
4829:
4827:
4825:
4823:
4813:
4804:
4802:
4792:
4790:
4788:
4778:
4776:
4766:
4764:
4762:
4760:
4750:
4741:
4732:
4730:
4728:
4726:
4716:
4714:
4704:
4695:
4693:
4683:
4674:
4665:
4656:
4647:
4638:
4629:
4627:
4617:
4615:
4613:
4611:
4601:
4599:
4589:
4580:
4571:
4569:
4559:
4550:
4541:
4532:
4523:
4521:
4511:
4502:
4493:
4491:
4481:
4472:
4463:
4461:
4451:
4442:
4433:
4431:
4414:
4410:
4404:
4395:
4386:
4377:
4368:
4366:
4356:
4347:
4338:
4329:
4327:
4317:
4308:
4299:
4290:
4288:
4278:
4276:
4274:
4264:
4255:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4217:
4208:
4199:
4190:
4181:
4172:
4163:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4140:
4131:
4122:
4116:Hall 1960: 11
4113:
4104:
4095:
4086:
4077:
4068:
4059:
4050:
4041:
4039:
4037:
4027:
4018:
4009:
4007:
3997:
3995:
3993:
3991:
3981:
3979:
3969:
3967:
3957:
3955:
3945:
3943:
3941:
3939:
3929:
3925:
3910:
3901:
3894:
3890:
3884:
3880:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3850:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3834:
3832:
3828:
3822:
3813:
3811:
3807:
3801:
3799:
3798:Mingun Pagoda
3795:
3791:
3787:
3776:
3774:
3769:
3765:
3762:, the hollow
3761:
3752:
3748:
3738:
3729:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3698:stories. The
3697:
3696:
3690:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3664:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3625:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3592:
3585:
3576:
3569:
3560:
3553:
3544:
3537:
3528:
3522:
3513:
3510:(7th century
3509:
3506:
3500:
3491:
3483:
3479:
3478:
3466:
3462:
3453:
3446:
3441:
3432:
3430:
3425:
3421:
3416:
3414:
3413:
3407:
3406:
3398:
3397:
3391:
3382:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3347:
3336:– West facing
3335:
3329:
3321:– East facing
3320:
3314:
3305:
3299:
3290:
3286:
3285:Ananda Temple
3280:
3266:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3233:
3224:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3201:
3195:
3193:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3173:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3150:
3145:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3121:
3118:
3117:lingua franca
3113:
3109:
3105:
3090:
3083:
3075:
3068:
3060:
3053:
3045:
3038:
3024:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3005:
2997:
2987:
2977:
2967:
2962:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2940:
2938:
2934:
2933:Burmanization
2928:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2896:Ethnic groups
2893:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2848:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2836:
2833:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2817:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2800:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2772:
2763:
2754:
2752:
2742:
2739:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2727:
2723:
2722:
2718:
2715:
2711:
2710:
2707:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2690:
2680:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2664:
2660:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2642:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2625:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2602:
2601:
2589:
2581:
2572:
2569:
2563:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2548:
2540:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2516:
2507:
2505:
2500:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2477:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2435:
2433:
2428:
2426:
2425:
2418:
