245:
354:
4416:
22:
4093:
4428:
3966:
1940:
non-monophyletic, forming a grade that is ancestral relative to
Apocrita and Orussidae. The traditional hymenopteran classification is faulty, by cladistic criteria, in the same way as pre-cladistic vertebrate classifications in which groups sharing plesiomorphic characterswere recognized as natural, e.g., fishes were once grouped together as 'Pisces', which excluded tetrapods.
555:) gives rise to a daughter species without itself becoming extinct. Research indicates as many as 20 percent of all animal species and between 20 and 50 percent of plant species are paraphyletic. Accounting for these facts, some taxonomists argue that paraphyly is a trait of nature that should be acknowledged at higher taxonomic levels.
1939:
Symphyta and
Apocrita have long been considered as suborders of Hymenoptera but since recognition of the paraphyletic nature of the Symphyta (Köningsmann 1977, Rasnitsyn 1988) and the advent of cladistic methods the subordinal classification should be avoided. Likewise the woodwasps are thought to be
322:(Greek πολύς , "many"). More broadly, any taxon that is not paraphyletic or monophyletic can be called polyphyletic. Empirically, the distinction between polyphyletic groups and paraphyletic groups is rather arbitrary, since the character states of common ancestors are inferences, not observations.
614:
Also, some systematists recognize paraphyletic groups as being involved in evolutionary transitions, the development of the first tetrapods from their ancestors for example. Any name given to these hypothetical ancestors to distinguish them from tetrapods—"fish", for example—necessarily picks out a
3708:
Webster, Bonnie L.; Copley, Richard R.; Jenner, Ronald A.; Mackenzie-Dodds, Jacqueline A.; Bourlat, Sarah J.; Rota-Stabelli, Omar; Littlewood, D. T. J.; Telford, Maximilian J. (November 2006). "Mitogenomics and phylogenomics reveal priapulid worms as extant models of the ancestral
Ecdysozoan".
558:
Cladists advocate a phylogenetic species concept that does not consider species to exhibit the properties of monophyly or paraphyly, concepts under that perspective which apply only to groups of species. They consider Zander's extension of the "paraphyletic species" argument to higher taxa to
453:, the two taxa are separate orders. Molecular studies, however, have shown that the Cetacea descend from artiodactyl ancestors, although the precise phylogeny within the order remains uncertain. Without the Cetaceans the Artiodactyls are paraphyletic. The class
546:
require species to be monophyletic, but paraphyletic species are common in nature, to the extent that they do not have a single common ancestor. Indeed, for sexually reproducing taxa, no species has a "single common ancestor" organism. Paraphyly is common in
570:
When the appearance of significant traits has led a subclade on an evolutionary path very divergent from that of a more inclusive clade, it often makes sense to study the paraphyletic group that remains without considering the larger clade. For example, the
308:
in the excluded group or groups. A cladistic approach normally does not grant paraphyletic assemblages the status of "groups", nor does it reify them with explanations, as in cladistics they are not seen as the actual products of evolutionary events.
332:
Paraphyletic groupings are considered problematic by many taxonomists, as it is not possible to talk precisely about their phylogenetic relationships, their characteristic traits and literal extinction. Related terms are
1835:. "It is now thought that the possession of two cotyledons is an ancestral feature for the taxa of the flowering plants and not an apomorphy for any group within. The 'dicots' ... are paraphyletic ...."
2089:
615:
paraphyletic group, because the descendant tetrapods are not included. Other systematists consider reification of paraphyletic groups to obscure inferred patterns of evolutionary history.
3657:
Dunn, CW; Hejnol, A; Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith, SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW; et al. (2008). "Broad phylogenomic sampling improves resolution of the animal tree of life".
1953:
2135:
Bjoern, M.; von
Reumont, Ronald A.; