Palaeography - Knowledge

3018: 2783:, fleeing before the barbarian invasions. It was adopted there to the exclusion of the cursive, and soon took on a distinct character. There are two well established classes of Irish writing as early as the 7th century: a large round half-uncial hand, in which certain majuscule forms frequently appear, and a pointed hand, which becomes more cursive and more genuinely minuscule. The latter developed out of the former. One of the distinguishing marks of manuscripts of Irish origin is to be found in the initial letters, which are ornamented by interlacing, animal forms, or a frame of red dots. The most certain evidence, however, is provided by the system of abbreviations and by the combined square and cuneiform appearance of the minuscule at the height of its development. The two types of Irish writing were introduced in the north of Great Britain by the monks, and were soon adopted by the 1944: 2400: 1271: 2751:

calligraphic form by the copyists of literary texts, so that the set minuscule alphabet was constituted gradually, letter by letter, following the development of the minuscule cursive. Just as some documents written in the early cursive show a mixture of majuscule and minuscule forms, so certain literary papyri of the 3rd century, and inscriptions on stone of the 4th century yield examples of a mixed set hand, with minuscule forms side by side with capital and uncial letters. The number of minuscule forms increases steadily in texts written in the mixed hand, and especially in marginal notes, until by the end of the 5th century the majuscule forms have almost entirely disappeared in some

1072:. By the end of the 1st century, there had been developed several excellent types of cursive, which, though differing considerably both in the forms of individual letters and in general appearance, bear a family likeness to one another. Qualities which are specially noticeable are roundness in the shape of letters, continuity of formation, the pen being carried on from character to character, and regularity, the letters not differing strikingly in size and projecting strokes above or below the line being avoided. Sometimes, especially in tax-receipts and in stereotyped formulae, cursiveness is carried to an extreme. In a letter of the prefect, dated in 209, we have a fine example of the 1126:. Uniformity of size is well attained, and a few strokes project, and these but slightly, above or below the line. Another type, well called by palaeographer Schubart the "severe" style, has a more angular appearance and not infrequently slopes to the right; though handsome, it has not the sumptuous appearance of the former. There are various classes of a less pretentious style, in which convenience rather than beauty was the first consideration and no pains were taken to avoid irregularities in the shape and alignment of the letters. Lastly may be mentioned a hand which is of great interest as being the ancestor of the type called (from its later occurrence in 2356:, pl. XX). It presently supplanted the capitals and appears in numerous manuscripts which have survived from the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, when it was at its height. By this time it had become an imitative hand, in which there was generally no room for spontaneous development. It remained noticeably uniform over a long period. It is difficult therefore to date the manuscripts by palaeographical criteria alone. The most that can be done is to classify them by centuries, on the strength of tenuous data. The earliest uncial writing is easily distinguished by its simple and monumental character from the later hands, which become progressively stiff and affected. 1412:

decorative effect. In the 13th and still more in the 14th centuries there was a steady decline; the less formal hands lost their beauty and exactness, becoming ever more disorderly and chaotic in their effect, while formal style imitated the precision of an earlier period without attaining its freedom and naturalness, and often appears singularly lifeless. In the 15th century, especially in the West, where Greek scribes were in request to produce manuscripts of the classical authors, there was a revival, and several manuscripts of this period, though markedly inferior to those of the 11th and 12th centuries, are by no means without beauty.

1634:, the use of Prakrit continued in inscriptions for a few more centuries. In north India, Prakrit was replaced by Sanskrit by the end of the 3rd century, while this change took place about a century later in south India. Some of the inscriptions though written in Prakrit, were influenced by Sanskrit and vice versa. The epigraphs of the Kushana kings are found in a mixture of Prakrit and Sanskrit, while the Mathura inscriptions of the time of Sodasa, belonging to the first quarter of the 1st century, contain verses in classical Sanskrit. From the 4th century onwards, the 993:

cursive they are apt to be packed closely together. These features are more marked in the hands of the 2nd century. The less cursive often show am approximation to the book-hand, the letters growing rounder and less angular than in the 3rd century; in the more cursive linking was carried further, both by the insertion of coupling strokes and by the writing of several letters continuously without raising the pen, so that before the end of the century an almost current hand was evolved. A characteristic letter, which survived into the early Roman period, is

3102: 672: 1093: 2139: 775: 11029: 1369:, which originated in the 8th century, as an adaptation to literary purposes of the second of the types of Byzantine cursive mentioned above. A first attempt at a calligraphic use of this hand, seen in one or two manuscripts of the 8th or early 9th century, in which it slopes to the right and has a narrow, angular appearance, did not find favour, but by the end of the 9th century a more ornamental type, from which modern Greek script descended, was already established. It has been suggested that it was evolved in the 1163: 1038: 2670:

an upright hand, and the letters, instead of being fully outlined, are compressed to such an extent that they modify the shape of other letters. Copyists of books used a cursive similar to that found in documents, except that the strokes are thicker, the forms more regular, and the heads and tails shorter. The Merovingian cursive as used in books underwent simplification in some localities, undoubtedly through the influence of the minuscule book-hand of the period. The two principal centres of this reform were

2277:. With the coming into use of writing surfaces which were smooth, or offered little resistance, the unhampered haste of the writer altered the shape, size and position of the letters. In the earliest specimens of writing on wax, plaster or papyrus, there appears a tendency to represent several straight strokes by a single curve. The cursive writing thus foreshadows the specifically uncial forms. The same specimens show great inequality in the height of the letters; the main strokes are prolonged upwards ( 1000: 2508: 1280: 3301: 2180:), it is far from showing the orderly regularity of the later period. Side by side with upright and square characters are angular and sloping forms, sometimes very distorted, which seem to indicate the existence of an early cursive writing from which they would have been borrowed. Certain literary texts clearly allude to such a hand. Later, the characters of the cursive type were progressively eliminated from formal inscriptions, and capital writing reached its perfection in the 1477: 225:, abbreviations and annotations; enables the palaeographer to read, comprehend and then to understand the text and/or the relationship and hierarchy between texts in suite. The palaeographer, philologist and semiotician must first determine language, then dialect and then the register, function and purpose of the text. That is, one must by necessity become expert in the formation, historicity and evolution of these languages and signification communities, and material 2719:. From the 9th century the calligraphic forms become broader and more rounded until the 11th century, when they become slender and angular. The Visigothic minuscule appears in a cursive form in documents about the middle of the 9th century, and in the course of time grows more intricate and consequently less legible. It soon came into competition with the Carolingian minuscule, which supplanted it as a result of the presence in Spain of French elements such as 29: 8529: 2839: 10226: 9242: 2334: 942: 105:. It is primarily concerned with the forms, processes and relationships of writing and printing systems as evident in a text, document or manuscript; and analysis of the substantive textual content of documents is a secondary function. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which writing and printing of texts, manuscripts, 1512: 2290: 2869:

hand, there were innumerable varieties of mixed writing derived from the influence of these hands on each other. In some, the uncial or half-uncial forms were preserved with little or no modification, but the influence of the cursive is shown by the freedom of the strokes; these are known as rustic, semi-cursive or cursive uncial or half-uncial hands. Conversely, the cursive was sometimes affected, in varying degrees, by the set

2689: 1458:

unbroken succession of letters, except for distinction of sections; in cursive hands, especially where abbreviations were numerous, some tendency to separate words may be recognised, but in reality it was phrases or groups of letters rather than words which were divided. In the later minuscule word-division is much commoner but never became systematic, accents and breathings serving of themselves to indicate the proper division.

371: 2349: 2310: 2280: 1718: 2300: 1069: 10236: 2899: 2497:. These names came into use at a time when the various national hands were believed to have been invented by the peoples who used them, but their connotation is merely geographical. Nevertheless, in spite of a close resemblance which betrays their common origin, these hands are specifically different, perhaps because the Roman cursive was developed by each nation in accordance with its artistic tradition. 2365: 1329:, a later development is seen with emphatic distinction of thick and thin strokes. By the 6th century, alike in vellum and in papyrus manuscripts, the heaviness had become very marked, though the hand still retained, in its best examples, a handsome appearance; but after this it steadily deteriorated, becoming ever more mechanical and artificial. The thick strokes grew heavier; the cross strokes of 1029:, a style of considerable delicacy is attained, the book-hand in general shows less mastery than the contemporary cursive. In the 2nd century, the letters grew rounder and more uniform in size, but in the 1st century there is a certain disintegration perceptible, as in the cursive hand. Probably at no time did the Ptolemaic book-hand acquire such unity of stylistic effect as the cursive. 2344: 2339: 283:

be to avoid dating a hand more precisely than a range of at least seventy or eighty years". In a 2005 e-mail addendum to his 1996 "The Paleographical Dating of P-46" paper Bruce W. Griffin stated "Until more rigorous methodologies are developed, it is difficult to construct a 95% confidence interval for {{}} manuscripts without allowing a century for an assigned date."

730:

probable that for some time after the introduction of the alphabet the characters were incised with a sharp tool on stones or metal far oftener than they were written with a pen. In cutting a hard surface, it is easier to form angles than curves; in writing the reverse is the case; hence the development of writing was from angular letters ("capitals") inherited from

2648: 1677:, inscriptions belonging to later Satavahanas and Chutus were written in Prakrit. From the 4th century onwards, with the rise of the Guptas, Sanskrit became the predominant language of India and continued to be employed in texts and inscriptions of all parts of India along with the regional languages in the subsequent centuries. The copper-plate charters of the 274:

translations of a text are produced from which specific document or manuscript. This is why the palaeographer and attendant semiologists and philologists must take into account the style, substance and formation of the text, document and manuscript and the handwriting style and printed typology, grapheme typos and lexical and signification system(s) employed.

297: 1134:) the biblical hand. This, which can be traced back at least the late 2nd century, has a square, rather heavy appearance; the letters, of uniform size, stand upright, and thick and thin strokes are well distinguished. In the 3rd century the book-hand, like the cursive, appears to have deteriorated in regularity and stylistic accomplishment. 1186:, and lasted well into the century, we find many other types mostly marked by a certain looseness and irregularity. A general progress towards a florid and sprawling hand is easily recognisable, but a consistent and deliberate style was hardly evolved before the 5th century, from which unfortunately few dated documents have survived. 1311:. In both vellum and paper manuscripts from 4th-century Egypt are other forms of script, particularly a sloping, rather inelegant hand derived from the literary hand of the 3rd century, which persisted until at least the 5th century. The three great early codices of the Bible are all written in uncials of the biblical type. In the 193:, and annotations so as to functionally aid speed, efficiency and ease of writing and in some registers to importantly save invaluable space of the medium. Hence, the specialist-palaeographer, philologist and semiotician must know how to, in the broadest sense, interpret, comprehend and understand them. Knowledge of individual 7998: 2830:

transformations, for book purposes, of the cursive documentary script that had grown out of the later Roman cursive would get under way in France by the mid-7th century. In Spain half-uncial and cursive would both be transformed into a new script, the Visigothic minuscule, no later than the early 8th century.

3288:

became widely used, and in the 16th century began to compete with the Gothic cursive. In the 17th century, writing masters were divided between the two schools, and there was in addition a whole series of compromises. The Gothic characters gradually disappeared, except a few that survived in Germany.

2885:

influences at work, letters being borrowed from one alphabet for another. This led to compromises of all sorts and of infinite variety between the uncial and half-uncial and the cursive. It will readily be understood that the origin of the Carolingian minuscule, which must be sought in this tangle of

2669:

Though less than a century intervenes between the Ravenna cursive and the oldest extant Merovingian document (AD 625), there is a great difference in appearance between the two writings. The facile flow of the former is replaced by a cramped style, in which the natural slope to the right gives way to

2456:

The fall of the Empire and the establishment of the barbarians within its former boundaries did not interrupt the use of the Roman minuscule cursive hand, which was adopted by the newcomers. But for gaps of over a century in the chronological series of documents which have been preserved, it would be

1578:

is derived from Brahmi. The Brahmi is also the ancestral script of most other Indian scripts, in northern and southern South Asia. Legends and inscriptions in Brahmi are engraved upon leather, wood, terracotta, ivory, stone, copper, bronze, silver and gold. Arabic got an important place, particularly

1529:

The view that the art of writing in India developed gradually, as in other areas of the world, by going through the stages of pictographic, ideographic and transitional phases of the phonetic script, which in turn developed into syllabic and alphabetic scripts was challenged by Falk and others in the

1190:

cursive tends to an exuberant hand, in which the long strokes are excessively extended and individual letters often much enlarged. But not a few hands of the 5th and 6th centuries are truly handsome and show considerable technical accomplishment. Both an upright and a sloping type occur and there are

1049:

Papyri of the Roman period are far more numerous and show greater variety. The cursive of the 1st century has a rather broken appearance, part of one character being often made separately from the rest and linked to the next letter. A form characteristic of the 1st and 2nd century and surviving after

729:

The development of any hand is largely influenced by the materials used. To this general rule the Greek script is no exception. Whatever may have been the period at which the use of papyrus or leather as a writing material began in Greece (and papyrus was employed in the 5th century BC), it is highly

241:

and specifics of printed typology, syntagm and proxemics must be assessed as a collective undertaking. Philological knowledge of the register, language, vocabulary, and grammar generally used at a given time, place and circumstance may assist palaeographers to identify a hierarchy of texts in a suite

3137:

The topography of later medieval writing is still being studied; national varieties can, of course, be identified but the problem of distinguishing features becomes complicated as a result of the development of international relations, and the migration of clerks from one end of Europe to the other.

2026:

Attention should be drawn at the outset to certain fundamental definitions and principles of the science. The original characters of an alphabet are modified by the material and the implements used. When stone and chisel are discarded for papyrus and reed-pen, the hand encounters less resistance and

1437:

In the book-hand of early papyri, neither accents nor breathings were employed. Their use was established by the beginning of the Roman period, but was sporadic in papyri, where they were used as an aid to understanding, and therefore more frequently in poetry than prose, and in lyrical oftener than

1411:

Hands of the 11th century are marked in general (though there are exceptions) by a certain grace and delicacy, exact but easy; those of the 12th by a broad, bold sweep and an increasing freedom, which readily admits uncial forms, ligatures and enlarged letters but has not lost the sense of style and

937:

is rather flat, its second loop reduced to a practically straight line. Partly by the broad flat tops of the larger letters, partly by the insertion of a stroke connecting those (like H, Υ) which are not naturally adapted to linking, the scribes produced the effect of a horizontal line along the top

454:

system to indicate certain vowels. Early Phoenician-derived scripts did not have letters for vowels, and so most texts recorded just consonants. Most likely as a consequence of phonetic changes in North Semitic languages, the Aramaeans reused certain letters in the alphabet to represent long vowels.

2423:

The oldest example of minuscule cursive writing that has been discovered is a letter on papyrus, found in Egypt, dating from the 4th century. This marks a highly important date in the history of Latin writing, for with only one known exception, not yet adequately explained—two fragments of imperial

1561:

following in the 13th century. After a lapse of a few centuries the Kharoṣṭhi script became obsolete; the Greek script in India went through a similar fate and disappeared. But the Brahmi and Arabic scripts endured for a much longer period. Moreover, there was a change and development in the Brahmi

1407:

But from the first there were several styles, varying from the formal, regular hands characteristic of service books to the informal style, marked by numerous abbreviations, used in manuscripts intended only for a scholar's private use. The more formal hands were exceedingly conservative, and there

1014:

The development of the Ptolemaic book-hand is difficult to trace, as there are few examples, mostly not datable on external grounds. Only for the 3rd century BC have we a secure basis. The hands of that period have an angular appearance; there is little uniformity in the size of individual letters,

992:

Documents of the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BC show there is nothing analogous to the Apollonius letters, perhaps partly by the accident of survival. In the more formal types the letters stand rather stiffly upright, often without the linking strokes, and are more uniform in size; in the more

988:

is extended far upwards and at times flattened out until it is little more than a diagonal stroke to the right. The attempt to secure a horizontal line along the top is here abandoned. This style was not due to inexpertness, but to the desire for speed, being used especially in accounts and drafts,

504:

in 5 BC. In the Aramaic papyri and potsherds, words are separated usually by a small gap, as in modern writing. At the turn of the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, the heretofore uniform Aramaic letters developed new forms, as a result of dialectal and political fragmentation in several subgroups. The

282:

Palaeography may be employed to provide information about the date at which a document was written. However, "paleography is a last resort for dating" and, "for book hands, a period of 50 years is the least acceptable spread of time" with it being suggested that "the 'rule of thumb' should probably

273:

and discourse material production systems is foundational to the study of handwriting and printing events and to the identification of the periods in which a document or manuscript may have been produced. An important goal may be to assign the text a date and a place of origin, or determining which

2807:

James J. John points out that the disappearance of imperial authority around the end of the 5th century in most of the Latin-speaking half of the Roman Empire does not entail the disappearance of the Latin scripts, but rather introduced conditions that would allow the various provinces of the West

2699:

In Spain, after the Visigothic conquest, the Roman cursive gradually developed special characteristics. Some documents attributed to the 7th century display a transitional hand with straggling and rather uncouth forms. The distinctive features of Visigothic writing, the most noticeable of which is

2419:

In the ancient cursive writing, from the 1st century onward, there are symptoms of transformation in the form of certain letters, the shape and proportions of which correspond more closely to the definition of minuscule writing than to that of majuscule. Rare and irregular at first, they gradually

850:

These facts may be due to accident, the few early papyri happening to represent an archaic style which had survived along with a more advanced one; but it is likely that there was a rapid development at this period, due partly to the opening of Egypt, with its supplies of papyri, and still more to

2868:

in France, Italy and Germany as a result of the competition between the cursive and the set hands. In addition to the calligraphic uncial and half-uncial writings, which were imitative forms, little used and consequently without much vitality, and the minuscule cursive, which was the most natural

638:

until gradually, beginning with the fall of the Achaemenids in 331 BC and ending in the 4th century AD, it was replaced by Greek, Persian, the eastern and western dialects of Aramaic and Arabic, though not without leaving its traces in the written form of most of these. In its original Achaemenid

287:

went even further in the abstract to his 2005 paper "Problems of Paleographic Dating of Inscriptions" and stated: "The so-called science of paleography often relies on circular reasoning because there is insufficient data to draw precise conclusion about dating. Scholars also tend to oversimplify

2560:

The oldest preserved documents written in the old Italian cursive show all the essential characteristics of the Roman cursive of the 6th century. In northern Italy, this hand began in the 9th century to be influenced by a minuscule book-hand which developed, as will be seen later, in the time of

2352:. It represents a compromise between the beauty and legibility of the capitals and the rapidity of the cursive, and is clearly an artificial product. It was certainly in existence by the latter part of the 4th century, for a number of manuscripts of that date are written in perfect uncial hands ( 184:

set within a register in each given dialect and language has evolved constantly, it is necessary to know how to decipher its individual substantive, occurrence make-up and constituency. For example, assessing its characters and typology as they existed in various places, times and locations. In

2750:

The early cursive was the medium in which the minuscule forms were gradually evolved from the corresponding majuscule forms. Minuscule writing was therefore cursive in its inception. As the minuscule letters made their appearance in the cursive writing of documents, they were adopted and given

1457:

In vellum and paper manuscripts, punctuation marks and accents were regularly used from at least the 8th century, though with some differences from modern practice. At no period down to the invention of printing did Greek scribes consistently separate words. The book-hand of papyri aimed at an

1088:

often written high in the line. This style, from at least the latter part of the 2nd century, exercised considerable influence on the local hands, many of which show the same characteristics less pronounced; and its effects may be traced into the early part of the 4th century. Hands of the 3rd

846:

occurs as a letter only in the Timotheus papyrus, though it survived longer as a numeral (= 200), but the hands hardly suggest that for at least a century and a half the art of writing on papyrus had been well established. Yet before the middle of the 3rd century BC, one finds both a practised

2829:

From the 6th through the 8th centuries, a number of so-called 'national hands' were developed throughout the Latin-speaking areas of the former Roman Empire. By the late 6th century Irish scribes had begun transforming Roman scripts into Insular minuscule and majuscule scripts. A series of

957:

Besides these hand of Chancery type, there are numerous less elaborate examples of cursive, varying according to the writer's skill and degree of education, and many of them strikingly easy and handsome. In some cursiveness is carried very far, the linking of letters reaching the point of

1003:). In the 1st century, the hand tended, so far as can be inferred from surviving examples, to disintegrate; one can recognise the signs which portend a change of style, irregularity, want of direction, and the loss of the feeling for style. A fortunate accident has preserved two Greek 2027:

moves more rapidly. This leads to changes in the size and position of the letters, and then to the joining of letters, and, consequently, to altered shapes. We are thus confronted at an early date with quite distinct types. The majuscule style of writing, based on two parallel lines,

817:

have the capital form, and apart from these test letters the general effect is one of stiffness and angularity. More striking is the hand of the earliest dated papyrus, a contract of 311 BC. Written with more ease and elegance, it shows little trace of any development towards a truly

2195:, or legal texts, documents, etc., generally engraved on bronze in cramped and careless capitals. Palaeography inherits both these types. Reproduced by scribes on papyrus or parchment, the elegant characters of the inscriptions become the square capitals of the manuscripts, and the 1341:

were furnished with drooping spurs. The hand, which is often singularly ugly, passed through various modifications, now sloping, now upright, though it is not certain that these variations were really successive rather than concurrent. A different type of uncials, derived from the

1770:

as political powers in north India, the writing system underwent a definite change due to the use of new writing tools and techniques. Further development of the Brahmi script and perceivable changes in its evolutionary trend can be discerned during the Gupta period: in fact, the

1246:

involved no such modification in the forms of letters as followed that from metal to papyrus. The justification for considering the two materials separately is that after the general adoption of vellum, the Egyptian evidence is first supplemented and later superseded by that of

2787:, being so exactly copied that it is sometimes difficult to determine the origin of an example. Gradually, however, the Anglo-Saxon writing developed a distinct style, and even local types, which were superseded after the Norman conquest by the Carolingian minuscule. Through 715:, and a few documents found in Egypt but written elsewhere, reveal a uniformity of style in the various portions of the Greek world; however, differences can be discerned, with it being probable that distinct local styles could be traced were there more material to analyze. 561:) and royal inscriptions. The early Old Ancient should be classified as "Ancient Aramaic" and consists of two clearly distinguished and standardised written languages, the Early Ancient Aramaic and the Late Ancient Aramaic. Aramaic was influenced at first principally by 1606:—have been read and exploited for history writing, but numerous inscriptions preserved in different museums still remain undeciphered for lack of competent palaeographic Indologists, as there is a gradual decline in the subcontinent of such disciplines as palaeography, 7292: 1614:. The discipline of ancient Indian scripts and the languages they are written needs new scholars who, by adopting traditional palaeographic methods and modern technology, may decipher, study and transcribe the various types of epigraphs and legends still extant today. 888:

of the time, and show the Ptolemaic cursive at its best. These hands have a noble spaciousness and strength, and though the individual letters are by no means uniform in size there is a real unity of style, the general impression being one of breadth and uprightness.

