Palaeography - Knowledge

3029: 2794:, fleeing before the barbarian invasions. It was adopted there to the exclusion of the cursive, and soon took on a distinct character. There are two well established classes of Irish writing as early as the 7th century: a large round half-uncial hand, in which certain majuscule forms frequently appear, and a pointed hand, which becomes more cursive and more genuinely minuscule. The latter developed out of the former. One of the distinguishing marks of manuscripts of Irish origin is to be found in the initial letters, which are ornamented by interlacing, animal forms, or a frame of red dots. The most certain evidence, however, is provided by the system of abbreviations and by the combined square and cuneiform appearance of the minuscule at the height of its development. The two types of Irish writing were introduced in the north of Great Britain by the monks, and were soon adopted by the 1955: 2411: 1282: 2762:

calligraphic form by the copyists of literary texts, so that the set minuscule alphabet was constituted gradually, letter by letter, following the development of the minuscule cursive. Just as some documents written in the early cursive show a mixture of majuscule and minuscule forms, so certain literary papyri of the 3rd century, and inscriptions on stone of the 4th century yield examples of a mixed set hand, with minuscule forms side by side with capital and uncial letters. The number of minuscule forms increases steadily in texts written in the mixed hand, and especially in marginal notes, until by the end of the 5th century the majuscule forms have almost entirely disappeared in some

1083:. By the end of the 1st century, there had been developed several excellent types of cursive, which, though differing considerably both in the forms of individual letters and in general appearance, bear a family likeness to one another. Qualities which are specially noticeable are roundness in the shape of letters, continuity of formation, the pen being carried on from character to character, and regularity, the letters not differing strikingly in size and projecting strokes above or below the line being avoided. Sometimes, especially in tax-receipts and in stereotyped formulae, cursiveness is carried to an extreme. In a letter of the prefect, dated in 209, we have a fine example of the 1137:. Uniformity of size is well attained, and a few strokes project, and these but slightly, above or below the line. Another type, well called by palaeographer Schubart the "severe" style, has a more angular appearance and not infrequently slopes to the right; though handsome, it has not the sumptuous appearance of the former. There are various classes of a less pretentious style, in which convenience rather than beauty was the first consideration and no pains were taken to avoid irregularities in the shape and alignment of the letters. Lastly may be mentioned a hand which is of great interest as being the ancestor of the type called (from its later occurrence in 2367:, pl. XX). It presently supplanted the capitals and appears in numerous manuscripts which have survived from the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, when it was at its height. By this time it had become an imitative hand, in which there was generally no room for spontaneous development. It remained noticeably uniform over a long period. It is difficult therefore to date the manuscripts by palaeographical criteria alone. The most that can be done is to classify them by centuries, on the strength of tenuous data. The earliest uncial writing is easily distinguished by its simple and monumental character from the later hands, which become progressively stiff and affected. 1423:

decorative effect. In the 13th and still more in the 14th centuries there was a steady decline; the less formal hands lost their beauty and exactness, becoming ever more disorderly and chaotic in their effect, while formal style imitated the precision of an earlier period without attaining its freedom and naturalness, and often appears singularly lifeless. In the 15th century, especially in the West, where Greek scribes were in request to produce manuscripts of the classical authors, there was a revival, and several manuscripts of this period, though markedly inferior to those of the 11th and 12th centuries, are by no means without beauty.

1645:, the use of Prakrit continued in inscriptions for a few more centuries. In north India, Prakrit was replaced by Sanskrit by the end of the 3rd century, while this change took place about a century later in south India. Some of the inscriptions though written in Prakrit, were influenced by Sanskrit and vice versa. The epigraphs of the Kushana kings are found in a mixture of Prakrit and Sanskrit, while the Mathura inscriptions of the time of Sodasa, belonging to the first quarter of the 1st century, contain verses in classical Sanskrit. From the 4th century onwards, the 1004:

cursive they are apt to be packed closely together. These features are more marked in the hands of the 2nd century. The less cursive often show am approximation to the book-hand, the letters growing rounder and less angular than in the 3rd century; in the more cursive linking was carried further, both by the insertion of coupling strokes and by the writing of several letters continuously without raising the pen, so that before the end of the century an almost current hand was evolved. A characteristic letter, which survived into the early Roman period, is

3113: 683: 1104: 2150: 786: 11040: 1380:, which originated in the 8th century, as an adaptation to literary purposes of the second of the types of Byzantine cursive mentioned above. A first attempt at a calligraphic use of this hand, seen in one or two manuscripts of the 8th or early 9th century, in which it slopes to the right and has a narrow, angular appearance, did not find favour, but by the end of the 9th century a more ornamental type, from which modern Greek script descended, was already established. It has been suggested that it was evolved in the 1174: 1049: 2681:

an upright hand, and the letters, instead of being fully outlined, are compressed to such an extent that they modify the shape of other letters. Copyists of books used a cursive similar to that found in documents, except that the strokes are thicker, the forms more regular, and the heads and tails shorter. The Merovingian cursive as used in books underwent simplification in some localities, undoubtedly through the influence of the minuscule book-hand of the period. The two principal centres of this reform were

2288:. With the coming into use of writing surfaces which were smooth, or offered little resistance, the unhampered haste of the writer altered the shape, size and position of the letters. In the earliest specimens of writing on wax, plaster or papyrus, there appears a tendency to represent several straight strokes by a single curve. The cursive writing thus foreshadows the specifically uncial forms. The same specimens show great inequality in the height of the letters; the main strokes are prolonged upwards ( 1011: 2519: 1291: 3312: 2191:), it is far from showing the orderly regularity of the later period. Side by side with upright and square characters are angular and sloping forms, sometimes very distorted, which seem to indicate the existence of an early cursive writing from which they would have been borrowed. Certain literary texts clearly allude to such a hand. Later, the characters of the cursive type were progressively eliminated from formal inscriptions, and capital writing reached its perfection in the 1488: 236:, abbreviations and annotations; enables the palaeographer to read, comprehend and then to understand the text and/or the relationship and hierarchy between texts in suite. The palaeographer, philologist and semiotician must first determine language, then dialect and then the register, function and purpose of the text. That is, one must by necessity become expert in the formation, historicity and evolution of these languages and signification communities, and material 2730:. From the 9th century the calligraphic forms become broader and more rounded until the 11th century, when they become slender and angular. The Visigothic minuscule appears in a cursive form in documents about the middle of the 9th century, and in the course of time grows more intricate and consequently less legible. It soon came into competition with the Carolingian minuscule, which supplanted it as a result of the presence in Spain of French elements such as 40: 8540: 2850: 10237: 9253: 2345: 953: 116:. It is primarily concerned with the forms, processes and relationships of writing and printing systems as evident in a text, document or manuscript; and analysis of the substantive textual content of documents is a secondary function. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which writing and printing of texts, manuscripts, 1523: 2301: 2880:

hand, there were innumerable varieties of mixed writing derived from the influence of these hands on each other. In some, the uncial or half-uncial forms were preserved with little or no modification, but the influence of the cursive is shown by the freedom of the strokes; these are known as rustic, semi-cursive or cursive uncial or half-uncial hands. Conversely, the cursive was sometimes affected, in varying degrees, by the set

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unbroken succession of letters, except for distinction of sections; in cursive hands, especially where abbreviations were numerous, some tendency to separate words may be recognised, but in reality it was phrases or groups of letters rather than words which were divided. In the later minuscule word-division is much commoner but never became systematic, accents and breathings serving of themselves to indicate the proper division.

382: 2360: 2321: 2291: 1729: 2311: 1080: 10247: 2910: 2508:. These names came into use at a time when the various national hands were believed to have been invented by the peoples who used them, but their connotation is merely geographical. Nevertheless, in spite of a close resemblance which betrays their common origin, these hands are specifically different, perhaps because the Roman cursive was developed by each nation in accordance with its artistic tradition. 2376: 1340:, a later development is seen with emphatic distinction of thick and thin strokes. By the 6th century, alike in vellum and in papyrus manuscripts, the heaviness had become very marked, though the hand still retained, in its best examples, a handsome appearance; but after this it steadily deteriorated, becoming ever more mechanical and artificial. The thick strokes grew heavier; the cross strokes of 1040:, a style of considerable delicacy is attained, the book-hand in general shows less mastery than the contemporary cursive. In the 2nd century, the letters grew rounder and more uniform in size, but in the 1st century there is a certain disintegration perceptible, as in the cursive hand. Probably at no time did the Ptolemaic book-hand acquire such unity of stylistic effect as the cursive. 2355: 2350: 294:

be to avoid dating a hand more precisely than a range of at least seventy or eighty years". In a 2005 e-mail addendum to his 1996 "The Paleographical Dating of P-46" paper Bruce W. Griffin stated "Until more rigorous methodologies are developed, it is difficult to construct a 95% confidence interval for {{}} manuscripts without allowing a century for an assigned date."

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probable that for some time after the introduction of the alphabet the characters were incised with a sharp tool on stones or metal far oftener than they were written with a pen. In cutting a hard surface, it is easier to form angles than curves; in writing the reverse is the case; hence the development of writing was from angular letters ("capitals") inherited from

2659: 1688:, inscriptions belonging to later Satavahanas and Chutus were written in Prakrit. From the 4th century onwards, with the rise of the Guptas, Sanskrit became the predominant language of India and continued to be employed in texts and inscriptions of all parts of India along with the regional languages in the subsequent centuries. The copper-plate charters of the 285:

translations of a text are produced from which specific document or manuscript. This is why the palaeographer and attendant semiologists and philologists must take into account the style, substance and formation of the text, document and manuscript and the handwriting style and printed typology, grapheme typos and lexical and signification system(s) employed.

308: 1145:) the biblical hand. This, which can be traced back at least the late 2nd century, has a square, rather heavy appearance; the letters, of uniform size, stand upright, and thick and thin strokes are well distinguished. In the 3rd century the book-hand, like the cursive, appears to have deteriorated in regularity and stylistic accomplishment. 1197:, and lasted well into the century, we find many other types mostly marked by a certain looseness and irregularity. A general progress towards a florid and sprawling hand is easily recognisable, but a consistent and deliberate style was hardly evolved before the 5th century, from which unfortunately few dated documents have survived. 1322:. In both vellum and paper manuscripts from 4th-century Egypt are other forms of script, particularly a sloping, rather inelegant hand derived from the literary hand of the 3rd century, which persisted until at least the 5th century. The three great early codices of the Bible are all written in uncials of the biblical type. In the 204:, and annotations so as to functionally aid speed, efficiency and ease of writing and in some registers to importantly save invaluable space of the medium. Hence, the specialist-palaeographer, philologist and semiotician must know how to, in the broadest sense, interpret, comprehend and understand them. Knowledge of individual 8009: 2841:

transformations, for book purposes, of the cursive documentary script that had grown out of the later Roman cursive would get under way in France by the mid-7th century. In Spain half-uncial and cursive would both be transformed into a new script, the Visigothic minuscule, no later than the early 8th century.

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became widely used, and in the 16th century began to compete with the Gothic cursive. In the 17th century, writing masters were divided between the two schools, and there was in addition a whole series of compromises. The Gothic characters gradually disappeared, except a few that survived in Germany.

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influences at work, letters being borrowed from one alphabet for another. This led to compromises of all sorts and of infinite variety between the uncial and half-uncial and the cursive. It will readily be understood that the origin of the Carolingian minuscule, which must be sought in this tangle of

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Though less than a century intervenes between the Ravenna cursive and the oldest extant Merovingian document (AD 625), there is a great difference in appearance between the two writings. The facile flow of the former is replaced by a cramped style, in which the natural slope to the right gives way to

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The fall of the Empire and the establishment of the barbarians within its former boundaries did not interrupt the use of the Roman minuscule cursive hand, which was adopted by the newcomers. But for gaps of over a century in the chronological series of documents which have been preserved, it would be

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is derived from Brahmi. The Brahmi is also the ancestral script of most other Indian scripts, in northern and southern South Asia. Legends and inscriptions in Brahmi are engraved upon leather, wood, terracotta, ivory, stone, copper, bronze, silver and gold. Arabic got an important place, particularly

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The view that the art of writing in India developed gradually, as in other areas of the world, by going through the stages of pictographic, ideographic and transitional phases of the phonetic script, which in turn developed into syllabic and alphabetic scripts was challenged by Falk and others in the

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cursive tends to an exuberant hand, in which the long strokes are excessively extended and individual letters often much enlarged. But not a few hands of the 5th and 6th centuries are truly handsome and show considerable technical accomplishment. Both an upright and a sloping type occur and there are

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Papyri of the Roman period are far more numerous and show greater variety. The cursive of the 1st century has a rather broken appearance, part of one character being often made separately from the rest and linked to the next letter. A form characteristic of the 1st and 2nd century and surviving after

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The development of any hand is largely influenced by the materials used. To this general rule the Greek script is no exception. Whatever may have been the period at which the use of papyrus or leather as a writing material began in Greece (and papyrus was employed in the 5th century BC), it is highly

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and specifics of printed typology, syntagm and proxemics must be assessed as a collective undertaking. Philological knowledge of the register, language, vocabulary, and grammar generally used at a given time, place and circumstance may assist palaeographers to identify a hierarchy of texts in a suite

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The topography of later medieval writing is still being studied; national varieties can, of course, be identified but the problem of distinguishing features becomes complicated as a result of the development of international relations, and the migration of clerks from one end of Europe to the other.

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Attention should be drawn at the outset to certain fundamental definitions and principles of the science. The original characters of an alphabet are modified by the material and the implements used. When stone and chisel are discarded for papyrus and reed-pen, the hand encounters less resistance and

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In the book-hand of early papyri, neither accents nor breathings were employed. Their use was established by the beginning of the Roman period, but was sporadic in papyri, where they were used as an aid to understanding, and therefore more frequently in poetry than prose, and in lyrical oftener than

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Hands of the 11th century are marked in general (though there are exceptions) by a certain grace and delicacy, exact but easy; those of the 12th by a broad, bold sweep and an increasing freedom, which readily admits uncial forms, ligatures and enlarged letters but has not lost the sense of style and

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is rather flat, its second loop reduced to a practically straight line. Partly by the broad flat tops of the larger letters, partly by the insertion of a stroke connecting those (like H, Υ) which are not naturally adapted to linking, the scribes produced the effect of a horizontal line along the top

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system to indicate certain vowels. Early Phoenician-derived scripts did not have letters for vowels, and so most texts recorded just consonants. Most likely as a consequence of phonetic changes in North Semitic languages, the Aramaeans reused certain letters in the alphabet to represent long vowels.

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The oldest example of minuscule cursive writing that has been discovered is a letter on papyrus, found in Egypt, dating from the 4th century. This marks a highly important date in the history of Latin writing, for with only one known exception, not yet adequately explained—two fragments of imperial

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following in the 13th century. After a lapse of a few centuries the Kharoṣṭhi script became obsolete; the Greek script in India went through a similar fate and disappeared. But the Brahmi and Arabic scripts endured for a much longer period. Moreover, there was a change and development in the Brahmi

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But from the first there were several styles, varying from the formal, regular hands characteristic of service books to the informal style, marked by numerous abbreviations, used in manuscripts intended only for a scholar's private use. The more formal hands were exceedingly conservative, and there

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The development of the Ptolemaic book-hand is difficult to trace, as there are few examples, mostly not datable on external grounds. Only for the 3rd century BC have we a secure basis. The hands of that period have an angular appearance; there is little uniformity in the size of individual letters,

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Documents of the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BC show there is nothing analogous to the Apollonius letters, perhaps partly by the accident of survival. In the more formal types the letters stand rather stiffly upright, often without the linking strokes, and are more uniform in size; in the more

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is extended far upwards and at times flattened out until it is little more than a diagonal stroke to the right. The attempt to secure a horizontal line along the top is here abandoned. This style was not due to inexpertness, but to the desire for speed, being used especially in accounts and drafts,

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in 5 BC. In the Aramaic papyri and potsherds, words are separated usually by a small gap, as in modern writing. At the turn of the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, the heretofore uniform Aramaic letters developed new forms, as a result of dialectal and political fragmentation in several subgroups. The

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Palaeography may be employed to provide information about the date at which a document was written. However, "paleography is a last resort for dating" and, "for book hands, a period of 50 years is the least acceptable spread of time" with it being suggested that "the 'rule of thumb' should probably

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and discourse material production systems is foundational to the study of handwriting and printing events and to the identification of the periods in which a document or manuscript may have been produced. An important goal may be to assign the text a date and a place of origin, or determining which

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James J. John points out that the disappearance of imperial authority around the end of the 5th century in most of the Latin-speaking half of the Roman Empire does not entail the disappearance of the Latin scripts, but rather introduced conditions that would allow the various provinces of the West

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In Spain, after the Visigothic conquest, the Roman cursive gradually developed special characteristics. Some documents attributed to the 7th century display a transitional hand with straggling and rather uncouth forms. The distinctive features of Visigothic writing, the most noticeable of which is

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In the ancient cursive writing, from the 1st century onward, there are symptoms of transformation in the form of certain letters, the shape and proportions of which correspond more closely to the definition of minuscule writing than to that of majuscule. Rare and irregular at first, they gradually

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These facts may be due to accident, the few early papyri happening to represent an archaic style which had survived along with a more advanced one; but it is likely that there was a rapid development at this period, due partly to the opening of Egypt, with its supplies of papyri, and still more to

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in France, Italy and Germany as a result of the competition between the cursive and the set hands. In addition to the calligraphic uncial and half-uncial writings, which were imitative forms, little used and consequently without much vitality, and the minuscule cursive, which was the most natural

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until gradually, beginning with the fall of the Achaemenids in 331 BC and ending in the 4th century AD, it was replaced by Greek, Persian, the eastern and western dialects of Aramaic and Arabic, though not without leaving its traces in the written form of most of these. In its original Achaemenid

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went even further in the abstract to his 2005 paper "Problems of Paleographic Dating of Inscriptions" and stated: "The so-called science of paleography often relies on circular reasoning because there is insufficient data to draw precise conclusion about dating. Scholars also tend to oversimplify

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The oldest preserved documents written in the old Italian cursive show all the essential characteristics of the Roman cursive of the 6th century. In northern Italy, this hand began in the 9th century to be influenced by a minuscule book-hand which developed, as will be seen later, in the time of

2363:. It represents a compromise between the beauty and legibility of the capitals and the rapidity of the cursive, and is clearly an artificial product. It was certainly in existence by the latter part of the 4th century, for a number of manuscripts of that date are written in perfect uncial hands ( 195:

set within a register in each given dialect and language has evolved constantly, it is necessary to know how to decipher its individual substantive, occurrence make-up and constituency. For example, assessing its characters and typology as they existed in various places, times and locations. In

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The early cursive was the medium in which the minuscule forms were gradually evolved from the corresponding majuscule forms. Minuscule writing was therefore cursive in its inception. As the minuscule letters made their appearance in the cursive writing of documents, they were adopted and given

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In vellum and paper manuscripts, punctuation marks and accents were regularly used from at least the 8th century, though with some differences from modern practice. At no period down to the invention of printing did Greek scribes consistently separate words. The book-hand of papyri aimed at an