2410:
2401:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2387:
2377:
2374:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2330:
2319:
2315:
2305:
2303:
2293:
2290:, town), and
2283:
2280:, province),
2273:
2268:
2257:
2253:
2252:vassal states
2248:
2247:[pjì]
2237:
2233:
2224:
2215:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2093:Narathihapate
2084:
2079:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2044:
2042:
2038:
2029:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2009:
2006:
2005:Salween river
2002:
1998:
1997:Palace Guards
1993:
1991:
1987:
1986:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1959:Narapatisithu
1951:
1942:
1933:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1923:Chola dynasty
1920:
1916:
1908:
1907:Ananda Temple
1903:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1859:Narapatisithu
1856:
1852:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1802:Lower Myanmar
1799:
1793:
1785:
1781:
1772:
1767:
1758:
1755:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1728:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1536:
1533:Relationship
1530:
1529:
1522:/ (adjusted)
1521:
1520:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1435:
1428:
1427:Tharabha Gate
1423:
1418:
1408:
1405:
1404:Thant Myint-U
1401:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1344:
1335:
1326:
1318:
1313:
1305:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1273:
1269:
1259:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1238:
1228:
1218:
1213:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1196:
1191:
1185:
1181:
1171:
1169:
1163:
1148:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1073:Salween river
1070:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1041:Upper Myanmar
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1013:Bagan dynasty
1010:
1006:
1005:Pagan dynasty
985:
973:
969:
957:
952:
950:
945:
943:
938:
937:
935:
934:
931:
921:
920:
913:
912:Military rule
910:
909:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
884:
883:
882:
874:
871:
868:
865:
862:
859:
856:
853:
850:
847:
846:
845:1948–present
844:
841:
840:
839:
838:
830:
827:
824:
821:
818:
815:
812:
809:
808:
806:
803:
802:
801:
800:
794:
791:
788:
785:
780:
777:
774:
771:
770:
768:
765:
760:
757:
754:
751:
748:
745:
740:
739:Prome Kingdom
737:
734:
731:
728:
725:
722:
718:
715:
714:
712:
711:Upper Myanmar
709:
708:
707:
704:
699:
696:
695:
693:
692:Pagan Kingdom
690:
689:
688:
687:
681:
678:
677:
672:
667:
666:
663:825?–1057? CE
662:
659:
658:
653:
649:
644:
643:
639:
636:
633:
630:
629:
628:
627:
623:
619:
618:
615:
612:
611:
604:
600:
596:
592:
590:
558:
556:
553:
552:
544:
542:
541:Lemro dynasty
539:
538:
530:
528:
525:
524:
516:
514:
511:
510:
507:
501:
500:Lemro dynasty
498:
491:
490:
487:
484:
477:
476:
473:
470:
463:
462:
459:
458:
455:
452:
450:
447:
446:
442:
439:
438:
433:
429:
425:
421:
415:
411:
406:
402:
398:
394:
387:
383:
379:
372:
368:
364:
357:
353:
344:
340:
336:
329:
325:
321:
313:
309:
305:
298:
292:
288:
281:
277:
274:
271:
267:
263:
259:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
235:
234:Narathihapate
232:
226:
223:
220:
214:
211:
208:
202:
199:
196:
190:
187:
184:
178:
174:
170:
166:
163:
159:
155:
151:
148:
144:
141:
137:
133:
130:
126:
122:
119:
115:
111:
107:
102:
87:
82:
77:
63:
60:
57:
19:
6192:
6180:
6168:
6012:Prostitution
5967:Demographics
5906:Central bank
5795:Human rights
5775:Constitution
5610:British rule
5537:
5502:
5436:
5427:
5418:
5414:
5396:
5374:
5363:
5344:
5322:
5303:
5291:
5269:
5260:
5259:, U (1720).