1408:

are few classes of script more difficult to date than the Greek minuscule of this class. In the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries a sloping hand, less dignified than the upright, formal type, but often very handsome, was especially used for manuscripts of the classics.

1890:

that developed due to later Northern influence. In south India from the 7th century of the common era onwards, a number of inscriptions belonging to the dynasties of Pallava, Chola and Pandya are found. These records are written in three different scripts known as

9378: 1317:, placed during the 4th century, the characteristics of the hand are least strongly marked; the letters have the forms characteristic of the type but without the heavy appearance of later manuscripts, and the general impression is one of greater roundness. In the 2225:

The rustic capitals, more practical than the square forms, soon came into general use. This was the standard form of writing, so far as books are concerned, until the 5th century, when it was replaced by a new type, the uncial, which is discussed below.

1385:

are used as involve no change in the shape of letters. The single forms have a general resemblance (with considerable differences in detail) both to the minuscule cursive of late papyri, and to those used in modern Greek type; uncial forms were avoided.

2442:, first as marginal notes, and later for the complete books themselves. The only difference between the book-hand and that used for documents is that the principal strokes are shorter and the characters thicker. This form of the hand is usually called 8733: 2035:. Another classification, according to the care taken in forming the letters, distinguishes between the set book-hand and the cursive script. The difference in this case is determined by the subject matter of the text; the writing used for books ( 2059:). While the set book-hand, in majuscule or minuscule, shows a tendency to stabilise the forms of the letters, the cursive, often carelessly written, is continually changing in the course of years and according to the preferences of the writers. 2265:, iii) and a number of papyri. From a study of a number of documents which exhibit transitional forms, it appears that this cursive was originally simplified capital writing. The evolution was so rapid, however, that at quite an early date the 7338: 989:

and was generally the work of practised writers. How well established the cursive hand had now become is shown in some wax tablets of this period, the writing on which, despite the difference of material, closely resemble the hands of papyri.

633:

have maintained an older tradition of sentence structure and style. Imperial Aramaic immediately replaced Ancient Aramaic as a written language and, with slight modifications, it remained the official, commercial and literary language of the

7326: 2593:

in Rome continued to use the papal chancery hand until the beginning of the 13th century. The old Italian book-hand is simply a semi-cursive of the type already described as in use in the 6th century. The principal examples are derived from

1011:, one dated 88 BC, in a practically unligatured hand, the other, 22/21 BC, in a very cursive script of Ptolemaic type; and though each has non-Egyptian features the general character indicates a uniformity of style in the Hellenistic world. 3133:

and an architecture which, though still somewhat awkward, showed unmistakable signs of power and experience, and at the end of that century and in the first half of the 13th both arts reached their climax and made their boldest flights.

2959:

Controversy turns on the question whether the Carolingian minuscule is the primitive minuscule as modified by the influence of the cursive or a cursive based on the primitive minuscule. Its place of origin is also uncertain: Rome, the

3153:

were struck by the eminent legibility of the manuscripts, written in the improved Carolingian minuscule of the 10th and 11th centuries, in which they discovered the works of ancient authors, and carefully imitated the old writing. In

1389:

In the course of the 10th century the hand, without losing its beauty and exactness, gained in freedom. Its finest period was from the 9th to the 12th century, after which it rapidly declined. The development was marked by a tendency

2234:

While the set book-hand, in square or rustic capitals, was used for the copying of books, the writing of everyday life, letters and documents of all kinds, was in a cursive form, the oldest examples of which are provided by the

1364:

The uncial hand lingered on, mainly for liturgical manuscripts, where a large and easily legible script was serviceable, as late as the 12th century, but in ordinary use it had long been superseded by a new type of hand, the

7723: 1191:

many less ornamental hands, but there gradually emerged towards the 7th century two general types, one (especially used in letters and contracts) a current hand, sloping to the right, with long strokes in such characters at

3177:) letter-forms amusing the eye from a distance, but fatiguing on closer exposure, as if written for other purpose than to be read. For Petrarch the gothic hand violated three principles: writing, he said, should be simple ( 2864:) that effectively became the standard script for manuscripts from the 9th to the 11th centuries. The origin of this hand is much disputed. This is due to the confusion which prevailed before the Carolingian period in the 2428:

of the Roman world. The ensuing succession of documents show a continuous improvement in this form of writing, characterised by the boldness of the strokes and by the elimination of the last lingering majuscule forms. The

1148:. A comparison with the Egyptian papyri reveals great similarity in style and shows that conclusions drawn from the henads of Egypt may, with caution, be applied to the development of writing in the Greek world generally. 2222:. Neither of these forms of capital writing offers any difficulty in reading, except that no space is left between the words. Their dates are still uncertain, in spite of attempts to determine them by minute observation. 2814:(Gregory the Great, d. 604) was influential in the spread of Christianity to Britain and also sent Queens Theodelinde and Brunhilda, as well as Spanish bishops, copies of manuscripts. Furthermore, he sent the Roman monk 1778:

From the 6th to about the 10th century, the inscriptions in north India were written in a script variously named, e.g., Siddhamatrika and Kutila ("Rañjanā script"). From the 8th century, Siddhamatrika developed into the

2105:(1708), which remained a standard work in the specific field of Greek palaeography for more than a century. With their establishment of palaeography, Mabillon and his fellow Benedictines were responding to the Jesuit 538:

The term Middle Aramaic refers to the form of Aramaic which appears in pointed texts and is reached in the 3rd century AD with the loss of short unstressed vowels in open syllables, and continues until the triumph of

7965: 869:, were written in cursive hands, and, conversely, the book-hand was occasionally used for documents. Since the scribe did not date literary rolls, such papyri are useful in tracing the development of the book-hand. 1438:

in other verse. In the cursive of papyri they are practically unknown, as are marks of punctuation. Punctuation was effected in early papyri, literary and documentary, by spaces, reinforced in the book-hand by the

1579:

in the royalty, during the medieval period and it provides rich material for history writing. The decipherment and subsequent development of Indus glyphs is also a matter for continuing research and discussion.

1629:

engraved in the Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts are in the Prakrit language: thus, originally the language employed in the inscriptions was Prakrit, with Sanskrit adopted at a later stage. Past the period of the

8728: 7314: 2984:

have been suggested, but no agreement has been reached. In any case, the appearance of the new hand is a turning point in the history of culture. So far as Latin writing is concerned, it marks the dawn of

2420:

become more numerous and more constant and by degrees supplant the majuscule forms, so that in the history of the Roman cursive there is no precise boundary between the majuscule and minuscule periods.

1306:

is called the Byzantine period, that is, roughly from AD 300 to 650, is known as the biblical hand. It went back to at least the end of the 2nd century and had had originally no special connection with

698:

for the period preceding the 4th or 5th century AD, the earliest of which take back our knowledge only to the end of the 4th century BC. This limitation is less serious than might appear, since the few

9447: 2125:, gave a new direction to the study of scripts by stressing the importance of ductus (the shape and order of the strokes used to compose letters) in studying the historical development of scripts. 1394:

to the intrusion, in growing quantity, of uncial forms which good scribes could fit into the line without disturbing the unity of style but which, in less expert hands, had a disintegrating effect;

3911:—inclusive of the "Vellum and Paper Manuscripts" subsection—specialist sources have been consulted and thoroughly perused for the relevant text and citations, as follows: primarily the article on 8884: 8524: 5781: 859:

bureaucracy. From here onward, the two types of script were sufficiently distinct (though each influenced the other) to require separate treatment. Some literary papyri, like the roll containing

7993: 4330:—especially the parts relating to "Minuscule writing"—are mainly based on the specialist writings consulted and cited throughout the text, from the following sources: primarily the article on 8924: 7111: 3158:'s compact book hand, the wider leading and reduced compression and round curves are early manifestations of the reaction against the crabbed Gothic secretarial minuscule we know today as " 8100: 2818:

to Britain on a missionary journey, on which Augustine may have brought manuscripts. Although Italy's dominance as a centre of manuscript production began to decline, especially after the

2704:, did not appear until later, in the book-hand. The book-hand became set at an early date. In the 8th century it appears as a sort of semi-cursive; the earliest example of certain date is 938:

of the writing, from which the letters seem to hang. This feature is indeed a general characteristic of the more formal Ptolemaic script, but it is specially marked in the 3rd century BC.

9942: 9317: 1089:

century uninfluenced by it show a falling off from the perfection of the 2nd century; stylistic uncertainty and a growing coarseness of execution mark a period of decline and transition.

9329: 125:. This discipline is important for understanding, authenticating, and dating historic texts. However, in the absence of additional evidence, it cannot be used to pinpoint exact dates. 93:

of the analysis of historical writing systems, the historicity of manuscripts and texts, subsuming deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, including the analysis of historic

7309: 3017: 2109:, who doubted the authenticity of some of the documents which the Benedictines offered as credentials for the authorisation of their monasteries. In the 19th century such scholars as 9373: 3146:

editions and ceremonial documents. In common use, it degenerated into a cursive which became more and more intricate, full of superfluous strokes and complicated by abbreviations.

9042: 8095: 7728: 7287: 686:

A history of Greek handwriting must be incomplete owing to the fragmentary nature of evidence. If one rules out the inscriptions on stone or metal, which belong to the science of

8010: 9527: 9503: 9471: 9361: 585:, the script used to write it underwent a change into something more cursive. The best examples of this script come from documents written on papyrus from Egypt. About 500 BC, 9515: 9410: 2066:

shows the zenith of its modifications at once, for its history is divided into two very unequal periods, the first dominated by majuscule and the second by minuscule writing.

1421: 2742:

One by one, the national minuscule cursive hands were replaced by a set minuscule hand which has already been mentioned and its origins may now be traced from the beginning.

8114: 7711: 9574: 7079: 1878:, and their script differs from the Northern version in being more angular. Most of the modern scripts of South India have evolved from this script, with the exception of 8843: 7420: 2269:

of the Roman world can no longer be described as capitals. By the 1st century, this kind of writing began to develop the principal characteristics of two new types: the

2457:

possible to follow the evolution of the Roman cursive into the so-called "national hands", forms of minuscule writing which flourished after the barbarian invasions in

726:") and within each of these classes several distinct styles were employed side by side; and the various types are not equally well represented in the surviving papyri. 9756: 7275: 3280:

The humanistic minuscule soon gave rise to a sloping cursive hand, known as the Italian, which was also taken up by printers in search of novelty and thus became the

2327:

Although the characteristic forms of the uncial type appear to have their origin in the early cursive, the two hands are nevertheless quite distinct. The uncial is a

9802: 9569: 8987: 6609: 718:

Further, during any given period several types of hand may exist together. There was a marked difference between the hand used for literary works (generally called "

5829: 7735: 7625: 7333: 7125: 4544: 9784: 8507: 9579: 7692: 7543: 7526: 226: 54: 46: 5609:

Elements of South-Indian Palæography, from the Fourth to the Seventeenth Century A.D., Being an Introduction to the Study of South-Indian Inscriptions and MSS

10076: 8642: 8869: 7787: 7000: 3149:

In the first quarter of the 15th century an innovation took place which exercised a decisive influence on the evolution of writing in Europe. The Italian

10830: 9554: 9081: 8692: 8568: 6770: 2600:

in northern Italy, where it was displaced by the Carolingian minuscule during the 9th century. In southern Italy, this hand persisted, developing into a

1219:, and with much linking of letters, and another (frequent in accounts), which shows, at least in essence, most of the forms of the later minuscule. (cf. 8133: 3277:. The printers played a still more significant part in establishing this form of writing by using it, from the year 1465, as the basis for their types. 2565:; under this influence it gradually disappeared, and ceased to exist in the course of the 12th century. In southern Italy, it persisted far on into the 8078: 8150: 5288: 3580: 10070: 8358: 8138: 5284: 3554: 2170:

writing, known as capitals. These characters form the main stem from which developed all the branches of Latin writing. On the oldest monuments (the

1234:

In the Byzantine period, the book-hand, which in earlier times had more than once approximated to the contemporary cursive, diverged widely from it.

263: 4359: 10082: 9559: 9452: 9415: 9216: 8005: 2121:

contributed greatly to making palaeography independent from diplomatic. In the 20th century, the "New French School" of palaeographers, especially

1875: 3688: 2218:. The finest examples of rustic capitals, the use of which is attested by papyri of the 1st century, are to be found in manuscripts of Virgil and 10820: 9395: 9130: 6351: 4904:

Fac-similé de chartes et diplômes mérovingiens et carlovingiens: sur papyrus et sur parchemin compris dans l'inventaire des Monuments historiques

9714: 3232:

and had transcribed texts to support himself—presumably, as Martin Davies points out— before he went to Rome in 1403 to begin his career in the

10881: 9609: 9193: 9105: 7413: 5427: 9932: 9704: 9564: 9351: 8848: 7603: 5782:

12th to 17th century manuscripts originating from Europe and the Middle East, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries

1943: 3852: 402:

to the borders of India, becoming extremely popular and being adopted by many people, both with or without any previous writing system. The

8769: 7374: 3833: 1935:

and the early Eastern Chalukyas in the east who ruled the Kannada and Telugu speaking areas respectively, during the 4th to 7th centuries.

1100:

Several different types of book-hand were used in the Roman period. Particularly handsome is a round, upright hand seen, for example, in a

10273: 9691: 9297: 8966: 8668: 8119: 7593: 1846:

also employed "nail-headed" characters in some of their inscriptions. During the 3rd–4th century, the script used in the inscriptions of

5269: 4463: 4391: 4347: 3936: 3165:

Petrarch was one of the few medieval authors to have written at any length on the handwriting of his time; in his essay on the subject,

640: 9876: 9544: 9498: 9137: 8434: 7686: 7137: 5747: 2331:, closely related to the capital writing, from which it differs only in the rounding off of the angles of certain letters, principally 5239:, Rome, 1924, iv, pp. 126ff; G. Cencetti, "Postilla nuova a un problema paleografico vecchio: l'origine della minuscola carolina", in 2755:. This quasi-minuscule writing, known as the "half-uncial" thus derives from a long line of mixed hands which, in a synoptic chart of 1223:.) This is often upright, though a slope to the right is quite common, and sometimes, especially in one or two documents of the early 9493: 9488: 9183: 7853: 4293: 1994: 1450:, the high, low and middle points, were established in the book-hand by the Roman period; in early Ptolemaic papyri, a double point ( 865: 9385: 7116: 1854:

developed a unique style of letter-forms with elongated verticals and artistic flourishes, which did not continue after their rule.

597:" (the oldest dated example, from Egypt, belonging to 495 BC) is based on an otherwise unknown written form of Ancient Aramaic from 10799: 10206: 8793: 8492: 6995: 5865: 1446:, a more elaborate form of this, marked the beginning of lyrics or the principal sections of a longer work. Punctuation marks, the 258:

with precision; eliciting a professional authenticity in documentation, textual and manuscript evaluation with view to producing a

9047: 2399: 9947: 9422: 8929: 8764: 8578: 8502: 8090: 7191: 5800:

by Mario Tonelotto : an example of critical edition from 4 different manuscripts (transcription from medieval palaeography).

8944: 7960: 438:

simplified some of the letters, thickened and rounded their lines: a specific feature of its letters is the distinction between

9846: 9532: 9520: 9508: 9476: 9390: 9366: 9334: 9322: 9023: 9005: 8956: 8610: 7898: 7201: 6184: 4602: 2791:

and his followers, Irish writing spread to the continent, and manuscripts were written in the Irish hand in the monasteries of

5665: 639:

form, Imperial Aramaic is found in texts of the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. These come mostly from Egypt and especially from the

434:

in India, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia. Initially, the Aramaic script did not differ from the Phoenician, but then the

10734: 10042: 9881: 9292: 8351: 7280: 5687: 5387: 3991: 3975: 3955: 3189:

was a great admirer of Petrarch; from Boccaccio's immediate circle this post-Petrarchan "semi-gothic" revised hand spread to

3129:

period . The creative effort which began in the post-Carolingian period culminated at the beginning of the 12th century in a

2767:(cursive), from which its characteristic forms were successively derived. It had a considerable influence on the continental 2666:. It is represented by thirty-eight royal diplomas, a number of private charters and the authenticating documents of relics. 884:, to this agent, Zeno, and those of the Palestinian sheikh, Toubias, are in a type of script which cannot be very unlike the 5753: 5703:(A scholarly site providing over 100 French manuscripts from 1300 to 1700 with tools for deciphering and transcribing them.) 4930: 10027: 9871: 9639: 9178: 9147: 8617: 8548: 8264: 8200: 8178: 7859: 7102: 6382: 7130: 2730:

The Irish and Anglo-Saxon hands, which were not directly derived from the Roman minuscule cursive, will be discussed in a

2530:, a generic term which comprises several local varieties. These may be classified under four principal types: two for the 1553:) was used at the same time in the northwest, next to Brahmi (at least influenced by Aramaic) elsewhere. In addition, the 834:

have the capital forms. A similar impression is made by the few other papyri, chiefly literary, dating from about 300 BC;

9157: 8935: 8813: 8803: 8593: 8439: 8274: 7476: 7206: 7156: 5898: 5786: 2881:. Nor is this all. Apart from these reciprocal influences affecting the movement of the hand across the page, there were 1666: 9483: 7716: 3240:

identifies the watershed moment in the development of the new humanistic hand as the youthful Poggio's transcription of

3208:

A more thorough reform of handwriting than the Petrarchan compromise was in the offing. The generator of the new style (

10874: 10037: 9112: 8874: 8237: 8019: 7558: 4541: 4016: 488:. The wide diffusion of Aramaic letters led to its writing being used not only in monumental inscriptions, but also on 8512: 2779:

The half-uncial hand was introduced in Ireland along with Latin culture in the 5th century by priests and laymen from

1251:

from elsewhere, and that during this period the hand most used was one not previously employed for literary purposes.

10825: 9719: 8622: 8588: 8573: 7568: 7408: 7403: 7391: 6854: 5673: 5560: 5453: 5362: 5300: 5204: 5171: 4653: 3768: 3508: 1689:

documents are written in both Sanskrit and Tamil. Kannada is used in texts dating from about the 5th century and the

589:(522–486) made the Aramaic used by the imperial administration into the official language of the western half of the 8676: 7659: 5727: 1178:

The cursive hand of the 4th century shows some uncertainty of character. Side by side with the style founded on the

10715: 10697: 9619: 9245: 8961: 8637: 8600: 8473: 8344: 7174: 7169: 6828: 5607: 8798: 8744: 8605: 7164: 7005: 5837: 3986:, trad. Daibhm O. Cróinin & David Ganz, Cambridge University Press, 1990, esp. Part A "Codicology", pp. 7–37. 10349: 10266: 10239: 9661: 8704: 8686: 8519: 8210: 7179: 7032: 6562: 6180: 5555:. (Oxford Palaeographical Handbooks.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969. Revised edition London: Scolar Press, 1979, 5335:, noted in Albert Derolez, "The script reform of Petrarch: an illusion?" in John Haines, Randall Rosenfeld, eds. 3656: 7521: 5295:, Forschungen zur Bozner Stadtgeschichte, vol. 1, Bozen-Bolzano: Verlagsanstalt Athesia, pp. 399–432, 4833: 933:, which sometimes takes the form of two almost perpendicular strokes joined only at the top, are usually small; 10674: 10327: 9841: 9833: 9796: 9778: 9599: 9432: 9287: 9142: 9090: 9063: 8825: 8422: 8220: 8031: 7886: 7598: 7553: 7538: 7062: 4259: 4252:

Indian epigraphy: a guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan languages

4166: 3435: 2977: 2245: 2176: 2021: 6614: 11145: 10867: 10591: 9937: 9905: 9828: 9634: 8661: 8553: 8427: 7548: 7471: 7425: 6120: 3430: 3001:

letter-forms. This style remained predominant, with some regional variants, until the 15th century, when the

2886:

pre-Carolingian hands, involves disagreement. The new writing is admittedly much more closely related to the

2826:, its manuscripts—and more important, the scripts in which they were written—were distributed across Europe. 2118: 656: 129: 78: 64: 9341: 8997: 5530: 4569: 4341: 3930: 2997:

In the 12th century, Carolingian minuscule underwent a change in its appearance and adopted bold and broken

1838:

were written in what are known as "box-headed" and "nail-headed" characters. It may be noted that the early

805:, which dates from the second half of the 4th century BC and its script has a curiously archaic appearance. 11233: 11228: 11185: 10372: 10128: 9990: 9807: 9437: 9405: 8894: 8046: 7106: 5937: 5858: 3425: 338: 229:. Secondly, the historical usages of various styles of handwriting, common writing customs, and scribal or 8754: 7806: 3558: 3289:

The Italian became universally used, brought to perfection in more recent times by English calligraphers.

10293: 10199: 10032: 9898: 9790: 9768: 8971: 8939: 8889: 8697: 8647: 8538: 8279: 8041: 7917: 7911: 7892: 7097: 6926: 6809: 6356: 5806: 4354: 3602:, Paris, Ludovicum Guerin (1708); André Vauchez, Richard Barrie Dobson, Adrian Walford, Michael Lapidge, 3365: 2015: 1673:

are in Prakrit, while their later records (belonging to the 5th century) are written in Sanskrit. In the

1625:. Besides Prakrit, the Ashokan edicts are also written in Greek and Aramaic. Moreover, all the edicts of 1524: 876:

hands. There are none from chancelleries of the Hellenistic monarchs, but some letters, notably those of

8415: 8068: 4052:, Agocs, PA (2013). In: Castagnoli, L. and Ceccarelli, P, (eds.), Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. 3503:, pp. 131–3: By William Shakespeare, Charles Hamilton, John Fletcher (Glenbridge Publishing Ltd., 1994) 2902:), which recall the cursive, by the joining of certain letters, and by the clubbing of the tall letters 11223: 10298: 10259: 10119: 9996: 9973: 9858: 9761: 9699: 9671: 9307: 9120: 8853: 8627: 8284: 8215: 7870: 7740: 7669: 6814: 6648: 6638: 5526: 5196: 3719: 3455: 734:

to rounded ones ("uncials"). But only certain letters were affected by this development, in particular

10313: 9076: 8024: 7955: 7845: 5791:

Collection of online exercises for the transcription of a variety of scripts, from 8th to 15th century

3635: 2860:

began to consolidate power over a large area of western Europe, scribes developed a minuscule script (

2214:

of ancient times, only a few fragments have survived, the most famous being pages from manuscripts of

1397:

to the disproportionate enlargement of single letters, especially at the beginnings and ends of lines;

10144: 10054: 9400: 7752: 7233: 6775: 6604: 6256: 5163: 4045: 3527: 2089:

was published in 1681, is widely regarded as the founder of the twin disciplines of palaeography and

8143: 3262: 3106: 1270: 10385: 10341: 10336: 10139: 8919: 8899: 8456: 8390: 8225: 7800: 7270: 7057: 7014: 6805: 6502: 5767: – Outdated (published 1912) but good and useful illustrated handbook, available as facsimile. 5542:

Codices Latini Antiquiores: A Palaeographical Guide to Latin Manuscripts Prior to the Ninth Century

4531: 3759:(2005). "Problems of Paleographic Dating of Inscriptions". In Levy, Thomas; Higham, Thomas (eds.). 3041: 2882: 2819: 1669:

is considered to be the earliest so far. The earlier writings (4th century) of Salankayanas of the

1487: 1443: 901:, with the middle stroke reduced to a very shallow curve, sometimes approaching a horizontal line, 855:, which systematically copied literary and scientific works, and to the multifarious activities of 790: 626: 610: 8254: 5353:

Ferrari, Mirella (1988). "La 'littera antiqua' a Milan, 1417–1439". In Autenrieth, Johanne (ed.).

4351:. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 556–579 see pages 567 to 573. 3940:. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 556–579 see pages 557 to 567. 1582:

Most of the available inscriptions and manuscripts written in the above scripts—in languages like

10976: 10794: 10582: 10229: 10134: 9629: 9071: 8308: 8247: 8173: 8036: 7817: 7573: 7386: 7381: 7359: 7321: 7301: 6935: 6931: 6748: 6621: 6584: 6567: 6387: 5851: 4881:

Les diplômes originaux des Mérovingiens: fac-similés phototypiques avec notices et transcriptions

3849: 3532: 3122: 3118: 2815: 1347: 917:, whose last stroke is prolonged upwards above the line, often curving backwards, are all broad; 881: 660: 501: 8446: 8410: 3994:. These texts will be referred to throughout the present article with relevant inline citations. 3089:, it was taught as an alternative script in some areas until the 1970s; it is no longer taught. 2031:, is opposed to the minuscule, based on a system of four lines, with letters of unequal height, 1557:

were also added to the Indian context after its penetration in the early centuries AD, with the

10758: 9963: 9915: 9910: 8879: 8833: 8682: 8188: 7642: 7615: 7585: 7449: 7396: 7213: 7089: 6984: 6824: 6819: 6677: 6643: 6631: 6626: 6589: 6539: 6397: 6377: 6063: 6008: 5722: 5712: 5706: 5577: 5479: 4631: 4383: 4224:

There are few available texts relating to "Indian palaeography", among which Ahmad Hasan Dani,

3963: 3604: 3221: 2808:

gradually to drift apart in their writing habits, a process that began around the 7th century.

2577:. It is formal in appearance at first, but is gradually simplified, under the influence of the 1831: 1467: 9442: 7697: 2914:. Most palaeographers agree in assigning the new hand the place shown in the following table: 2187:

Epigraphists divide the numerous inscriptions of this period into two quite distinct classes:

1534:, was discontinuous with earlier, undeciphered, glyphs, and was invented specifically by King 11213: 10936: 10773: 10323: 10087: 9978: 9958: 9823: 9773: 9666: 9656: 9346: 9312: 9221: 8232: 7970: 7865: 7792: 7664: 7067: 6784: 6738: 6733: 6682: 6346: 6327: 6143: 6038: 4458: 3585: 3540: 3025: 2843: 2578: 2383: 2094: 1916: 1694: 1403:

to the enlargement of accents, breathings at the same time acquiring the modern rounded form.

1377:. In its earliest examples it is upright and exact but lacks flexibility; accents are small, 1370: 666: 334: 318: 145: 32: 9891: 9302: 8838: 5259: 4429:

R. Marichal, "Paleography" in New Encyclopaedia New York: Gale-Thomson, 2003 Vol. X, p. 773.

3273:

adopted the new fashion for some purposes, and thus contributed to its diffusion throughout

1947:

Coin of Vikramadytia Chandragupta II with the name of the king in Brahmi script, 5th century

1780: 1323:, which is not much later, the letters are larger and more heavily made; in the 5th-century 909:, with its cross-bar extending much further to the left than to the right of the up-stroke, 528:

Old Aramaic (in turn subdivided into Ancient, Imperial, Old Eastern and Old Western Aramaic)

10966: 10174: 9651: 8992: 8709: 8064: 7904: 7637: 7513: 7484: 7255: 6917: 6891: 6838: 6672: 6599: 6444: 6409: 6363: 6331: 6209: 5923: 5644: 5631: 3756: 3470: 3400: 3390: 3246: 3217: 3002: 2910: 1382: 1308: 1182:, regular in formation and with tall and narrow letters, which characterised the period of 877: 802: 783: 506: 330: 284: 198: 190: 7945: 4290: 3159: 2573:

and principally used in papal documents, is distinguished by the formation of the letters

1516: 8: 11218: 11192: 11083: 11006: 9968: 8714: 8128: 7835: 7531: 6743: 6655: 6414: 6048: 6013: 5916: 5444:(1981). "Early humanistic script and the first roman type". In McKitterick, David (ed.). 3480: 3320: 3126: 2986: 2444: 1928: 1690: 1662: 1187: 1157: 852: 582: 547: 415: 399: 391: 202: 172:, as it addresses a suite of interrelated lines of inquiry. First, since the style of an 90: 10859: 9466: 9036: 8451: 8155: 6763: 4818: 4439: 3521: 3101: 11155: 11121: 11088: 11058: 11018: 10931: 10895: 10891: 10705: 10194: 10189: 10124: 10007: 9920: 9751: 9427: 8759: 8543: 7608: 7563: 6922: 6878: 6833: 6456: 6402: 6323: 5894: 5421: 5289:"Das Bozner Stadtbuch: Handschrift 140 – das Amts- und Privilegienbuch der Stadt Bozen" 4472: 4207: 4080: 3711: 3405: 3370: 3213: 2861: 2663: 2652: 2527: 2482: 2478: 2110: 1981: 1763: 1575: 1352: 1293: 1167: 712: 671: 578: 514: 497: 308: 114: 98: 7464: 5094: 4454: 3261:. The new script was embraced and developed by the Florentine humanists and educators 2526:

In Italy, after the close of the Roman and Byzantine periods, the writing is known as

1092: 703:

not of Egyptian origin which have survived from this period, like the parchments from

296: 11093: 11001: 10946: 10926: 10361: 10012: 9866: 9614: 8911: 7922: 7761: 7186: 6945: 6884: 6843: 6660: 6545: 6481: 6392: 6369: 6313: 6221: 5954: 5683: 5669: 5556: 5518: 5499: 5449: 5383: 5358: 5296: 5200: 5188: 5167: 5143: 4884: 4803: 4782: 4375: 4265: 4255: 4172: 4162: 4084: 3987: 3979: 3971: 3951: 3920: 3764: 3744: 3715: 3689:"The Use and Abuse of P52: Papyrological Pitfalls in the Dating of the Fourth Gospel" 3504: 3266: 3021: 2693: 2629: 2616: 2566: 2486: 2373: 2274: 2147: 2138: 590: 562: 510: 481: 326: 5833: 4596: 4230:

Elements of South-Indian Palaeography, from the Fourth to the Seventeenth Century AD

3005:

scripts revived a version of Carolingian minuscule. It then spread from the Italian

2604:

of writing, and in the 10th century took on a very artistic angular appearance. The

1595: 1356:(6th or 7th century). A combination of this hand with the other type is also known. 774: 11238: 11053: 11028: 10994: 10989: 10956: 10179: 9886: 9709: 9685: 9646: 9226: 8383: 7773: 7632: 7620: 6912: 6872: 6867: 6692: 6579: 6514: 6341: 6336: 6318: 6176: 5977: 5930: 5820: 5764: 5719:

Palaeography: reading old handwriting 1500 – 1800: A practical online tutorial

5718: 5715:(A comprehensive PDF file containing 71 pages profusely illustrated, January 2024). 5709:(A comprehensive PDF file containing 82 pages profusely illustrated, January 2024). 5581: 5491: 4635: 4340: 4199: 4072: 3929: 3703: 3460: 2106: 2098: 1976: 1957: 1847: 1792: 1698: 1674: 1654: 1618: 1603: 1550: 1539: 1378: 594: 566: 449: 411: 383: 375: 361: 349: 270: 259: 140:, published in 1681, which was the first textbook to address the subject. The term 7501: 2549:, the old Italian book-hand and Lombardic in the narrow sense, sometimes known as 1346:

and seen in two papyrus examples of the Festal letters despatched annually by the

1037: 546:

Old Aramaic appeared in the 11th century BC as the official language of the first

11137: 11112: 10971: 10916: 9604: 9211: 8785: 8461: 7825: 7647: 7432: 7196: 7022: 6667: 5982: 5810: 5736: 5545: 5441: 5111: 4860: 4797: 4759: 4713: 4606: 4548: 4535: 4486: 4467: 4363: 4297: 3943: 3856: 3839: 3793: 3787: 3257:

library was catalogued in 1418, almost half the manuscripts were noted as in the

3237: 2998: 2590: 2388: 2181: 2151: 2114: 1920: 1907:

region, the Vattezhuttu script developed into a still more cursive script called

1835: 1702: 1558: 1542: 1366: 1313: 1289: 1224: 1016: 950: 946: 722:" but, in the papyrus period, better styled "book-hand") and that of documents (" 675: 574: 419: 365: 353: 20: 7705: 4918:

Manuel de paléographie: Recueil de fac-similés d'écritures du Ve au XVIIe siècle

4669:, i, pp. 171–261, and numerous reproductions in Zangemeister & Wattenbach's 3962:, Cambridge University Press, 1986; the essential work by British palaeographer 3618: 2191:, or formal inscriptions engraved on stone in elegant and regular capitals, and 1162: 11073: 10941: 10687: 10308: 9985: 9676: 9095: 8723: 8719: 8370: 7988: 7927: 7767: 7238: 7072: 6860: 6848: 6534: 6419: 6095: 6080: 6070: 5972: 5874: 5742: 4953: 3475: 3315: 3306: 3270: 3090: 3054: 2890:

than the primitive minuscule; this is shown by certain forms, such as the open

2848: 2811: 2494: 2204: 2163: 2063: 1997: 1971: 1966: 1900: 1892: 1851: 1823: 1658: 1642: 1599: 1554: 1374: 1101: 629:

are highly standardised. Only the formularies of the private documents and the

570: 403: 387: 357: 288:

diachronic development, assuming models of simplicity rather than complexity".

58: 36: 9925: 5495: 4190:

Salomon, Richard (1995). "Review: On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts".

4076: 3707: 2569:. The papal chancery hand, a variety of Lombardic peculiar to the vicinity of 11207: 11169: 11063: 11048: 10921: 10911: 10682: 10065: 10017: 9459: 9085: 7248: 6572: 6553: 6497: 6451: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6283: 6278: 6155: 6148: 5503: 5273:. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 556–579. 5264: 4888: 4336: 4269: 4063:

Campbell, Lewis (1891). "On the Text of the Papyrus Fragment of the Phaedo".

3925: 3820: 3415: 3345: 3285: 2788: 2720: 2671: 2538: 2507: 2424:

rescripts of the 5th century—the minuscule cursive was consequently the only

2378: 2270: 2074: 2043:) is in all periods quite distinct from that used for letters and documents ( 2003: 1961: 1952: 1871: 1808: 1800: 1788: 1767: 1670: 1631: 1567: 1563: 1531: 1400:

to ligatures, often very fantastic, which quite changed the forms of letters;

1343: 1260: 1179: 1073: 999: 885: 695: 614: 518: 427: 423: 251: 210: 133: 102: 5728:

A comprehensive survey of all the important aspects of medieval palaeography

4286: 4176: 3639: 1811:

was used widely in northern India from the 10th century onwards. The use of

11162: 11150: 11098: 11078: 10664: 10659: 10654: 10649: 10644: 10639: 10634: 10624: 10619: 10614: 10604: 10599: 10303: 10282: 8183: 7830: 7652: 7495: 7351: 6800: 6758: 6687: 6424: 6309: 6263: 6251: 6160: 5571: 4847: 4565: 4301: 3300: 3086: 3067: 2792: 2784: 2756: 2675: 2605: 2258: 1990: 1772: 1755: 1635: 1571: 1325: 1279: 1228: 708: 165: 11176: 5794: 5765:

An introduction to Greek and Latin palaeography by Thompson, Edward Maunde

5700: 3220:

script in the first decade of the 15th century. The Florentine bookseller

3142:

the Gothic minuscule continued to improve within the restricted circle of

3071: 797:

The earliest Greek papyrus yet discovered is probably that containing the

496:. Aramaic papyri have been found in large numbers in Egypt, especially at 10951: 10789: 10184: 8466: 8108: 8084: 7454: 7442: 7364: 6940: 6753: 6557: 6293: 6241: 6216: 6199: 6138: 5535:

Paläographie des römischen Altertums und des abendländischen Mittelalters

5448:. Vol. 2 vols. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 206–29. 4902: 3395: 3340: 3330: 3281: 3274: 3233: 3225: 3139: 3130: 3110: 3075: 3063: 3006: 2857: 2601: 2586: 2562: 2490: 2122: 2090: 2078: 2062:

This being granted, a summary survey of the morphological history of the

1985: 1932: 1896: 1883: 1863: 1812: 1611: 1439: 1432: 1425: 1138: 856: 644: 606: 485: 214: 194: 181: 9356: 4023:, Leipzig: Hinrichs (1903), with content discussion. Cf. V. Strazzulla, 2838: 2433:

deeds of the 5th and 6th centuries exhibit this hand at its perfection.

2333: 1775:

is considered to be the successor of the Kushana script in north India.

1476: 28: 11068: 11013: 10022: 9029: 8672: 8242: 6904: 6492: 6246: 6204: 6190: 6058: 6043: 5775: 4101:, C.H. Beck, 1925, vol. i, pt. 4; also 1st half of new ed. of Muller's 3916: 3465: 3440: 3355: 3350: 2752: 2709: 2705: 2596: 2582: 2254: 1908: 1887: 1879: 1804: 1747: 1737: 1725: 1319: 1303: 1248: 1183: 700: 618: 243: 122: 118: 94: 5759: 5446:

Selected Essays on the History of Letter-Forms in Manuscript and Print

4211: 3169:

he criticized the current scholastic hand, with its laboured strokes (

2898: 2611:

provide the finest examples. In the 9th century, it was introduced in

1742:

In north India, the Brahmi script was used over a vast area; however,

941: 554:

of the 10th to 8th centuries BC, especially extensive state treaties (

11127: 10843: 10804: 8949: 8073: 7950: 7780: 7263: 6594: 6273: 6268: 6231: 6226: 6090: 6033: 6018: 5887: 4839: 3799: 3450: 3445: 3335: 3186: 2624: 2554: 2438: 2404: 2289: 2167: 1912: 1903:, the last variety being used to write Sanskrit inscriptions. In the 1843: 1827: 1816: 1733: 1706: 1646: 1607: 1546: 1004: 860: 731: 687: 679: 635: 598: 493: 477: 435: 322: 312: 255: 247: 222: 169: 161: 84: 70: 5593:. (Oxford Palaeographical Handbooks.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960. 5591:

English vernacular hands from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries

4405:

Palaeographia Graeca, sive, De ortu et progressu literarum graecarum

3600:

Palaeographia Graeca, sive, De ortu et progressu literarum graecarum

2348: 2319:). In this direction, the cursive tends to become a minuscule hand. 2309: 2279: 1530:

early 1990s. In the new paradigm, Indian alphabetic writing, called

1511: 11117: 10961: 9624: 8367: 6288: 6236: 5258: 4203: 3816: 3420: 3410: 3385: 3380: 3325: 3216:, a tireless pursuer of ancient manuscripts, who developed the new 3198: 3194: 3155: 3150: 3078: 2961: 2823: 2688: 2612: 2236: 2093:. However, the actual term "palaeography" was coined (in Latin) by 1924: 1867: 1866:

is represented by inscriptions found in caves, associated with the

1839: 1678: 1650: 1591: 1141:

are specimens of Greek literary hands from outside Egypt dating to

602: 586: 370: 301: 234: 177: 173: 5770: 5760:

Online Tuition in the Palaeography of Scottish Documents 1500–1750

5612:(Second enlarged and improved ed.). London: Trübner & Co. 2299: 1915:

script developed out of the Grantha script. The early form of the

1638:

came to power and supported the Sanskrit language and literature.

1068: 11105: 11043: 10763: 10354: 6075: 6053: 6003: 5907: 5843: 5380:

Boccaccio and the book: production and reading in Italy 1340–1520

5158:

John, James J. (1992). "Latin Paleography". In Powell, J. (ed.).

4820:

Paleografia e diplomatica de' documenti delle Province napolitane

3360: 3059: 3049: 3045: 3033: 2796: 2712: 2474: 2470: 2430: 2240: 2219: 1911:

during the 14th and 15th centuries. At the same time, the modern

1874:

dynasties. These are written in variants of what is known as the

1784: 1751: 1721: 1717: 1686: 1622: 1583: 1106: 1008: 873: 847:

book-hand and a developed and often remarkably handsome cursive.

819: 723: 719: 704: 489: 431: 238: 218: 110: 10768: 872:

The documents of the mid-3rd century BC show a great variety of

10753: 10748: 10743: 10251: 6508: 6085: 5998: 4866: 4390:

These two introductory paragraphs are directly quoted from the

4143:

Cf. T.W. Allen, "Notes on Abbreviations in Greek Manuscripts",

4012: 4003:

Fragments of Timotheus' poetry survive, published in T. Bergk,

3845: 3812: 3761:

The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Text and Science

3254: 3241: 3224:

recalled later in the century that Poggio had been a very fine

3202: 3082: 2981: 2716: 2620: 2462: 2436:

At this period, the minuscule cursive made its appearance as a

2215: 2155: 1904: 1796: 1743: 1682: 1626: 1535: 1243: 1171: 1127: 1021: 779: 691: 630: 622: 540: 230: 186: 5803: 4537:

Untersuchungen über ausgewählte Kapitel des antiken Buchwesens

4159:

Schrift im alten Indien: ein Forschungsbericht mit Anmerkungen

3948:

Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization,

3121:

and palaeography, and in both it is possible to distinguish a

2364: 2249:, iv), a series of waxen tablets, also discovered at Pompeii ( 1709:

made its beginning in writings from the 15th century onwards.

1420: 1415: 601:. In orthography, Imperial Aramaic preserves historical forms— 10721: 7143: 7040: 6901: 6023: 5816: 5756:(1,200 detailed references with critical comments in French). 3792:, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986, pp. 9- 15; Rainer Degen, 3749: 3376: 3044:

and the handwriting forms in western and southern Europe. In

2969: 2965: 2724: 2520: 2512: 2466: 2458: 2143: 1447: 1131: 1042: 1026: 551: 457: 407: 395: 206: 106: 76: 62: 10609: 4021:

Der Timotheos-Papyrus gefunden bei Abusir am 1. Februar 1902

550:. The oldest witnesses to it are inscriptions from northern 148:

with the publication of his work on Greek palaeography, the

6028: 5825: 5537:(Grundlagen der Germanistik 24) Erich Schmidt Verlag 1986). 5337:

Music and Medieval Manuscripts: paleography and performance

4238:

Origin of Brahmi Script: The Beginning of Alphabet in India

2973: 2780: 2659: 2570: 2535: 2343: 2338: 1759: 1617:

The language of the earliest written records, that is, the

1587: 1442:, a horizontal stroke under the beginning of the line. The 5832:. Paleographic transcription and to modern Spanish of the 5804:

ELM, a database of manuscripts written in Latin before 800

5795:

Walter Burley, Commentarium in Aristotelis De Anima L.III

5748:

Another scholarly maintained web directory on palaeography

5195:. Translated by Croinin, Daibi O; Ganz, David. Cambridge: 4031:, iviii. (1903), p. 481; and T. Reinach and M. Croiset in 3795:

Altaramäische Grammatik der Inschriften des 10-8 Jh.v.Chr.

1350:, was occasionally used, the best known example being the 10889: 4932:

Album paléographique de la Société de l'École des chartes

4784:

La scrittura latina nell' età romana (note paleografiche)

1562:

script which may be traced in time and space through the

822:

style; the letters are not linked, and though the uncial

8491: 5678:

Franz Fischer, Christiane Fritze, Georg Vogeler (eds.):

5484:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

4228:, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1997; A. C. Burnell, 2647: 1815:, a variant of Nagari script, is mostly confined to the 1170:, the oldest Greek witness of the Byzantine text in the 10629: 9785:

Professionalization and institutionalization of history

5245:

Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages, cit.

3673:(2nd ed.). London: Institute of Classical Studies. 1649:, Prakrit was used till the 4th century, mostly in the 997:, with its cross-stroke made in two portions (variants: 958:

illegibility, and the characters sloping to the right.

581:. As Aramaic evolved into the imperial language of the 5660:

Malte Rehbein, Patrick Sahle, Torsten Schaßan (eds.):

5293:

Bozen: von den Grafen von Tirol bis zu den Habsburgern

3519: 500:—among them are official and private documents of the 10569: 10562: 10555: 10548: 10541: 10534: 10527: 10520: 10513: 10506: 10499: 10492: 10485: 10478: 10471: 10464: 10457: 10450: 10443: 10436: 10429: 10422: 10415: 10408: 10401: 10394: 10077:

Heroic theory of invention and scientific development

5003:

Numerous reproductions exists in the literature, cf.

4388:

An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography, cit.

4236:, Motilal Banarasi Das, 1957; Naresh Prasad Rastogi, 2658:

The offshoot of the Roman cursive which developed in

1653:

writings though in a few contemporary records of the

378:

with some of the mysteries represented by the letters

8925:

Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe

5737:

A scholarly maintained web directory on palaeography

4571:

Schrifttafeln zur älteren lateinischen Palaeographie

3960:

The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society

3907:

In creating and expanding the following sections on

3296: 10831:

List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks

5743:

Guide to the Paleography Study Collection 1250-1791

5628:

The Palæography of India/Bhāratīya Prācīna Lipimālā

3811:This script was also used during the reign of King 476:Aramaic writing and language supplanted Babylonian 398:, between 1000 and 600 BC. It spread from the 8885:Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia 8743: 6525: 4289:, Ch. 9; archaeological/linguistic information on 3520: 2731: 2210:Of the many books written in square capitals, the 524:Aramaic is usually divided into three main parts: 9543: 5680:Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age 2. 5523:Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages 5193:Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages 4741:For example, a certificate of AD 400 in Wessely, 4726:Schriften der wissensch. Gesellsch. in Strassburg 4420:Fourth Edition (Oxford University, 2005), p. 206. 3984:Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages 3970:, Cambridge University Press, 1912 (repr. 2013). 3093:is an informal business hand of the Renaissance. 2723:and warriors engaged in the campaign against the 262:if required and a critical assessment of a given 11205: 4745:, xiv, pl. xiii; a letter of AD 444 in Wessely, 4485:Cf. Karl Zangemeister & Wilhelm Wattenbach, 4044:Wax tablets of this period are preserved at the 2774: 1302:The prevailing type of book-hand during what in 1096:Copy of Herculanean Rolls, Greek papyrus 157–152 266:as rendered and set in a materiality or medium. 213:, and signification forms in general, subsuming 10109: 6352:Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought 5776:Self-correcting medieval palaeography exercises 5662:Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age. 5583:An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography 5414:The Origin and Development of Humanistic Script 4646:The Parentage and Birthdate of the Latin Uncial 4542:"More Facts about our Oldest Latin Manuscripts" 4334:by French palaeographist A. de Bouard, present 4132:Collezione fiorentina di facsimili paleografici 3968:An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography 3117:There are undeniable points of contact between 1938: 1237: 949:, a Greek Macedonian philosophical text dating 5750:(200 links with critical comments, in French). 4130:No. 5, Bonn, 1910; G. Vitelli & C. Paoli, 3040:These humanistic scripts are the base for the 1882:, the exact origins of which are unknown, and 1381:square in formation, and in general only such 1076:, with tall and laterally compressed letters, 300:Drawing of the hieroglyphic seal found in the 121:, etcetera, were produced, and the history of 10875: 10267: 9933:Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church 9803:Western European colonialism and colonization 8352: 5859: 5068:, iv, pl. vi, No. 668; xi, pl. vi, No. 1,379. 2553:because it flourished in the principality of 2253:, iv, supplement), a similar series found at 1705:began to appear from the 6th or 7th century. 1641:In western India and also in some regions of 647:, which existed at least from 530 to 399 BC. 11183: 11174: 11160: 11103: 8263: 4878: 4444:, Princeton University Press, 1915, pp. 1–2. 4366:, by Juan-Jose Marcos, 2011; Schiapparelli, 4356:Fonts for Latin Palaeography – User's manual 3755: 3682: 3680: 2394: 1574:and early medieval periods. The present-day 242:through discourse analysis, determining the 160:Palaeography is an essential skill for many 132:, and is considered to have been founded by 8366: 5788:Interactive Album of Mediaeval Palaeography 4126:Cf. P.F. de' Cavalieri & J. Lietzmann, 3841:Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B.C. 3557:. Civiceducationproject.org. Archived from 3109:(1364–1437), which served as the origin of 2662:under the first dynasty of kings is called 2172:inscriptiones bello Hannibalico antiquiores 2083: 2053: 2045: 2037: 1661:, Sanskrit was applied. The inscription of 1416:Accents, punctuation, and division of words 447: 430:, the parent writing system of most modern 10882: 10868: 10274: 10260: 8359: 8345: 5866: 5852: 5426:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4326:The contents of the following sections on 2414: 2359: 1919:is found in the inscriptions of the early 842:approach the uncial form, and the angular 8988:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 4025:Persiani di Eschilo ed il nomo di Timoteo 3838:, Cairo, 1931 (Nos. 1–112); G.R. Driver, 3677: 3625:, 7 Aug. 2013. Accessed 15 November 2023. 3501:Cardenio, Or, the Second Maiden's Tragedy 3012: 2077:, a French Benedictine monk, scholar and 1862:The earliest attested form of writing in 505:most important of these is the so-called 410:with a direction from right to left. The 10207:Historical geographic information system 6973: 5477: 5355:Renaissance- und Humanistenhandschriften 5283: 5256: 5187: 4920:, Paris: A. Picard et fils, 1904, pl. v. 4637:Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography 4392:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 4380:Paleografia latina. Antichità e Medioevo 4335: 4322: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4192:Journal of the American Oriental Society 4062: 3924: 3100: 3016: 2877:became a semi-cursive when adopted as a 2837: 2833: 2737: 2687: 2646: 2506: 2398: 2363: 2229: 2166:first appears in the epigraphic type of 2137: 1942: 1716: 1510: 1419: 1161: 1091: 1036: 940: 773: 670: 369: 295: 233:abbreviations, annotations conventions, 27: 10821:Precomposed Latin characters in Unicode 5653: 5605: 5511: 5440: 5377: 5352: 5160:Medieval Studies : An Introduction 5050:Ausbreitung der karolingischen Minuskel 4838:, Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1914; 4540:, BiblioBazaar, repr. 2010; E.A. Lowe, 4281: 4279: 4249: 4189: 4128:Specimina Codicum Graecorum Vaticanorum 3903: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3686: 972:has the cross-stroke only on the left, 953:, considered Europe's oldest manuscript 782:papyrus 9875 showing the 5th column of 690:, there is practically a dependence on 569:and from the 3rd century BC onwards by 343: 11206: 9847:English historical school of economics 7899:Historical Series of the Bank of Italy 5953: 5616: 5598: 5471: 5411: 5357:. Munich: Oldenbourg. pp. 21–29. 5343:of Petrarch's often alluded-to reform. 4844:Paleografia artistica di Monte Cassino 4764:, Lightning Source UK Ltd, repr. 2012. 4722:Jahrbuch des gemeinen deutschen Rechts 3782: 3780: 3671:Greek Manuscripts of the Ancient World 3668: 3634:Robert P. Gwinn, "Paleography" in the 3074:, this handwriting counterpart to the 2745: 2154:, also contains an author portrait of 10863: 10255: 10163: 10108: 10043:Revisionist school of Islamic studies 9882:Historical reliability of the Gospels 9740: 9267: 8340: 8329: 6972: 6715: 6479: 6118: 5952: 5847: 5626:Ojha, Gaurishankar Hirachand (1959). 5478:D’Ottone, Arianna (3 November 2023). 4311: 4254:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4050:Speaking in the Wax Tablets of Memory 1015:and though sometimes, notably in the 650: 10805:DIN 91379: Unicode subset for Europe 10235: 8330: 7860:More Irish than the Irish themselves 5638: 5630:(in Hindi) (Third ed.). Delhi: 5625: 5553:English Cursive Bookhands, 1250–1500 5219: 5157: 5148:, Oxford: J. Parker & Co., 1912. 4990:, 63, pp. 129–130; Schiapparelli in 4805:Archivio paleografico italiano, cit. 4423: 4342:"Palaeography § Latin Writing" 4276: 4156: 4107:Das Buch bei den Griechen und Römern 3931:"Palaeography § Greek Writing" 3892: 3608:(Routledge, 2000), Volume 2, p. 1070 3589:. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 3541:participating institution membership 2177:Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum = CIL 2128: 1471: 394:, originating in what is modern-day 291: 16:Study of handwriting and manuscripts 8930:Functionalism–intentionalism debate 6119: 5480:"In Defence of Arabic Palaeography" 4368:La scrittura latina nell'età romana 4287:"South and South-East Asian Scripts 4240:, Chowkhamba Saraswatibhawan, 1980. 4007:. The cit. papyrus-fragment of his 3777: 3745:"The Paleographical Dating of P-46" 3645: 3628: 2992: 2759:, would appear close to the oldest 1220: 1151: 769: 446:. One innovation in Aramaic is the 13: 9943:Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II 7887:Fourth Italian War of Independence 5873: 5466: 5320:La scrittura di Francesco Petrarca 4688:Unc. script., explanatio tabularum 4460:Paléographie des classiques latins 4103:Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft 4017:Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 3138:During the later centuries of the 2799:during the 7th and 8th centuries. 2534:, the old Italian cursive and the 2133: 1746:inscriptions are also found using 962:is reduced to a mere acute angle ( 565:, then from the 5th century BC by 534:Modern Aramaic of the present day. 277: 185:addition, for hand-written texts, 14: 11250: 5694: 5318:, discussed by Armando Petrucci, 4787:(with 32 facsimiles), Como, 1921. 4654:American Philological Association 4407:, Paris, Ludovicum Guerin (1708). 3579:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). 3171:artificiosis litterarum tractibus 2856:Beginning in the 8th century, as 2581:, which finally prevailed in the 2451: 2322: 1693:is considered to be the earliest 1468:Chinese characters § History 1359: 976:becomes an almost straight line, 11027: 10281: 10234: 10225: 10224: 9741: 9241: 9240: 9082:Palestinian expulsion and flight 7594:5000-year civilization assertion 7170:Nadir of American race relations 5257:Thompson, Edward Maunde (1911). 4718:Fragmente zweier Kaiserrescripte 3299: 3185:) and orthographically correct. 2908:, which resulted from a cursive 2897: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2308: 2298: 2288: 2278: 1475: 1278: 1269: 1067: 998: 10350:International Phonetic Alphabet 10071:Protestant Ethic and Capitalism 8945:Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust 8880:Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising 8687:Causes of the Armenian genocide 6996:Pyramid construction techniques 6563:Comparative historical research 6480: 6181:Library and information science 5434: 5405: 5402:Davies, in Kraye (ed.) 1996:51. 5396: 5382:. London: Legenda. p. 28. 5371: 5346: 5339:2006:5f; Derolez discusses the 5325: 5308: 5277: 5250: 5243:, 1955, pp. 1–24; B. Bischoff, 5225: 5213: 5180: 5151: 5132: 5119: 5104: 5087: 5071: 5059: 5042: 5026: 4997: 4980: 4975:Exempla scripturae visigothicae 4967: 4938: 4923: 4910: 4895: 4879:Lauer, P.; Samaran, C. (1908). 4872: 4853: 4826: 4811: 4790: 4767: 4752: 4735: 4706: 4693: 4680: 4659: 4624: 4589: 4558: 4524: 4511: 4494: 4479: 4447: 4432: 4410: 4397: 4243: 4218: 4183: 4150: 4137: 4120: 4091: 4055: 4038: 3997: 3879: 3866: 3848:: Clarendon Press, repr. 1968; 3826: 3805: 3737: 3605:Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages 3096: 2802: 2477:, and which are still known as 1807:in other parts of north India. 1050:that only as a fraction sign (= 1032: 980:acquires a shape somewhat like 851:the establishment of the great 89:, 'to write') is the study and 10083:Gunpowder and gun transmission 10033:Religionsgeschichtliche Schule 9842:Historical school of economics 9779:Nationalism in the Middle Ages 9217:Gunpowder and gun transmission 9091:Zionism as settler colonialism 8096:Limpieza de sangre controversy 7063:Metropolitan-hinterland thesis 5713:'Manual of Greek Palaeography' 5707:'Manual of Latin Palaeography' 5701:French Renaissance Paleography 5291:, in Stadtarchiv Bozen (ed.), 4506:Archivio paleografico italiano 4403:Bernard de Montfaucon et al., 4382:, Antenore, 2000 (Ital. ed.); 4232:, repr. 2012; Rajbali Pandey, 3861:The Aramaic Proverbs of Ahiqar 3815:in his edicts to spread early 3662: 3611: 3598:Bernard de Montfaucon et al., 3592: 3573: 3547: 3513: 3494: 2771:of the 7th and 8th centuries. 2022:Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 1857: 1712: 1254: 1137:In the charred rolls found at 893:, with the cross-stroke high, 155: 1: 11146:Barchowsky Fluent Handwriting 9892:Opposition to Papal supremacy 9268: 7080:Indigenous population history 5838:Biblioteca Nacional de España 5606:Burnell, Arthur Coke (1878). 5113:Angelsächsische Palaeographie 4418:The Text of the New Testament 3653:Exercise of Latin Paleography 3487: 3431:List of New Testament uncials 2775:Irish and Anglo-Saxon writing 1538:for application in his royal 1142: 678:, 15th-century manuscript of 657:History of the Greek alphabet 555: 130:auxiliary sciences of history 128:The discipline is one of the 11186:Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift 10800:Western Latin character sets 9808:Desacralization of knowledge 8079:Carlism in the Francoist era 8047:Holodomor in modern politics 6716: 5199:. pp. 83–112, 190–202. 5054:Archiv für Urkundenforschung 4799:Codice paleografico lombardo 4701:Archiv für Urkundenforschung 4650:Transactions and Proceedings 3657:Gregorian University of Rome 3555:"Latin Palaeography Network" 3426:List of New Testament papyri 1939:List of South Indian scripts 1822:In central India, mostly in 1515:Paper strip with writing in 1238:Vellum and paper manuscripts 484:, even in their homeland in 339:Ancient South Arabian script 85: 71: 7: 10826:Letters used in mathematics 10200:Historiographic metafiction 10164: 10110:Organizations, publications 9899:Proto-orthodox Christianity 8849:German resistance to Nazism 8705:Persian famine of 1917–1919 8115:Islamic revolution of Spain 8042:Holodomor genocide question 7918:Revisionism of Risorgimento 7912:Rerum italicarum scriptores 7893:Historiae Patriae Monumenta 7660:Self-Strengthening Movement 6810:decolonization of knowledge 5578:Thompson, Sir Edward Maunde 5237:Miscellanea Francesco Ehrle 5116:, Mayer & Müller, 1906. 4665:A list is given in Traube, 4115:Papyri Graecae Berolinenses 4035:, xvi. (1903), pp. 62, 323. 3366:Fragmentology (manuscripts) 3292: 2763:, and between them and the 2627:, culminating in a rounded 2619:and developed there, as in 2069: 2016:History of the Latin script 1525:Linguistic history of India 1242:The change from papyrus to 461:was employed to write /ā/, 10: 11255: 10382: 9997:Wissenschaft des Judentums 9974:Criticism of Protestantism 8854:Nazi foreign policy debate 8285:Second colonial occupation 8032:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 7670:Tibetan sovereignty debate 7214:Progressive-era historians 6649:Nationalization of history 6600:Historical-critical method 5771:Free palaeographical fonts 5754:Comprehensive bibliography 5639:Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1997). 5568:Paléographie du Moyen-Âge, 5527:Cambridge University Press 5378:Daniels, Rhiannon (2009). 5197:Cambridge University Press 5162:(2nd ed.). Syracuse: 4576:Oxyrhynchus Papyri, passim 4491:, Koester, 1876, pl. I-II. 4370:, 1921; Giorgio Cencetti, 3821:"Ancient Scripts: Aramaic" 3743:Griffin, Bruce W. (1996), 3696:Harvard Theological Review 3456:Ronde script (calligraphy) 2732:separate sub-section below 2517:Origo gentis Langobardorum 2019: 2013: 1826:, the inscriptions of the 1731: 1549:(clearly derived from the 1522: 1465: 1430: 1258: 1155: 880:, the finance minister of 758:), and to a lesser extent 664: 654: 507:square Hebrew block script 502:Jewish military settlement 418:, was the ancestor of the 347: 316: 306: 77: 63: 33:William Shakespeare's will 18: 11136: 11036: 11025: 10902: 10839: 10813: 10782: 10732: 10714: 10696: 10673: 10590: 10581: 10370: 10322: 10289: 10219: 10170: 10159: 10115: 10104: 10053: 9857: 9816: 9747: 9736: 9592: 9278: 9274: 9263: 9235: 9204: 9168: 9062: 9016: 9002:Second Sino-Japanese War 8980: 8910: 8862: 8824: 8784: 8660: 8482: 8401: 8377: 8336: 8325: 8301: 8199: 8166: 8057: 7981: 7938: 7879: 7844: 7816: 7807:Vergangenheitsbewältigung 7751: 7678: 7584: 7512: 7226: 7155: 7088: 7050: 6983: 6979: 6968: 6793: 6726: 6722: 6711: 6488: 6475: 6302: 6169: 6131: 6127: 6114: 5991: 5965: 5961: 5948: 5881: 5496:10.1163/15685209-12341610 5164:Syracuse University Press 5099:Semiuncial Script, passim 4842:in O. Piscicelli Taeggi, 4781:, lxxiv, p. 55; also his 4779:Archivio storico italiano 4773:Cf. Luigi Schiapparelli, 4574:, Leipzig, E. Avenarius; 4488:Exempla codicum Latinorum 4438:Cf. Henry B. Van Hoesen, 4362:11 September 2017 at the 4300:. Accessed 3 April 2013; 4250:Salomon, Richard (1998). 4099:Griechische Palaeographie 4077:10.1017/S0009840X00179582 4046:University College London 4033:Revue des etudes grecques 3950:Oxford: Blackwell, 2009. 3708:10.1017/S0017816005000842 3528:Oxford English Dictionary 3062:handwriting of the later 2934: 2924: 2822:and the invasions by the 2409:Chronica archiepiscoporum 2395:Minuscule cursive writing 1758:. With the advent of the 1227:period, it has an almost 1110:III. The cross-stroke of 1045:'s verses, 1st century BC 984:, and the last stroke of 838:may be slightly rounded, 10386:ISO basic Latin alphabet 10342:ISO basic Latin alphabet 10337:Classical Latin alphabet 9757:Crisis of historiography 8920:Auschwitz bombing debate 8606:Indian Rebellion of 1857 8457:Late Bronze Age collapse 8391:List of military museums 7994:Pre-Revolutionary Russia 7966:Polish People's Republic 7801:Sybel-Ficker controversy 7165:African-American history 7138:Colonial Spanish America 6927:Second Thirty Years' War 5815:French paleography with 5617:Pandey, Rajbali (1957). 5529:, 1989. (Translation by 5066:Oxyrhynchus Papyri, cit. 4907:, Paris: J. Claye, 1866. 4724:, vi, 398; Preisigke in 4605:7 September 2013 at the 4598:Lateinische Paläographie 4580:Esempi di corsivo antico 4532:Karl Franz Otto Dziatzko 4466:15 November 2013 at the 4308:. Accessed 3 April 2013. 4134:, Florence (rist. 1997). 3835:Textes araméens d’Égypte 3757:Schniedewind, William M. 3669:Turner, Eric G. (1987). 2199:, as the writing of the 2009: 1886:, which is a variant of 1506: 1461: 19:Not to be confused with 8870:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 8729:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 8280:Porter–MacKenzie debate 8037:Causes of the Holodomor 7574:Problem of two emperors 7522:Catilinarian conspiracy 6749:Historical significance 6610:Indiscipline of history 6585:Historical anthropology 5821:free introductory cycle 5809:9 December 2017 at the 5778:(13th and 14th century) 5682:BoD, Norderstedt 2010, 5664:BoD, Norderstedt 2009, 5621:. Motilal Banarasi Das. 5270:Encyclopædia Britannica 5235:, Harald Steinacker in 5129:, lxxiv, ii, pp. 1–126. 5127:Arch. stor. ital., cit. 4348:Encyclopædia Britannica 4291:"Scripts used in India" 4015:and has been edited by 3937:Encyclopædia Britannica 3855:29 October 2013 at the 3687:Nongbri, Brent (2005). 3642:, Vol. IX, 1986, p. 78. 3636:Encyclopædia Britannica 3623:Encyclopedia Britannica 3533:Oxford University Press 3066:. With the name of the 2816:Augustine of Canterbury 2700:certainly the q-shaped 2415:Early minuscule cursive 2360:List of Latin alphabets 2203:is called, becomes the 1545:. In the subcontinent, 1348:Patriarch of Alexandria 793:symbol to mark the end. 661:Archaic Greek alphabets 11184: 11175: 11161: 11104: 9964:Protestant Reformation 9938:Second Vatican Council 9916:Succession to Muhammad 9911:Criticism of the Quran 9662:Religious perspectives 9396:Klemens von Metternich 8993:"Battle for Australia" 8875:Soviet offensive plans 8844:Broad vs. narrow front 8683:Late Ottoman genocides 7616:Century of humiliation 7397:Goguryeo controversies 7375:2,500-year celebration 7033:Double genocide theory 6820:Historical negationism 6644:Ancestral civilisation 6632:Historical materialism 6590:Historical determinism 6540:History of mentalities 5723:National Archives (UK) 5586:Clarendon Press, 1912. 5412:Ullman, B. L. (1960). 5082:Arch. pal. ital., cit. 4992:Arch. stor. ital, cit. 4832:Cf. Elias Avery Lowe, 4632:Edward Maunde Thompson 4384:Edward Maunde Thompson 4097:Cf. Wilhelm Schubart, 4027:(1904); S. Sudhaus in 3964:Edward Maunde Thompson 3284:. In consequence, the 3222:Vespasiano da Bisticci 3114: 3037: 3013:Rise of modern writing 3003:Renaissance humanistic 2853: 2696: 2655: 2623:, on the basis of the 2523: 2411: 2369: 2159: 2101:, in the title of his 2084: 2054: 2046: 2038: 1948: 1729: 1520: 1484:This section is empty. 1428: 1175: 1097: 1046: 954: 866:Constitution of Athens 794: 683: 641:Jewish military colony 448: 386:was the international 379: 304: 246:of texts, identifying 39: 10088:Torsion mangonel myth 9991:Modern Jewish history 9986:Jesuit historiography 9979:Protestant work ethic 9959:Hesychast controversy 9824:Industrial Revolution 9774:Library of Alexandria 9692:The Lord of the Rings 9342:Constantine the Great 9222:Torsion mangonel myth 9154:Sri Lankan Civil War 8233:Storm over the gentry 8134:Colonies or Provinces 7665:Sprouts of capitalism 6739:Historic preservation 6734:Change and continuity 5125:Cf. Schiapparelli in 5110:Cf. Wolfgang Keller, 5093:Cf. many examples in 4988:Collectanea hispanica 4973:Cf. Ewald and Loewe, 4862:Scriptura Beneventana 4796:Cf. Giuseppe Bonelli, 4578:; Vincenzo Federici, 4441:Roman Cursive Writing 4285:For this section cf. 4161:. Tübingen: G. Narr. 3978:; the German work by 3874:Journ. of Hell. Stud. 3832:Cf. Noël Aimé-Giron, 3823:. Accessed 05/04/2013 3586:Catholic Encyclopedia 3436:Palaeographic letters 3373: – palaeographer 3104: 3026:Early New High German 3020: 2873:; the cursive of the 2844:Carolingian minuscule 2841: 2834:Carolingian minuscule 2738:Set minuscule writing 2691: 2650: 2579:Carolingian minuscule 2532:scriptura epistolaris 2510: 2426:scriptura epistolaris 2402: 2384:Roman square capitals 2367: 2267:scriptura epistolaris 2230:Early cursive writing 2141: 2095:Bernard de Montfaucon 2014:Further information: 1946: 1917:Telugu-Kannada script 1720: 1675:Kannada speaking area 1514: 1423: 1371:Monastery of Stoudios 1165: 1095: 1040: 944: 777: 674: 667:Inscriptiones Graecae 655:Further information: 517:, and the much later 414:, a modified form of 373: 335:Proto-Sinaitic script 319:Anatolian hieroglyphs 307:Further information: 299: 199:typographic ligatures 150:Palaeographia Graeca, 146:Bernard de Montfaucon 31: 10175:Commemorative plaque 9391:Juan Manuel de Rosas 8839:"Blitzkrieg" concept 8710:Powder keg of Europe 8585:Franco-Prussian War 8255:Winter of Discontent 8238:Suffragette Campaign 7905:Italiani brava gente 7871:Revolutionary period 7693:Frankish Interregnum 7626:"Chineseness" debate 7559:Byzantine succession 7544:Fall of Western Rome 7485:Executed Renaissance 6974:By country or region 6918:Age of Enlightenment 6892:Vaticinium ex eventu 6839:Modernisation theory 6673:Quantitative history 6049:Historical documents 5834:facsimile manuscript 5830:Diálogo de la Lengua 5654:Digital palaeography 5645:Munshiram Manoharlal 5632:Munshiram Manoharlal 5512:Western palaeography 5322:(Vatican City) 1967. 5260:"Palaeography" 4883:. Paris: E. Leroux. 4761:I Papiri diplomatici 4758:Cf. Gaetano Marini, 4673:, and in Chatelain, 4595:Cf. Franz Steffens, 4547:5 March 2016 at the 4470:, pl. LXI-II, LXXV; 4157:Falk, Harry (1993). 4005:Poetae lyrici graeci 3915:by renowned British 3913:general palaeography 3789:The Aramaic Language 3651:Fernando De Lasala, 3471:Scribal abbreviation 3401:Historical Documents 3391:Hand (writing style) 2820:Gothic War (535–554) 2103:Palaeographia Graeca 1728:(early 19th century) 1309:Christian literature 826:is used throughout, 344:Aramaic palaeography 331:Egyptian hieroglyphs 285:William Schniedewind 227:communication events 101:, signification and 11234:Western calligraphy 11229:Textual scholarship 11084:Technical lettering 10346:Phonetic alphabets 10004:Schools of thought 9969:Proto-Protestantism 9838:School of Thoughts 9720:William Shakespeare 9705:Robert Falcon Scott 9610:Friedrich Nietzsche 9448:Cult of personality 9433:Neville Chamberlain 9293:Alexander the Great 9175:Russo-Georgian War 9148:Sovereignty dispute 9127:Iranian Revolution 8957:"Polish death camp" 8934:In relation to the 8643:Myth of English aid 8634:War of the Pacific 8411:Albigensian Crusade 7836:Indigenous Aryanism 7532:Constantinian shift 7068:Residential schools 6825:Historian's fallacy 6744:Historic recurrence 6242:Numismatics (Money) 6014:Archaeological site 5938:theories of history 5641:Indian Palaeography 5619:Indian Palaeography 5599:Indian palaeography 5566:Stiennon, Jacques, 5533:and David Ganz of: 5472:Arabic palaeography 5007:, Ewald and Loewe, 4817:Cf. Michele Russi, 4747:Schrifttafeln, cit. 4555:, vol. xix, p. 197. 4553:Classical Quarterly 4296:15 May 2013 at the 4234:Indian Palaeography 4226:Indian Palaeography 3725:on 16 February 2015 3531:(Online ed.). 3481:Textual scholarship 3321:Authorship analysis 3263:Niccolò de' Niccoli 3247:Epistles to Atticus 3107:Niccolò de' Niccoli 3028:, of the so-called 2746:Half-uncial writing 2664:Merovingian writing 1929:Chalukyas of Badami 1830:, and the kings of 1691:Halmidi inscription 1665:(2nd century) from 1663:Yajna Sri Satakarni 1158:Byzantine text-type 1104:papyrus containing 1041:Greek papyrus with 853:Alexandrian Library 583:Neo-Assyrian Empire 531:Middle Aramaic, and 400:Mediterranean coast 392:Ancient Middle East 91:academic discipline 11156:Getty-Dubay Italic 11122:Ukrainian skoropys 10733:Keyboard layouts ( 10195:Historical realism 10190:Historical fiction 10135:History institutes 10125:Historical society 10120:Heritage registers 10008:Biblical criticism 9921:Islamic golden age 9872:Early Christianity 9752:Bears in antiquity 9640:Medieval Christian 9438:Pedro II of Brazil 9386:José de San Martín 9190:Syrian revolution 9102:Malayan Emergency 9077:1948 Palestine war 8810:Spanish Civil War 8760:War guilt question 8569:American Civil War 8549:Invasion of Russia 8525:New Russian School 8309:Colonial Australia 8025:October Revolution 7788:Strukturgeschichte 7724:Location of Alésia 7643:Hua–Yi distinction 7564:Moscow, third Rome 7180:Reconstruction era 7001:Black Egypt Thesis 6923:European Civil War 6879:Translatio imperii 6834:Invented tradition 5955:Historical sources 5519:Bischoff, Bernhard 5189:Bischoff, Bernhard 5166:. pp. 15–16. 5145:Early Welsh Script 5036:; Garcia Villada, 5019:; Garcia Villada, 4960:in W.M. Lindsay's 4916:Cf. Maurice Prou, 4901:Cf. Jules Tardif, 4859:Cf. Viktor Novak, 4775:Note paleografiche 4749:, pl. xii, No. 19. 4675:Uncialis scriptura 4473:Oxyrhynchus Papyri 4416:Bruce M. Metzger, 4374:, Jouvence, 2002; 4372:Paleografia latina 4328:Latin palaeography 4302:"Indian Languages" 4011:was discovered at 3909:Greek palaeography 3863:, Baltimore, 1983. 3617:Urry, William G.. 3406:History of writing 3371:Victor Gardthausen 3214:Poggio Bracciolini 3115: 3058:was rooted in the 3038: 2932:Minuscule cursive 2862:Caroline minuscule 2854: 2769:scriptura libraria 2697: 2656: 2653:Merovingian script 2545:, and two for the 2524: 2412: 2370: 2160: 2111:Wilhelm Wattenbach 2039:scriptura libraria 1949: 1730: 1701:. Inscriptions in 1521: 1429: 1353:Codex Marchalianus 1294:Codex Marchalianus 1176: 1168:Codex Alexandrinus 1118:deeply curved and 1098: 1047: 955: 795: 713:Herculaneum papyri 684: 651:Greek palaeography 631:Proverbs of Ahiqar 593:. This so-called " 380: 374:Table showing the 309:History of writing 305: 99:handwriting script 57:; ultimately from 40: 11224:Textual criticism 11201: 11200: 10857: 10856: 10728: 10727: 10576: 10575: 10362:Spelling alphabet 10249: 10248: 10215: 10214: 10155: 10154: 10100: 10099: 10096: 10095: 10013:Catholic theology 9867:Avestan geography 9732: 9731: 9728: 9727: 9715:Søren Kierkegaard 9588: 9587: 9499:Warren G. Harding 9259: 9258: 9255: 9254: 9058: 9057: 8936:Armenian genocide 8799:Polish–Soviet War 8794:Burning of Smyrna 8780: 8779: 8770:Reichstag inquiry 8693:Patriotic consent 8564: 8563: 8539:War in the Vendée 8503:French Revolution 8485:century conflicts 8474:Peloponnesian War 8435:Eighty Years' War 8321: 8320: 8317: 8316: 8297: 8296: 8293: 8292: 8226:Westminster Stone 7923:Southern question 7762:Alltagsgeschichte 7712:Legendary Saracen 7414:Early settlements 7222: 7221: 7202:Political history 7187:Consensus history 6964: 6963: 6960: 6959: 6956: 6955: 6946:Continuity thesis 6885:Translatio studii 6771:Theory of history 6707: 6706: 6703: 6702: 6661:Subaltern Studies 6546:Nouvelle histoire 6471: 6470: 6467: 6466: 6383:Medieval churches 6370:Geistesgeschichte 6314:Paleoanthropology 6222:Encyclopaedistics 6110: 6109: 6106: 6105: 5978:Secondary sources 5817:Paleo-en-ligne.fr 5688:978-3-8423-5032-8 5389:978-1-906540-49-4 5034:Paleogr. visigoda 5021:Paleogr. española 5017:Collectanea, cit. 4994:, lxxxii, p. 106. 4958:Corbie Scriptorum 4956:, 1900; Liebart, 4946:Perrona Scottorum 4835:Beneventan Script 4617:, xiv, pl. viii; 4609:, 2nd ed., pl. 3 4600:– digital version 4376:Bernhard Bischoff 4332:Latin handwriting 4145:Joun. Hell. Stud. 4105:; and Schubart's 4009:Persae (Persians) 3992:978-0-521-36726-4 3980:Bernhard Bischoff 3976:978-1-108-06181-0 3956:978-1-4051-6256-2 3921:Harold Idris Bell 3872:Cf. E. H. Minns, 3850:J.M. Lindenberger 3786:Cf. Klaus Beyer, 3539:(Subscription or 3267:Coluccio Salutati 3173:) and exuberant ( 3081:was abolished by 3024:, handwritten in 3009:all over Europe. 2957: 2956: 2893:⟨a⟩ 2702:⟨g⟩ 2694:Visigothic script 2617:Benedictine monks 2602:calligraphic form 2589:(1124–1130). The 2567:later Middle Ages 2502:Lombardic writing 2374:Old Italic script 2305:⟨q⟩ 2295:⟨d⟩ 2285:⟨b⟩ 2275:minuscule cursive 2148:Vergilius Romanus 2129:Majuscule writing 2085:De re diplomatica 1931:in the west, and 1519:, 2nd–5th century 1504: 1503: 1452:⟨:⟩ 1339:⟨Δ⟩ 1335:⟨Θ⟩ 1331:⟨T⟩ 1217:⟨κ⟩ 1213:⟨ι⟩ 1205:⟨η⟩ 1201:⟨ξ⟩ 1197:⟨ρ⟩ 1193:⟨τ⟩ 1124:⟨α⟩ 1120:⟨Α⟩ 1116:⟨Μ⟩ 1112:⟨ε⟩ 1086:⟨ω⟩ 1082:⟨α⟩ 1078:⟨ο⟩ 1064:⟨η⟩ 995:⟨T⟩ 986:⟨N⟩ 978:⟨H⟩ 974:⟨ω⟩ 970:⟨T⟩ 965:⟨∠⟩ 960:⟨A⟩ 935:⟨ω⟩ 931:⟨β⟩ 927:⟨θ⟩ 923:⟨c⟩ 919:⟨ε⟩ 915:⟨Ν⟩ 911:⟨Γ⟩ 907:⟨Τ⟩ 903:⟨Υ⟩ 899:⟨Μ⟩ 895:⟨Π⟩ 891:⟨H⟩ 844:⟨Σ⟩ 840:⟨Ω⟩ 836:⟨E⟩ 832:⟨Ω⟩ 828:⟨E⟩ 824:⟨c⟩ 815:⟨Ω⟩ 811:⟨Σ⟩ 807:⟨E⟩ 764:⟨α⟩ 760:⟨A⟩ 756:⟨ω⟩ 752:⟨Ω⟩ 748:⟨c⟩ 744:⟨Σ⟩ 740:⟨ε⟩ 736:⟨E⟩ 591:Achaemenid Empire 482:Akkadian language 444:⟨r⟩ 440:⟨d⟩ 426:, as well as the 406:was written in a 327:Hittite cuneiform 292:Ancient Near East 271:writing materials 138:De re diplomatica 11246: 11189: 11180: 11166: 11138:Teaching scripts 11109: 11031: 10990:Serbian Cyrillic 10884: 10877: 10870: 10861: 10860: 10588: 10587: 10572: 10565: 10558: 10551: 10544: 10537: 10530: 10523: 10516: 10509: 10502: 10495: 10488: 10481: 10474: 10467: 10460: 10453: 10446: 10439: 10432: 10425: 10418: 10411: 10404: 10397: 10380: 10379: 10276: 10269: 10262: 10253: 10252: 10238: 10237: 10228: 10227: 10180:Documentary film 10161: 10160: 10140:History journals 10106: 10105: 10079: 9951: 9887:Primacy of Peter 9834:Great Depression 9814: 9813: 9787: 9765: 9738: 9737: 9686:J. R. R. Tolkien 9541: 9540: 9536: 9524: 9512: 9494:Ulysses S. Grant 9489:Thomas Jefferson 9480: 9456: 9419: 9382: 9370: 9338: 9326: 9318:Chiang Ching-kuo 9308:Cato the Younger 9298:Amin al-Husseini 9276: 9275: 9265: 9264: 9244: 9243: 9227:War and genocide 9051: 9037:Résistancialisme 9024:Battle of France 9006:Nanjing Massacre 8860: 8859: 8741: 8740: 8737: 8701: 8651: 8533: 8516: 8489: 8488: 8416:Catharism debate 8402:pre-18th century 8384:Military history 8361: 8354: 8347: 8338: 8337: 8331:By war, conflict 8327: 8326: 8275:Cambridge School 8261: 8260: 8159: 8147: 8123: 8104: 8014: 8002: 7974: 7796: 7774:Historikerstreit 7744: 7732: 7720: 7701: 7687:Cordon sanitaire 7633:New Qing History 7621:Conquest dynasty 7612: 7527:Christianization 7510: 7509: 7429: 7342: 7330: 7318: 7296: 7284: 7276:Byzantine Empire 7131:Iquicha Royalism 7120: 7086: 7085: 7009: 6981: 6980: 6970: 6969: 6913:Age of Discovery 6902:Periodization of 6899: 6898: 6873:Transhistoricity 6868:Thirty-year rule 6779: 6767: 6724: 6723: 6713: 6712: 6693:Great Man theory 6656:People's history 6618: 6523: 6522: 6515:Three-age system 6477: 6476: 6177:Archival science 6129: 6128: 6116: 6115: 5983:Tertiary sources 5963: 5962: 5950: 5949: 5899:by area of study 5868: 5861: 5854: 5845: 5844: 5797:Critical Edition 5735: 5648: 5635: 5622: 5613: 5531:Dáibhí Ó Cróinín 5507: 5460: 5459: 5442:Morison, Stanley 5438: 5432: 5431: 5425: 5417: 5409: 5403: 5400: 5394: 5393: 5375: 5369: 5368: 5350: 5344: 5329: 5323: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5285:Obermair, Hannes 5281: 5275: 5274: 5262: 5254: 5248: 5229: 5223: 5217: 5211: 5210: 5184: 5178: 5177: 5155: 5149: 5142:; W.M. Lindsay, 5136: 5130: 5123: 5117: 5108: 5102: 5091: 5085: 5075: 5069: 5063: 5057: 5046: 5040: 5030: 5024: 5013:Paleogr. iberica 5001: 4995: 4984: 4978: 4971: 4965: 4950:Sitzungsberichte 4942: 4936: 4927: 4921: 4914: 4908: 4899: 4893: 4892: 4876: 4870: 4857: 4851: 4830: 4824: 4815: 4809: 4802:, Hoepli, 1908; 4794: 4788: 4771: 4765: 4756: 4750: 4739: 4733: 4710: 4704: 4697: 4691: 4684: 4678: 4663: 4657: 4628: 4622: 4612: 4593: 4587: 4562: 4556: 4528: 4522: 4515: 4509: 4498: 4492: 4483: 4477: 4451: 4445: 4436: 4430: 4427: 4421: 4414: 4408: 4401: 4395: 4353:; the requisite 4352: 4344: 4329: 4324: 4309: 4283: 4274: 4273: 4247: 4241: 4222: 4216: 4215: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4154: 4148: 4141: 4135: 4124: 4118: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4065:Classical Review 4059: 4053: 4042: 4036: 4001: 3995: 3941: 3933: 3910: 3905: 3890: 3883: 3877: 3876:, xxxv, pp.22ff. 3870: 3864: 3830: 3824: 3809: 3803: 3784: 3775: 3774: 3753: 3747: 3741: 3735: 3734: 3732: 3730: 3724: 3718:. Archived from 3693: 3684: 3675: 3674: 3666: 3660: 3649: 3643: 3632: 3626: 3615: 3609: 3596: 3590: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3551: 3545: 3544: 3536: 3524: 3517: 3511: 3498: 3461:Rotunda (script) 3309: 3304: 3303: 3253:By the time the 2993:Gothic minuscule 2945:and half-uncial 2917: 2916: 2901: 2894: 2703: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2317: 2312: 2306: 2302: 2297:) or downwards ( 2296: 2292: 2286: 2282: 2212:éditions de luxe 2107:Daniel Papebroch 2099:Benedictine monk 2087: 2057: 2049: 2041: 1977:Malayalam script 1699:Kannada language 1619:Edicts of Ashoka 1551:Aramaic alphabet 1499: 1496: 1486:You can help by 1479: 1472: 1453: 1340: 1337:and the base of 1336: 1332: 1282: 1273: 1218: 1214: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1152:Byzantine period 1147: 1144: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1087: 1083: 1080:very narrow and 1079: 1071: 1065: 1060: 1059: 1055: 1002: 996: 987: 979: 975: 971: 966: 961: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 816: 812: 808: 770:Ptolemaic period 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 732:epigraphic style 595:Imperial Aramaic 577:, especially in 573:, as well as by 560: 557: 453: 450:matres lectionis 445: 441: 412:Aramaic alphabet 408:consonantal form 384:Aramaic language 376:Mandaic alphabet 362:Sogdian alphabet 350:Aramaic alphabet 260:critical edition 88: 82: 81: 74: 68: 67: 11254: 11253: 11249: 11248: 11247: 11245: 11244: 11243: 11204: 11203: 11202: 11197: 11132: 11113:Russian cursive 11032: 11023: 10904: 10898: 10888: 10858: 10853: 10835: 10809: 10778: 10724: 10710: 10692: 10669: 10577: 10568: 10561: 10554: 10547: 10540: 10533: 10526: 10519: 10512: 10505: 10498: 10491: 10484: 10477: 10470: 10463: 10456: 10449: 10442: 10435: 10428: 10421: 10414: 10407: 10400: 10393: 10388: 10384:Letters of the 10366: 10318: 10285: 10280: 10250: 10245: 10244: 10211: 10166: 10151: 10111: 10092: 10075: 10058: 10049: 9945: 9853: 9829:Great Recession 9812: 9783: 9759: 9743: 9724: 9615:H. P. Lovecraft 9584: 9546: 9539: 9530: 9518: 9506: 9474: 9450: 9423:Muammar Gaddafi 9413: 9401:Leonid Brezhnev 9376: 9364: 9347:Gregory Palamas 9332: 9330:Chiang Kai Shek 9320: 9280: 9270: 9251: 9250: 9231: 9212:Conflict thesis 9200: 9164: 9054: 9045: 9012: 8976: 8906: 8858: 8820: 8786:Interwar period 8776: 8746: 8739: 8731: 8715:Schlieffen Plan 8695: 8656: 8645: 8560: 8527: 8510: 8495: 8484: 8478: 8462:Dorian invasion 8447:Fall of Babylon 8403: 8397: 8396: 8373: 8365: 8332: 8313: 8289: 8266: 8259: 8221:Kingdom of Alba 8202: 8195: 8162: 8153: 8141: 8139:Spanish decline 8117: 8098: 8053: 8008: 7996: 7977: 7968: 7934: 7875: 7840: 7826:Greater Magadha 7812: 7790: 7747: 7738: 7726: 7714: 7695: 7674: 7648:Four Barbarians 7606: 7580: 7508: 7465:Götaland theory 7433:Lusotropicalism 7423: 7404:North Macedonia 7336: 7324: 7312: 7290: 7278: 7218: 7197:Frontier thesis 7192:Cyclical theory 7175:Neoabolitionism 7151: 7114: 7084: 7046: 7023:Greater Morocco 7003: 6975: 6952: 6903: 6897: 6789: 6773: 6761: 6718: 6699: 6612: 6527: 6521: 6503:Historical eras 6484: 6463: 6298: 6195:Writing systems 6165: 6123: 6121:Fields of study 6102: 6096:Service records 6081:Religious texts 5987: 5973:Primary sources 5957: 5944: 5943: 5877: 5872: 5811:Wayback Machine 5733: 5697: 5692: 5656: 5651: 5601: 5596: 5589:Wright, C. E., 5551:Parkes, M. B., 5546:Clarendon Press 5514: 5474: 5469: 5467:Further reading 5464: 5463: 5456: 5439: 5435: 5419: 5418: 5410: 5406: 5401: 5397: 5390: 5376: 5372: 5365: 5351: 5347: 5330: 5326: 5313: 5309: 5303: 5282: 5278: 5255: 5251: 5230: 5226: 5218: 5214: 5207: 5185: 5181: 5174: 5156: 5152: 5137: 5133: 5124: 5120: 5109: 5105: 5095:Émile Chatelain 5092: 5088: 5078:Pal. Soc., cit. 5076: 5072: 5064: 5060: 5047: 5043: 5031: 5027: 5002: 4998: 4985: 4981: 4972: 4968: 4943: 4939: 4928: 4924: 4915: 4911: 4900: 4896: 4877: 4873: 4858: 4854: 4831: 4827: 4823:, Naples, 1883. 4816: 4812: 4795: 4791: 4772: 4768: 4757: 4753: 4740: 4736: 4730:Pal. Soc., cit. 4714:Theodor Mommsen 4711: 4707: 4698: 4694: 4686:Cf. Chatelain, 4685: 4681: 4664: 4660: 4629: 4625: 4610: 4607:Wayback Machine 4594: 4590: 4563: 4559: 4549:Wayback Machine 4529: 4525: 4516: 4512: 4504:, pl. 113-117; 4502:Pal. Soc., cit. 4499: 4495: 4484: 4480: 4468:Wayback Machine 4455:Émile Chatelain 4452: 4448: 4437: 4433: 4428: 4424: 4415: 4411: 4402: 4398: 4364:Wayback Machine 4327: 4325: 4312: 4298:Wayback Machine 4284: 4277: 4262: 4248: 4244: 4223: 4219: 4188: 4184: 4169: 4155: 4151: 4147:, xl, pp. 1–12. 4142: 4138: 4125: 4121: 4096: 4092: 4071:(10): 454–457. 