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often written high in the line. This style, from at least the latter part of the 2nd century, exercised considerable influence on the local hands, many of which show the same characteristics less pronounced; and its effects may be traced into the early part of the 4th century. Hands of the 3rd

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occurs as a letter only in the Timotheus papyrus, though it survived longer as a numeral (= 200), but the hands hardly suggest that for at least a century and a half the art of writing on papyrus had been well established. Yet before the middle of the 3rd century BC, one finds both a practised

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From the 6th through the 8th centuries, a number of so-called 'national hands' were developed throughout the Latin-speaking areas of the former Roman Empire. By the late 6th century Irish scribes had begun transforming Roman scripts into Insular minuscule and majuscule scripts. A series of

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Besides these hand of Chancery type, there are numerous less elaborate examples of cursive, varying according to the writer's skill and degree of education, and many of them strikingly easy and handsome. In some cursiveness is carried very far, the linking of letters reaching the point of

1014:). In the 1st century, the hand tended, so far as can be inferred from surviving examples, to disintegrate; one can recognise the signs which portend a change of style, irregularity, want of direction, and the loss of the feeling for style. A fortunate accident has preserved two Greek 2038:

moves more rapidly. This leads to changes in the size and position of the letters, and then to the joining of letters, and, consequently, to altered shapes. We are thus confronted at an early date with quite distinct types. The majuscule style of writing, based on two parallel lines,

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have the capital form, and apart from these test letters the general effect is one of stiffness and angularity. More striking is the hand of the earliest dated papyrus, a contract of 311 BC. Written with more ease and elegance, it shows little trace of any development towards a truly

2206:, or legal texts, documents, etc., generally engraved on bronze in cramped and careless capitals. Palaeography inherits both these types. Reproduced by scribes on papyrus or parchment, the elegant characters of the inscriptions become the square capitals of the manuscripts, and the 1352:

were furnished with drooping spurs. The hand, which is often singularly ugly, passed through various modifications, now sloping, now upright, though it is not certain that these variations were really successive rather than concurrent. A different type of uncials, derived from the

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as political powers in north India, the writing system underwent a definite change due to the use of new writing tools and techniques. Further development of the Brahmi script and perceivable changes in its evolutionary trend can be discerned during the Gupta period: in fact, the

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involved no such modification in the forms of letters as followed that from metal to papyrus. The justification for considering the two materials separately is that after the general adoption of vellum, the Egyptian evidence is first supplemented and later superseded by that of

2798:, being so exactly copied that it is sometimes difficult to determine the origin of an example. Gradually, however, the Anglo-Saxon writing developed a distinct style, and even local types, which were superseded after the Norman conquest by the Carolingian minuscule. Through 726:, and a few documents found in Egypt but written elsewhere, reveal a uniformity of style in the various portions of the Greek world; however, differences can be discerned, with it being probable that distinct local styles could be traced were there more material to analyze. 572:) and royal inscriptions. The early Old Ancient should be classified as "Ancient Aramaic" and consists of two clearly distinguished and standardised written languages, the Early Ancient Aramaic and the Late Ancient Aramaic. Aramaic was influenced at first principally by 1617:—have been read and exploited for history writing, but numerous inscriptions preserved in different museums still remain undeciphered for lack of competent palaeographic Indologists, as there is a gradual decline in the subcontinent of such disciplines as palaeography, 7303: 1625:. The discipline of ancient Indian scripts and the languages they are written needs new scholars who, by adopting traditional palaeographic methods and modern technology, may decipher, study and transcribe the various types of epigraphs and legends still extant today. 899:

of the time, and show the Ptolemaic cursive at its best. These hands have a noble spaciousness and strength, and though the individual letters are by no means uniform in size there is a real unity of style, the general impression being one of breadth and uprightness.

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are few classes of script more difficult to date than the Greek minuscule of this class. In the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries a sloping hand, less dignified than the upright, formal type, but often very handsome, was especially used for manuscripts of the classics.

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that developed due to later Northern influence. In south India from the 7th century of the common era onwards, a number of inscriptions belonging to the dynasties of Pallava, Chola and Pandya are found. These records are written in three different scripts known as

9389: 1328:, placed during the 4th century, the characteristics of the hand are least strongly marked; the letters have the forms characteristic of the type but without the heavy appearance of later manuscripts, and the general impression is one of greater roundness. In the 2236:

The rustic capitals, more practical than the square forms, soon came into general use. This was the standard form of writing, so far as books are concerned, until the 5th century, when it was replaced by a new type, the uncial, which is discussed below.

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are used as involve no change in the shape of letters. The single forms have a general resemblance (with considerable differences in detail) both to the minuscule cursive of late papyri, and to those used in modern Greek type; uncial forms were avoided.

2453:, first as marginal notes, and later for the complete books themselves. The only difference between the book-hand and that used for documents is that the principal strokes are shorter and the characters thicker. This form of the hand is usually called 8744: 2046:. Another classification, according to the care taken in forming the letters, distinguishes between the set book-hand and the cursive script. The difference in this case is determined by the subject matter of the text; the writing used for books ( 2070:). While the set book-hand, in majuscule or minuscule, shows a tendency to stabilise the forms of the letters, the cursive, often carelessly written, is continually changing in the course of years and according to the preferences of the writers. 2276:, iii) and a number of papyri. From a study of a number of documents which exhibit transitional forms, it appears that this cursive was originally simplified capital writing. The evolution was so rapid, however, that at quite an early date the 7349: 1000:

and was generally the work of practised writers. How well established the cursive hand had now become is shown in some wax tablets of this period, the writing on which, despite the difference of material, closely resemble the hands of papyri.

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have maintained an older tradition of sentence structure and style. Imperial Aramaic immediately replaced Ancient Aramaic as a written language and, with slight modifications, it remained the official, commercial and literary language of the

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in Rome continued to use the papal chancery hand until the beginning of the 13th century. The old Italian book-hand is simply a semi-cursive of the type already described as in use in the 6th century. The principal examples are derived from

1022:, one dated 88 BC, in a practically unligatured hand, the other, 22/21 BC, in a very cursive script of Ptolemaic type; and though each has non-Egyptian features the general character indicates a uniformity of style in the Hellenistic world. 3144:

and an architecture which, though still somewhat awkward, showed unmistakable signs of power and experience, and at the end of that century and in the first half of the 13th both arts reached their climax and made their boldest flights.

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Controversy turns on the question whether the Carolingian minuscule is the primitive minuscule as modified by the influence of the cursive or a cursive based on the primitive minuscule. Its place of origin is also uncertain: Rome, the

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were struck by the eminent legibility of the manuscripts, written in the improved Carolingian minuscule of the 10th and 11th centuries, in which they discovered the works of ancient authors, and carefully imitated the old writing. In

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In the course of the 10th century the hand, without losing its beauty and exactness, gained in freedom. Its finest period was from the 9th to the 12th century, after which it rapidly declined. The development was marked by a tendency

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While the set book-hand, in square or rustic capitals, was used for the copying of books, the writing of everyday life, letters and documents of all kinds, was in a cursive form, the oldest examples of which are provided by the

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The uncial hand lingered on, mainly for liturgical manuscripts, where a large and easily legible script was serviceable, as late as the 12th century, but in ordinary use it had long been superseded by a new type of hand, the

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many less ornamental hands, but there gradually emerged towards the 7th century two general types, one (especially used in letters and contracts) a current hand, sloping to the right, with long strokes in such characters at

3188:) letter-forms amusing the eye from a distance, but fatiguing on closer exposure, as if written for other purpose than to be read. For Petrarch the gothic hand violated three principles: writing, he said, should be simple ( 2875:) that effectively became the standard script for manuscripts from the 9th to the 11th centuries. The origin of this hand is much disputed. This is due to the confusion which prevailed before the Carolingian period in the 2439:

of the Roman world. The ensuing succession of documents show a continuous improvement in this form of writing, characterised by the boldness of the strokes and by the elimination of the last lingering majuscule forms. The

1159:. A comparison with the Egyptian papyri reveals great similarity in style and shows that conclusions drawn from the henads of Egypt may, with caution, be applied to the development of writing in the Greek world generally. 2233:. Neither of these forms of capital writing offers any difficulty in reading, except that no space is left between the words. Their dates are still uncertain, in spite of attempts to determine them by minute observation. 2825:(Gregory the Great, d. 604) was influential in the spread of Christianity to Britain and also sent Queens Theodelinde and Brunhilda, as well as Spanish bishops, copies of manuscripts. Furthermore, he sent the Roman monk 1789:

From the 6th to about the 10th century, the inscriptions in north India were written in a script variously named, e.g., Siddhamatrika and Kutila ("Rañjanā script"). From the 8th century, Siddhamatrika developed into the

2116:(1708), which remained a standard work in the specific field of Greek palaeography for more than a century. With their establishment of palaeography, Mabillon and his fellow Benedictines were responding to the Jesuit 549:

The term Middle Aramaic refers to the form of Aramaic which appears in pointed texts and is reached in the 3rd century AD with the loss of short unstressed vowels in open syllables, and continues until the triumph of

7976: 880:, were written in cursive hands, and, conversely, the book-hand was occasionally used for documents. Since the scribe did not date literary rolls, such papyri are useful in tracing the development of the book-hand. 1449:

in other verse. In the cursive of papyri they are practically unknown, as are marks of punctuation. Punctuation was effected in early papyri, literary and documentary, by spaces, reinforced in the book-hand by the

1590:

in the royalty, during the medieval period and it provides rich material for history writing. The decipherment and subsequent development of Indus glyphs is also a matter for continuing research and discussion.

1640:

engraved in the Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts are in the Prakrit language: thus, originally the language employed in the inscriptions was Prakrit, with Sanskrit adopted at a later stage. Past the period of the

8739: 7325: 2995:

have been suggested, but no agreement has been reached. In any case, the appearance of the new hand is a turning point in the history of culture. So far as Latin writing is concerned, it marks the dawn of

2431:

become more numerous and more constant and by degrees supplant the majuscule forms, so that in the history of the Roman cursive there is no precise boundary between the majuscule and minuscule periods.

1317:

is called the Byzantine period, that is, roughly from AD 300 to 650, is known as the biblical hand. It went back to at least the end of the 2nd century and had had originally no special connection with

709:

for the period preceding the 4th or 5th century AD, the earliest of which take back our knowledge only to the end of the 4th century BC. This limitation is less serious than might appear, since the few

9458: 2136:, gave a new direction to the study of scripts by stressing the importance of ductus (the shape and order of the strokes used to compose letters) in studying the historical development of scripts. 1405:

to the intrusion, in growing quantity, of uncial forms which good scribes could fit into the line without disturbing the unity of style but which, in less expert hands, had a disintegrating effect;

3922:—inclusive of the "Vellum and Paper Manuscripts" subsection—specialist sources have been consulted and thoroughly perused for the relevant text and citations, as follows: primarily the article on 8895: 8535: 5792: 870:

bureaucracy. From here onward, the two types of script were sufficiently distinct (though each influenced the other) to require separate treatment. Some literary papyri, like the roll containing

8004: 4341:—especially the parts relating to "Minuscule writing"—are mainly based on the specialist writings consulted and cited throughout the text, from the following sources: primarily the article on 8935: 7122: 3169:'s compact book hand, the wider leading and reduced compression and round curves are early manifestations of the reaction against the crabbed Gothic secretarial minuscule we know today as " 8111: 2829:

to Britain on a missionary journey, on which Augustine may have brought manuscripts. Although Italy's dominance as a centre of manuscript production began to decline, especially after the

2715:, did not appear until later, in the book-hand. The book-hand became set at an early date. In the 8th century it appears as a sort of semi-cursive; the earliest example of certain date is 949:

of the writing, from which the letters seem to hang. This feature is indeed a general characteristic of the more formal Ptolemaic script, but it is specially marked in the 3rd century BC.

9953: 9328: 1100:

century uninfluenced by it show a falling off from the perfection of the 2nd century; stylistic uncertainty and a growing coarseness of execution mark a period of decline and transition.

9340: 136:. This discipline is important for understanding, authenticating, and dating historic texts. However, in the absence of additional evidence, it cannot be used to pinpoint exact dates. 104:

of the analysis of historical writing systems, the historicity of manuscripts and texts, subsuming deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, including the analysis of historic

7320: 3028: 2120:, who doubted the authenticity of some of the documents which the Benedictines offered as credentials for the authorisation of their monasteries. In the 19th century such scholars as 9384: 3157:

editions and ceremonial documents. In common use, it degenerated into a cursive which became more and more intricate, full of superfluous strokes and complicated by abbreviations.

9053: 8106: 7739: 7298: 697:

A history of Greek handwriting must be incomplete owing to the fragmentary nature of evidence. If one rules out the inscriptions on stone or metal, which belong to the science of

8021: 9538: 9514: 9482: 9372: 596:, the script used to write it underwent a change into something more cursive. The best examples of this script come from documents written on papyrus from Egypt. About 500 BC, 9526: 9421: 2077:

shows the zenith of its modifications at once, for its history is divided into two very unequal periods, the first dominated by majuscule and the second by minuscule writing.

1432: 2753:

One by one, the national minuscule cursive hands were replaced by a set minuscule hand which has already been mentioned and its origins may now be traced from the beginning.

8125: 7722: 9585: 7090: 1889:, and their script differs from the Northern version in being more angular. Most of the modern scripts of South India have evolved from this script, with the exception of 8854: 7431: 2280:

of the Roman world can no longer be described as capitals. By the 1st century, this kind of writing began to develop the principal characteristics of two new types: the

2468:

possible to follow the evolution of the Roman cursive into the so-called "national hands", forms of minuscule writing which flourished after the barbarian invasions in

737:") and within each of these classes several distinct styles were employed side by side; and the various types are not equally well represented in the surviving papyri. 9767: 7286: 3291:

The humanistic minuscule soon gave rise to a sloping cursive hand, known as the Italian, which was also taken up by printers in search of novelty and thus became the

2338:

Although the characteristic forms of the uncial type appear to have their origin in the early cursive, the two hands are nevertheless quite distinct. The uncial is a

9813: 9580: 8998: 6620: 729:

Further, during any given period several types of hand may exist together. There was a marked difference between the hand used for literary works (generally called "

5840: 7746: 7636: 7344: 7136: 4555: 9795: 8518: 9590: 7703: 7554: 7537: 237: 65: 57: 5620:

Elements of South-Indian Palæography, from the Fourth to the Seventeenth Century A.D., Being an Introduction to the Study of South-Indian Inscriptions and MSS

10087: 8653: 8880: 7798: 7011: 3160:

In the first quarter of the 15th century an innovation took place which exercised a decisive influence on the evolution of writing in Europe. The Italian

10841: 9565: 9092: 8703: 8579: 6781: 2611:

in northern Italy, where it was displaced by the Carolingian minuscule during the 9th century. In southern Italy, this hand persisted, developing into a

1230:, and with much linking of letters, and another (frequent in accounts), which shows, at least in essence, most of the forms of the later minuscule. (cf. 8144: 3288:. The printers played a still more significant part in establishing this form of writing by using it, from the year 1465, as the basis for their types. 2576:; under this influence it gradually disappeared, and ceased to exist in the course of the 12th century. In southern Italy, it persisted far on into the 8089: 8161: 5299: 3591: 10081: 8369: 8149: 5295: 3565: 2181:

writing, known as capitals. These characters form the main stem from which developed all the branches of Latin writing. On the oldest monuments (the

1245:

In the Byzantine period, the book-hand, which in earlier times had more than once approximated to the contemporary cursive, diverged widely from it.

274: 4370: 10093: 9570: 9463: 9426: 9227: 8016: 2132:

contributed greatly to making palaeography independent from diplomatic. In the 20th century, the "New French School" of palaeographers, especially

1886: 3699: 2229:. The finest examples of rustic capitals, the use of which is attested by papyri of the 1st century, are to be found in manuscripts of Virgil and 10831: 9406: 9141: 6362: 4915:

Fac-similé de chartes et diplômes mérovingiens et carlovingiens: sur papyrus et sur parchemin compris dans l'inventaire des Monuments historiques

9725: 3243:

and had transcribed texts to support himself—presumably, as Martin Davies points out— before he went to Rome in 1403 to begin his career in the

10892: 9620: 9204: 9116: 7424: 5438: 9943: 9715: 9575: 9362: 8859: 7614: 5793:

12th to 17th century manuscripts originating from Europe and the Middle East, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries

1954: 3863: 413:

to the borders of India, becoming extremely popular and being adopted by many people, both with or without any previous writing system. The

8780: 7385: 3844: 1946:

and the early Eastern Chalukyas in the east who ruled the Kannada and Telugu speaking areas respectively, during the 4th to 7th centuries.

1111:

Several different types of book-hand were used in the Roman period. Particularly handsome is a round, upright hand seen, for example, in a

10284: 9702: 9308: 8977: 8679: 8130: 7604: 1857:

also employed "nail-headed" characters in some of their inscriptions. During the 3rd–4th century, the script used in the inscriptions of

5280: 4474: 4402: 4358: 3947: 3176:

Petrarch was one of the few medieval authors to have written at any length on the handwriting of his time; in his essay on the subject,

651: 9887: 9555: 9509: 9148: 8445: 7697: 7148: 5758: 2342:, closely related to the capital writing, from which it differs only in the rounding off of the angles of certain letters, principally 5250:, Rome, 1924, iv, pp. 126ff; G. Cencetti, "Postilla nuova a un problema paleografico vecchio: l'origine della minuscola carolina", in 2766:. This quasi-minuscule writing, known as the "half-uncial" thus derives from a long line of mixed hands which, in a synoptic chart of 1234:.) This is often upright, though a slope to the right is quite common, and sometimes, especially in one or two documents of the early 9504: 9499: 9194: 7864: 4304: 2005: 1461:, the high, low and middle points, were established in the book-hand by the Roman period; in early Ptolemaic papyri, a double point ( 876: 9396: 7127: 1865:

developed a unique style of letter-forms with elongated verticals and artistic flourishes, which did not continue after their rule.

608:" (the oldest dated example, from Egypt, belonging to 495 BC) is based on an otherwise unknown written form of Ancient Aramaic from 10810: 10217: 8804: 8503: 7006: 5876: 1457:, a more elaborate form of this, marked the beginning of lyrics or the principal sections of a longer work. Punctuation marks, the 269:

with precision; eliciting a professional authenticity in documentation, textual and manuscript evaluation with view to producing a

9058: 2410: 9958: 9433: 8940: 8775: 8589: 8513: 8101: 7202: 5811:

by Mario Tonelotto : an example of critical edition from 4 different manuscripts (transcription from medieval palaeography).

8955: 7971: 449:

simplified some of the letters, thickened and rounded their lines: a specific feature of its letters is the distinction between

9857: 9543: 9531: 9519: 9487: 9401: 9377: 9345: 9333: 9034: 9016: 8967: 8621: 7909: 7212: 6195: 4613: 2802:

and his followers, Irish writing spread to the continent, and manuscripts were written in the Irish hand in the monasteries of

5676: 650:

form, Imperial Aramaic is found in texts of the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. These come mostly from Egypt and especially from the

445:

in India, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia. Initially, the Aramaic script did not differ from the Phoenician, but then the

10745: 10053: 9892: 9303: 8362: 7291: 5698: 5398: 4002: 3986: 3966: 3200:

was a great admirer of Petrarch; from Boccaccio's immediate circle this post-Petrarchan "semi-gothic" revised hand spread to

3140:

period . The creative effort which began in the post-Carolingian period culminated at the beginning of the 12th century in a

2778:(cursive), from which its characteristic forms were successively derived. It had a considerable influence on the continental 2677:. It is represented by thirty-eight royal diplomas, a number of private charters and the authenticating documents of relics. 895:, to this agent, Zeno, and those of the Palestinian sheikh, Toubias, are in a type of script which cannot be very unlike the 5764: 5714:(A scholarly site providing over 100 French manuscripts from 1300 to 1700 with tools for deciphering and transcribing them.) 4941: 10038: 9882: 9650: 9189: 9158: 8628: 8559: 8275: 8211: 8189: 7870: 7113: 6393: 7141: 2741:

The Irish and Anglo-Saxon hands, which were not directly derived from the Roman minuscule cursive, will be discussed in a

2541:, a generic term which comprises several local varieties. These may be classified under four principal types: two for the 1564:) was used at the same time in the northwest, next to Brahmi (at least influenced by Aramaic) elsewhere. In addition, the 845:

have the capital forms. A similar impression is made by the few other papyri, chiefly literary, dating from about 300 BC;

9168: 8946: 8824: 8814: 8604: 8450: 8285: 7487: 7217: 7167: 5909: 5797: 2892:. Nor is this all. Apart from these reciprocal influences affecting the movement of the hand across the page, there were 1677: 9494: 7727: 3251:

identifies the watershed moment in the development of the new humanistic hand as the youthful Poggio's transcription of

3219:

A more thorough reform of handwriting than the Petrarchan compromise was in the offing. The generator of the new style (

10885: 10048: 9123: 8885: 8248: 8030: 7569: 4552: 4027: 499:. The wide diffusion of Aramaic letters led to its writing being used not only in monumental inscriptions, but also on 8523: 2790:

The half-uncial hand was introduced in Ireland along with Latin culture in the 5th century by priests and laymen from

1262:

from elsewhere, and that during this period the hand most used was one not previously employed for literary purposes.

10836: 9730: 8633: 8599: 8584: 7579: 7419: 7414: 7402: 6865: 5684: 5571: 5464: 5373: 5311: 5215: 5182: 4664: 3779: 3519: 1700:

documents are written in both Sanskrit and Tamil. Kannada is used in texts dating from about the 5th century and the

600:(522–486) made the Aramaic used by the imperial administration into the official language of the western half of the 8687: 7670: 5738: 1189:

The cursive hand of the 4th century shows some uncertainty of character. Side by side with the style founded on the

10726: 10708: 9630: 9256: 8972: 8648: 8611: 8484: 8355: 7185: 7180: 6839: 5618: 8809: 8755: 8616: 7175: 7016: 5848: 3997:, trad. Daibhm O. Cróinin & David Ganz, Cambridge University Press, 1990, esp. Part A "Codicology", pp. 7–37. 10360: 10277: 10250: 9672: 8715: 8697: 8530: 8221: 7190: 7043: 6573: 6191: 5566:. (Oxford Palaeographical Handbooks.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969. Revised edition London: Scolar Press, 1979, 5346:, noted in Albert Derolez, "The script reform of Petrarch: an illusion?" in John Haines, Randall Rosenfeld, eds. 3667: 7532: 5306:, Forschungen zur Bozner Stadtgeschichte, vol. 1, Bozen-Bolzano: Verlagsanstalt Athesia, pp. 399–432, 4844: 944:, which sometimes takes the form of two almost perpendicular strokes joined only at the top, are usually small; 10685: 10338: 9852: 9844: 9807: 9789: 9610: 9443: 9298: 9153: 9101: 9074: 8836: 8433: 8231: 8042: 7897: 7609: 7564: 7549: 7073: 4270: 4263:

Indian epigraphy: a guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan languages

4177: 3446: 2988: 2256: 2187: 2032: 6625: 11156: 10878: 10602: 9948: 9916: 9839: 9645: 8672: 8564: 8438: 7559: 7482: 7436: 6131: 3441: 3012:

letter-forms. This style remained predominant, with some regional variants, until the 15th century, when the

2897:

pre-Carolingian hands, involves disagreement. The new writing is admittedly much more closely related to the

2837:, its manuscripts—and more important, the scripts in which they were written—were distributed across Europe. 2129: 667: 140: 89: 75: 9352: 9008: 5541: 4580: 4352: 3941: 3008:

In the 12th century, Carolingian minuscule underwent a change in its appearance and adopted bold and broken

1849:

were written in what are known as "box-headed" and "nail-headed" characters. It may be noted that the early

816:, which dates from the second half of the 4th century BC and its script has a curiously archaic appearance. 11244: 11239: 11196: 10383: 10139: 10001: 9818: 9448: 9416: 8905: 8057: 7117: 5948: 5869: 3436: 349: 240:. Secondly, the historical usages of various styles of handwriting, common writing customs, and scribal or 17: 8765: 7817: 3569: 3300:

The Italian became universally used, brought to perfection in more recent times by English calligraphers.

10304: 10210: 10043: 9909: 9801: 9779: 8982: 8950: 8900: 8708: 8658: 8549: 8290: 8052: 7928: 7922: 7903: 7108: 6937: 6820: 6367: 5817: 4365: 3613:, Paris, Ludovicum Guerin (1708); André Vauchez, Richard Barrie Dobson, Adrian Walford, Michael Lapidge, 3376: 2026: 1684:

are in Prakrit, while their later records (belonging to the 5th century) are written in Sanskrit. In the

1636:. Besides Prakrit, the Ashokan edicts are also written in Greek and Aramaic. Moreover, all the edicts of 1535: 887:

hands. There are none from chancelleries of the Hellenistic monarchs, but some letters, notably those of

8426: 8079: 4063:, Agocs, PA (2013). In: Castagnoli, L. and Ceccarelli, P, (eds.), Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. 3514:, pp. 131–3: By William Shakespeare, Charles Hamilton, John Fletcher (Glenbridge Publishing Ltd., 1994) 2913:), which recall the cursive, by the joining of certain letters, and by the clubbing of the tall letters 11234: 10309: 10270: 10130: 10007: 9984: 9869: 9772: 9710: 9682: 9318: 9131: 8864: 8638: 8295: 8226: 7881: 7751: 7680: 6825: 6659: 6649: 5537: 5207: 3730: 3466: 745:

to rounded ones ("uncials"). But only certain letters were affected by this development, in particular

10324: 9087: 8035: 7966: 7856: 5802:

Collection of online exercises for the transcription of a variety of scripts, from 8th to 15th century

3646: 2871:

began to consolidate power over a large area of western Europe, scribes developed a minuscule script (

2225:

of ancient times, only a few fragments have survived, the most famous being pages from manuscripts of

1408:

to the disproportionate enlargement of single letters, especially at the beginnings and ends of lines;

10155: 10065: 9411: 7763: 7244: 6786: 6615: 6267: 5174: 4056: 3538: 2100:

was published in 1681, is widely regarded as the founder of the twin disciplines of palaeography and

8154: 3273: 3117: 1281: 10396: 10352: 10347: 10150: 8930: 8910: 8467: 8401: 8236: 7811: 7281: 7068: 7025: 6816: 6513: 5778: – Outdated (published 1912) but good and useful illustrated handbook, available as facsimile. 5553:

Codices Latini Antiquiores: A Palaeographical Guide to Latin Manuscripts Prior to the Ninth Century

4542: 3770:(2005). "Problems of Paleographic Dating of Inscriptions". In Levy, Thomas; Higham, Thomas (eds.). 3052: 2893: 2830: 1680:

is considered to be the earliest so far. The earlier writings (4th century) of Salankayanas of the

1498: 1454: 912:, with the middle stroke reduced to a very shallow curve, sometimes approaching a horizontal line, 866:, which systematically copied literary and scientific works, and to the multifarious activities of 801: 637: 621: 8265: 5364:

Ferrari, Mirella (1988). "La 'littera antiqua' a Milan, 1417–1439". In Autenrieth, Johanne (ed.).

4362:. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 556–579 see pages 567 to 573. 3951:. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 556–579 see pages 557 to 567. 1593:

Most of the available inscriptions and manuscripts written in the above scripts—in languages like

10987: 10805: 10593: 10240: 10145: 9640: 9082: 8319: 8258: 8184: 8047: 7828: 7584: 7397: 7392: 7370: 7332: 7312: 6946: 6942: 6759: 6632: 6595: 6578: 6398: 5862: 4892:

Les diplômes originaux des Mérovingiens: fac-similés phototypiques avec notices et transcriptions

3860: 3543: 3133: 3129: 2826: 1358: 928:, whose last stroke is prolonged upwards above the line, often curving backwards, are all broad; 892: 671: 512: 8457: 8421: 4005:. These texts will be referred to throughout the present article with relevant inline citations. 3100:, it was taught as an alternative script in some areas until the 1970s; it is no longer taught. 2042:, is opposed to the minuscule, based on a system of four lines, with letters of unequal height, 1568:

were also added to the Indian context after its penetration in the early centuries AD, with the

10769: 9974: 9926: 9921: 8890: 8844: 8693: 8199: 7653: 7626: 7596: 7460: 7407: 7224: 7100: 6995: 6835: 6830: 6688: 6654: 6642: 6637: 6600: 6550: 6408: 6388: 6074: 6019: 5733: 5723: 5717: 5588: 5490: 4642: 4394: 4235:

There are few available texts relating to "Indian palaeography", among which Ahmad Hasan Dani,

3974: 3615: 3232: 2819:

gradually to drift apart in their writing habits, a process that began around the 7th century.

2588:. It is formal in appearance at first, but is gradually simplified, under the influence of the 1842: 1478: 9453: 7708: 2925:. Most palaeographers agree in assigning the new hand the place shown in the following table: 2198:

Epigraphists divide the numerous inscriptions of this period into two quite distinct classes:

1545:, was discontinuous with earlier, undeciphered, glyphs, and was invented specifically by King 11224: 10947: 10784: 10334: 10098: 9989: 9969: 9834: 9784: 9677: 9667: 9357: 9323: 9232: 8243: 7981: 7876: 7803: 7675: 7078: 6795: 6749: 6744: 6693: 6357: 6338: 6154: 6049: 4469: 3596: 3551: 3036: 2854: 2589: 2394: 2105: 1927: 1705: 1414:

to the enlargement of accents, breathings at the same time acquiring the modern rounded form.

1388:. In its earliest examples it is upright and exact but lacks flexibility; accents are small, 1381: 677: 345: 329: 156: 43: 9902: 9313: 8849: 5270: 4440:

R. Marichal, "Paleography" in New Encyclopaedia New York: Gale-Thomson, 2003 Vol. X, p. 773.

3284:

adopted the new fashion for some purposes, and thus contributed to its diffusion throughout

1958:

Coin of Vikramadytia Chandragupta II with the name of the king in Brahmi script, 5th century

1791: 1334:, which is not much later, the letters are larger and more heavily made; in the 5th-century 920:, with its cross-bar extending much further to the left than to the right of the up-stroke, 539:

Old Aramaic (in turn subdivided into Ancient, Imperial, Old Eastern and Old Western Aramaic)

10977: 10185: 9662: 9003: 8720: 8075: 7915: 7648: 7524: 7495: 7266: 6928: 6902: 6849: 6683: 6610: 6455: 6420: 6374: 6342: 6220: 5934: 5655: 5642: 3767: 3481: 3411: 3401: 3257: 3228: 3013: 2921: 1393: 1319: 1193:, regular in formation and with tall and narrow letters, which characterised the period of 888: 813: 794: 517: 341: 295: 209: 201: 7956: 4301: 3170: 2584:

and principally used in papal documents, is distinguished by the formation of the letters

1527: 8: 11229: 11203: 11094: 11017: 9979: 8725: 8139: 7846: 7542: 6754: 6666: 6425: 6059: 6024: 5927: 5455:(1981). "Early humanistic script and the first roman type". In McKitterick, David (ed.). 3491: 3331: 3137: 2997: 2455: 1939: 1701: 1673: 1198: 1168: 863: 593: 558: 426: 410: 402: 213: 183:, as it addresses a suite of interrelated lines of inquiry. First, since the style of an 101: 10870: 9477: 9047: 8462: 8166: 6774: 4829: 4450: 3532: 3112: 11166: 11132: 11099: 11069: 11029: 10942: 10906: 10902: 10716: 10205: 10200: 10135: 10018: 9931: 9762: 9438: 8770: 8554: 7619: 7574: 6933: 6889: 6844: 6467: 6413: 6334: 5905: 5432: 5300:"Das Bozner Stadtbuch: Handschrift 140 – das Amts- und Privilegienbuch der Stadt Bozen" 4483: 4218: 4091: 3722: 3416: 3381: 3224: 2872: 2674: 2663: 2538: 2493: 2489: 2121: 1992: 1774: 1586: 1363: 1304: 1178: 723: 682: 589: 525: 508: 319: 125: 109: 7475: 5105: 4465: 3272:. The new script was embraced and developed by the Florentine humanists and educators 2537:

In Italy, after the close of the Roman and Byzantine periods, the writing is known as

1103: 714:

not of Egyptian origin which have survived from this period, like the parchments from

307: 11104: 11012: 10957: 10937: 10372: 10023: 9877: 9625: 8922: 7933: 7772: 7197: 6956: 6895: 6854: 6671: 6556: 6492: 6403: 6380: 6324: 6232: 5965: 5694: 5680: 5567: 5529: 5510: 5460: 5394: 5369: 5307: 5211: 5199: 5178: 5154: 4895: 4814: 4793: 4386: 4276: 4266: 4183: 4173: 4095: 3998: 3990: 3982: 3962: 3931: 3775: 3755: 3726: 3700:"The Use and Abuse of P52: Papyrological Pitfalls in the Dating of the Fourth Gospel" 3515: 3277: 3032: 2704: 2640: 2627: 2577: 2497: 2384: 2285: 2158: 2149: 601: 573: 521: 492: 337: 5844: 4607: 4241:

Elements of South-Indian Palaeography, from the Fourth to the Seventeenth Century AD

3016:

scripts revived a version of Carolingian minuscule. It then spread from the Italian

2615:

of writing, and in the 10th century took on a very artistic angular appearance. The

1606: 1367:(6th or 7th century). A combination of this hand with the other type is also known. 785: 11249: 11064: 11039: 11005: 11000: 10967: 10190: 9897: 9720: 9696: 9657: 9237: 8394: 7784: 7643: 7631: 6923: 6883: 6878: 6703: 6590: 6525: 6352: 6347: 6329: 6187: 5988: 5941: 5831: 5775: 5730:

Palaeography: reading old handwriting 1500 – 1800: A practical online tutorial

5729: 5726:(A comprehensive PDF file containing 71 pages profusely illustrated, January 2024). 5720:(A comprehensive PDF file containing 82 pages profusely illustrated, January 2024). 5592: 5502: 4646: 4351: 4210: 4083: 3940: 3714: 3471: 2117: 2109: 1987: 1968: 1858: 1803: 1709: 1685: 1665: 1629: 1614: 1561: 1550: 1389: 605: 577: 460: 422: 394: 386: 372: 360: 281: 270: 151:, published in 1681, which was the first textbook to address the subject. The term 7512: 2560:, the old Italian book-hand and Lombardic in the narrow sense, sometimes known as 1357:

and seen in two papyrus examples of the Festal letters despatched annually by the

1048: 557:

Old Aramaic appeared in the 11th century BC as the official language of the first

11148: 11123: 10982: 10927: 9615: 9222: 8796: 8472: 7836: 7658: 7443: 7207: 7033: 6678: 5993: 5821: 5747: 5556: 5452: 5122: 4871: 4808: 4770: 4724: 4617: 4559: 4546: 4497: 4478: 4374: 4308: 3954: 3867: 3850: 3804: 3798: 3268:

library was catalogued in 1418, almost half the manuscripts were noted as in the

3248: 3009: 2601: 2399: 2192: 2162: 2125: 1931: 1918:

region, the Vattezhuttu script developed into a still more cursive script called

1846: 1713: 1569: 1553: 1377: 1324: 1300: 1235: 1027: 961: 957: 733:" but, in the papyrus period, better styled "book-hand") and that of documents (" 686: 585: 430: 376: 364: 31: 7716: 4929:

Manuel de paléographie: Recueil de fac-similés d'écritures du Ve au XVIIe siècle

4680:, i, pp. 171–261, and numerous reproductions in Zangemeister & Wattenbach's 3973:, Cambridge University Press, 1986; the essential work by British palaeographer 3629: 2202:, or formal inscriptions engraved on stone in elegant and regular capitals, and 1173: 11084: 10952: 10698: 10319: 9996: 9687: 9106: 8734: 8730: 8381: 7999: 7938: 7778: 7249: 7083: 6871: 6859: 6545: 6430: 6106: 6091: 6081: 5983: 5885: 5753: 4964: 3486: 3326: 3317: 3281: 3101: 3065: 2901:

than the primitive minuscule; this is shown by certain forms, such as the open

2859: 2822: 2505: 2215: 2174: 2074: 2008: 1982: 1977: 1911: 1903: 1862: 1834: 1669: 1653: 1610: 1565: 1385: 1112: 640:

are highly standardised. Only the formularies of the private documents and the

581: 414: 398: 368: 299:

diachronic development, assuming models of simplicity rather than complexity".

69: 47: 9936: 5506: 4201:

Salomon, Richard (1995). "Review: On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts".

4087: 3718: 2580:. The papal chancery hand, a variety of Lombardic peculiar to the vicinity of 11218: 11180: 11074: 11059: 10932: 10922: 10693: 10076: 10028: 9470: 9096: 7259: 6583: 6564: 6508: 6462: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6294: 6289: 6166: 6159: 5514: 5284:. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 556–579. 5275: 4899: 4347: 4280: 4074:

Campbell, Lewis (1891). "On the Text of the Papyrus Fragment of the Phaedo".