5248:
5236:
5217:
5195:
5183:. Retrieved
5179:the original
5155:
5143:
5124:
5105:
5098:Bibliography
5087:
5078:
5069:
5060:
5051:
5042:
5033:
5024:
5015:
4952:
4943:
4934:
4909:
4900:
4891:
4882:
4873:
4864:
4855:
4846:
4837:
4812:
4749:
4740:
4703:
4682:
4673:
4664:
4655:
4646:
4637:
4588:
4579:
4558:
4549:
4540:
4531:
4510:
4501:
4480:
4471:
4450:
4441:
4417:. Retrieved
4403:
4394:
4385:
4376:
4355:
4346:
4337:
4316:
4307:
4298:
4263:
4254:
4246:
4226:
4222:
4216:
4207:
4198:
4189:
4180:
4171:
4162:
4139:
4130:
4121:
4112:
4103:
4094:
4085:
4076:
4067:
4058:
4049:
4026:
4017:
3928:
3909:
3900:
3883:
3835:
3823:
3819:
3802:
3789:
3782:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3757:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3675:
3671:
3665:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3628:
3626:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3599:
3575:Dhammayazika
3504:
3481:
3475:
3472:
3463:
3459:
3450:
3435:Architecture
3428:
3423:
3419:
3417:
3410:
3403:
3401:
3394:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3367:
3342:
3260:
3238:
3198:
3196:
3191:
3185:
3178:
3154:
3122:
3112:Pyu language
3101:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3006:
2995:
2985:
2975:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2944:
2941:
2932:
2929:
2918:
2899:
2890:
2877:
2843:
2831:
2815:
2802:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2770:
2768:
2750:
2748:
2737:
2725:
2713:
2705:
2692:
2688:
2686:
2667:
2649:
2631:
2623:
2610:
2598:
2595:
2586:
2564:
2560:
2549:
2545:
2521:
2503:
2495:
2478:
2472:
2468:
2462:
2431:
2429:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2397:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2383:
2362:taik-thugyis
2361:
2357:
2341:
2317:
2311:
2301:
2291:
2281:
2271:
2255:
2235:
2229:
2207:Ava Kingdoms
2199:
2187:
2154:
2129:
2109:Yuan dynasty
2090:
2048:
2045:
2034:
2012:
2010:
1994:
1983:
1956:
1927:
1919:Song dynasty
1911:
1875:Ari Buddhism
1863:
1830:
1814:North Arakan
1804:down to the
1794:
1783:
1776:
1751:
1731:Pagan Empire
1681:
1570:Sale Ngahkwe
1526:
1517:
1504:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1472:
1464:Song Chinese
1455:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1402:
1391:
1373:
1369:
1346:
1314:
1309:အရိမဒ္ဒနာပူရ
1303:
1255:
1214:
1204:Maha Sammata
1193:
1187:
1165:
1125:
1089:
1085:Khmer Empire
1053:
1017:Bagan Empire
1016:
1012:
1009:Pagan Empire
1008:
1004:
998:Pagan Period
967:
965:
875:2021–present
691:
661:Mon kingdoms
586:
454:Succeeded by
453:
448:
435:
326:984 and 1035
318:creation of
294:23 March 640
29:
18:Pagan Empire
5901:Agriculture
5739:Earthquakes
5600:Shan States
3893:Arakan Yoma
3869:Shan states
3833:dynasties.
3779:Innovations
3591:Mingalazedi
3355:Buddhaghosa
3211:, grammar,
2945:Myanma pyay
2740:of mercury
2701:Metal type
2600:kyat (unit)
2534:Agriculture
2524:agriculture
2367:တိုက်သူကြီး
2308:Core region
2172:. When the
2161:Kublai Khan
2145:Ramannadesa
2113:Kublai Khan
1930:Alaungsithu
1855:cis-Salween
1851:Alaungsithu
1473:Below is a
1411:Early Pagan
1294:Thamoddarit
1272:Kanyaza Nge
1258:Kanyaza Gyi
1143:. Repeated
1011:; also the
753:Shan States
555:Shan States
449:Preceded by
273:Middle Ages
244:Legislature
132:Old Burmese
95: 1210
51: /
6215:Categories
6110:Literature
6065:Censorship
6045:State Seal
5839:Parliament
5780:Corruption
5704:Ecoregions
5523:Prehistory
5185:5 February
3921:References
3680:Sri Ksetra
3661:Mount Meru
3641:balustrade
3543:Lawkananda
3512:Sri Ksetra
3363:Mahavihara
3304:Kakusandha
3200:abhidhamma
3190:cost 3000
3167:Literature
3017:hpaya-kyun
3001:ဘုရားကျွန်
2996:hpaya-kyun
2869:Demography
2814:in silver
2801:cost 3000
2728:of copper
2704:in silver
2482:elephantry
2398:naingngans
2386:naingngans
2256:naingngans
2218:Government
2190:Temür Khan
2017:Mahavihara
1963:Htilominlo
1915:Kyansittha
1891:Mon script
1834:Tenasserim
1798:Shan Hills
1735:See also:
1721:Shan Hills
1673:1044–1077
1657:1038–1044
1641:1021–1038
1625:1001–1021
1516:Reign per
1415:See also:
1365:Pyu people
1357:Pyu people
1299:သမုဒ္ဒရာဇ်
1286:Sri Ksetra
1263:ကံရာဇာကြီး
1242:ပဉ္စာလရာဇ်
1227:Sakya clan
1178:See also:
1081:Chin Hills
980:pronounced
843:Modern era
807:1824–1948
769:1510–1752
713:1297–1555
408:Population
262:Htilominlo
253:Htilominlo
251:) (before
198:Kyansittha
168:Government
39:94°51′37″E
36:21°10′20″N
6135:Tattooing
6095:Festivals
6090:Etymology
5997:Languages
5972:Education
5856:President
5785:Elections
5744:Volcanoes
5719:Mountains
5672:Geography
5660:Civil war
5650:2021 coup
5300:Lieberman
5288:Kyaw Thet
5245:Htin Aung
4419:28 August
4243:161215387
3794:Bodawpaya
3773:Beikthano
3559:Shwezigon
3213:astrology
3209:phonology
3187:Tripiṭaka
3161:Dvaravati
3098:Languages
2971:ကျွန်တော်
2919:taungthus
2846:of honey
2798:Tripiṭaka
2360:leaders (
2318:khayaings
2178:Sukhothai
2170:Myinsaing
1889:from the
1771:Anawrahta
1761:Formation
1754:Anawrahta
1666:Anawrahta
1609:956–1001
1460:Anawrahta
1452:fortified
1397:Htin Aung
1376:G.H. Luce
1277:ကံရာဇာငယ်
1209:မဟာ သမ္မတ
1190:Pyusawhti
1129:Arakanese
1116:Brahmanic
1064:Anawrahta
873:SAC junta
869:2011–2015
863:1988–2010
857:1962–1988
851:1948–1962
831:1942–1945
825:1900–1948
819:1885–1895
813:1824–1885
795:1752–1885
789:1740–1757
781:1599–1752
775:1510–1599
761:1429–1785
755:1215–1563
741:1482–1542
735:1365–1555
729:1315–1365
723:1297–1365
717:Myinsaing
694:849–1297
682:788?–1406
354:1174–1250
341:1050s–60s
186:Anawrahta
146:Religion
6170:Category
6145:Weddings
6105:Folklore
6075:Clothing
6055:Calendar
6050:Capitals
6002:Religion
5822:Military
5812:Conflict
5758:Politics
5734:Wildlife
5655:Protests
5489:articles
5411:Than Tun
5290:(1962).
4413:Archived
3853:See also
3847:Lan Xang
3831:Konbaung
3702:and the
3484:-style (
3365:school.
3257:Vaishana
3227:Religion
3182:Than Tun
2907:Palaungs
2879:Thingyan
2716:of gold
2592:Currency
2556:Than Tun
2458:Sithu II
2454:Aung Zwa
2438:Military
2314:Dry Zone
2212:Konbaung
2183:Thihathu
2101:Martaban
1789:လယ်တွင်း
1701:Yamethin
1693:Myingyan
1689:Meiktila
1685:Mandalay
1660:Brother
1612:Usurper
1593:934–956
1586:Theinhko
1580:Usurper
1577:904–934
1561:876–904
1546:846–876
1513:Monarch
1468:Bianjing
1322:ပျဉ်ပြား
1237:Panchala
1225:)of the
1217:Abhiraja
1112:Mahayana
1079:and the
1007:and the
976:ပုဂံခေတ်
887:Timeline
700:849–1044
431:Currency
222:Sithu II
171:Monarchy
158:Hinduism
101:Sithu II
79:849–1297
71:ပုဂံခေတ်
6182:Commons
6080:Cuisine
6027:Culture
5950:Society
5926:Tourism
5889:Economy
5709:Islands
5694:Climate
5684:Borders
5515:History
5485:Myanmar
5341:Myint-U
3827:Toungoo
3689:harmika
3645:harmika
3253:Saivite
3217:alchemy
3205:prosody
3147:Modern
3139:Scripts
3104:Burmese
3013:kyundaw
2966:kyundaw
2924:တောင်သူ
2510:Economy
2486:cavalry
2473:ahmudan
2469:kyundaw
2424:Hluttaw
2334:Kyaukse
2261:နိုင်ငံ
2232:mandala
2165:Kyawswa
2157:Tagaung
2121:Kanngai
2107:of the
2105:Mongols
2087:region.
2057:Mongols
2041:Hluttaw
2023:Decline
1990:Burmese
1945:century
1717:Pakkoku
1709:Sagaing
1697:Kyaukse
1650:Sokkate
1539:Pyinbya
1505:Hmannan
1501:Pyinbya
1483:Hmannan
1479:Hmannan
1475:partial
1456:Hmannan
1448:Hmannan
1384:Qinghai
1351:of the
1317:Pyinbya
1247:Tagaung
1222:အဘိရာဇာ
1156:Origins
1151:History
1137:Mongols
1127:by the
1120:animist
1108:Tantric
1058:by the
1033:culture
1021:Myanmar
992:
972:Burmese
897:Leaders
434:silver
399:1300–01
390:•
375:•
369:1277–87
360:•
347:•
332:•
316:•
301:•
284:•
260:(since
258:Hluttaw
210:Sithu I
162:Animism
117:Capital
112:Kingdom
6194:Portal
6070:Cinema
6060:Zodiac
6040:Anthem
5987:Health
5729:Rivers
5689:Cities
5487:
5443:
5381:
5351:
5329:
5310:
5276:
5224:
5202:
5162:
5131:
5112:
4241:
3889:Thayet
3839:Lan Na
3816:Legacy
3760:stupas
3695:jataka
3676:stupas
3622:Ceylon
3606:stupas
3527:Bupaya
3469:Stupas
3375:Jataka
3371:sangha
3351:Andhra
3255:, and
3127:, the
2757:Prices
2568:Angkor
2488:, and
2323:ခရိုင်
2302:taings
2277:တိုင်း
2133:Wareru
2049:sangha
2037:Kyaswa
2013:Mranma
1985:sangha
1977:, and
1936:Zenith
1883:Cholas
1879:Ceylon
1853:, and
1822:Angkor
1810:Phuket
1784:Ledwin
1554:Tannet
1361:Mranma
1349:Mranma
1268:Arakan
1200:Buddha
1118:, and
1077:Arakan
1060:Mranma
247:None (
109:Status
6120:Music
6115:Media
6085:Dance
6007:Women
5962:Crime
5714:Lakes
5503:Burma
5421:(II).
5218:Burma
4239:S2CID
3875:Notes
3684:stupa
3672:stupa
3653:stupa
3649:stupa
3629:stupa
3610:stupa
3602:stupa
3477:stupa
3429:nagas
3192:kyats
2991:ကျွန်
2915:Shans
2857:0.75
2849:1.25
2816:kyats
2811:Good
2803:kyats
2793:kyats
2789:kyats
2785:kyats
2781:kyats
2751:kyats
2743:1.50
2706:kyats
2655:ဗိုဟ်
2643:0.25
2624:kyats
2619:Unit
2575:Trade
2528:trade
2490:naval
2404:Court
2347:တိုက်
2338:Minbu
2332:) of
2287:မြို့
2272:taing
2203:Pinya
2125:Bhamo
2061:Shans
1846:Minbu
1842:Thazi
1838:Katha
1818:Menam
1713:Minbu
1705:Magwe
1634:Kyiso
1444:Halin
1392:first
1141:Shans
121:Pagan
6100:Flag
5873:list
5861:list
5800:LGBT
5441:ISBN
5419:XLII
5379:ISBN
5349:ISBN
5327:ISBN
5308:ISBN
5274:ISBN
5257:Kala
5222:ISBN
5214:Hall
5200:ISBN
5187:2012
5160:ISBN
5129:ISBN
5110:ISBN
4421:2019
3843:Siam
3829:and
3637:anda
3633:Pali
3616:and
3589:The
3573:The
3557:The
3541:The
3396:nats
3125:Pali
3106:, a
3089:Pali
3021:athi
3009:athi
2986:kyun
2981:အသည်
2976:Athi
2913:and
2903:Mons
2844:viss
2837:0.1
2832:viss
2825:0.5
2738:kyat
2726:kyat
2714:kyat
2693:kyat
2689:kyat
2681:100
2675:ပိဿာ
2669:viss
2611:kyat
2606:ကျပ်
2358:taik
2342:taik
2336:and
2241:ပြည်
2205:and
2067:Fall
2059:and
2053:Mons
1905:The
1826:Java
1812:and
1778:the
1725:Mons
1715:and
1596:Son
1564:Son
1525:per
1495:and
1425:The
1386:and
1363:and
1290:Pyay
1182:and
1139:and
1133:Mons
1104:Pali
1102:and
1090:The
1031:and
989:lit.
966:The
719:and
437:kyat
349:Peak
6035:Art
4231:doi
3668:Pyu
3424:nat
3420:nat
3405:Ari
3379:nat
3287:'s
3262:nat
3131:of
3087:in
3074:Mon
3072:in
3059:Pyu
3057:in
2949:Ava
2911:Was
2776:ပယ်
2719:10
2637:မတ်
2632:mat
2622:in
2297:ရွာ
2292:ywa
2282:myo
2236:pyi
2141:Mon
1849:to
1808:to
1747:DSA
1212:).
1100:Mon
1096:Pyu
1039:in
1015:or
140:Pyu
136:Mon
6217::
5417:.
4999:^
4987:^
4973:^
4961:^
4918:^
4821:^
4800:^
4786:^
4774:^
4758:^
4724:^
4712:^
4691:^
4625:^
4609:^
4597:^
4567:^
4519:^
4489:^
4459:^
4429:^
4411:.
4364:^
4325:^
4286:^
4272:^
4245:.
4237:.
4227:17
4225:.
4148:^
4035:^
4005:^
3989:^
3977:^
3965:^
3953:^
3937:^
3790:gu
3768:gu
3764:gu
3635::
3600:A
3487:ဂူ
3482:gu
3247:,
3223:.
3215:,
3207:,
2998:,
2988:,
2968:,
2921:,
2909:,
2842:1
2830:1
2805:.
2771:pe
2736:1
2731:2
2724:1
2712:1
2687:A
2678:)
2666:1
2661:5
2658:)
2650:bo
2648:1
2640:)
2630:1
2484:,
2370:,
2364:,
2350:,
2326:,
2320:,
2304:.
2264:,
2244:,
2214:.
2063:.
2055:,
1973:,
1969:,
1707:,
1703:,
1699:,
1695:,
1691:,
1687:,
1507:.
1135:,
1131:,
1114:,
1110:,
1098:,
1051:.
987:,
978:,
974::
650:,
160:,
156:,
152:,
138:,
134:,
97:.
92:c.
5477:e
5470:t
5463:v
5449:.
5405:.
5387:.
5357:.
5335:.
5316:.
5282:.
5230:.
5208:.
5189:.
5168:.
5137:.
5118:.
4423:.
4233::
3643:(
3514:)
3427:(
2978:(
2773:(
2672:(
2652:(
2634:(
2603:(
2344:(
2294:(
2284:(
2274:(
2254:(
1786:(
1319:(
1306:(
1296:(
1274:(
1260:(
1239:(
1229:(
1219:(
1206:(
1001:'
995:'
970:(
955:e
948:t
941:v
673:)
669:(
654:)
646:(
605:.
591:.
264:)
255:)
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