4060: 4056: 4043: 4039: 4002: 3998: 3944:Barry B. Powell 3908: 3906: 3893: 3884: 3880: 3871: 3867: 3857:Wayback Machine 3831: 3827: 3810: 3806: 3785: 3778: 3771: 3754: 3750: 3742: 3738: 3728: 3726: 3722: 3691: 3685: 3678: 3667: 3663: 3650: 3646: 3633: 3629: 3616: 3612: 3597: 3593: 3581:"Jean Mabillon" 3578: 3574: 3564: 3562: 3561:on 25 July 2011 3553: 3552: 3548: 3538: 3518: 3514: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3305: 3298: 3295: 3238:Berthold Ullman 3105:Handwriting by 3099: 3085:in 1941. After 3015: 2995: 2949: 2948:Pre-Carolingian 2944: 2936: 2892: 2836: 2805: 2777: 2748: 2740: 2701: 2591:notaries public 2511:A 10th-century 2454: 2417: 2397: 2389:Rustic capitals 2362: 2325: 2315: 2304: 2294: 2284: 2232: 2152:rustic capitals 2136: 2134:Capital writing 2131: 2115:Leopold Delisle 2072: 2024: 2018: 2012: 1941: 1901:Grantha scripts 1860: 1740: 1715: 1697:written in the 1559:Arabic alphabet 1527: 1509: 1500: 1494: 1491: 1470: 1464: 1451: 1435: 1418: 1362: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1300: 1299: 1298: 1297: 1290:Codex Vaticanus 1285: 1284: 1283: 1275: 1274: 1263: 1257: 1240: 1216: 1212: 1210: 1207:(which has the 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1166:Section of the 1160: 1154: 1145: 1130:codices of the 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1063: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1052: 1035: 1019:containing the 994: 985: 983: 977: 973: 969: 967: 964: 959: 947:Derveni Papyrus 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 814: 810: 806: 772: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 676:Greek minuscule 669: 663: 653: 558: 548:Aramaean states 443: 439: 368: 366:Syriac alphabet 354:Hebrew alphabet 346: 341: 315: 302:Troy VIIb layer 294: 280: 278:Document dating 264:discourse event 189:often use many 158: 24: 21:Palaeogeography 17: 12: 11: 5: 11252: 11242: 11241: 11236: 11231: 11226: 11221: 11216: 11199: 11198: 11196: 11195: 11190: 11181: 11172: 11167: 11158: 11153: 11148: 11142: 11140: 11134: 11133: 11131: 11130: 11125: 11115: 11110: 11101: 11096: 11091: 11086: 11081: 11076: 11071: 11066: 11061: 11056: 11051: 11046: 11040: 11038: 11034: 11033: 11026: 11024: 11022: 11021: 11016: 11011: 11010: 11009: 10999: 10998: 10997: 10987: 10986: 10985: 10982: 10977:Early Cyrillic 10974: 10969: 10964: 10959: 10954: 10949: 10944: 10942:Insular script 10939: 10934: 10929: 10924: 10919: 10914: 10908: 10906: 10900: 10899: 10887: 10886: 10879: 10872: 10864: 10855: 10854: 10852: 10851: 10846: 10840: 10837: 10836: 10834: 10833: 10828: 10823: 10817: 10815: 10811: 10810: 10808: 10807: 10802: 10797: 10792: 10786: 10784: 10780: 10779: 10777: 10776: 10771: 10766: 10761: 10756: 10751: 10746: 10740: 10738: 10730: 10729: 10726: 10725: 10720: 10718: 10712: 10711: 10709: 10708: 10702: 10700: 10694: 10693: 10691: 10690: 10685: 10679: 10677: 10671: 10670: 10668: 10667: 10662: 10657: 10652: 10647: 10642: 10637: 10632: 10627: 10622: 10617: 10612: 10607: 10602: 10596: 10594: 10585: 10579: 10578: 10574: 10573: 10566: 10559: 10552: 10545: 10538: 10531: 10524: 10517: 10510: 10503: 10496: 10489: 10482: 10475: 10468: 10461: 10454: 10447: 10440: 10433: 10426: 10419: 10412: 10405: 10398: 10390: 10389: 10383: 10378: 10376: 10368: 10367: 10365: 10364: 10359: 10358: 10357: 10352: 10344: 10339: 10333: 10331: 10320: 10319: 10317: 10316: 10311: 10309:Roman numerals 10306: 10301: 10296: 10290: 10287: 10286: 10279: 10278: 10271: 10264: 10256: 10247: 10246: 10243: 10242: 10232: 10221: 10220: 10217: 10216: 10213: 10212: 10210: 10209: 10204: 10203: 10202: 10197: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10171: 10168: 10167: 10157: 10156: 10153: 10152: 10150: 10149: 10148: 10147: 10137: 10132: 10122: 10116: 10113: 10112: 10102: 10101: 10098: 10097: 10094: 10093: 10091: 10090: 10085: 10080: 10073: 10068: 10062: 10060: 10051: 10050: 10048: 10047: 10046: 10045: 10040: 10035: 10030: 10025: 10020: 10015: 10010: 10002: 10001: 10000: 9988: 9983: 9982: 9981: 9976: 9971: 9961: 9956: 9955: 9954: 9953: 9952: 9930: 9929: 9928: 9923: 9918: 9913: 9903: 9902: 9901: 9896: 9895: 9894: 9884: 9879: 9869: 9863: 9861: 9855: 9854: 9852: 9851: 9850: 9849: 9844: 9836: 9831: 9826: 9820: 9818: 9811: 9810: 9805: 9800: 9793: 9788: 9781: 9776: 9771: 9766: 9754: 9748: 9745: 9744: 9734: 9733: 9730: 9729: 9726: 9725: 9723: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9696: 9695: 9683: 9682: 9681: 9680: 9679: 9674: 9669: 9659: 9654: 9644: 9643: 9642: 9637: 9632: 9622: 9617: 9612: 9607: 9605:Charles Darwin 9602: 9596: 9594: 9590: 9589: 9586: 9585: 9583: 9582: 9577: 9575:United Kingdom 9572: 9567: 9565:Modern Germany 9562: 9557: 9551: 9549: 9538: 9537: 9525: 9513: 9501: 9496: 9491: 9486: 9484:Thomas Aquinas 9481: 9469: 9464: 9463: 9462: 9457: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9371: 9359: 9354: 9352:Horatio Nelson 9349: 9344: 9339: 9327: 9315: 9310: 9305: 9300: 9295: 9290: 9284: 9282: 9272: 9271: 9261: 9260: 9257: 9256: 9253: 9252: 9249: 9248: 9237: 9236: 9233: 9232: 9230: 9229: 9224: 9219: 9214: 9208: 9206: 9202: 9201: 9199: 9198: 9197: 9196: 9188: 9187: 9186: 9184:Responsibility 9181: 9172: 9170: 9166: 9165: 9163: 9162: 9161: 9160: 9152: 9151: 9150: 9140: 9135: 9134: 9133: 9125: 9124: 9123: 9115: 9110: 9109: 9108: 9100: 9099: 9098: 9096:New Historians 9093: 9088: 9074: 9068: 9066: 9060: 9059: 9056: 9055: 9053: 9052: 9040: 9033: 9026: 9020: 9018: 9014: 9013: 9011: 9010: 9009: 9008: 9000: 8995: 8990: 8984: 8982: 8978: 8977: 8975: 8974: 8969: 8964: 8962:Responsibility 8959: 8954: 8953: 8952: 8942: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8916: 8914: 8908: 8907: 8905: 8904: 8903: 8902: 8897: 8887: 8882: 8877: 8872: 8866: 8864: 8857: 8856: 8851: 8846: 8841: 8836: 8830: 8828: 8822: 8821: 8819: 8818: 8817: 8816: 8808: 8807: 8806: 8796: 8790: 8788: 8782: 8781: 8778: 8777: 8775: 8774: 8773: 8772: 8767: 8757: 8751: 8749: 8738: 8726: 8720:Spirit of 1914 8717: 8712: 8707: 8702: 8690: 8680: 8677:Fischer thesis 8666: 8664: 8658: 8657: 8655: 8654: 8653: 8652: 8640: 8632: 8631: 8630: 8620: 8618:Paraguayan War 8615: 8614: 8613: 8603: 8598: 8597: 8596: 8591: 8583: 8582: 8581: 8576: 8565: 8562: 8561: 8559: 8558: 8557: 8556: 8551: 8544:Napoleonic era 8541: 8536: 8535: 8534: 8522: 8517: 8508:Pre-revolution 8499: 8497: 8493:Coalition Wars 8486: 8480: 8479: 8477: 8476: 8471: 8470: 8469: 8464: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8443: 8442: 8432: 8431: 8430: 8420: 8419: 8418: 8407: 8405: 8399: 8398: 8395: 8394: 8387: 8379: 8378: 8375: 8374: 8371:historiography 8364: 8363: 8356: 8349: 8341: 8334: 8333: 8323: 8322: 8319: 8318: 8315: 8314: 8312: 8311: 8305: 8303: 8299: 8298: 8295: 8294: 8291: 8290: 8288: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8271: 8269: 8258: 8257: 8252: 8251: 8250: 8240: 8235: 8230: 8229: 8228: 8223: 8213: 8207: 8205: 8197: 8196: 8194: 8193: 8192: 8191: 8189:Decline thesis 8186: 8179:Ottoman Empire 8176: 8170: 8168: 8164: 8163: 8161: 8160: 8148: 8136: 8131: 8126: 8125: 8124: 8105: 8093: 8088: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8061: 8059: 8055: 8054: 8052: 8051: 8050: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8029: 8028: 8027: 8017: 8016: 8015: 8006:Skeptic School 7991: 7989:Anti-Normanism 7985: 7983: 7979: 7978: 7976: 7975: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7946:Golden Liberty 7942: 7940: 7936: 7935: 7933: 7932: 7931: 7930: 7928:Neo-Bourbonism 7920: 7915: 7908: 7901: 7896: 7889: 7883: 7881: 7877: 7876: 7874: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7856: 7850: 7848: 7842: 7841: 7839: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7822: 7820: 7814: 7813: 7811: 7810: 7803: 7798: 7784: 7777: 7770: 7768:Borussian myth 7765: 7757: 7755: 7749: 7748: 7746: 7745: 7733: 7721: 7709: 7702: 7690: 7682: 7680: 7676: 7675: 7673: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7656: 7655: 7650: 7640: 7635: 7630: 7629: 7628: 7618: 7613: 7601: 7596: 7590: 7588: 7582: 7581: 7579: 7578: 7577: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7535: 7534: 7524: 7518: 7516: 7507: 7506: 7505: 7504: 7499: 7489: 7488: 7487: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7468: 7467: 7459: 7458: 7457: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7437: 7436: 7435: 7418: 7417: 7416: 7406: 7401: 7400: 7399: 7394: 7384: 7379: 7378: 7377: 7369: 7368: 7367: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7345: 7344: 7343: 7331: 7319: 7304: 7299: 7298: 7297: 7273: 7268: 7267: 7266: 7258: 7253: 7252: 7251: 7243: 7242: 7241: 7239:Dealbanisation 7230: 7228: 7224: 7223: 7220: 7219: 7217: 7216: 7211: 7210: 7209: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7183: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7161: 7159: 7153: 7152: 7150: 7149: 7148: 7147: 7135: 7134: 7133: 7123: 7122: 7121: 7109: 7103:May Revolution 7094: 7092: 7083: 7082: 7077: 7076: 7075: 7073:Staples thesis 7070: 7065: 7054: 7052: 7048: 7047: 7045: 7044: 7037: 7036: 7035: 7027: 7026: 7025: 7017: 7012: 7011: 7010: 6998: 6989: 6987: 6977: 6976: 6966: 6965: 6962: 6961: 6958: 6957: 6954: 6953: 6951: 6950: 6949: 6948: 6938: 6929: 6920: 6915: 6909: 6907: 6905:modern history 6896: 6895: 6888: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6864: 6863: 6851: 6849:Paradigm shift 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6803: 6797: 6795: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6787: 6782: 6781: 6780: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6730: 6728: 6720: 6719: 6709: 6708: 6705: 6704: 6701: 6700: 6698: 6697: 6696: 6695: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6664: 6663: 6653: 6652: 6651: 6646: 6636: 6635: 6634: 6624: 6619: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6576: 6575: 6565: 6560: 6551: 6550: 6549: 6542: 6535:Annales school 6531: 6529: 6520: 6519: 6518: 6517: 6512: 6505: 6495: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6473: 6472: 6469: 6468: 6465: 6464: 6462: 6461: 6460: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6448: 6447: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6407: 6406: 6405: 6400: 6398:Constitutional 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6374: 6373: 6361: 6360: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6334: 6321: 6316: 6306: 6304: 6300: 6299: 6297: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6274:Postage stamps 6271: 6266: 6261: 6260: 6259: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6202: 6197: 6188: 6173: 6171: 6167: 6166: 6164: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6152: 6151: 6141: 6135: 6133: 6125: 6124: 6112: 6111: 6108: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6101: 6100: 6099: 6098: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6071:Oral tradition 6068: 6067: 6066: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5995: 5993: 5989: 5988: 5986: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5969: 5967: 5959: 5958: 5946: 5945: 5942: 5941: 5934: 5927: 5920: 5912: 5911: 5904: 5903: 5902: 5883: 5882: 5879: 5878: 5875:Historiography 5871: 5870: 5863: 5856: 5848: 5842: 5841: 5823: 5813: 5801: 5792: 5784: 5779: 5773: 5768: 5762: 5757: 5751: 5745: 5740: 5731: 5725: 5716: 5710: 5704: 5696: 5695:External links 5693: 5691: 5690: 5676: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5649: 5636: 5623: 5614: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5594: 5587: 5575: 5564: 5549: 5538: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5509: 5508: 5490:(7): 925–951. 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5462: 5461: 5454: 5433: 5404: 5395: 5388: 5370: 5363: 5345: 5324: 5307: 5301: 5276: 5265:Chisholm, Hugh 5249: 5247:, pp. 108–109. 5224: 5212: 5205: 5179: 5172: 5150: 5131: 5118: 5103: 5086: 5070: 5058: 5041: 5025: 4996: 4979: 4966: 4962:Palaeogr. Lat. 4954:Munich Academy 4937: 4922: 4909: 4894: 4871: 4852: 4825: 4810: 4808:, i, iii, vii. 4789: 4766: 4751: 4734: 4705: 4692: 4679: 4658: 4644:; Van Hoesen, 4623: 4588: 4557: 4523: 4510: 4493: 4478: 4476:, viii, 1,098. 4446: 4431: 4422: 4409: 4396: 4339:, ed. (1911). 4337:Chisholm, Hugh 4310: 4275: 4260: 4242: 4217: 4204:10.2307/604670 4198:(2): 271–279. 4182: 4167: 4149: 4136: 4119: 4090: 4054: 4037: 3996: 3958:; Jack Goody, 3928:, ed. (1911). 3926:Chisholm, Hugh 3923:, present in 3891: 3878: 3865: 3825: 3804: 3776: 3769: 3748: 3736: 3702:: 23–48 (24). 3676: 3661: 3644: 3627: 3610: 3591: 3572: 3546: 3522:"palaeography" 3512: 3492: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3483: 3478: 3476:Secretary hand 3473: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3398: 3393: 3388: 3383: 3374: 3368: 3363: 3358: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3323: 3318: 3316:Asemic writing 3312: 3311: 3310: 3307:Writing portal 3294: 3291: 3271:papal chancery 3259:lettera antica 3230:lettera antica 3098: 3095: 3091:Secretary hand 3055:Kurrentschrift 3014: 3011: 2994: 2991: 2955: 2954: 2951: 2946: 2941: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2928: 2923: 2849:Book of Exodus 2835: 2832: 2812:Pope Gregory I 2804: 2801: 2776: 2773: 2747: 2744: 2739: 2736: 2708:lxxxix in the 2686: 2685: 2645: 2644: 2543:littera romana 2505: 2504: 2453: 2452:National hands 2450: 2416: 2413: 2403:Page from the 2396: 2393: 2392: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2361: 2358: 2324: 2323:Uncial writing 2321: 2231: 2228: 2205:rustic capital 2164:Latin alphabet 2135: 2132: 2130: 2127: 2071: 2068: 2064:Latin alphabet 2011: 2008: 2007: 2006: 2001: 1998:writing system 1988: 1979: 1974: 1972:Kannada script 1969: 1967:Grantha script 1964: 1962:Chera cultures 1955: 1940: 1937: 1927:and the early 1876:Cave character 1859: 1856: 1852:Nagarjunakonda 1824:Madhya Pradesh 1724:manuscript in 1714: 1711: 1659:Nagarjunakonda 1643:Andhra Pradesh 1555:Greek alphabet 1508: 1505: 1502: 1501: 1482: 1480: 1463: 1460: 1417: 1414: 1405: 1404: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1375:Constantinople 1361: 1360:Minuscule hand 1358: 1287: 1286: 1277: 1276: 1268: 1267: 1266: 1265: 1264: 1256: 1253: 1239: 1236: 1208: 1153: 1150: 1102:British Museum 1051: 1034: 1031: 1017:Petrie papyrus 981: 963: 778:Detail of the 771: 768: 652: 649: 536: 535: 532: 529: 509:, followed by 424:Hebrew scripts 404:Aramaic script 388:trade language 358:Mandaic script 345: 342: 293: 290: 279: 276: 252:interpolations 157: 154: 144:was coined by 136:with his work 37:secretary hand 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11251: 11240: 11237: 11235: 11232: 11230: 11227: 11225: 11222: 11220: 11217: 11215: 11212: 11211: 11209: 11194: 11191: 11188: 11187: 11182: 11179: 11178: 11173: 11171: 11168: 11165: 11164: 11159: 11157: 11154: 11152: 11149: 11147: 11144: 11143: 11141: 11139: 11135: 11129: 11126: 11123: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11108: 11107: 11102: 11100: 11097: 11095: 11092: 11090: 11087: 11085: 11082: 11080: 11077: 11075: 11072: 11070: 11067: 11065: 11062: 11060: 11057: 11055: 11052: 11050: 11047: 11045: 11042: 11041: 11039: 11035: 11030: 11020: 11017: 11015: 11012: 11008: 11005: 11004: 11003: 11000: 10996: 10993: 10992: 10991: 10988: 10983: 10980: 10979: 10978: 10975: 10973: 10970: 10968: 10965: 10963: 10960: 10958: 10955: 10953: 10950: 10948: 10945: 10943: 10940: 10938: 10935: 10933: 10930: 10928: 10925: 10923: 10920: 10918: 10915: 10913: 10910: 10909: 10907: 10901: 10897: 10893: 10885: 10880: 10878: 10873: 10871: 10866: 10865: 10862: 10850: 10847: 10845: 10842: 10841: 10838: 10832: 10829: 10827: 10824: 10822: 10819: 10818: 10816: 10812: 10806: 10803: 10801: 10798: 10796: 10793: 10791: 10788: 10787: 10785: 10781: 10775: 10772: 10770: 10767: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10745: 10742: 10741: 10739: 10736: 10731: 10723: 10719: 10717: 10713: 10707: 10704: 10703: 10701: 10699: 10695: 10689: 10686: 10684: 10681: 10680: 10678: 10676: 10672: 10666: 10663: 10661: 10658: 10656: 10653: 10651: 10648: 10646: 10643: 10641: 10638: 10636: 10633: 10631: 10628: 10626: 10623: 10621: 10618: 10616: 10613: 10611: 10608: 10606: 10603: 10601: 10598: 10597: 10595: 10593: 10589: 10586: 10584: 10580: 10571: 10567: 10564: 10560: 10557: 10553: 10550: 10546: 10543: 10539: 10536: 10532: 10529: 10525: 10522: 10518: 10515: 10511: 10508: 10504: 10501: 10497: 10494: 10490: 10487: 10483: 10480: 10476: 10473: 10469: 10466: 10462: 10459: 10455: 10452: 10448: 10445: 10441: 10438: 10434: 10431: 10427: 10424: 10420: 10417: 10413: 10410: 10406: 10403: 10399: 10396: 10392: 10391: 10387: 10381: 10377: 10374: 10369: 10363: 10360: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10348: 10347: 10345: 10343: 10340: 10338: 10335: 10334: 10332: 10329: 10325: 10321: 10315: 10312: 10310: 10307: 10305: 10302: 10300: 10297: 10295: 10292: 10291: 10288: 10284: 10277: 10272: 10270: 10265: 10263: 10258: 10257: 10254: 10241: 10233: 10231: 10223: 10222: 10218: 10208: 10205: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10193: 10192: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10181: 10178: 10176: 10173: 10172: 10169: 10162: 10158: 10146: 10143: 10142: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10130: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10118: 10117: 10114: 10107: 10103: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10078: 10074: 10072: 10069: 10067: 10066:Merton thesis 10064: 10063: 10061: 10056: 10052: 10044: 10041: 10039: 10036: 10034: 10031: 10029: 10026: 10024: 10021: 10019: 10018:Panbabylonism 10016: 10014: 10011: 10009: 10006: 10005: 10003: 9999: 9998: 9994: 9993: 9992: 9989: 9987: 9984: 9980: 9977: 9975: 9972: 9970: 9967: 9966: 9965: 9962: 9960: 9957: 9949: 9944: 9941: 9940: 9939: 9936: 9935: 9934: 9931: 9927: 9924: 9922: 9919: 9917: 9914: 9912: 9909: 9908: 9907: 9904: 9900: 9897: 9893: 9890: 9889: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9874: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9864: 9862: 9860: 9856: 9848: 9845: 9843: 9840: 9839: 9837: 9835: 9832: 9830: 9827: 9825: 9822: 9821: 9819: 9815: 9809: 9806: 9804: 9801: 9799: 9798: 9794: 9792: 9789: 9786: 9782: 9780: 9777: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9767: 9763: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9749: 9746: 9739: 9735: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9694: 9693: 9689: 9688: 9687: 9684: 9678: 9675: 9673: 9670: 9668: 9665: 9664: 9663: 9660: 9658: 9655: 9653: 9650: 9649: 9648: 9645: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9631: 9628: 9627: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9611: 9608: 9606: 9603: 9601: 9598: 9597: 9595: 9591: 9581: 9580:United States 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9561: 9558: 9556: 9553: 9552: 9550: 9548: 9542: 9534: 9529: 9526: 9522: 9517: 9514: 9510: 9505: 9502: 9500: 9497: 9495: 9492: 9490: 9487: 9485: 9482: 9478: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9461: 9460:Bolivarianism 9458: 9454: 9449: 9446: 9445: 9444: 9443:Simon Bolivar 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9417: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9380: 9375: 9374:Joseph Stalin 9372: 9368: 9363: 9360: 9358: 9355: 9353: 9350: 9348: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9336: 9331: 9328: 9324: 9319: 9316: 9314: 9311: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9299: 9296: 9294: 9291: 9289: 9286: 9285: 9283: 9277: 9273: 9266: 9262: 9247: 9239: 9238: 9234: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9220: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9209: 9207: 9203: 9195: 9192: 9191: 9189: 9185: 9182: 9180: 9177: 9176: 9174: 9173: 9171: 9169:Post-Cold War 9167: 9159: 9156: 9155: 9153: 9149: 9146: 9145: 9144: 9143:Falklands War 9141: 9139: 9138:Iran–Iraq War 9136: 9132: 9129: 9128: 9126: 9122: 9119: 9118: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9107: 9104: 9103: 9101: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9086:Ongoing Nakba 9083: 9080: 9079: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9069: 9067: 9065: 9061: 9049: 9044: 9041: 9039: 9038: 9034: 9032: 9031: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9021: 9019: 9017:Western Front 9015: 9007: 9004: 9003: 9001: 