3936: 3831: 3426: 3356: 3296: 2799: 2731: 2682: 2549: 2518: 2435:

rescripts of the 5th century—the minuscule cursive was consequently the only

2389: 2281: 2085: 2054:) is in all periods quite distinct from that used for letters and documents ( 2014: 1972: 1963: 1882: 1819: 1811: 1799: 1778: 1681: 1642: 1578: 1574: 1542: 1411:

to ligatures, often very fantastic, which quite changed the forms of letters;

1354: 1271: 1190: 1084: 1010: 896: 706: 625: 529: 438: 434: 262: 221: 144: 113: 5739:

A comprehensive survey of all the important aspects of medieval palaeography

4297: 4187: 3650: 1822:

was used widely in northern India from the 10th century onwards. The use of

11173: 11161: 11109: 11089: 10675: 10670: 10665: 10660: 10655: 10650: 10645: 10635: 10630: 10625: 10615: 10610: 10314: 10293: 8194: 7841: 7663: 7506: 7362: 6811: 6769: 6698: 6435: 6320: 6274: 6262: 6171: 5582: 4858: 4576: 4312: 3311: 3097: 3078: 2803: 2795: 2767: 2686: 2616: 2269: 2001: 1783: 1766: 1646: 1582: 1336: 1290: 1239: 719: 176: 11187: 5805: 5776:

An introduction to Greek and Latin palaeography by Thompson, Edward Maunde

5711: 3231:

script in the first decade of the 15th century. The Florentine bookseller

3153:

the Gothic minuscule continued to improve within the restricted circle of

3082: 808:

The earliest Greek papyrus yet discovered is probably that containing the

507:. Aramaic papyri have been found in large numbers in Egypt, especially at 10962: 10800: 10195: 8477: 8119: 8095: 7465: 7453: 7375: 6951: 6764: 6568: 6304: 6252: 6227: 6210: 6149: 5546:

Paläographie des römischen Altertums und des abendländischen Mittelalters

5459:. Vol. 2 vols. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 206–29. 4913: 3406: 3351: 3341: 3292: 3285: 3244: 3236: 3150: 3141: 3121: 3086: 3074: 3017: 2868: 2612: 2597: 2573: 2501: 2133: 2101: 2089: 2073:

This being granted, a summary survey of the morphological history of the

1996: 1943: 1907: 1894: 1874: 1823: 1622: 1450: 1443: 1436: 1149: 867: 655: 617: 496: 225: 205: 192: 9367: 4034:, Leipzig: Hinrichs (1903), with content discussion. Cf. V. Strazzulla, 2849: 2444:

deeds of the 5th and 6th centuries exhibit this hand at its perfection.

2344: 1786:

is considered to be the successor of the Kushana script in north India.

1487: 39: 11079: 11024: 10033: 9040: 8683: 8253: 6915: 6503: 6257: 6215: 6201: 6069: 6054: 5786: 4112:, C.H. Beck, 1925, vol. i, pt. 4; also 1st half of new ed. of Muller's 3927: 3476: 3451: 3366: 3361: 2763: 2720: 2716: 2607: 2593: 2265: 1919: 1898: 1890: 1815: 1758: 1748: 1736: 1330: 1314: 1259: 1194: 711: 629: 254: 133: 129: 105: 5770: 5457:

Selected Essays on the History of Letter-Forms in Manuscript and Print

4222: 3180:

he criticized the current scholastic hand, with its laboured strokes (

2909: 2622:

provide the finest examples. In the 9th century, it was introduced in

1753:

In north India, the Brahmi script was used over a vast area; however,

952: 565:

of the 10th to 8th centuries BC, especially extensive state treaties (

11138: 10854: 10815: 8960: 8084: 7961: 7791: 7274: 6605: 6284: 6279: 6242: 6237: 6101: 6044: 6029: 5898: 4850: 3810: 3461: 3456: 3346: 3197: 2635: 2565: 2449: 2415: 2300: 2178: 1923: 1914:, the last variety being used to write Sanskrit inscriptions. In the 1854: 1838: 1827: 1744: 1717: 1657: 1618: 1557: 1015: 871: 742: 698: 690: 646: 609: 504: 488: 446: 333: 323: 266: 258: 233: 180: 172: 95: 81: 5604:. (Oxford Palaeographical Handbooks.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960. 5602:

English vernacular hands from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries

4416:

Palaeographia Graeca, sive, De ortu et progressu literarum graecarum

3611:

Palaeographia Graeca, sive, De ortu et progressu literarum graecarum

2359: 2330:). In this direction, the cursive tends to become a minuscule hand. 2320: 2290: 1541:

early 1990s. In the new paradigm, Indian alphabetic writing, called

1522: 11128: 10972: 9635: 8378: 6299: 6247: 5269: 4214: 3827: 3431: 3421: 3396: 3391: 3336: 3227:, a tireless pursuer of ancient manuscripts, who developed the new 3209: 3205: 3166: 3161: 3089: 2972: 2834: 2699: 2623: 2247: 2104:. However, the actual term "palaeography" was coined (in Latin) by 1935: 1878: 1877:

is represented by inscriptions found in caves, associated with the

1850: 1689: 1661: 1602: 1152:

are specimens of Greek literary hands from outside Egypt dating to

613: 597: 381: 312: 245: 188: 184: 5781: 5771:

Online Tuition in the Palaeography of Scottish Documents 1500–1750

5623:(Second enlarged and improved ed.). London: Trübner & Co. 2310: 1926:

script developed out of the Grantha script. The early form of the

1649:

came to power and supported the Sanskrit language and literature.

1079: 11116: 11054: 10774: 10365: 6086: 6064: 6014: 5918: 5854: 5391:

Boccaccio and the book: production and reading in Italy 1340–1520

5169:

John, James J. (1992). "Latin Paleography". In Powell, J. (ed.).

4831:

Paleografia e diplomatica de' documenti delle Province napolitane

3371: 3070: 3060: 3056: 3044: 2807: 2723: 2485: 2481: 2441: 2251: 2230: 1922:

during the 14th and 15th centuries. At the same time, the modern

1885:

dynasties. These are written in variants of what is known as the

1795: 1762: 1732: 1728: 1697: 1633: 1594: 1117: 1019: 884: 858:

book-hand and a developed and often remarkably handsome cursive.

830: 734: 730: 715: 500: 442: 249: 229: 121: 10779: 883:

The documents of the mid-3rd century BC show a great variety of

10764: 10759: 10754: 10262: 6519: 6096: 6009: 4877: 4401:

These two introductory paragraphs are directly quoted from the

4154:

Cf. T.W. Allen, "Notes on Abbreviations in Greek Manuscripts",

4023: 4014:

Fragments of Timotheus' poetry survive, published in T. Bergk,

3856: 3823: 3772:

The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Text and Science

3265: 3252: 3235:

recalled later in the century that Poggio had been a very fine

3213: 3093: 2992: 2727: 2631: 2473: 2447:

At this period, the minuscule cursive made its appearance as a

2226: 2166: 1915: 1807: 1754: 1693: 1637: 1546: 1254: 1182: 1138: 1032: 790: 702: 641: 633: 551: 241: 197: 5814: 4548:

Untersuchungen über ausgewählte Kapitel des antiken Buchwesens

4170:

Schrift im alten Indien: ein Forschungsbericht mit Anmerkungen

3959:

Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization,

3132:

and palaeography, and in both it is possible to distinguish a

2375: 2260:, iv), a series of waxen tablets, also discovered at Pompeii ( 1720:

made its beginning in writings from the 15th century onwards.

1431: 1426: 612:. In orthography, Imperial Aramaic preserves historical forms— 10732: 7154: 7051: 6912: 6034: 5827: 5767:(1,200 detailed references with critical comments in French). 3803:, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986, pp. 9- 15; Rainer Degen, 3760: 3387: 3055:

and the handwriting forms in western and southern Europe. In

2980: 2976: 2735: 2531: 2523: 2477: 2469: 2154: 1458: 1142: 1053: 1037: 562: 468: 418: 406: 217: 117: 87: 73: 10620: 4032:

Der Timotheos-Papyrus gefunden bei Abusir am 1. Februar 1902

561:. The oldest witnesses to it are inscriptions from northern 159:

with the publication of his work on Greek palaeography, the

6039: 5836: 5548:(Grundlagen der Germanistik 24) Erich Schmidt Verlag 1986). 5348:

Music and Medieval Manuscripts: paleography and performance

4249:

Origin of Brahmi Script: The Beginning of Alphabet in India

2984: 2791: 2670: 2581: 2546: 2354: 2349: 1770: 1628:

The language of the earliest written records, that is, the

1598: 1453:, a horizontal stroke under the beginning of the line. The 5843:. Paleographic transcription and to modern Spanish of the 5815:

ELM, a database of manuscripts written in Latin before 800

5806:

Walter Burley, Commentarium in Aristotelis De Anima L.III

5759:

Another scholarly maintained web directory on palaeography

5206:. Translated by Croinin, Daibi O; Ganz, David. Cambridge: 4042:, iviii. (1903), p. 481; and T. Reinach and M. Croiset in 3806:

Altaramäische Grammatik der Inschriften des 10-8 Jh.v.Chr.

1361:, was occasionally used, the best known example being the 10900: 4943:

Album paléographique de la Société de l'École des chartes

4795:

La scrittura latina nell' età romana (note paleografiche)

1573:

script which may be traced in time and space through the

833:

style; the letters are not linked, and though the uncial

8502: 5689:

Franz Fischer, Christiane Fritze, Georg Vogeler (eds.):

5495:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

4239:, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1997; A. C. Burnell, 2658: 1826:, a variant of Nagari script, is mostly confined to the 1181:, the oldest Greek witness of the Byzantine text in the 10640: 9796:

Professionalization and institutionalization of history

5256:

Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages, cit.

3684:(2nd ed.). London: Institute of Classical Studies. 1660:, Prakrit was used till the 4th century, mostly in the 1008:, with its cross-stroke made in two portions (variants: 969:

illegibility, and the characters sloping to the right.

592:. As Aramaic evolved into the imperial language of the 5671:

Malte Rehbein, Patrick Sahle, Torsten Schaßan (eds.):

5304:

Bozen: von den Grafen von Tirol bis zu den Habsburgern

3530: 511:—among them are official and private documents of the 10580: 10573: 10566: 10559: 10552: 10545: 10538: 10531: 10524: 10517: 10510: 10503: 10496: 10489: 10482: 10475: 10468: 10461: 10454: 10447: 10440: 10433: 10426: 10419: 10412: 10405: 10088:

Heroic theory of invention and scientific development

5014:

Numerous reproductions exists in the literature, cf.

4399:

An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography, cit.

4247:, Motilal Banarasi Das, 1957; Naresh Prasad Rastogi, 2669:

The offshoot of the Roman cursive which developed in

1664:

writings though in a few contemporary records of the

389:

with some of the mysteries represented by the letters

8936:

Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe

5748:

A scholarly maintained web directory on palaeography

4582:

Schrifttafeln zur älteren lateinischen Palaeographie

3971:

The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society

3918:

In creating and expanding the following sections on

3307: 10842:

List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks

5754:

Guide to the Paleography Study Collection 1250-1791

5639:

The Palæography of India/Bhāratīya Prācīna Lipimālā

3822:This script was also used during the reign of King 487:Aramaic writing and language supplanted Babylonian 409:, between 1000 and 600 BC. It spread from the 8896:Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia 8754: 6536: 4300:, Ch. 9; archaeological/linguistic information on 3531: 2742: 2221:Of the many books written in square capitals, the 535:Aramaic is usually divided into three main parts: 9554: 5691:Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age 2. 5534:Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages 5204:Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages 4752:For example, a certificate of AD 400 in Wessely, 4737:Schriften der wissensch. Gesellsch. in Strassburg 4431:Fourth Edition (Oxford University, 2005), p. 206. 3995:Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages 3981:, Cambridge University Press, 1912 (repr. 2013). 3104:is an informal business hand of the Renaissance. 2734:and warriors engaged in the campaign against the 273:if required and a critical assessment of a given 11216: 4756:, xiv, pl. xiii; a letter of AD 444 in Wessely, 4496:Cf. Karl Zangemeister & Wilhelm Wattenbach, 4055:Wax tablets of this period are preserved at the 2785: 1313:The prevailing type of book-hand during what in 1107:Copy of Herculanean Rolls, Greek papyrus 157–152 277:as rendered and set in a materiality or medium. 224:, and signification forms in general, subsuming 10120: 6363:Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought 5787:Self-correcting medieval palaeography exercises 5673:Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age. 5594:An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography 5425:The Origin and Development of Humanistic Script 4657:The Parentage and Birthdate of the Latin Uncial 4553:"More Facts about our Oldest Latin Manuscripts" 4345:by French palaeographist A. de Bouard, present 4143:Collezione fiorentina di facsimili paleografici 3979:An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography 3128:There are undeniable points of contact between 1949: 1248: 960:, a Greek Macedonian philosophical text dating 5761:(200 links with critical comments, in French). 4141:No. 5, Bonn, 1910; G. Vitelli & C. Paoli, 3051:These humanistic scripts are the base for the 1893:, the exact origins of which are unknown, and 1392:square in formation, and in general only such 1087:, with tall and laterally compressed letters, 311:Drawing of the hieroglyphic seal found in the 132:, etcetera, were produced, and the history of 10886: 10278: 9944:Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church 9814:Western European colonialism and colonization 8363: 5870: 5079:, iv, pl. vi, No. 668; xi, pl. vi, No. 1,379. 2564:because it flourished in the principality of 2264:, iv, supplement), a similar series found at 1716:began to appear from the 6th or 7th century. 1652:In western India and also in some regions of 658:, which existed at least from 530 to 399 BC. 11194: 11185: 11171: 11114: 8274: 4889: 4455:, Princeton University Press, 1915, pp. 1–2. 4377:, by Juan-Jose Marcos, 2011; Schiapparelli, 4367:Fonts for Latin Palaeography – User's manual 3766: 3693: 3691: 2405: 1585:and early medieval periods. The present-day 253:through discourse analysis, determining the 171:Palaeography is an essential skill for many 143:, and is considered to have been founded by 8377: 5799:Interactive Album of Mediaeval Palaeography 4137:Cf. P.F. de' Cavalieri & J. Lietzmann, 3852:Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B.C. 3568:. Civiceducationproject.org. Archived from 3120:(1364–1437), which served as the origin of 2673:under the first dynasty of kings is called 2183:inscriptiones bello Hannibalico antiquiores 2094: 2064: 2056: 2048: 1672:, Sanskrit was applied. The inscription of 1427:Accents, punctuation, and division of words 458: 441:, the parent writing system of most modern 10893: 10879: 10285: 10271: 8370: 8356: 5877: 5863: 5437:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4337:The contents of the following sections on 2425: 2370: 1930:is found in the inscriptions of the early 853:approach the uncial form, and the angular 8999:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 4036:Persiani di Eschilo ed il nomo di Timoteo 3849:, Cairo, 1931 (Nos. 1–112); G.R. Driver, 3688: 3636:, 7 Aug. 2013. Accessed 15 November 2023. 3512:Cardenio, Or, the Second Maiden's Tragedy 3023: 2088:, a French Benedictine monk, scholar and 1873:The earliest attested form of writing in 516:most important of these is the so-called 421:with a direction from right to left. The 10218:Historical geographic information system 6984: 5488: 5366:Renaissance- und Humanistenhandschriften 5294: 5267: 5198: 4931:, Paris: A. Picard et fils, 1904, pl. v. 4648:Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography 4403:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 4391:Paleografia latina. Antichità e Medioevo 4346: 4333: 4331: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4203:Journal of the American Oriental Society 4073: 3935: 3111: 3027: 2888:became a semi-cursive when adopted as a 2848: 2844: 2748: 2698: 2657: 2517: 2409: 2374: 2240: 2177:first appears in the epigraphic type of 2148: 1953: 1727: 1521: 1430: 1172: 1102: 1047: 951: 784: 681: 380: 306: 244:abbreviations, annotations conventions, 38: 10832:Precomposed Latin characters in Unicode 5664: 5616: 5522: 5451: 5388: 5363: 5171:Medieval Studies : An Introduction 5061:Ausbreitung der karolingischen Minuskel 4849:, Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1914; 4551:, BiblioBazaar, repr. 2010; E.A. Lowe, 4292: 4290: 4260: 4200: 4139:Specimina Codicum Graecorum Vaticanorum 3914: 3912: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3697: 983:has the cross-stroke only on the left, 964:, considered Europe's oldest manuscript 793:papyrus 9875 showing the 5th column of 701:, there is practically a dependence on 580:and from the 3rd century BC onwards by 354: 14: 11217: 9858:English historical school of economics 7910:Historical Series of the Bank of Italy 5964: 5627: 5609: 5482: 5422: 5368:. Munich: Oldenbourg. pp. 21–29. 5354:of Petrarch's often alluded-to reform. 4855:Paleografia artistica di Monte Cassino 4775:, Lightning Source UK Ltd, repr. 2012. 4733:Jahrbuch des gemeinen deutschen Rechts 3793: 3791: 3682:Greek Manuscripts of the Ancient World 3679: 3645:Robert P. Gwinn, "Paleography" in the 3085:, this handwriting counterpart to the 2756: 2165:, also contains an author portrait of 10874: 10266: 10174: 10119: 10054:Revisionist school of Islamic studies 9893:Historical reliability of the Gospels 9751: 9278: 8351: 8340: 6983: 6726: 6490: 6129: 5963: 5858: 5637:Ojha, Gaurishankar Hirachand (1959). 5489:D’Ottone, Arianna (3 November 2023). 4322: 4265:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4061:Speaking in the Wax Tablets of Memory 1026:and though sometimes, notably in the 661: 10816:DIN 91379: Unicode subset for Europe 10246: 8341: 7871:More Irish than the Irish themselves 5649: 5641:(in Hindi) (Third ed.). Delhi: 5636: 5564:English Cursive Bookhands, 1250–1500 5230: 5168: 5159:, Oxford: J. Parker & Co., 1912. 5001:, 63, pp. 129–130; Schiapparelli in 4816:Archivio paleografico italiano, cit. 4434: 4353:"Palaeography § Latin Writing" 4287: 4167: 4118:Das Buch bei den Griechen und Römern 3942:"Palaeography § Greek Writing" 3903: 3619:(Routledge, 2000), Volume 2, p. 1070 3600:. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 3552:participating institution membership 2188:Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum = CIL 2139: 1482: 405:, originating in what is modern-day 302: 27:Study of handwriting and manuscripts 8941:Functionalism–intentionalism debate 6130: 5491:"In Defence of Arabic Palaeography" 4379:La scrittura latina nell'età romana 4298:"South and South-East Asian Scripts 4251:, Chowkhamba Saraswatibhawan, 1980. 4018:. The cit. papyrus-fragment of his 3788: 3756:"The Paleographical Dating of P-46" 3656: 3639: 3003: 2770:, would appear close to the oldest 1231: 1162: 780: 457:. One innovation in Aramaic is the 24: 9954:Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II 7898:Fourth Italian War of Independence 5884: 5477: 5331:La scrittura di Francesco Petrarca 4699:Unc. script., explanatio tabularum 4471:Paléographie des classiques latins 4114:Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft 4028:Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 3149:During the later centuries of the 2810:during the 7th and 8th centuries. 2545:, the old Italian cursive and the 2144: 1757:inscriptions are also found using 973:is reduced to a mere acute angle ( 576:, then from the 5th century BC by 545:Modern Aramaic of the present day. 288: 196:addition, for hand-written texts, 25: 11261: 5705: 5329:, discussed by Armando Petrucci, 4798:(with 32 facsimiles), Como, 1921. 4665:American Philological Association 4418:, Paris, Ludovicum Guerin (1708). 3590:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). 3182:artificiosis litterarum tractibus 2867:Beginning in the 8th century, as 2592:, which finally prevailed in the 2462: 2333: 1704:is considered to be the earliest 1479:Chinese characters § History 1370: 987:becomes an almost straight line, 11038: 10292: 10245: 10236: 10235: 9752: 9252: 9251: 9093:Palestinian expulsion and flight 7605:5000-year civilization assertion 7181:Nadir of American race relations 5268:Thompson, Edward Maunde (1911). 4729:Fragmente zweier Kaiserrescripte 3310: 3196:) and orthographically correct. 2919:, which resulted from a cursive 2908: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2319: 2309: 2299: 2289: 1486: 1289: 1280: 1078: 1009: 10361:International Phonetic Alphabet 10082:Protestant Ethic and Capitalism 8956:Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust 8891:Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising 8698:Causes of the Armenian genocide 7007:Pyramid construction techniques 6574:Comparative historical research 6491: 6192:Library and information science 5445: 5416: 5413:Davies, in Kraye (ed.) 1996:51. 5407: 5393:. London: Legenda. p. 28. 5382: 5357: 5350:2006:5f; Derolez discusses the 5336: 5319: 5288: 5261: 5254:, 1955, pp. 1–24; B. Bischoff, 5236: 5224: 5191: 5162: 5143: 5130: 5115: 5098: 5082: 5070: 5053: 5037: 5008: 4991: 4986:Exempla scripturae visigothicae 4978: 4949: 4934: 4921: 4906: 4890:Lauer, P.; Samaran, C. (1908). 4883: 4864: 4837: 4822: 4801: 4778: 4763: 4746: 4717: 4704: 4691: 4670: 4635: 4600: 4569: 4535: 4522: 4505: 4490: 4458: 4443: 4421: 4408: 4254: 4229: 4194: 4161: 4148: 4131: 4102: 4066: 4049: 4008: 3890: 3877: 3859:: Clarendon Press, repr. 1968; 3837: 3816: 3748: 3616:Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages 3107: 2813: 2488:, and which are still known as 1818:in other parts of north India. 1061:that only as a fraction sign (= 1043: 991:acquires a shape somewhat like 862:the establishment of the great 100:, 'to write') is the study and 10094:Gunpowder and gun transmission 10044:Religionsgeschichtliche Schule 9853:Historical school of economics 9790:Nationalism in the Middle Ages 9228:Gunpowder and gun transmission 9102:Zionism as settler colonialism 8107:Limpieza de sangre controversy 7074:Metropolitan-hinterland thesis 5724:'Manual of Greek Palaeography' 5718:'Manual of Latin Palaeography' 5712:French Renaissance Paleography 5302:, in Stadtarchiv Bozen (ed.), 4517:Archivio paleografico italiano 4414:Bernard de Montfaucon et al., 4393:, Antenore, 2000 (Ital. ed.); 4243:, repr. 2012; Rajbali Pandey, 3872:The Aramaic Proverbs of Ahiqar 3826:in his edicts to spread early 3673: 3622: 3609:Bernard de Montfaucon et al., 3603: 3584: 3558: 3524: 3505: 2782:of the 7th and 8th centuries. 2033:Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 1868: 1723: 1265: 1148:In the charred rolls found at 904:, with the cross-stroke high, 166: 13: 1: 11157:Barchowsky Fluent Handwriting 9903:Opposition to Papal supremacy 9279: 7091:Indigenous population history 5849:Biblioteca Nacional de España 5617:Burnell, Arthur Coke (1878). 5124:Angelsächsische Palaeographie 4429:The Text of the New Testament 3664:Exercise of Latin Paleography 3498: 3442:List of New Testament uncials 2786:Irish and Anglo-Saxon writing 1549:for application in his royal 1153: 689:, 15th-century manuscript of 668:History of the Greek alphabet 566: 141:auxiliary sciences of history 139:The discipline is one of the 11197:Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift 10811:Western Latin character sets 9819:Desacralization of knowledge 8090:Carlism in the Francoist era 8058:Holodomor in modern politics 6727: 5210:. pp. 83–112, 190–202. 5065:Archiv für Urkundenforschung 4810:Codice paleografico lombardo 4712:Archiv für Urkundenforschung 4661:Transactions and Proceedings 3668:Gregorian University of Rome 3566:"Latin Palaeography Network" 3437:List of New Testament papyri 1950:List of South Indian scripts 1833:In central India, mostly in 1526:Paper strip with writing in 1249:Vellum and paper manuscripts 495:, even in their homeland in 350:Ancient South Arabian script 96: 82: 7: 10837:Letters used in mathematics 10211:Historiographic metafiction 10175: 10121:Organizations, publications 9910:Proto-orthodox Christianity 8860:German resistance to Nazism 8716:Persian famine of 1917–1919 8126:Islamic revolution of Spain 8053:Holodomor genocide question 7929:Revisionism of Risorgimento 7923:Rerum italicarum scriptores 7904:Historiae Patriae Monumenta 7671:Self-Strengthening Movement 6821:decolonization of knowledge 5589:Thompson, Sir Edward Maunde 5248:Miscellanea Francesco Ehrle 5127:, Mayer & Müller, 1906. 4676:A list is given in Traube, 4126:Papyri Graecae Berolinenses 4046:, xvi. (1903), pp. 62, 323. 3377:Fragmentology (manuscripts) 3303: 2774:, and between them and the 2638:, culminating in a rounded 2630:and developed there, as in 2080: 2027:History of the Latin script 1536:Linguistic history of India 1253:The change from papyrus to 472:was employed to write /ā/, 10: 11266: 10393: 10008:Wissenschaft des Judentums 9985:Criticism of Protestantism 8865:Nazi foreign policy debate 8296:Second colonial occupation 8043:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 7681:Tibetan sovereignty debate 7225:Progressive-era historians 6660:Nationalization of history 6611:Historical-critical method 5782:Free palaeographical fonts 5765:Comprehensive bibliography 5650:Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1997). 5579:Paléographie du Moyen-Âge, 5538:Cambridge University Press 5389:Daniels, Rhiannon (2009). 5208:Cambridge University Press 5173:(2nd ed.). Syracuse: 4587:Oxyrhynchus Papyri, passim 4502:, Koester, 1876, pl. I-II. 4381:, 1921; Giorgio Cencetti, 3832:"Ancient Scripts: Aramaic" 3754:Griffin, Bruce W. (1996), 3707:Harvard Theological Review 3467:Ronde script (calligraphy) 2743:separate sub-section below 2528:Origo gentis Langobardorum 2030: 2024: 1837:, the inscriptions of the 1742: 1560:(clearly derived from the 1533: 1476: 1441: 1269: 1166: 891:, the finance minister of 769:), and to a lesser extent 675: 665: 518:square Hebrew block script 513:Jewish military settlement 429:, was the ancestor of the 358: 327: 317: 88: 74: 44:William Shakespeare's will 29: 11147: 11047: 11036: 10913: 10850: 10824: 10793: 10743: 10725: 10707: 10684: 10601: 10592: 10381: 10333: 10300: 10230: 10181: 10170: 10126: 10115: 10064: 9868: 9827: 9758: 9747: 9603: 9289: 9285: 9274: 9246: 9215: 9179: 9073: 9027: 9013:Second Sino-Japanese War 8991: 8921: 8873: 8835: 8795: 8671: 8493: 8412: 8388: 8347: 8336: 8312: 8210: 8177: 8068: 7992: 7949: 7890: 7855: 7827: 7818:Vergangenheitsbewältigung 7762: 7689: 7595: 7523: 7237: 7166: 7099: 7061: 6994: 6990: 6979: 6804: 6737: 6733: 6722: 6499: 6486: 6313: 6180: 6142: 6138: 6125: 6002: 5976: 5972: 5959: 5892: 5507:10.1163/15685209-12341610 5175:Syracuse University Press 5110:Semiuncial Script, passim 4853:in O. Piscicelli Taeggi, 4792:, lxxiv, p. 55; also his 4790:Archivio storico italiano 4784:Cf. Luigi Schiapparelli, 4585:, Leipzig, E. Avenarius; 4499:Exempla codicum Latinorum 4449:Cf. Henry B. Van Hoesen, 4373:11 September 2017 at the 4311:. Accessed 3 April 2013; 4261:Salomon, Richard (1998). 4110:Griechische Palaeographie 4088:10.1017/S0009840X00179582 4057:University College London 4044:Revue des etudes grecques 3961:Oxford: Blackwell, 2009. 3719:10.1017/S0017816005000842 3539:Oxford English Dictionary 3073:handwriting of the later 2945: 2935: 2833:and the invasions by the 2420:Chronica archiepiscoporum 2406:Minuscule cursive writing 1769:. With the advent of the 1238:period, it has an almost 1121:III. The cross-stroke of 1056:'s verses, 1st century BC 995:, and the last stroke of 849:may be slightly rounded, 10397:ISO basic Latin alphabet 10353:ISO basic Latin alphabet 10348:Classical Latin alphabet 9768:Crisis of historiography 8931:Auschwitz bombing debate 8617:Indian Rebellion of 1857 8468:Late Bronze Age collapse 8402:List of military museums 8005:Pre-Revolutionary Russia 7977:Polish People's Republic 7812:Sybel-Ficker controversy 7176:African-American history 7149:Colonial Spanish America 6938:Second Thirty Years' War 5826:French paleography with 5628:Pandey, Rajbali (1957). 5540:, 1989. (Translation by 5077:Oxyrhynchus Papyri, cit. 4918:, Paris: J. Claye, 1866. 4735:, vi, 398; Preisigke in 4616:7 September 2013 at the 4609:Lateinische Paläographie 4591:Esempi di corsivo antico 4543:Karl Franz Otto Dziatzko 4477:15 November 2013 at the 4319:. Accessed 3 April 2013. 4145:, Florence (rist. 1997). 3846:Textes araméens d’Égypte 3768:Schniedewind, William M. 3680:Turner, Eric G. (1987). 2210:, as the writing of the 2020: 1897:, which is a variant of 1517: 1472: 30:Not to be confused with 8881:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 8740:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 8291:Porter–MacKenzie debate 8048:Causes of the Holodomor 7585:Problem of two emperors 7533:Catilinarian conspiracy 6760:Historical significance 6621:Indiscipline of history 6596:Historical anthropology 5832:free introductory cycle 5820:9 December 2017 at the 5789:(13th and 14th century) 5693:BoD, Norderstedt 2010, 5675:BoD, Norderstedt 2009, 5632:. Motilal Banarasi Das. 5281:Encyclopædia Britannica 5246:, Harald Steinacker in 5140:, lxxiv, ii, pp. 1–126. 5138:Arch. stor. ital., cit. 4359:Encyclopædia Britannica 4302:"Scripts used in India" 4026:and has been edited by 3948:Encyclopædia Britannica 3866:29 October 2013 at the 3698:Nongbri, Brent (2005). 3653:, Vol. IX, 1986, p. 78. 3647:Encyclopædia Britannica 3634:Encyclopedia Britannica 3544:Oxford University Press 3077:. With the name of the 2827:Augustine of Canterbury 2711:certainly the q-shaped 2426:Early minuscule cursive 2371:List of Latin alphabets 2214:is called, becomes the 1556:. In the subcontinent, 1359:Patriarch of Alexandria 804:symbol to mark the end. 672:Archaic Greek alphabets 11195: 11186: 11172: 11115: 9975:Protestant Reformation 9949:Second Vatican Council 9927:Succession to Muhammad 9922:Criticism of the Quran 9673:Religious perspectives 9407:Klemens von Metternich 9004:"Battle for Australia" 8886:Soviet offensive plans 8855:Broad vs. narrow front 8694:Late Ottoman genocides 7627:Century of humiliation 7408:Goguryeo controversies 7386:2,500-year celebration 7044:Double genocide theory 6831:Historical negationism 6655:Ancestral civilisation 6643:Historical materialism 6601:Historical determinism 6551:History of mentalities 5734:National Archives (UK) 5597:Clarendon Press, 1912. 5423:Ullman, B. L. (1960). 5093:Arch. pal. ital., cit. 5003:Arch. stor. ital, cit. 4843:Cf. Elias Avery Lowe, 4643:Edward Maunde Thompson 4395:Edward Maunde Thompson 4108:Cf. Wilhelm Schubart, 4038:(1904); S. Sudhaus in 3975:Edward Maunde Thompson 3295:. In consequence, the 3233:Vespasiano da Bisticci 3125: 3048: 3024:Rise of modern writing 3014:Renaissance humanistic 2864: 2707: 2666: 2634:, on the basis of the 2534: 2422: 2380: 2170: 2112:, in the title of his 2095: 2065: 2057: 2049: 1959: 1740: 1531: 1495:This section is empty. 1439: 1186: 1108: 1057: 965: 877:Constitution of Athens 805: 694: 652:Jewish military colony 459: 397:was the international 390: 315: 257:of texts, identifying 50: 10099:Torsion mangonel myth 10002:Modern Jewish history 9997:Jesuit historiography 9990:Protestant work ethic 9970:Hesychast controversy 9835:Industrial Revolution 9785:Library of Alexandria 9703:The Lord of the Rings 9353:Constantine the Great 9233:Torsion mangonel myth 9165:Sri Lankan Civil War 8244:Storm over the gentry 8145:Colonies or Provinces 7676:Sprouts of capitalism 6750:Historic preservation 6745:Change and continuity 5136:Cf. Schiapparelli in 5121:Cf. Wolfgang Keller, 5104:Cf. many examples in 4999:Collectanea hispanica 4984:Cf. Ewald and Loewe, 4873:Scriptura Beneventana 4807:Cf. Giuseppe Bonelli, 4589:; Vincenzo Federici, 4452:Roman Cursive Writing 4296:For this section cf. 4172:. Tübingen: G. Narr. 3989:; the German work by 3885:Journ. of Hell. Stud. 3843:Cf. Noël Aimé-Giron, 3834:. Accessed 05/04/2013 3597:Catholic Encyclopedia 3447:Palaeographic letters 3384: – palaeographer 3115: 3037:Early New High German 3031: 2884:; the cursive of the 2855:Carolingian minuscule 2852: 2845:Carolingian minuscule 2749:Set minuscule writing 2702: 2661: 2590:Carolingian minuscule 2543:scriptura epistolaris 2521: 2437:scriptura epistolaris 2413: 2395:Roman square capitals 2378: 2278:scriptura epistolaris 2241:Early cursive writing 2152: 2106:Bernard de Montfaucon 2025:Further information: 1957: 1928:Telugu-Kannada script 1731: 1686:Kannada speaking area 1525: 1434: 1382:Monastery of Stoudios 1176: 1106: 1051: 955: 788: 685: 678:Inscriptiones Graecae 666:Further information: 528:, and the much later 425:, a modified form of 384: 346:Proto-Sinaitic script 330:Anatolian hieroglyphs 318:Further information: 310: 210:typographic ligatures 161:Palaeographia Graeca, 157:Bernard de Montfaucon 42: 10186:Commemorative plaque 9402:Juan Manuel de Rosas 8850:"Blitzkrieg" concept 8721:Powder keg of Europe 8596:Franco-Prussian War 8266:Winter of Discontent 8249:Suffragette Campaign 7916:Italiani brava gente 7882:Revolutionary period 7704:Frankish Interregnum 7637:"Chineseness" debate 7570:Byzantine succession 7555:Fall of Western Rome 7496:Executed Renaissance 6985:By country or region 6929:Age of Enlightenment 6903:Vaticinium ex eventu 6850:Modernisation theory 6684:Quantitative history 6060:Historical documents 5845:facsimile manuscript 5841:Diálogo de la Lengua 5665:Digital palaeography 5656:Munshiram Manoharlal 5643:Munshiram Manoharlal 5523:Western palaeography 5333:(Vatican City) 1967. 5271:"Palaeography" 4894:. Paris: E. Leroux. 4772:I Papiri diplomatici 4769:Cf. Gaetano Marini, 4684:, and in Chatelain, 4606:Cf. Franz Steffens, 4558:5 March 2016 at the 4481:, pl. LXI-II, LXXV; 4168:Falk, Harry (1993). 4016:Poetae lyrici graeci 3926:by renowned British 3924:general palaeography 3800:The Aramaic Language 3662:Fernando De Lasala, 3482:Scribal abbreviation 3412:Historical Documents 3402:Hand (writing style) 2831:Gothic War (535–554) 2114:Palaeographia Graeca 1739:(early 19th century) 1320:Christian literature 837:is used throughout, 355:Aramaic palaeography 342:Egyptian hieroglyphs 296:William Schniedewind 238:communication events 112:, signification and 11245:Western calligraphy 11240:Textual scholarship 11095:Technical lettering 10357:Phonetic alphabets 10015:Schools of thought 9980:Proto-Protestantism 9849:School of Thoughts 9731:William Shakespeare 9716:Robert Falcon Scott 9621:Friedrich Nietzsche 9459:Cult of personality 9444:Neville Chamberlain 9304:Alexander the Great 9186:Russo-Georgian War 9159:Sovereignty dispute 9138:Iranian Revolution 8968:"Polish death camp" 8945:In relation to the 8654:Myth of English aid 8645:War of the Pacific 8422:Albigensian Crusade 7847:Indigenous Aryanism 7543:Constantinian shift 7079:Residential schools 6836:Historian's fallacy 6755:Historic recurrence 6253:Numismatics (Money) 6025:Archaeological site 5949:theories of history 5652:Indian Palaeography 5630:Indian Palaeography 5610:Indian palaeography 5577:Stiennon, Jacques, 5544:and David Ganz of: 5483:Arabic palaeography 5018:, Ewald and Loewe, 4828:Cf. Michele Russi, 4758:Schrifttafeln, cit. 4566:, vol. xix, p. 197. 4564:Classical Quarterly 4307:15 May 2013 at the 4245:Indian Palaeography 4237:Indian Palaeography 3736:on 16 February 2015 3542:(Online ed.). 3492:Textual scholarship 3332:Authorship analysis 3274:Niccolò de' Niccoli 3258:Epistles to Atticus 3118:Niccolò de' Niccoli 3039:, of the so-called 2757:Half-uncial writing 2675:Merovingian writing 1940:Chalukyas of Badami 1841:, and the kings of 1702:Halmidi inscription 1676:(2nd century) from 1674:Yajna Sri Satakarni 1169:Byzantine text-type 1115:papyrus containing 1052:Greek papyrus with 864:Alexandrian Library 594:Neo-Assyrian Empire 542:Middle Aramaic, and 411:Mediterranean coast 403:Ancient Middle East 102:academic discipline 11167:Getty-Dubay Italic 11133:Ukrainian skoropys 10744:Keyboard layouts ( 10206:Historical realism 10201:Historical fiction 10146:History institutes 10136:Historical society 10131:Heritage registers 10019:Biblical criticism 9932:Islamic golden age 9883:Early Christianity 9763:Bears in antiquity 9651:Medieval Christian 9449:Pedro II of Brazil 9397:José de San Martín 9201:Syrian revolution 9113:Malayan Emergency 9088:1948 Palestine war 8821:Spanish Civil War 8771:War guilt question 8580:American Civil War 8560:Invasion of Russia 8536:New Russian School 8320:Colonial Australia 8036:October Revolution 7799:Strukturgeschichte 7735:Location of Alésia 7654:Hua–Yi distinction 7575:Moscow, third Rome 7191:Reconstruction era 7012:Black Egypt Thesis 6934:European Civil War 6890:Translatio imperii 6845:Invented tradition 5966:Historical sources 5530:Bischoff, Bernhard 5200:Bischoff, Bernhard 5177:. pp. 15–16. 5156:Early Welsh Script 5047:; Garcia Villada, 5030:; Garcia Villada, 4971:in W.M. Lindsay's 4927:Cf. Maurice Prou, 4912:Cf. Jules Tardif, 4870:Cf. Viktor Novak, 4786:Note paleografiche 4760:, pl. xii, No. 19. 4686:Uncialis scriptura 4484:Oxyrhynchus Papyri 4427:Bruce M. Metzger, 4385:, Jouvence, 2002; 4383:Paleografia latina 4339:Latin palaeography 4313:"Indian Languages" 4022:was discovered at 3920:Greek palaeography 3874:, Baltimore, 1983. 3628:Urry, William G.. 3417:History of writing 3382:Victor Gardthausen 3225:Poggio Bracciolini 3126: 3069:was rooted in the 3049: 2943:Minuscule cursive 2873:Caroline minuscule 2865: 2780:scriptura libraria 2708: 2667: 2664:Merovingian script 2556:, and two for the 2535: 2423: 2381: 2171: 2122:Wilhelm Wattenbach 2050:scriptura libraria 1960: 1741: 1712:. Inscriptions in 1532: 1440: 1364:Codex Marchalianus 1305:Codex Marchalianus 1187: 1179:Codex Alexandrinus 1129:deeply curved and 1109: 1058: 966: 806: 724:Herculaneum papyri 695: 662:Greek palaeography 642:Proverbs of Ahiqar 604:. This so-called " 391: 385:Table showing the 320:History of writing 316: 110:handwriting script 68:; ultimately from 51: 11235:Textual criticism 11212: 11211: 10868: 10867: 10739: 10738: 10587: 10586: 10373:Spelling alphabet 10260: 10259: 10226: 10225: 10166: 10165: 10111: 10110: 10107: 10106: 10024:Catholic theology 9878:Avestan geography 9743: 9742: 9739: 9738: 9726:Søren Kierkegaard 9599: 9598: 9510:Warren G. Harding 9270: 9269: 9266: 9265: 9069: 9068: 8947:Armenian genocide 8810:Polish–Soviet War 8805:Burning of Smyrna 8791: 8790: 8781:Reichstag inquiry 8704:Patriotic consent 8575: 8574: 8550:War in the Vendée 8514:French Revolution 8496:century conflicts 8485:Peloponnesian War 8446:Eighty Years' War 8332: 8331: 8328: 8327: 8308: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8237:Westminster Stone 7934:Southern question 7773:Alltagsgeschichte 7723:Legendary Saracen 7425:Early settlements 7233: 7232: 7213:Political history 7198:Consensus history 6975: 6974: 6971: 6970: 6967: 6966: 6957:Continuity thesis 6896:Translatio studii 6782:Theory of history 6718: 6717: 6714: 6713: 6672:Subaltern Studies 6557:Nouvelle histoire 6482: 6481: 6478: 6477: 6394:Medieval churches 6381:Geistesgeschichte 6325:Paleoanthropology 6233:Encyclopaedistics 6121: 6120: 6117: 6116: 5989:Secondary sources 5828:Paleo-en-ligne.fr 5699:978-3-8423-5032-8 5400:978-1-906540-49-4 5045:Paleogr. visigoda 5032:Paleogr. española 5028:Collectanea, cit. 5005:, lxxxii, p. 106. 4969:Corbie Scriptorum 4967:, 1900; Liebart, 4957:Perrona Scottorum 4846:Beneventan Script 4628:, xiv, pl. viii; 4620:, 2nd ed., pl. 3 4611:– digital version 4387:Bernhard Bischoff 4343:Latin handwriting 4156:Joun. Hell. Stud. 4116:; and Schubart's 4020:Persae (Persians) 4003:978-0-521-36726-4 3991:Bernhard Bischoff 3987:978-1-108-06181-0 3967:978-1-4051-6256-2 3932:Harold Idris Bell 3883:Cf. E. H. Minns, 3861:J.M. Lindenberger 3797:Cf. Klaus Beyer, 3550:(Subscription or 3278:Coluccio Salutati 3184:) and exuberant ( 3092:was abolished by 3035:, handwritten in 3020:all over Europe. 2968: 2967: 2904:⟨a⟩ 2713:⟨g⟩ 2705:Visigothic script 2628:Benedictine monks 2613:calligraphic form 2600:(1124–1130). The 2578:later Middle Ages 2513:Lombardic writing 2385:Old Italic script 2316:⟨q⟩ 2306:⟨d⟩ 2296:⟨b⟩ 2286:minuscule cursive 2159:Vergilius Romanus 2140:Majuscule writing 2096:De re diplomatica 1942:in the west, and 1530:, 2nd–5th century 1515: 1514: 1463:⟨:⟩ 1350:⟨Δ⟩ 1346:⟨Θ⟩ 1342:⟨T⟩ 1228:⟨κ⟩ 1224:⟨ι⟩ 1216:⟨η⟩ 1212:⟨ξ⟩ 1208:⟨ρ⟩ 1204:⟨τ⟩ 1135:⟨α⟩ 1131:⟨Α⟩ 1127:⟨Μ⟩ 1123:⟨ε⟩ 1097:⟨ω⟩ 1093:⟨α⟩ 1089:⟨ο⟩ 1075:⟨η⟩ 1006:⟨T⟩ 997:⟨N⟩ 989:⟨H⟩ 985:⟨ω⟩ 981:⟨T⟩ 976:⟨∠⟩ 971:⟨A⟩ 946:⟨ω⟩ 942:⟨β⟩ 938:⟨θ⟩ 934:⟨c⟩ 930:⟨ε⟩ 926:⟨Ν⟩ 922:⟨Γ⟩ 918:⟨Τ⟩ 914:⟨Υ⟩ 910:⟨Μ⟩ 906:⟨Π⟩ 902:⟨H⟩ 855:⟨Σ⟩ 851:⟨Ω⟩ 847:⟨E⟩ 843:⟨Ω⟩ 839:⟨E⟩ 835:⟨c⟩ 826:⟨Ω⟩ 822:⟨Σ⟩ 818:⟨E⟩ 775:⟨α⟩ 771:⟨A⟩ 767:⟨ω⟩ 763:⟨Ω⟩ 759:⟨c⟩ 755:⟨Σ⟩ 751:⟨ε⟩ 747:⟨E⟩ 602:Achaemenid Empire 493:Akkadian language 455:⟨r⟩ 451:⟨d⟩ 437:, as well as the 417:was written in a 338:Hittite cuneiform 303:Ancient Near East 282:writing materials 149:De re diplomatica 16:(Redirected from 11257: 11200: 11191: 11177: 11149:Teaching scripts 11120: 11042: 11001:Serbian Cyrillic 10895: 10888: 10881: 10872: 10871: 10599: 10598: 10583: 10576: 10569: 10562: 10555: 10548: 10541: 10534: 10527: 10520: 10513: 10506: 10499: 10492: 10485: 10478: 10471: 10464: 10457: 10450: 10443: 10436: 10429: 10422: 10415: 10408: 10391: 10390: 10287: 10280: 10273: 10264: 10263: 10249: 10248: 10239: 10238: 10191:Documentary film 10172: 10171: 10151:History journals 10117: 10116: 10090: 9962: 9898:Primacy of Peter 9845:Great Depression 9825: 9824: 9798: 9776: 9749: 9748: 9697:J. R. R. Tolkien 9552: 9551: 9547: 9535: 9523: 9505:Ulysses S. Grant 9500:Thomas Jefferson 9491: 9467: 9430: 9393: 9381: 9349: 9337: 9329:Chiang Ching-kuo 9319:Cato the Younger 9309:Amin al-Husseini 9287: 9286: 9276: 9275: 9255: 9254: 9238:War and genocide 9062: 9048:Résistancialisme 9035:Battle of France 9017:Nanjing Massacre 8871: 8870: 8752: 8751: 8748: 8712: 8662: 8544: 8527: 8500: 8499: 8427:Catharism debate 8413:pre-18th century 8395:Military history 8372: 8365: 8358: 8349: 8348: 8342:By war, conflict 8338: 8337: 8286:Cambridge School 8272: 8271: 8170: 8158: 8134: 8115: 8025: 8013: 7985: 7807: 7785:Historikerstreit 7755: 7743: 7731: 7712: 7698:Cordon sanitaire 7644:New Qing History 7632:Conquest dynasty 7623: 7538:Christianization 7521: 7520: 7440: 7353: 7341: 7329: 7307: 7295: 7287:Byzantine Empire 7142:Iquicha Royalism 7131: 7097: 7096: 7020: 6992: 6991: 6981: 6980: 6924:Age of Discovery 6913:Periodization of 6910: 6909: 6884:Transhistoricity 6879:Thirty-year rule 6790: 6778: 6735: 6734: 6724: 6723: 6704:Great Man theory 6667:People's history 6629: 6534: 6533: 6526:Three-age system 6488: 6487: 6188:Archival science 6140: 6139: 6127: 6126: 5994:Tertiary sources 5974: 5973: 5961: 5960: 5910:by area of study 5879: 5872: 5865: 5856: 5855: 5808:Critical Edition 5746: 5659: 5646: 5633: 5624: 5542:Dáibhí Ó Cróinín 5518: 5471: 5470: 5453:Morison, Stanley 5449: 5443: 5442: 5436: 5428: 5420: 5414: 5411: 5405: 5404: 5386: 5380: 5379: 5361: 5355: 5340: 5334: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5296:Obermair, Hannes 5292: 5286: 5285: 5273: 5265: 5259: 5240: 5234: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5195: 5189: 5188: 5166: 5160: 5153:; W.M. Lindsay, 5147: 5141: 5134: 5128: 5119: 5113: 5102: 5096: 5086: 5080: 5074: 5068: 5057: 5051: 5041: 5035: 5024:Paleogr. iberica 5012: 5006: 4995: 4989: 4982: 4976: 4961:Sitzungsberichte 4953: 4947: 4938: 4932: 4925: 4919: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4887: 4881: 4868: 4862: 4841: 4835: 4826: 4820: 4813:, Hoepli, 1908; 4805: 4799: 4782: 4776: 4767: 4761: 4750: 4744: 4721: 4715: 4708: 4702: 4695: 4689: 4674: 4668: 4639: 4633: 4623: 4604: 4598: 4573: 4567: 4539: 4533: 4526: 4520: 4509: 4503: 4494: 4488: 4462: 4456: 4447: 4441: 4438: 4432: 4425: 4419: 4412: 4406: 4364:; the requisite 4363: 4355: 4340: 4335: 4320: 4294: 4285: 4284: 4258: 4252: 4233: 4227: 4226: 4198: 4192: 4191: 4165: 4159: 4152: 4146: 4135: 4129: 4106: 4100: 4099: 4076:Classical Review 4070: 4064: 4053: 4047: 4012: 4006: 3952: 3944: 3921: 3916: 3901: 3894: 3888: 3887:, xxxv, pp.22ff. 3881: 3875: 3841: 3835: 3820: 3814: 3795: 3786: 3785: 3764: 3758: 3752: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3735: 3729:. Archived from 3704: 3695: 3686: 3685: 3677: 3671: 3660: 3654: 3643: 3637: 3626: 3620: 3607: 3601: 3588: 3582: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3562: 3556: 3555: 3547: 3535: 3528: 3522: 3509: 3472:Rotunda (script) 3320: 3315: 3314: 3264:By the time the 3004:Gothic minuscule 2956:and half-uncial 2928: 2927: 2912: 2905: 2714: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2328: 2323: 2317: 2313: 2308:) or downwards ( 2307: 2303: 2297: 2293: 2223:éditions de luxe 2118:Daniel Papebroch 2110:Benedictine monk 2098: 2068: 2060: 2052: 1988:Malayalam script 1710:Kannada language 1630:Edicts of Ashoka 1562:Aramaic alphabet 1510: 1507: 1497:You can help by 1490: 1483: 1464: 1351: 1348:and the base of 1347: 1343: 1293: 1284: 1229: 1225: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1163:Byzantine period 1158: 1155: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1098: 1094: 1091:very narrow and 1090: 1082: 1076: 1071: 1070: 1066: 1013: 1007: 998: 990: 986: 982: 977: 972: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 827: 823: 819: 781:Ptolemaic period 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 743:epigraphic style 606:Imperial Aramaic 588:, especially in 584:, as well as by 571: 568: 464: 461:matres lectionis 456: 452: 423:Aramaic alphabet 419:consonantal form 395:Aramaic language 387:Mandaic alphabet 373:Sogdian alphabet 361:Aramaic alphabet 271:critical edition 99: 93: 92: 85: 79: 78: 21: 11265: 11264: 11260: 11259: 11258: 11256: 11255: 11254: 11215: 11214: 11213: 11208: 11143: 11124:Russian cursive 11043: 11034: 10915: 10909: 10899: 10869: 10864: 10846: 10820: 10789: 10735: 10721: 10703: 10680: 10588: 10579: 10572: 10565: 10558: 10551: 10544: 10537: 10530: 10523: 10516: 10509: 10502: 10495: 10488: 10481: 10474: 10467: 10460: 10453: 10446: 10439: 10432: 10425: 10418: 10411: 10404: 10399: 10395:Letters of the 10377: 10329: 10296: 10291: 10261: 10256: 10255: 10222: 10177: 10162: 10122: 10103: 10086: 10069: 10060: 9956: 9864: 9840:Great Recession 9823: 9794: 9770: 9754: 9735: 9626:H. P. Lovecraft 9595: 9557: 9550: 9541: 9529: 9517: 9485: 9461: 9434:Muammar Gaddafi 9424: 9412:Leonid Brezhnev 9387: 9375: 9358:Gregory Palamas 9343: 9341:Chiang Kai Shek 9331: 9291: 9281: 9262: 9261: 9242: 9223:Conflict thesis 9211: 9175: 9065: 9056: 9023: 8987: 8917: 8869: 8831: 8797:Interwar period 8787: 8757: 8750: 8742: 8726:Schlieffen Plan 8706: 8667: 8656: 8571: 8538: 8521: 8506: 8495: 8489: 8473:Dorian invasion 8458:Fall of Babylon 8414: 8408: 8407: 8384: 8376: 8343: 8324: 8300: 8277: 8270: 8232:Kingdom of Alba 8213: 8206: 8173: 8164: 8152: 8150:Spanish decline 8128: 8109: 8064: 8019: 8007: 7988: 7979: 7945: 7886: 7851: 7837:Greater Magadha 7823: 7801: 7758: 7749: 7737: 7725: 7706: 7685: 7659:Four Barbarians 7617: 7591: 7519: 7476:Götaland theory 7444:Lusotropicalism 7434: 7415:North Macedonia 7347: 7335: 7323: 7301: 7289: 7229: 7208:Frontier thesis 7203:Cyclical theory 7186:Neoabolitionism 7162: 7125: 7095: 7057: 7034:Greater Morocco 7014: 6986: 6963: 6914: 6908: 6800: 6784: 6772: 6729: 6710: 6623: 6538: 6532: 6514:Historical eras 6495: 6474: 6309: 6206:Writing systems 6176: 6134: 6132:Fields of study 6113: 6107:Service records 6092:Religious texts 5998: 5984:Primary sources 5968: 5955: 5954: 5888: 5883: 5822:Wayback Machine 5744: 5708: 5703: 5667: 5662: 5612: 5607: 5600:Wright, C. E., 5562:Parkes, M. B., 5557:Clarendon Press 5525: 5485: 5480: 5478:Further reading 5475: 5474: 5467: 5450: 5446: 5430: 5429: 5421: 5417: 5412: 5408: 5401: 5387: 5383: 5376: 5362: 5358: 5341: 5337: 5324: 5320: 5314: 5293: 5289: 5266: 5262: 5241: 5237: 5229: 5225: 5218: 5196: 5192: 5185: 5167: 5163: 5148: 5144: 5135: 5131: 5120: 5116: 5106:Émile Chatelain 5103: 5099: 5089:Pal. Soc., cit. 5087: 5083: 5075: 5071: 5058: 5054: 5042: 5038: 5013: 5009: 4996: 4992: 4983: 4979: 4954: 4950: 4939: 4935: 4926: 4922: 4911: 4907: 4888: 4884: 4869: 4865: 4842: 4838: 4834:, Naples, 1883. 4827: 4823: 4806: 4802: 4783: 4779: 4768: 4764: 4751: 4747: 4741:Pal. Soc., cit. 4725:Theodor Mommsen 4722: 4718: 4709: 4705: 4697:Cf. Chatelain, 4696: 4692: 4675: 4671: 4640: 4636: 4621: 4618:Wayback Machine 4605: 4601: 4574: 4570: 4560:Wayback Machine 4540: 4536: 4527: 4523: 4515:, pl. 113-117; 4513:Pal. Soc., cit. 4510: 4506: 4495: 4491: 4479:Wayback Machine 4466:Émile Chatelain 4463: 4459: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4435: 4426: 4422: 4413: 4409: 4375:Wayback Machine 4338: 4336: 4323: 4309:Wayback Machine 4295: 4288: 4273: 4259: 4255: 4234: 4230: 4199: 4195: 4180: 4166: 4162: 4158:, xl, pp. 1–12. 4153: 4149: 4136: 4132: 4107: 4103: 4082:(10): 454–457. 4071: 4067: 4054: 4050: 4013: 4009: 3955:Barry B. Powell 3919: 3917: 3904: 3895: 3891: 3882: 3878: 3868:Wayback Machine 3842: 3838: 3821: 3817: 3796: 3789: 3782: 3765: 3761: 3753: 3749: 3739: 3737: 3733: 3702: 3696: 3689: 3678: 3674: 3661: 3657: 3644: 3640: 3627: 3623: 3608: 3604: 3592:"Jean Mabillon" 3589: 3585: 3575: 3573: 3572:on 25 July 2011 3564: 3563: 3559: 3549: 3529: 3525: 3510: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3316: 3309: 3306: 3249:Berthold Ullman 3116:Handwriting by 3110: 3096:in 1941. After 3026: 3006: 2960: 2959:Pre-Carolingian 2955: 2947: 2903: 2847: 2816: 2788: 2759: 2751: 2712: 2602:notaries public 2522:A 10th-century 2465: 2428: 2408: 2400:Rustic capitals 2373: 2336: 2326: 2315: 2305: 2295: 2243: 2163:rustic capitals 2147: 2145:Capital writing 2142: 2126:Leopold Delisle 2083: 2035: 2029: 2023: 1952: 1912:Grantha scripts 1871: 1751: 1726: 1708:written in the 1570:Arabic alphabet 1538: 1520: 1511: 1505: 1502: 1481: 1475: 1462: 1446: 1429: 1373: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1308: 1301:Codex Vaticanus 1296: 1295: 1294: 1286: 1285: 1274: 1268: 1251: 1227: 1223: 1221: 1218:(which has the 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1177:Section of the 1171: 1165: 1156: 1141:codices of the 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1074: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1063: 1046: 1030:containing the 1005: 996: 994: 988: 984: 980: 978: 975: 970: 958:Derveni Papyrus 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 825: 821: 817: 783: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 687:Greek minuscule 680: 674: 664: 569: 559:Aramaean states 454: 450: 379: 377:Syriac alphabet 365:Hebrew alphabet 357: 352: 326: 313:Troy VIIb layer 305: 291: 289:Document dating 275:discourse event 200:often use many 169: 35: 32:Palaeogeography 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11263: 11253: 11252: 11247: 11242: 11237: 11232: 11227: 11210: 11209: 11207: 11206: 11201: 11192: 11183: 11178: 11169: 11164: 11159: 11153: 11151: 11145: 11144: 11142: 11141: 11136: 11126: 11121: 11112: 11107: 11102: 11097: 11092: 11087: 11082: 11077: 11072: 11067: 11062: 11057: 11051: 11049: 11045: 11044: 11037: 11035: 11033: 11032: 11027: 11022: 11021: 11020: 11010: 11009: 11008: 10998: 10997: 10996: 10993: 10988:Early Cyrillic 10985: 10980: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10960: 10955: 10953:Insular script 10950: 10945: 10940: 10935: 10930: 10925: 10919: 10917: 10911: 10910: 10898: 10897: 10890: 10883: 10875: 10866: 10865: 10863: 10862: 10857: 10851: 10848: 10847: 10845: 10844: 10839: 10834: 10828: 10826: 10822: 10821: 10819: 10818: 10813: 10808: 10803: 10797: 10795: 10791: 10790: 10788: 10787: 10782: 10777: 10772: 10767: 10762: 10757: 10751: 10749: 10741: 10740: 10737: 10736: 10731: 10729: 10723: 10722: 10720: 10719: 10713: 10711: 10705: 10704: 10702: 10701: 10696: 10690: 10688: 10682: 10681: 10679: 10678: 10673: 10668: 10663: 10658: 10653: 10648: 10643: 10638: 10633: 10628: 10623: 10618: 10613: 10607: 10605: 10596: 10590: 10589: 10585: 10584: 10577: 10570: 10563: 10556: 10549: 10542: 10535: 10528: 10521: 10514: 10507: 10500: 10493: 10486: 10479: 10472: 10465: 10458: 10451: 10444: 10437: 10430: 10423: 10416: 10409: 10401: 10400: 10394: 10389: 10387: 10379: 10378: 10376: 10375: 10370: 10369: 10368: 10363: 10355: 10350: 10344: 10342: 10331: 10330: 10328: 10327: 10322: 10320:Roman numerals 10317: 10312: 10307: 10301: 10298: 10297: 10290: 10289: 10282: 10275: 10267: 10258: 10257: 10254: 10253: 10243: 10232: 10231: 10228: 10227: 10224: 10223: 10221: 10220: 10215: 10214: 10213: 10208: 10198: 10193: 10188: 10182: 10179: 10178: 10168: 10167: 10164: 10163: 10161: 10160: 10159: 10158: 10148: 10143: 10133: 10127: 10124: 10123: 10113: 10112: 10109: 10108: 10105: 10104: 10102: 10101: 10096: 10091: 10084: 10079: 10073: 10071: 10062: 10061: 10059: 10058: 10057: 10056: 10051: 10046: 10041: 10036: 10031: 10026: 10021: 10013: 10012: 10011: 9999: 9994: 9993: 9992: 9987: 9982: 9972: 9967: 9966: 9965: 9964: 9963: 9941: 9940: 9939: 9934: 9929: 9924: 9914: 9913: 9912: 9907: 9906: 9905: 9895: 9890: 9880: 9874: 9872: 9866: 9865: 9863: 9862: 9861: 9860: 9855: 9847: 9842: 9837: 9831: 9829: 9822: 9821: 9816: 9811: 9804: 9799: 9792: 9787: 9782: 9777: 9765: 9759: 9756: 9755: 9745: 9744: 9741: 9740: 9737: 9736: 9734: 9733: 9728: 9723: 9718: 9713: 9708: 9707: 9706: 9694: 9693: 9692: 9691: 9690: 9685: 9680: 9670: 9665: 9655: 9654: 9653: 9648: 9643: 9633: 9628: 9623: 9618: 9616:Charles Darwin 9613: 9607: 9605: 9601: 9600: 9597: 9596: 9594: 9593: 9588: 9586:United Kingdom 9583: 9578: 9576:Modern Germany 9573: 9568: 9562: 9560: 9549: 9548: 9536: 9524: 9512: 9507: 9502: 9497: 9495:Thomas Aquinas 9492: 9480: 9475: 9474: 9473: 9468: 9451: 9446: 9441: 9436: 9431: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9382: 9370: 9365: 9363:Horatio Nelson 9360: 9355: 9350: 9338: 9326: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9306: 9301: 9295: 9293: 9283: 9282: 9272: 9271: 9268: 9267: 9264: 9263: 9260: 9259: 9248: 9247: 9244: 9243: 9241: 9240: 9235: 9230: 9225: 9219: 9217: 9213: 9212: 9210: 9209: 9208: 9207: 9199: 9198: 9197: 9195:Responsibility 9192: 9183: 9181: 9177: 9176: 9174: 9173: 9172: 9171: 9163: 9162: 9161: 9151: 9146: 9145: 9144: 9136: 9135: 9134: 9126: 9121: 9120: 9119: 9111: 9110: 9109: 9107:New Historians 9104: 9099: 9085: 9079: 9077: 9071: 9070: 9067: 9066: 9064: 9063: 9051: 9044: 9037: 9031: 9029: 9025: 9024: 9022: 9021: 9020: 9019: 9011: 9006: 9001: 8995: 8993: 8989: 8988: 8986: 8985: 8980: 8975: 8973:Responsibility 8970: 8965: 8964: 8963: 8953: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8927: 8925: 8919: 8918: 8916: 8915: 8914: 8913: 8908: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8877: 8875: 8868: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8852: 8847: 8841: 8839: 8833: 8832: 8830: 8829: 8828: 8827: 8819: 8818: 8817: 8807: 8801: 8799: 8793: 8792: 8789: 8788: 8786: 8785: 8784: 8783: 8778: 8768: 8762: 8760: 8749: 8737: 8731:Spirit of 1914 8728: 8723: 8718: 8713: 8701: 8691: 8688:Fischer thesis 8677: 8675: 8669: 8668: 8666: 8665: 8664: 8663: 8651: 8643: 8642: 8641: 8631: 8629:Paraguayan War 8626: 8625: 8624: 8614: 8609: 8608: 8607: 8602: 8594: 8593: 8592: 8587: 8576: 8573: 8572: 8570: 8569: 8568: 8567: 8562: 8555:Napoleonic era 8552: 8547: 8546: 8545: 8533: 8528: 8519:Pre-revolution 8510: 8508: 8504:Coalition Wars 8497: 8491: 8490: 8488: 8487: 8482: 8481: 8480: 8475: 8465: 8460: 8455: 8454: 8453: 8443: 8442: 8441: 8431: 8430: 8429: 8418: 8416: 8410: 8409: 8406: 8405: 8398: 8390: 8389: 8386: 8385: 8382:historiography 8375: 8374: 8367: 8360: 8352: 8345: 8344: 8334: 8333: 8330: 8329: 8326: 8325: 8323: 8322: 8316: 8314: 8310: 8309: 8306: 8305: 8302: 8301: 8299: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8282: 8280: 8269: 8268: 8263: 8262: 8261: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8240: 8239: 8234: 8224: 8218: 8216: 8208: 8207: 8205: 8204: 8203: 8202: 8200:Decline thesis 8197: 8190:Ottoman Empire 8187: 8181: 8179: 8175: 8174: 8172: 8171: 8159: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8136: 8135: 8116: 8104: 8099: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8072: 8070: 8066: 8065: 8063: 8062: 8061: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8040: 8039: 8038: 8028: 8027: 8026: 8017:Skeptic School 8002: 8000:Anti-Normanism 7996: 7994: 7990: 7989: 7987: 7986: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7957:Golden Liberty 7953: 7951: 7947: 7946: 7944: 7943: 7942: 7941: 7939:Neo-Bourbonism 7931: 7926: 7919: 7912: 7907: 7900: 7894: 7892: 7888: 7887: 7885: 7884: 7879: 7874: 7867: 7861: 7859: 7853: 7852: 7850: 7849: 7844: 7839: 7833: 7831: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7821: 7814: 7809: 7795: 7788: 7781: 7779:Borussian myth 7776: 7768: 7766: 7760: 7759: 7757: 7756: 7744: 7732: 7720: 7713: 7701: 7693: 7691: 7687: 7686: 7684: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7667: 7666: 7661: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7640: 7639: 7629: 7624: 7612: 7607: 7601: 7599: 7593: 7592: 7590: 7589: 7588: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7546: 7545: 7535: 7529: 7527: 7518: 7517: 7516: 7515: 7510: 7500: 7499: 7498: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7479: 7478: 7470: 7469: 7468: 7458: 7457: 7456: 7448: 7447: 7446: 7429: 7428: 7427: 7417: 7412: 7411: 7410: 7405: 7395: 7390: 7389: 7388: 7380: 7379: 7378: 7368: 7367: 7366: 7356: 7355: 7354: 7342: 7330: 7315: 7310: 7309: 7308: 7284: 7279: 7278: 7277: 7269: 7264: 7263: 7262: 7254: 7253: 7252: 7250:Dealbanisation 7241: 7239: 7235: 7234: 7231: 7230: 7228: 7227: 7222: 7221: 7220: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7194: 7193: 7188: 7183: 7172: 7170: 7164: 7163: 7161: 7160: 7159: 7158: 7146: 7145: 7144: 7134: 7133: 7132: 7120: 7114:May Revolution 7105: 7103: 7094: 7093: 7088: 7087: 7086: 7084:Staples thesis 7081: 7076: 7065: 7063: 7059: 7058: 7056: 7055: 7048: 7047: 7046: 7038: 7037: 7036: 7028: 7023: 7022: 7021: 7009: 7000: 6998: 6988: 6987: 6977: 6976: 6973: 6972: 6969: 6968: 6965: 6964: 6962: 6961: 6960: 6959: 6949: 6940: 6931: 6926: 6920: 6918: 6916:modern history 6907: 6906: 6899: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6875: 6874: 6862: 6860:Paradigm shift 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6814: 6808: 6806: 6802: 6801: 6799: 6798: 6793: 6792: 6791: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6741: 6739: 6731: 6730: 6720: 6719: 6716: 6715: 6712: 6711: 6709: 6708: 6707: 6706: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6675: 6674: 6664: 6663: 6662: 6657: 6647: 6646: 6645: 6635: 6630: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6587: 6586: 6576: 6571: 6562: 6561: 6560: 6553: 6546:Annales school 6542: 6540: 6531: 6530: 6529: 6528: 6523: 6516: 6506: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6484: 6483: 6480: 6479: 6476: 6475: 6473: 6472: 6471: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6418: 6417: 6416: 6411: 6409:Constitutional 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6385: 6384: 6372: 6371: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6345: 6332: 6327: 6317: 6315: 6311: 6310: 6308: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6285:Postage stamps 6282: 6277: 6272: 6271: 6270: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6224: 6223: 6213: 6208: 6199: 6184: 6182: 6178: 6177: 6175: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6163: 6162: 6152: 6146: 6144: 6136: 6135: 6123: 6122: 6119: 6118: 6115: 6114: 6112: 6111: 6110: 6109: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6082:Oral tradition 6079: 6078: 6077: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6006: 6004: 6000: 5999: 5997: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5980: 5978: 5970: 5969: 5957: 5956: 5953: 5952: 5945: 5938: 5931: 5923: 5922: 5915: 5914: 5913: 5894: 5893: 5890: 5889: 5886:Historiography 5882: 5881: 5874: 5867: 5859: 5853: 5852: 5834: 5824: 5812: 5803: 5795: 5790: 5784: 5779: 5773: 5768: 5762: 5756: 5751: 5742: 5736: 5727: 5721: 5715: 5707: 5706:External links 5704: 5702: 5701: 5687: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5660: 5647: 5634: 5625: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5605: 5598: 5586: 5575: 5560: 5549: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5520: 5519: 5501:(7): 925–951. 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5473: 5472: 5465: 5444: 5415: 5406: 5399: 5381: 5374: 5356: 5335: 5318: 5312: 5287: 5276:Chisholm, Hugh 5260: 5258:, pp. 108–109. 5235: 5223: 5216: 5190: 5183: 5161: 5142: 5129: 5114: 5097: 5081: 5069: 5052: 5036: 5007: 4990: 4977: 4973:Palaeogr. Lat. 4965:Munich Academy 4948: 4933: 4920: 4905: 4882: 4863: 4836: 4821: 4819:, i, iii, vii. 4800: 4777: 4762: 4745: 4716: 4703: 4690: 4669: 4655:; Van Hoesen, 4634: 4599: 4568: 4534: 4521: 4504: 4489: 4487:, viii, 1,098. 4457: 4442: 4433: 4420: 4407: 4350:, ed. (1911). 4348:Chisholm, Hugh 4321: 4286: 4271: 4253: 4228: 4215:10.2307/604670 4209:(2): 271–279. 4193: 4178: 4160: 4147: 4130: 4101: 4065: 4048: 4007: 3969:; Jack Goody, 3939:, ed. (1911). 3937:Chisholm, Hugh 3934:, present in 3902: 3889: 3876: 3836: 3815: 3787: 3780: 3759: 3747: 3713:: 23–48 (24). 3687: 3672: 3655: 3638: 3621: 3602: 3583: 3557: 3533:"palaeography" 3523: 3503: 3502: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3494: 3489: 3487:Secretary hand 3484: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3444: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3409: 3404: 3399: 3394: 3385: 3379: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3327:Asemic writing 3323: 3322: 3321: 3318:Writing portal 3305: 3302: 3282:papal chancery 3270:lettera antica 3241:lettera antica 3109: 3106: 3102:Secretary hand 3066:Kurrentschrift 3025: 3022: 3005: 3002: 2966: 2965: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2949: 2944: 2940: 2939: 2934: 2860:Book of Exodus 2846: 2843: 2823:Pope Gregory I 2815: 2812: 2787: 2784: 2758: 2755: 2750: 2747: 2719:lxxxix in the 2697: 2696: 2656: 2655: 2554:littera romana 2516: 2515: 2464: 2463:National hands 2461: 2427: 2424: 2414:Page from the 2407: 2404: 2403: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2372: 2369: 2335: 2334:Uncial writing 2332: 2242: 2239: 2216:rustic capital 2175:Latin alphabet 2146: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2082: 2079: 2075:Latin alphabet 2022: 2019: 2018: 2017: 2012: 2009:writing system 1999: 1990: 1985: 1983:Kannada script 1980: 1978:Grantha script 1975: 1973:Chera cultures 1966: 1951: 1948: 1938:and the early 1887:Cave character 1870: 1867: 1863:Nagarjunakonda 1835:Madhya Pradesh 1735:manuscript in 1725: 1722: 1670:Nagarjunakonda 1654:Andhra Pradesh 1566:Greek alphabet 1519: 1516: 1513: 1512: 1493: 1491: 1474: 1471: 1428: 1425: 1416: 1415: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1386:Constantinople 1372: 1371:Minuscule hand 1369: 1298: 1297: 1288: 1287: 1279: 1278: 1277: 1276: 1275: 1267: 1264: 1250: 1247: 1219: 1164: 1161: 1113:British Museum 1062: 1045: 1042: 1028:Petrie papyrus 992: 974: 789:Detail of the 782: 779: 663: 660: 547: 546: 543: 540: 520:, followed by 435:Hebrew scripts 415:Aramaic script 399:trade language 369:Mandaic script 356: 353: 304: 301: 290: 287: 263:interpolations 168: 165: 155:was coined by 147:with his work 48:secretary hand 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11262: 11251: 11248: 11246: 11243: 11241: 11238: 11236: 11233: 11231: 11228: 11226: 11223: 11222: 11220: 11205: 11202: 11199: 11198: 11193: 11190: 11189: 11184: 11182: 11179: 11176: 11175: 11170: 11168: 11165: 11163: 11160: 11158: 11155: 11154: 11152: 11150: 11146: 11140: 11137: 11134: 11130: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11119: 11118: 11113: 11111: 11108: 11106: 11103: 11101: 11098: 11096: 11093: 11091: 11088: 11086: 11083: 11081: 11078: 11076: 11073: 11071: 11068: 11066: 11063: 11061: 11058: 11056: 11053: 11052: 11050: 11046: 11041: 11031: 11028: 11026: 11023: 11019: 11016: 11015: 11014: 11011: 11007: 11004: 11003: 11002: 10999: 10994: 10991: 10990: 10989: 10986: 10984: 10981: 10979: 10976: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10959: 10956: 10954: 10951: 10949: 10946: 10944: 10941: 10939: 10936: 10934: 10931: 10929: 10926: 10924: 10921: 10920: 10918: 10912: 10908: 10904: 10896: 10891: 10889: 10884: 10882: 10877: 10876: 10873: 10861: 10858: 10856: 10853: 10852: 10849: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10835: 10833: 10830: 10829: 10827: 10823: 10817: 10814: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10802: 10799: 10798: 10796: 10792: 10786: 10783: 10781: 10778: 10776: 10773: 10771: 10768: 10766: 10763: 10761: 10758: 10756: 10753: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10742: 10734: 10730: 10728: 10724: 10718: 10715: 10714: 10712: 10710: 10706: 10700: 10697: 10695: 10692: 10691: 10689: 10687: 10683: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10669: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10612: 10609: 10608: 10606: 10604: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10591: 10582: 10578: 10575: 10571: 10568: 10564: 10561: 10557: 10554: 10550: 10547: 10543: 10540: 10536: 10533: 10529: 10526: 10522: 10519: 10515: 10512: 10508: 10505: 10501: 10498: 10494: 10491: 10487: 10484: 10480: 10477: 10473: 10470: 10466: 10463: 10459: 10456: 10452: 10449: 10445: 10442: 10438: 10435: 10431: 10428: 10424: 10421: 10417: 10414: 10410: 10407: 10403: 10402: 10398: 10392: 10388: 10385: 10380: 10374: 10371: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10358: 10356: 10354: 10351: 10349: 10346: 10345: 10343: 10340: 10336: 10332: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10306: 10303: 10302: 10299: 10295: 10288: 10283: 10281: 10276: 10274: 10269: 10268: 10265: 10252: 10244: 10242: 10234: 10233: 10229: 10219: 10216: 10212: 10209: 10207: 10204: 10203: 10202: 10199: 10197: 10194: 10192: 10189: 10187: 10184: 10183: 10180: 10173: 10169: 10157: 10154: 10153: 10152: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10141: 10137: 10134: 10132: 10129: 10128: 10125: 10118: 10114: 10100: 10097: 10095: 10092: 10089: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10078: 10077:Merton thesis 10075: 10074: 10072: 10067: 10063: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10035: 10032: 10030: 10029:Panbabylonism 10027: 10025: 10022: 10020: 10017: 10016: 10014: 10010: 10009: 10005: 10004: 10003: 10000: 9998: 9995: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9981: 9978: 9977: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9960: 9955: 9952: 9951: 9950: 9947: 9946: 9945: 9942: 9938: 9935: 9933: 9930: 9928: 9925: 9923: 9920: 9919: 9918: 9915: 9911: 9908: 9904: 9901: 9900: 9899: 9896: 9894: 9891: 9889: 9886: 9885: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9876: 9875: 9873: 9871: 9867: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9851: 9850: 9848: 9846: 9843: 9841: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9832: 9830: 9826: 9820: 9817: 9815: 9812: 9810: 9809: 9805: 9803: 9800: 9797: 9793: 9791: 9788: 9786: 9783: 9781: 9778: 9774: 9769: 9766: 9764: 9761: 9760: 9757: 9750: 9746: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9724: 9722: 9719: 9717: 9714: 9712: 9709: 9705: 9704: 9700: 9699: 9698: 9695: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9675: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9660: 9659: 9656: 9652: 9649: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9638: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9622: 9619: 9617: 9614: 9612: 9609: 9608: 9606: 9602: 9592: 9591:United States 9589: 9587: 9584: 9582: 9579: 9577: 9574: 9572: 9569: 9567: 9564: 9563: 9561: 9559: 9553: 9545: 9540: 9537: 9533: 9528: 9525: 9521: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9489: 9484: 9481: 9479: 9476: 9472: 9471:Bolivarianism 9469: 9465: 9460: 9457: 9456: 9455: 9454:Simon Bolivar 9452: 9450: 9447: 9445: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9435: 9432: 9428: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9391: 9386: 9385:Joseph Stalin 9383: 9379: 9374: 9371: 9369: 9366: 9364: 9361: 9359: 9356: 9354: 9351: 9347: 9342: 9339: 9335: 9330: 9327: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9297: 9296: 9294: 9288: 9284: 9277: 9273: 9258: 9250: 9249: 9245: 9239: 9236: 9234: 9231: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9221: 9220: 9218: 9214: 9206: 9203: 9202: 9200: 9196: 9193: 9191: 9188: 9187: 9185: 9184: 9182: 9180:Post-Cold War 9178: 9170: 9167: 9166: 9164: 9160: 9157: 9156: 9155: 9154:Falklands War 9152: 9150: 9149:Iran–Iraq War 9147: 9143: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9133: 9130: 9129: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9118: 9115: 9114: 9112: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9097:Ongoing Nakba 9094: 9091: 9090: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9080: 9078: 9076: 9072: 9060: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9049: 9045: 9043: 9042: 9038: 9036: 9033: 9032: 9030: 9028:Western Front 9026: 9018: 9015: 9014: 9012: 9010: 9009:Bengal famine 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8996: 8994: 8990: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8974: 8971: 8969: 8966: 8962: 8959: 8958: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8948: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8928: 8926: 8924: 8923:The Holocaust 8920: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8903: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8878: 8876: 8874:Eastern Front 8872: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8843: 8842: 8840: 8838: 8834: 8826: 8823: 8822: 8820: 8816: 8813: 8812: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8802: 8800: 8798: 8794: 8782: 8779: 8777: 8774: 8773: 8772: 8769: 8767: 8764: 8763: 8761: 8759: 8753: 8746: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8710: 8705: 8702: 8699: 8695: 8692: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8674: 8670: 8660: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8646: 8644: 8640: 8637: 8636: 8635: 8632: 8630: 8627: 8623: 8620: 8619: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8606: 8605:Paris Commune 8603: 8601: 8598: 8597: 8595: 8591: 8590:Turning point 8588: 8586: 8583: 8582: 8581: 8578: 8577: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8557: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8542: 8537: 8534: 8532: 8529: 8525: 8520: 8517: 8516: 8515: 8512: 8511: 8509: 8505: 8501: 8498: 8494:18th and 19th 8492: 8486: 8483: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8470: 8469: 8466: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8452: 8449: 8448: 8447: 8444: 8440: 