8999: 8998:Bengal famine 8996: 8994: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8985: 8983: 8979: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8951: 8948: 8947: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8937: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8917: 8915: 8913: 8912:The Holocaust 8909: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8893: 8892: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8881: 8878: 8876: 8873: 8871: 8868: 8867: 8865: 8863:Eastern Front 8861: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8831: 8829: 8827: 8823: 8815: 8812: 8811: 8809: 8805: 8802: 8801: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8791: 8789: 8787: 8783: 8771: 8768: 8766: 8763: 8762: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8753: 8752: 8750: 8748: 8742: 8735: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8708: 8706: 8703: 8699: 8694: 8691: 8688: 8684: 8681: 8678: 8674: 8670: 8667: 8665: 8663: 8659: 8649: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8635: 8633: 8629: 8626: 8625: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8612: 8609: 8608: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8595: 8594:Paris Commune 8592: 8590: 8587: 8586: 8584: 8580: 8579:Turning point 8577: 8575: 8572: 8571: 8570: 8567: 8566: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8546: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8531: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8514: 8509: 8506: 8505: 8504: 8501: 8500: 8498: 8494: 8490: 8487: 8483:18th and 19th 8481: 8475: 8472: 8468: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8459: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8441: 8438: 8437: 8436: 8433: 8429: 8428:Islamic views 8426: 8425: 8424: 8421: 8417: 8414: 8413: 8412: 8409: 8408: 8406: 8400: 8393: 8392: 8388: 8386: 8385: 8381: 8380: 8376: 8372: 8369: 8362: 8357: 8355: 8350: 8348: 8343: 8342: 8339: 8335: 8328: 8324: 8310: 8307: 8306: 8304: 8300: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8272: 8270: 8268: 8262: 8256: 8253: 8249: 8246: 8245: 8244: 8241: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8218: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8208: 8206: 8204: 8198: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8181: 8180: 8177: 8175: 8172: 8171: 8169: 8165: 8157: 8152: 8151:Ser de España 8149: 8145: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8121: 8116: 8113: 8112: 8111: 8110: 8106: 8102: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8086: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8066: 8063: 8062: 8060: 8056: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8034: 8033: 8030: 8026: 8023: 8022: 8021: 8018: 8012: 8007: 8004: 8003: 8000: 7995: 7992: 7990: 7987: 7986: 7984: 7980: 7972: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7943: 7941: 7937: 7929: 7926: 7925: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7913: 7909: 7907: 7906: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7894: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7884: 7882: 7878: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7861: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7851: 7849: 7847: 7843: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7823: 7821: 7819: 7815: 7809: 7808: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7789: 7785: 7783: 7782: 7778: 7776: 7775: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7763: 7759: 7758: 7756: 7754: 7750: 7742: 7737: 7734: 7730: 7725: 7722: 7718: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7688: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7677: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7645: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7610: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7591: 7589: 7587: 7583: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7569:Ottoman claim 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7556: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7549:Prosopography 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7533: 7530: 7529: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7519: 7517: 7515: 7511: 7503: 7502:Trưng sisters 7500: 7498: 7497: 7493: 7492: 7490: 7486: 7483: 7482: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7466: 7463: 7462: 7460: 7456: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7448: 7444: 7441: 7440: 7438: 7434: 7431: 7430: 7427: 7422: 7419: 7415: 7412: 7411: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7389: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7376: 7373: 7372: 7370: 7366: 7363: 7362: 7361: 7358: 7354: 7353: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7340: 7335: 7332: 7328: 7323: 7320: 7316: 7311: 7308: 7307: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7294: 7289: 7286: 7285: 7282: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7265: 7262: 7261: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7250: 7249:Habsburg myth 7247: 7246: 7244: 7240: 7237: 7236: 7235: 7232: 7231: 7229: 7225: 7215: 7212: 7208: 7205: 7204: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7167: 7166: 7163: 7162: 7160: 7158: 7157:United States 7154: 7146: 7145: 7141: 7140: 7139: 7136: 7132: 7129: 7128: 7127: 7124: 7118: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7104: 7101: 7100: 7099: 7096: 7095: 7093: 7091: 7090:Latin America 7087: 7081: 7078: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7060: 7059: 7056: 7055: 7053: 7049: 7043: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7031: 7030: 7028: 7024: 7021: 7020: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7007: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6990: 6988: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6971: 6967: 6947: 6944: 6943: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6910: 6908: 6906: 6900: 6894: 6893: 6889: 6887: 6886: 6881: 6880: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6862: 6859: 6858: 6857: 6856: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6798: 6796: 6792: 6786: 6783: 6777: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6765: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6714: 6710: 6694: 6691: 6690: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6683:Transnational 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6662: 6659: 6658: 6657: 6654: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6641: 6640: 6637: 6633: 6630: 6629: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6616: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6574: 6573:Decoloniality 6571: 6570: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6554:Historiometry 6552: 6548: 6547: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6537: 6536: 6533: 6532: 6530: 6524: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6510: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6500: 6499: 6498:Periodization 6496: 6494: 6491: 6490: 6487: 6483: 6478: 6474: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6446: 6443: 6442: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6412: 6411: 6408: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6395: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6372: 6371: 6367: 6366: 6365: 6362: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6311: 6308: 6307: 6305: 6301: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6284:Sigillography 6282: 6280: 6279:Prosopography 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6258: 6255: 6254: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6211: 6208: 6207: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6189: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6168: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6156:Local history 6154: 6150: 6149:Human history 6147: 6146: 6145: 6144:World history 6142: 6140: 6137: 6136: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6117: 6113: 6097: 6094: 6093: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6065: 6062: 6061: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5996: 5994: 5990: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5970: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5951: 5947: 5940: 5939: 5935: 5933: 5932: 5928: 5926: 5925: 5921: 5919: 5918: 5914: 5913: 5910: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5891: 5890: 5889: 5885: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5869: 5864: 5862: 5857: 5855: 5850: 5849: 5846: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5812: 5808: 5805: 5802: 5799: 5798: 5793: 5790: 5789: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5755: 5752: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5738: 5732: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5720: 5717: 5714: 5711: 5708: 5705: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5675: 5674:3-8370-9842-7 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5658: 5646: 5642: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5624: 5620: 5615: 5611: 5610: 5604: 5603: 5592: 5588: 5585: 5584: 5579: 5576: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5562: 5561:0-85967-535-1 5558: 5554: 5550: 5547: 5543: 5540:Lowe, E. A., 5539: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5476: 5475: 5457: 5455:0-521-22338-5 5451: 5447: 5443: 5437: 5429: 5423: 5415: 5408: 5399: 5391: 5385: 5381: 5374: 5366: 5364:3-486-54511-6 5360: 5356: 5349: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5328: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5304: 5302:88-7014-986-2 5298: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5280: 5272: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5253: 5246: 5242: 5241:Nova Historia 5238: 5234: 5228: 5222:, p. 16. 5221: 5216: 5208: 5206:0-521-36473-6 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5183: 5175: 5173:0-8156-2555-3 5169: 5165: 5161: 5154: 5147: 5146: 5141: 5135: 5128: 5122: 5115: 5114: 5107: 5100: 5096: 5090: 5083: 5080:, pl. 127-8; 5079: 5074: 5067: 5062: 5055: 5051: 5045: 5039: 5035: 5029: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5009:Exempla, cit. 5006: 5000: 4993: 4989: 4983: 4976: 4970: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4941: 4934: 4933: 4926: 4919: 4913: 4906: 4905: 4898: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4868: 4864: 4863: 4856: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4836: 4829: 4822: 4821: 4814: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4800: 4793: 4786: 4785: 4780: 4776: 4770: 4763: 4762: 4755: 4748: 4744: 4743:Studien, cit. 4738: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4709: 4703:, iii, pl. i. 4702: 4696: 4689: 4683: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4662: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4638: 4633: 4627: 4620: 4616: 4608: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4592: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4572: 4567: 4561: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4543: 4539: 4538: 4533: 4527: 4520: 4514: 4507: 4503: 4497: 4490: 4489: 4482: 4475: 4474: 4469: 4465: 4462: 4461: 4456: 4450: 4443: 4442: 4435: 4426: 4419: 4413: 4406: 4400: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4358: 4357: 4350: 4349: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4315: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4292: 4288: 4282: 4280: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4257: 4253: 4246: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4221: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4164: 4160: 4153: 4146: 4140: 4133: 4129: 4123: 4117:(Boon, 1921). 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4094: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4058: 4051: 4047: 4041: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4000: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3939: 3938: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3889:, ii, p. 156. 3888: 3887:New Pal. Soc. 3882: 3875: 3869: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3842: 3837: 3836: 3829: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3808: 3802:, repr. 1978. 3801: 3797: 3796: 3791: 3790: 3783: 3781: 3772: 3770:1-84553-057-8 3766: 3763:. Routledge. 3762: 3758: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3683: 3681: 3672: 3665: 3659:, 2006) p. 7. 3658: 3654: 3648: 3641: 3637: 3631: 3624: 3620: 3619:"paleography" 3614: 3607: 3606: 3601: 3595: 3588: 3587: 3582: 3576: 3560: 3556: 3550: 3542: 3534: 3530: 3529: 3523: 3516: 3510: 3509:0-944435-24-6 3506: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3482: 3479: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3464: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3454: 3452: 3449: 3447: 3444: 3442: 3439: 3437: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3422: 3419: 3417: 3416:Italic script 3414: 3412: 3409: 3407: 3404: 3402: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3392: 3389: 3387: 3384: 3382: 3378: 3375: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3346:Chancery hand 3344: 3342: 3339: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3313: 3308: 3302: 3297: 3290: 3287: 3283: 3278: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3249: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3161: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3145: 3141: 3135: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3094: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3010: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2990: 2988: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2953:Semi-cursive 2952: 2947: 2943:Rustic uncial 2942: 2939: 2931: 2930: 2927: 2922: 2919: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2912: 2907: 2906: 2900: 2895: 2889: 2884: 2883:morphological 2880: 2876: 2872: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2851: 2850: 2845: 2840: 2831: 2827: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2800: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2789:St Columbanus 2786: 2782: 2772: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2757:Latin scripts 2754: 2743: 2735: 2733: 2728: 2726: 2722: 2721:Cluniac monks 2718: 2714: 2711: 2707: 2695: 2690: 2684: 2681: 2680: 2679: 2677: 2673: 2667: 2665: 2661: 2654: 2649: 2643: 2640: 2639: 2638: 2636: 2633:known as the 2632: 2631: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2608: 2603: 2599: 2598: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2558: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2539:chancery hand 2537: 2533: 2529: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2503: 2500: 2499: 2498: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2449: 2447: 2446: 2441: 2440: 2434: 2432: 2427: 2421: 2410: 2406: 2401: 2390: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2380: 2379:Roman cursive 2377: 2375: 2372: 2371: 2366: 2357: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2320: 2318: 2311: 2301: 2291: 2281: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2247: 2242: 2238: 2227: 2223: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2208: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2183: 2179: 2178: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2140: 2126: 2124: 2120: 2119:Ludwig Traube 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2086: 2081:, whose work 2080: 2076: 2075:Jean Mabillon 2067: 2065: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2050: 2048: 2042: 2040: 2034: 2030: 2023: 2017: 2005: 2004:Telugu script 2002: 1999: 1996: 1992: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1982:Nāgarī script 1980: 1978: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1953:Brahmi script 1951: 1950: 1945: 1936: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1855: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1820: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1809:Nagari script 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1793:Proto-Bengali 1790: 1786: 1782: 1781:Śāradā script 1776: 1774: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1756:Greek scripts 1753: 1749: 1745: 1739: 1735: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1710: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1671:Telugu region 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1639: 1637: 1633: 1632:Maurya Empire 1628: 1624: 1620: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1580: 1577: 1576:Nāgarī script 1573: 1569: 1565: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1526: 1518: 1513: 1498: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1478: 1474: 1473: 1469: 1459: 1455: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1434: 1427: 1422: 1413: 1409: 1402: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1391: 1387: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1357: 1355: 1354: 1349: 1345: 1344:Chancery hand 1328: 1327: 1322: 1321: 1316: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1295: 1291: 1281: 1272: 1262: 1261:Uncial script 1252: 1250: 1245: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1180:Chancery hand 1173: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1149: 1140: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1122:has the form 1109: 1108: 1103: 1094: 1090: 1075: 1074:Chancery hand 1070: 1066:in the shape 1044: 1039: 1030: 1028: 1024: 1023: 1018: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1001: 990: 952: 948: 943: 939: 887: 886:Chancery hand 883: 879: 875: 870: 868: 867: 862: 858: 854: 848: 821: 804: 800: 792: 788: 785: 781: 776: 767: 733: 727: 725: 721: 716: 714: 710: 706: 702: 697: 693: 689: 681: 677: 673: 668: 662: 658: 648: 646: 642: 637: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 615:pronunciation 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 559: 750 BC 553: 549: 544: 542: 533: 530: 527: 526: 525: 522: 520: 519:Syriac script 516: 512: 508: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 474: 472: 469:for /ī/, and 468: 464: 460: 459: 452: 451: 437: 433: 429: 428:Brahmi script 425: 421: 420:modern Arabic 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 377: 372: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 314: 310: 303: 298: 289: 286: 275: 272: 269:Knowledge of 267: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 211:hieroglyphics 209:, graphemes, 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 191:abbreviations 188: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 153: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 134:Jean Mabillon 131: 126: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 103:printed media 100: 96: 92: 87: 80: 75:, 'old', and 73: 66: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 38: 35:, written in 34: 30: 26: 22: 11214:Palaeography 11193:Zaner-Bloser 11163:Grundschrift 10905:and medieval 10849:Palaeography 10848: 10304:Romanization 10283:Latin script 9995: 9797:The Simpsons 9795: 9742:Other topics 9690: 9667:Christianity 9657:Resurrection 9288:Adolf Hitler 9117:Six-Day War 9113:Algerian War 9084: / 9043:Vichy France 9035: 9028: 8938: / 8826:World War II 8722: / 8389: 8382: 8184:Ghaza thesis 8107: 8083: 8069:White legend 8067: / 8065:Black legend 8020:Soviet Union 7910: 7903: 7891: 7854:Great Famine 7831:Indocentrism 7805: 7786: 7779: 7772: 7760: 7706:Grand Siècle 7704: 7685: 7653:Sinocentrism 7514:Ancient Rome 7494: 7352:Aryan Kartli 7350: 7142: 7105: / 7039: 6936:19th century 6934: / 6925: / 6890: 6883: 6882: / 6877: 6853: 6827: / 6801:Black legend 6759:Historiology 6556: / 6544: 6507: 6445:Quantitative 6368: 6364:Intellectual 6330: / 6326: / 6312: / 6310:Anthropology 6264:Phaleristics 6257:preservation 6252:Oral history 6194: 6193: / 6179: / 6161:Microhistory 5936: 5929: 5922: 5915: 5906: 5897: / 5893: 5886: 5826:DILE Project 5796: 5787: 5679: 5661: 5640: 5627: 5618: 5608: 5590: 5582: 5572:Armand Colin 5567: 5552: 5541: 5534: 5522: 5487: 5483: 5445: 5436: 5413: 5407: 5398: 5379: 5373: 5354: 5348: 5340: 5336: 5333:La scrittura 5332: 5327: 5319: 5316:La scrittura 5315: 5310: 5292: 5279: 5268: 5252: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5227: 5215: 5192: 5182: 5159: 5153: 5144: 5139: 5138:Cf. Keller, 5134: 5126: 5121: 5112: 5106: 5098: 5089: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5065: 5061: 5056:, vii, viii. 5053: 5049: 5048:Cf. Hessel, 5044: 5037: 5033: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4982: 4974: 4969: 4961: 4957: 4949: 4945: 4944:Cf. Traube, 4940: 4931: 4925: 4917: 4912: 4903: 4897: 4880: 4874: 4861: 4855: 4848:Montecassino 4843: 4834: 4828: 4819: 4813: 4804: 4798: 4792: 4783: 4778: 4774: 4769: 4760: 4754: 4746: 4742: 4737: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4708: 4700: 4695: 4687: 4682: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4661: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4636: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4597: 4591: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4570: 4566:Carl Wessely 4560: 4552: 4536: 4526: 4518: 4513: 4505: 4501: 4496: 4487: 4481: 4471: 4459: 4449: 4440: 4434: 4425: 4417: 4412: 4404: 4399: 4387: 4379: 4371: 4367: 4355: 4346: 4331: 4305: 4251: 4245: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4220: 4195: 4191: 4185: 4158: 4152: 4144: 4139: 4131: 4127: 4122: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4093: 4068: 4064: 4057: 4049: 4040: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4008: 4004: 3999: 3983: 3967: 3959: 3947: 3935: 3919:and scholar 3917:papyrologist 3912: 3886: 3881: 3873: 3868: 3860: 3840: 3834: 3828: 3807: 3794: 3788: 3760: 3751: 3739: 3727:. Retrieved 3720:the original 3699: 3695: 3670: 3664: 3652: 3647: 3630: 3622: 3613: 3603: 3599: 3594: 3584: 3575: 3563:. Retrieved 3559:the original 3549: 3526: 3515: 3500: 3496: 3286:Italian hand 3279: 3258: 3252: 3245: 3229: 3226:calligrapher 3210:illustration 3209: 3207: 3190: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3167:La scrittura 3166: 3164: 3148: 3143: 3136: 3119:architecture 3116: 3097:Developments 3087:World War II 3068:calligrapher 3053: 3039: 3036:, dated 1472 3029: 3022:Frontispiece 2996: 2987:modern times 2958: 2950:Carolingian 2940:Half-uncial 2925: 2920: 2909: 2904: 2903: 2891: 2887: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2865: 2855: 2847: 2828: 2810: 2806: 2803:Pre-Caroline 2793:Bobbio Abbey 2785:Anglo-Saxons 2778: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2749: 2741: 2729: 2698: 2692:Alphabet in 2682: 2668: 2657: 2651:8th-century 2641: 2634: 2628: 2606: 2595: 2574: 2559: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2531: 2525: 2516: 2501: 2455: 2445:semi-cursive 2443: 2437: 2435: 2425: 2422: 2418: 2408: 2368:Latin script 2353: 2328: 2326: 2314: 2266: 2262: 2259:Transylvania 2250: 2244: 2239:on walls at 2233: 2224: 2211: 2209: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2186: 2182:Augustan Age 2175: 2171: 2161: 2102: 2082: 2073: 2061: 2052: 2044: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2025: 1991:Tamil script 1861: 1821: 1795:or Gaudi in 1777: 1773:Gupta script 1741: 1640: 1636:Gupta Empire 1616: 1581: 1528: 1492: 1488:adding to it 1483: 1456: 1454:) is found. 1436: 1424:Variants of 1410: 1406: 1388: 1363: 1351: 1326:Alexandrinus 1324: 1318: 1312: 1301: 1241: 1233: 1229:calligraphic 1177: 1136: 1105: 1099: 1048: 1033:Roman period 1020: 1013: 991: 956: 871: 864: 849: 798: 796: 786: 728: 717: 685: 545: 537: 523: 475: 470: 466: 462: 456: 381: 281: 268: 170:philologists 166:semioticians 159: 149: 142:palaeography 141: 137: 127: 50: 43:Palaeography 42: 41: 25: 11089:Copperplate 10952:Blackletter 10937:Carolingian 10932:Merovingian 10892:handwritten 10790:ISO/IEC 646 10716:Pentagraphs 10698:Tetragraphs 10583:Multigraphs 10185:Hagiography 9946: [ 9906:Early Islam 9760: [ 9652:Historicity 9630:Historicity 9620:Jane Austen 9600:The Beatles 9570:Netherlands 9531: [ 9528:Zhuge Liang 9519: [ 9507: [ 9504:Yuan Shikai 9475: [ 9472:Sun Yat Tse 9451: [ 9414: [ 9377: [ 9365: [ 9362:Jiang Zemin 9333: [ 9321: [ 9313:Che Guevara 9046: [ 8981:Pacific War 8765:Article 231 8755:Reparations 8732: [ 8696: [ 8673:Color books 8662:World War I 8646: [ 8623:War of 1812 8528: [ 8511: [ 8496:(1792–1815) 8467:Sea Peoples 8452:Gallic Wars 8154: [ 8142: [ 8129:Revisionist 8118: [ 8109:Reconquista 8099: [ 8091:Inquisition 8085:Convivencia 8009: [ 7997: [ 7969: [ 7866:Revisionism 7791: [ 7739: [ 7727: [ 7715: [ 7696: [ 7638:Golden ages 7607: [ 7604:Wunu School 7599:Archaeology 7472:Switzerland 7455:Kosovo Myth 7443:Great Union 7424: [ 7409:Philippines 7392:Nationalist 7365:Ages of Man 7337: [ 7325: [ 7313: [ 7291: [ 7279: [ 7115: [ 7112:Revisionist 7004: [ 6941:Renaissance 6806:Coloniality 6774: [ 6762: [ 6754:Historicity 6678:Revisionist 6668:Pop history 6639:Nationalist 6613: [ 6558:Cliometrics 6526:Approaches, 6482:Methodology 6378:Linguistics 6328:Environment 6294:Vexillology 6217:Diplomatics 6200:Chorography 6139:Big History 6091:War diaries 6064:Illuminated 6059:Manuscripts 6044:Hieroglyphs 5924:historicity 5734:(in German) 5721:, from the 5570:3e édition 5084:, v, pl. 6. 5032:Cf. Munoz, 4986:Cf. Clark, 4667:Vorlesungen 4613:; Wessely, 4611:(in German) 4508:, i, p. 98. 4109:(2nd ed.); 4029:Rhein. Mus. 3729:21 November 3396:Handwriting 3341:Calligraphy 3331:Blackletter 3282:italic type 3275:Christendom 3234:papal curia 3160:blackletter 3140:Middle Ages 3131:calligraphy 3111:italic type 3076:blackletter 3064:Middle Ages 3007:Renaissance 2978:Saint-Denis 2921:Epistolaris 2888:epistolaris 2875:epistolaris 2858:Charlemagne 2765:epistolaris 2753:manuscripts 2642:Merovingian 2630:Beneventana 2587:Honorius II 2563:Charlemagne 2551:Beneventana 2491:Anglo-Saxon 2483:Merovingian 2150:written in 2123:Jean Mallon 2091:diplomatics 2055:diplomatica 2047:epistolaris 1986:Nandinagari 1933:Salankayana 1897:Vattezhuttu 1884:Nandinagari 1864:South India 1858:South India 1832:Sarabhapura 1813:Nandinagari 1803:, and into 1713:North India 1612:numismatics 1440:paragraphos 1433:Punctuation 1426:paragraphos 1292:(left) and 1288:Pages from 1255:Uncial hand 1249:manuscripts 1146: 1 AD 1139:Herculaneum 1007:written in 857:Hellenistic 701:manuscripts 645:Elephantine 607:orthography 498:Elephantine 486:Mesopotamia 455:The letter 215:punctuation 195:letterforms 182:sign system 156:Application 113:and tomes, 51:paleography 11219:Papyrology 11208:Categories 11094:Spencerian 11014:Court hand 11002:Glagolitic 10947:Beneventan 10927:Visigothic 10844:Diacritics 10240:Multimedia 10059:Technology 10023:Urreligion 9926:Kharijites 9877:Background 9545:Historical 9516:Zhou Enlai 9411:Mao Zedong 9406:Louis Riel 9179:Background 9030:Guilty Men 8972:Uniqueness 8895:Background 8890:Winter War 8814:Background 8747:Versailles 8601:Great Game 8248:Ricardians 8243:Tudor myth 7961:Partitions 7554:Succession 6844:Narratives 6829:Presentism 6785:Philosophy 6605:Humanistic 6493:Case study 6425:Indigenous 6403:Diplomatic 6347:Capitalism 6247:Onomastics 6205:Chronology 6034:Facsimiles 6019:Chronicles 5917:historians 5888:Historians 5331:Petrarch, 5314:Petrarch, 5011:; Burnam, 4850:, 1876–83. 4840:facsimiles 4521:, pl. 135. 4306:ganguly.de 4261:0195099842 4168:3823342711 3640:Micropædia 3543:required.) 3488:References 3466:Round hand 3441:Penmanship 3356:Court hand 3351:Codicology 3181:), clear ( 3123:Romanesque 2842:A page in 2683:Visigothic 2597:scriptoria 2575:a, e, q, t 2487:Visigothic 2255:Verespatak 2020:See also: 1993:(cf. also 1909:Kolezhuthu 1888:Devanagari 1880:Vatteluttu 1764:Kshatrapas 1748:Kharoshthi 1738:Devanagari 1732:See also: 1726:Devanagari 1596:Apabhraṃśa 1523:See also: 1466:See also: 1431:See also: 1379:breathings 1320:Sinaiticus 1304:papyrology 1259:See also: 1184:Diocletian 1156:See also: 1005:parchments 882:Ptolemy II 878:Apollonius 784:Timotheus' 665:See also: 619:vocabulary 611:morphology 416:Phoenician 348:See also: 317:See also: 256:recensions 244:provenance 162:historians 123:scriptoria 119:monographs 95:penmanship 11177:Sütterlin 11151:D'Nealian 11128:Shorthand 11074:Secretary 11054:Johannine 11019:Lombardic 10995:Bosančica 10984:Poluustav 10894:European 10890:Types of 10783:Standards 10675:Trigraphs 10371:Letters ( 10324:Alphabets 10314:Ligatures 10028:Perennial 9817:Economics 9769:Feudalism 9555:Australia 9303:Aurangzeb 9279:Political 9269:By person 8950:Pius Wars 8745:Treaty of 8404:conflicts 8211:Poor Laws 8074:Hispanism 7951:Sarmatism 7781:Sonderweg 7539:Expansion 7264:Litvinism 7098:Argentina 6932:Long 18th 6815:Dark Ages 6595:Historism 6393:Political 6332:Geography 6269:Philology 6232:Genealogy 6227:Epigraphy 6170:By source 6009:Artifacts 5643:. Delhi: 5504:0022-4995 5422:cite book 5220:John 1992 5015:; Clark, 4935:, pl. 12. 4889:461176420 4732:, pl. 30. 4551:, in the 4519:Pal. Soc. 4270:252595337 4085:162051928 3800:Wiesbaden 3716:163128006 3451:Recension 3446:Philology 3336:Book hand 3187:Boccaccio 3179:castigata 3175:luxurians 3151:humanists 3079:typefaces 3072:Sütterlin 3030:Stadtbuch 2871:librariae 2761:librariae 2710:Capitular 2635:Bari type 2625:archetype 2555:Benevento 2528:Lombardic 2479:Lombardic 2439:book hand 2405:Magdeburg 2168:majuscule 2079:antiquary 1913:Malayalam 1848:Ikshvakus 1844:Karnataka 1828:Vakatakas 1817:Karnataka 1734:Kharosthi 1707:Malayalam 1667:Amaravati 1655:Ikshvakus 1647:Karnataka 1608:epigraphy 1547:Kharosthi 1517:Kharoṣṭhī 1383:ligatures 1367:minuscule 1314:Vaticanus 1188:Byzantine 1114:is high, 861:Aristotle 803:Timotheus 789:, with a 688:epigraphy 680:Aristotle 636:Near East 599:Babylonia 579:Palestine 515:Nabataean 511:Palmyrene 494:potsherds 478:cuneiform 473:for /ū/. 465:for /ō/, 436:Aramaeans 323:Cuneiform 313:Epigraphy 248:forgeries 235:annexures 223:proxemics 201:, signs, 152:in 1708. 11118:Skoropis 11059:Humanist 11049:Chancery 10967:Georgian 10962:Bastarda 10592:Digraphs 10230:Category 10145:template 9859:Religion 9710:Socrates 9625:Muhammed 9547:rankings 9428:Napoleon 9246:Category 9064:Cold War 8967:Slovakia 8554:Waterloo 8423:Crusades 8368:Military 8216:Scotland 8174:Kemalist 7496:Nam tiến 7491:Vietnam 7481:Ukraine 7439:Romania 7421:Portugal 7347:Georgia 7322:Medieval 7271:Bulgaria 7260:Belarus 7245:Austria 7051:Americas 7019:Morocco 7015:Ethiopia 6794:Specific 6717:Concepts 6622:Leninist 6580:Feminist 6568:Critical 6415:Feminism 6388:Military 6342:Business 6337:Economic 6319:Cultural 6303:By topic 6289:Toponymy 6237:Heraldry 6185:template 6132:By scale 6054:Logbooks 6039:Features 6004:Archives 5819: : 5807:Archived 5666:Volltext 5287:(1999), 5233:int. al. 5191:(1990). 5140:op. cit. 5038:op. cit. 5005:int. al. 4977:, pl. 3. 4603:Archived 4545:Archived 4464:Archived 4360:Archived 4294:Archived 4177:29443654 3853:Archived 3817:Buddhism 3421:Law hand 3411:Isogloss 3386:Graffiti 3381:Grapheme 3326:Bastarda 3293:See also 3218:humanist 3201:and the 3199:Lombardy 3195:Florence 3191:literati 3156:Petrarch 2964:school, 2962:Palatine 2937:Uncials 2935:Capitals 2926:Librariæ 2879:libraria 2866:libraria 2824:Lombards 2613:Dalmatia 2547:libraria 2329:libraria 2273:and the 2237:graffiti 2197:actuaria 2142:Folio14 2070:Overview 1958:Chalukya 1925:Banavasi 1921:Kadambas 1868:Chalukya 1840:Kadambas 1819:region. 1768:Kushanas 1766:and the 1695:epigraph 1685:and the 1679:Pallavas 1651:Buddhist 1592:Sanskrit 1495:May 2021 1231:effect. 1211:shape), 738:(uncial 603:alphabet 587:Darius I 563:Akkadian 432:abugidas 231:notarial 203:typology 178:grapheme 174:alphabet 86:gráphein 11239:Writing 11106:Kurrent 11079:Library 11044:Cursive 11007:Angular 10957:Rotunda 10903:Ancient 10896:scripts 10795:Unicode 10764:Colemak 10355:X-SAMPA 10294:History 10165:Related 10055:Science 9700:Madonna 9672:Judaism 9635:Judaism 9467:Saladin 9357:Hypatia 9281:leaders 9205:Related 9158:Origins 9121:Origins 9072:Origins 8628:Origins 8574:Origins 8440:Origins 8302:Oceania 8265:British 8203:Kingdom 7846:Ireland 7753:Germany 7461:Sweden 7334:New Age 7310:Ancient 7306:Europe 7302:Croatia 7234:Albania 7227:Eurasia 7029:Rwanda 6727:General 6627:Marxist 6528:schools 6357:Thought 6324:Ecology 6086:Scrolls 6024:Codices 5992:Sources 5931:history 5908:History 5836:in the 5548:, 1972. 5416:. Rome. 5267:(ed.). 4952:of the 4869:, 1920. 4728:, xxx; 4671:Exempla 4656:, xlii. 4652:of the 4615:Studien 3361:Cursive 3144:de luxe 3070:Ludwig 3060:cursive 3050:Austria 3046:Germany 3042:antiqua 3034:Bolzano 2905:b d h l 2797:St Gall 2713:Library 2672:Luxeuil 2615:by the 2607:Exultet 2475:Ireland 2471:England 2431:Ravenna 2354:Exempla 2241:Pompeii 2220:Terence 2174:of the 2146:of the 1995:Abagada 1791:, into 1785:Kashmir 1752:Aramaic 1744:Ashokan 1722:Rigveda 1687:Pandyas 1623:Prakrit 1604:Persian 1584:Prakrit 1444:coronis 1296:(right) 1172:Gospels 1107:Odyssey 1056:⁄ 1009:Parthia 874:cursive 820:cursive 791:coronis 724:cursive 720:uncials 705:Avroman 567:Persian 490:papyrus 390:of the 239:addenda 219:syntagm 187:scribes 111:codices 79:γράφειν 72:palaiós 65:παλαιός 11170:Palmer 11064:Italic 11037:Modern 10922:Uncial 10917:Rustic 10759:Dvorak 10754:AZERTY 10749:QWERTZ 10744:QWERTY 10299:Spread 9791:Salons 9593:Others 9560:Canada 9194:Causes 9131:Causes 9106:Causes 8900:Spirit 8834:Causes 8804:Causes 8669:Causes 8638:Causes 8611:Causes 8589:Causes 8520:Causes 8267:Empire 8201:United 8167:Turkey 7982:Russia 7956:Deluge 7939:Poland 7679:France 7477:Taiwan 7450:Serbia 7256:Balhae 7107:Causes 7058:Canada 6992:Egypt 6985:Africa 6509:Tarikh 6430:Labour 6420:Gender 6410:Social 6210:dating 6076:Papyri 5999:Annals 5686: 5672: 5559: 5502: 5452: 5386: 5361: 5341:degree 5299: 5203: 5170: 4887: 4867:Zagreb 4268: 4258: 4212:604670 4210: 4175: 4165: 4083: 4048:, cf. 4013:Abusir 3990: 3974: 3954: 3846:Oxford 3819:. Cf. 3813:Ashoka 3767: 3714: 3507: 3269:. The 3255:Medici 3242:Cicero 3212:) was 3203:Veneto 3127:Gothic 3125:and a 3083:Hitler 3052:, the 2999:Gothic 2982:Corbie 2911:ductus 2717:Verona 2676:Corbie 2621:Apulia 2463:France 2316:'s 2271:uncial 2216:Virgil 2189:tituli 2156:Virgil 1905:Kerala 1836:Kosala 1805:Nagari 1801:Orissa 1797:Bengal 1789:Punjab 1703:Telugu 1683:Cholas 1681:, the 1627:Ashoka 1568:Kuṣaṇa 1564:Maurya 1543:250 BC 1540:edicts 1536:Ashoka 1532:Brahmi 1244:vellum 1225:Arabic 1215:, and 1128:vellum 1022:Phaedo 951:340 BC 905:, and 813:, and 799:Persae 787:Persae 780:Berlin 711:, the 692:papyri 623:syntax 575:Hebrew 541:Arabic 364:, and 337:, and 115:tracts 11099:Ronde 11069:Round 10981:Ustav 10972:Greek 10912:Roman 10814:Lists 10722:tzsch 10038:Roman 9950:] 9764:] 9677:Islam 9647:Jesus 9535:] 9523:] 9511:] 9479:] 9455:] 9418:] 9381:] 9369:] 9337:] 9325:] 9050:] 8940:Nakba 8736:] 8700:] 8650:] 8532:] 8515:] 8158:] 8146:] 8122:] 8103:] 8058:Spain 8013:] 8001:] 7973:] 7880:Italy 7818:India 7795:] 7743:] 7731:] 7719:] 7700:] 7611:] 7586:China 7428:] 7387:Korea 7382:Japan 7371:Iran 7360:Greek 7341:] 7329:] 7317:] 7295:] 7288:Early 7283:] 7144:Casta 7119:] 7041:Maafa 7008:] 6778:] 6766:] 6617:] 6457:Women 6452:Urban 6440:Rural 6435:LGBTQ 6191:Books 6029:Deeds 5966:Types 5263:. In 4648:, in 4619:et al 4584:et al 4304:, on 4208:JSTOR 4081:S2CID 3723:(PDF) 3712:S2CID 3692:(PDF) 3565:5 May 3537: 3377:Glyph 3183:clara 3032:from 2970:Reims 2966:Tours 2725:Moors 2609:rolls 2583:bulls 2541:, or 2536:papal 2521:Reims 2519:from 2513:codex 2495:Irish 2467:Spain 2459:Italy 2144:recto 2010:Latin 1893:Tamil 1872:Chera 1621:, is 1600:Tamil 1572:Gupta 1507:India 1462:China 1448:comma 1221:below 1132:Bible 1062:) is 1043:Homer 1027:Plato 696:Egypt 694:from 627:style 571:Greek 552:Syria 458:aleph 396:Syria 207:fonts 107:books 59:Greek 49:) or 10769:BÉPO 10735:list 10706:ough 10373:list 10328:list 10129:list 8724:1917 7736:Lyon 7207:Eras 7126:Peru 6861:list 6808:and 6688:Whig 5895:list 5684:ISBN 5670:ISBN 5574:1999 5557:ISBN 5500:ISSN 5450:ISBN 5428:link 5384:ISBN 5359:ISBN 5297:ISBN 5231:Cf. 5201:ISBN 5186:See 5168:ISBN 4964:, i. 4929:Cf. 4885:OCLC 4712:Cf. 4699:Cf. 4642:s.v. 4630:Cf. 4564:Cf. 4530:Cf. 4517:Cf. 4500:Cf. 4453:Cf. 4266:OCLC 4256:ISBN 4173:OCLC 4163:ISBN 4111:ibid 4061:Cf. 3988:ISBN 3972:ISBN 3952:ISBN 3885:Cf. 3765:ISBN 3731:2014 3567:2013 3505:ISBN 3379:and 3265:and 3048:and 2980:and 2974:Metz 2795:and 2781:Gaul 2674:and 2660:Gaul 2571:Rome 2493:and 2473:and 2201:acta 2193:acta 2162:The 2117:and 2097:, a 2033:adpl 2029:ADPL 1984:and 1960:and 1899:and 1870:and 1834:and 1799:and 1787:and 1760:Saka 1754:and 1736:and 1645:and 1610:and 1602:and 1588:Pali 1333:and 1084:and 945:The 929:and 913:and 830:and 709:Dura 659:and 625:and 492:and 480:and 442:and 422:and 382:The 311:and 254:and 221:and 168:and 117:and 10774:Neo 10688:eau 10683:dzs 10570:Zz 10479:Mm 6855:Pax 5492:doi 5052:in 4948:in 4777:in 4720:in 4200:doi 4196:115 4113:., 4073:doi 3704:doi 3244:'s 3228:of 3193:in 3162:". 2715:in 2585:of 2515:of 2407:'s 2263:CIL 2257:in 2251:CIL 2246:CIL 1923:of 1850:of 1842:of 1783:in 1657:of 1490:. 1373:at 1025:of 968:), 863:'s 801:of 766:). 750:), 742:), 707:or 643:of 471:vav 467:yod 180:or 11210:: 10665:Th 10660:Sz 10655:Sh 10650:Ny 10645:Nj 10640:Nh 10635:Ly 10630:Ll 10625:Lj 10620:IJ 10615:Gh 10610:Dž 10605:Dz 10600:Ch 10563:Yy 10556:Xx 10549:Ww 10542:Vv 10535:Uu 10528:Tt 10521:Ss 10514:Rr 10507:Qq 10500:Pp 10493:Oo 10486:Nn 10472:Ll 10465:Kk 10458:Jj 10451:Ii 10444:Hh 10437:Gg 10430:Ff 10423:Ee 10416:Dd 10409:Cc 10402:Bb 10395:Aa 9948:it 9762:pt 9533:zh 9521:zh 9509:zh 9477:zh 9453:es 9416:zh 9379:ru 9367:zh 9335:zh 9323:zh 9048:fr 8734:ru 8698:fr 8675:/ 8648:es 8530:ru 8513:fr 8156:es 8144:es 8120:es 8101:es 8011:ru 7999:ru 7971:pl 7793:de 7741:fr 7729:fr 7717:fr 7698:fr 7609:zh 7426:pt 7339:ru 7327:ru 7315:ru 7293:ru 7281:de 7117:es 7006:es 6776:de 6764:es 6615:pt 5828:. 5668:, 5580:, 5544:, 5525:, 5521:, 5498:. 5488:66 5486:. 5482:. 5424:}} 5420:{{ 5097:, 4865:, 4846:, 4716:, 4640:, 4634:, 4582:; 4568:, 4534:, 4457:, 4386:, 4378:, 4345:. 4313:^ 4278:^ 4264:. 4206:. 4194:. 4171:. 4079:. 4067:. 4019:, 3982:, 3966:, 3946:, 3942:; 3934:. 3894:^ 3859:, 3844:, 3798:, 3779:^ 3710:. 3700:98 3698:. 3694:. 3679:^ 3638:, 3621:. 3583:. 3525:. 3250:. 3236:. 3205:. 3197:, 2989:. 2976:, 2972:, 2968:, 2734:. 2727:. 2706:ms 2678:. 2637:. 2557:. 2489:, 2485:, 2481:, 2469:, 2465:, 2461:, 2448:. 2313:= 2307:; 2303:= 2293:= 2287:; 2283:= 2207:. 2184:. 2113:, 2051:, 1895:, 1750:, 1598:, 1594:, 1590:, 1586:, 1570:, 1566:, 1203:, 1199:, 1195:, 1143:c. 925:, 921:, 897:, 809:, 621:, 617:, 613:, 609:, 605:, 556:c. 543:. 521:. 513:, 463:he 360:, 356:, 352:, 333:, 329:, 325:, 321:, 250:, 237:, 217:, 205:, 197:, 176:, 164:, 109:, 97:, 83:, 69:, 61:: 55:US 47:UK 11124:) 11120:( 10883:e 10876:t 10869:v 10737:) 10375:) 10330:) 10326:( 10275:e 10268:t 10261:v 10131:) 10127:( 10057:/ 8689:) 8685:( 8679:) 8671:( 8360:e 8353:t 8346:v 7862:" 7858:" 6187:) 6183:( 5867:e 5860:t 5853:v 5840:. 5739:. 5730:. 5647:. 5634:. 5563:. 5506:. 5494:: 5458:. 5430:) 5392:. 5367:. 5209:. 5176:. 5101:. 5023:. 4891:. 4690:. 4677:. 4621:. 4586:. 4394:. 4272:. 4214:. 4202:: 4179:. 4087:. 4075:: 4069:5 3773:. 3733:. 3706:: 3655:( 3569:. 3535:. 3113:. 2896:( 2852:) 2846:( 2261:( 2243:( 2158:. 2000:) 1762:- 1497:) 1493:( 1209:h 1174:. 1058:8 1054:1 982:h 762:( 754:( 746:( 682:. 53:( 45:( 23:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index