8439:Islamic views 8437: 8436: 8435: 8432: 8428: 8425: 8424: 8423: 8420: 8419: 8417: 8411: 8404: 8403: 8399: 8397: 8396: 8392: 8391: 8387: 8383: 8380: 8373: 8368: 8366: 8361: 8359: 8354: 8353: 8350: 8346: 8339: 8335: 8321: 8318: 8317: 8315: 8311: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8287: 8284: 8283: 8281: 8279: 8273: 8267: 8264: 8260: 8257: 8256: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8238: 8235: 8233: 8230: 8229: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8219: 8217: 8215: 8209: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8193: 8192: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8182: 8180: 8176: 8168: 8163: 8162:Ser de España 8160: 8156: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8132: 8127: 8124: 8123: 8122: 8121: 8117: 8113: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8097: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8077: 8074: 8073: 8071: 8067: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8045: 8044: 8041: 8037: 8034: 8033: 8032: 8029: 8023: 8018: 8015: 8014: 8011: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7997: 7995: 7991: 7983: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7954: 7952: 7948: 7940: 7937: 7936: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7924: 7920: 7918: 7917: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7905: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7895: 7893: 7889: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7872: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7862: 7860: 7858: 7854: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7838: 7835: 7834: 7832: 7830: 7826: 7820: 7819: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7800: 7796: 7794: 7793: 7789: 7787: 7786: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7774: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7765: 7761: 7753: 7748: 7745: 7741: 7736: 7733: 7729: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7718: 7714: 7710: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7699: 7695: 7694: 7692: 7688: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7656: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7638: 7635: 7634: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7621: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7602: 7600: 7598: 7594: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7580:Ottoman claim 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7567: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7560:Prosopography 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7544: 7541: 7540: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7530: 7528: 7526: 7522: 7514: 7513:Trưng sisters 7511: 7509: 7508: 7504: 7503: 7501: 7497: 7494: 7493: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7477: 7474: 7473: 7471: 7467: 7464: 7463: 7462: 7459: 7455: 7452: 7451: 7449: 7445: 7442: 7441: 7438: 7433: 7430: 7426: 7423: 7422: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7400: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7387: 7384: 7383: 7381: 7377: 7374: 7373: 7372: 7369: 7365: 7364: 7360: 7359: 7357: 7351: 7346: 7343: 7339: 7334: 7331: 7327: 7322: 7319: 7318: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7305: 7300: 7297: 7296: 7293: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7276: 7273: 7272: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7261: 7260:Habsburg myth 7258: 7257: 7255: 7251: 7248: 7247: 7246: 7243: 7242: 7240: 7236: 7226: 7223: 7219: 7216: 7215: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7178: 7177: 7174: 7173: 7171: 7169: 7168:United States 7165: 7157: 7156: 7152: 7151: 7150: 7147: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7138: 7135: 7129: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7115: 7112: 7111: 7110: 7107: 7106: 7104: 7102: 7101:Latin America 7098: 7092: 7089: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7071: 7070: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7060: 7054: 7053: 7049: 7045: 7042: 7041: 7039: 7035: 7032: 7031: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7018: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7004: 7002: 7001: 6999: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6982: 6978: 6958: 6955: 6954: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6917: 6911: 6905: 6904: 6900: 6898: 6897: 6892: 6891: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6873: 6870: 6869: 6868: 6867: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6809: 6807: 6803: 6797: 6794: 6788: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6776: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6742: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6725: 6721: 6705: 6702: 6701: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6694:Transnational 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6673: 6670: 6669: 6668: 6665: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6652: 6651: 6648: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6627: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6585: 6584:Decoloniality 6582: 6581: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6566: 6565:Historiometry 6563: 6559: 6558: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6548: 6547: 6544: 6543: 6541: 6535: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6521: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6511: 6510: 6509:Periodization 6507: 6505: 6502: 6501: 6498: 6494: 6489: 6485: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6423: 6422: 6419: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6406: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6383: 6382: 6378: 6377: 6376: 6373: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6350: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6316: 6312: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6295:Sigillography 6293: 6291: 6290:Prosopography 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6269: 6266: 6265: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6222: 6219: 6218: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6203: 6200: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6186: 6185: 6183: 6179: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6167:Local history 6165: 6161: 6160:Human history 6158: 6157: 6156: 6155:World history 6153: 6151: 6148: 6147: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6128: 6124: 6108: 6105: 6104: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6007: 6005: 6001: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5981: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5962: 5958: 5951: 5950: 5946: 5944: 5943: 5939: 5937: 5936: 5932: 5930: 5929: 5925: 5924: 5921: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5902: 5901: 5900: 5896: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5880: 5875: 5873: 5868: 5866: 5861: 5860: 5857: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5823: 5819: 5816: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5766: 5763: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5749: 5743: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5731: 5728: 5725: 5722: 5719: 5716: 5713: 5710: 5709: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5686: 5685:3-8370-9842-7 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5669: 5657: 5653: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5635: 5631: 5626: 5622: 5621: 5615: 5614: 5603: 5599: 5596: 5595: 5590: 5587: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5573: 5572:0-85967-535-1 5569: 5565: 5561: 5558: 5554: 5551:Lowe, E. A., 5550: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5528: 5527: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5487: 5486: 5468: 5466:0-521-22338-5 5462: 5458: 5454: 5448: 5440: 5434: 5426: 5419: 5410: 5402: 5396: 5392: 5385: 5377: 5375:3-486-54511-6 5371: 5367: 5360: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5339: 5332: 5328: 5322: 5315: 5313:88-7014-986-2 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5291: 5283: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5264: 5257: 5253: 5252:Nova Historia 5249: 5245: 5239: 5233:, p. 16. 5232: 5227: 5219: 5217:0-521-36473-6 5213: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5194: 5186: 5184:0-8156-2555-3 5180: 5176: 5172: 5165: 5158: 5157: 5152: 5146: 5139: 5133: 5126: 5125: 5118: 5111: 5107: 5101: 5094: 5091:, pl. 127-8; 5090: 5085: 5078: 5073: 5066: 5062: 5056: 5050: 5046: 5040: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5020:Exempla, cit. 5017: 5011: 5004: 5000: 4994: 4987: 4981: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4952: 4945: 4944: 4937: 4930: 4924: 4917: 4916: 4909: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4886: 4879: 4875: 4874: 4867: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4847: 4840: 4833: 4832: 4825: 4818: 4817: 4812: 4811: 4804: 4797: 4796: 4791: 4787: 4781: 4774: 4773: 4766: 4759: 4755: 4754:Studien, cit. 4749: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4720: 4714:, iii, pl. i. 4713: 4707: 4700: 4694: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4673: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4649: 4644: 4638: 4631: 4627: 4619: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4603: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4583: 4578: 4572: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4554: 4550: 4549: 4544: 4538: 4531: 4525: 4518: 4514: 4508: 4501: 4500: 4493: 4486: 4485: 4480: 4476: 4473: 4472: 4467: 4461: 4454: 4453: 4446: 4437: 4430: 4424: 4417: 4411: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4369: 4368: 4361: 4360: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4334: 4332: 4330: 4328: 4326: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4303: 4299: 4293: 4291: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4232: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4197: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4175: 4171: 4164: 4157: 4151: 4144: 4140: 4134: 4128:(Boon, 1921). 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4105: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4069: 4062: 4058: 4052: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4011: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3950: 3949: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3915: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3900:, ii, p. 156. 3899: 3898:New Pal. Soc. 3893: 3886: 3880: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3853: 3848: 3847: 3840: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3819: 3813:, repr. 1978. 3812: 3808: 3807: 3802: 3801: 3794: 3792: 3783: 3781:1-84553-057-8 3777: 3774:. Routledge. 3773: 3769: 3763: 3757: 3751: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3694: 3692: 3683: 3676: 3670:, 2006) p. 7. 3669: 3665: 3659: 3652: 3648: 3642: 3635: 3631: 3630:"paleography" 3625: 3618: 3617: 3612: 3606: 3599: 3598: 3593: 3587: 3571: 3567: 3561: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3540: 3534: 3527: 3521: 3520:0-944435-24-6 3517: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3453: 3450: 3448: 3445: 3443: 3440: 3438: 3435: 3433: 3430: 3428: 3427:Italic script 3425: 3423: 3420: 3418: 3415: 3413: 3410: 3408: 3405: 3403: 3400: 3398: 3395: 3393: 3389: 3386: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3357:Chancery hand 3355: 3353: 3350: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3324: 3319: 3313: 3308: 3301: 3298: 3294: 3289: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3260: 3259: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3217: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3156: 3152: 3146: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3123: 3119: 3114: 3105: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3067: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3021: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3001: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2964:Semi-cursive 2963: 2958: 2954:Rustic uncial 2953: 2950: 2942: 2941: 2938: 2933: 2930: 2929: 2926: 2924: 2923: 2918: 2917: 2911: 2906: 2900: 2895: 2894:morphological 2891: 2887: 2883: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2862: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2842: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2811: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2800:St Columbanus 2797: 2793: 2783: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2768:Latin scripts 2765: 2754: 2746: 2744: 2739: 2737: 2733: 2732:Cluniac monks 2729: 2725: 2722: 2718: 2706: 2701: 2695: 2692: 2691: 2690: 2688: 2684: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2665: 2660: 2654: 2651: 2650: 2649: 2647: 2644:known as the 2643: 2642: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2619: 2614: 2610: 2609: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2569: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2550:chancery hand 2548: 2544: 2540: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2514: 2511: 2510: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2460: 2458: 2457: 2452: 2451: 2445: 2443: 2438: 2432: 2421: 2417: 2412: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2390:Roman cursive 2388: 2386: 2383: 2382: 2377: 2368: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2331: 2329: 2322: 2312: 2302: 2292: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2258: 2253: 2249: 2238: 2234: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2189: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2151: 2137: 2135: 2131: 2130:Ludwig Traube 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2097: 2092:, whose work 2091: 2087: 2086:Jean Mabillon 2078: 2076: 2071: 2069: 2067: 2061: 2059: 2053: 2051: 2045: 2041: 2034: 2028: 2016: 2015:Telugu script 2013: 2010: 2007: 2003: 2000: 1998: 1994: 1993:Nāgarī script 1991: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1981: 1979: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1967: 1965: 1964:Brahmi script 1962: 1961: 1956: 1947: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1866: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1820:Nagari script 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1804:Proto-Bengali 1801: 1797: 1793: 1792:Śāradā script 1787: 1785: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1767:Greek scripts 1764: 1760: 1756: 1750: 1746: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1682:Telugu region 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1643:Maurya Empire 1639: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1591: 1588: 1587:Nāgarī script 1584: 1580: 1576: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1537: 1529: 1524: 1509: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1484: 1480: 1470: 1466: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1445: 1438: 1433: 1424: 1420: 1413: 1410: 1407: 1404: 1403: 1402: 1398: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1368: 1366: 1365: 1360: 1356: 1355:Chancery hand 1339: 1338: 1333: 1332: 1327: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1306: 1302: 1292: 1283: 1273: 1272:Uncial script 1263: 1261: 1256: 1246: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1191:Chancery hand 1184: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1160: 1151: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1133:has the form 1120: 1119: 1114: 1105: 1101: 1086: 1085:Chancery hand 1081: 1077:in the shape 1055: 1050: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1034: 1029: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1012: 1001: 963: 959: 954: 950: 898: 897:Chancery hand 894: 890: 886: 881: 879: 878: 873: 869: 865: 859: 832: 815: 811: 803: 799: 796: 792: 787: 778: 744: 738: 736: 732: 727: 725: 721: 717: 713: 708: 704: 700: 692: 688: 684: 679: 673: 669: 659: 657: 653: 648: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 626:pronunciation 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 570: 750 BC 564: 560: 555: 553: 544: 541: 538: 537: 536: 533: 531: 530:Syriac script 527: 523: 519: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 485: 483: 480:for /ī/, and 479: 475: 471: 470: 463: 462: 448: 444: 440: 439:Brahmi script 436: 432: 431:modern Arabic 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 388: 383: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 325: 321: 314: 309: 300: 297: 286: 283: 280:Knowledge of 278: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 222:hieroglyphics 220:, graphemes, 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 202:abbreviations 199: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 164: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 145:Jean Mabillon 142: 137: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 114:printed media 111: 107: 103: 98: 91: 86:, 'old', and 84: 77: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 49: 46:, written in 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 11225:Palaeography 11204:Zaner-Bloser 11174:Grundschrift 10916:and medieval 10860:Palaeography 10859: 10315:Romanization 10294:Latin script 10006: 9808:The Simpsons 9806: 9753:Other topics 9701: 9678:Christianity 9668:Resurrection 9299:Adolf Hitler 9128:Six-Day War 9124:Algerian War 9095: / 9054:Vichy France 9046: 9039: 8949: / 8837:World War II 8733: / 8400: 8393: 8195:Ghaza thesis 8118: 8094: 8080:White legend 8078: / 8076:Black legend 8031:Soviet Union 7921: 7914: 7902: 7865:Great Famine 7842:Indocentrism 7816: 7797: 7790: 7783: 7771: 7717:Grand Siècle 7715: 7696: 7664:Sinocentrism 7525:Ancient Rome 7505: 7363:Aryan Kartli 7361: 7153: 7116: / 7050: 6947:19th century 6945: / 6936: / 6901: 6894: 6893: / 6888: 6864: 6838: / 6812:Black legend 6770:Historiology 6567: / 6555: 6518: 6456:Quantitative 6379: 6375:Intellectual 6341: / 6337: / 6323: / 6321:Anthropology 6275:Phaleristics 6268:preservation 6263:Oral history 6205: 6204: / 6190: / 6172:Microhistory 5947: 5940: 5933: 5926: 5917: 5908: / 5904: 5897: 5837:DILE Project 5807: 5798: 5690: 5672: 5651: 5638: 5629: 5619: 5601: 5593: 5583:Armand Colin 5578: 5563: 5552: 5545: 5533: 5498: 5494: 5456: 5447: 5424: 5418: 5409: 5390: 5384: 5365: 5359: 5351: 5347: 5344:La scrittura 5343: 5338: 5330: 5327:La scrittura 5326: 5321: 5303: 5290: 5279: 5263: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5238: 5226: 5203: 5193: 5170: 5164: 5155: 5150: 5149:Cf. Keller, 5145: 5137: 5132: 5123: 5117: 5109: 5100: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5076: 5072: 5067:, vii, viii. 5064: 5060: 5059:Cf. Hessel, 5055: 5048: 5044: 5039: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4993: 4985: 4980: 4972: 4968: 4960: 4956: 4955:Cf. Traube, 4951: 4942: 4936: 4928: 4923: 4914: 4908: 4891: 4885: 4872: 4866: 4859:Montecassino 4854: 4845: 4839: 4830: 4824: 4815: 4809: 4803: 4794: 4789: 4785: 4780: 4771: 4765: 4757: 4753: 4748: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4719: 4711: 4706: 4698: 4693: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4672: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4647: 4637: 4629: 4625: 4608: 4602: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4581: 4577:Carl Wessely 4571: 4563: 4547: 4537: 4529: 4524: 4516: 4512: 4507: 4498: 4492: 4482: 4470: 4460: 4451: 4445: 4436: 4428: 4423: 4415: 4410: 4398: 4390: 4382: 4378: 4366: 4357: 4342: 4316: 4262: 4256: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4231: 4206: 4202: 4196: 4169: 4163: 4155: 4150: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4104: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4060: 4051: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4019: 4015: 4010: 3994: 3978: 3970: 3958: 3946: 3930:and scholar 3928:papyrologist 3923: 3897: 3892: 3884: 3879: 3871: 3851: 3845: 3839: 3818: 3805: 3799: 3771: 3762: 3750: 3738:. 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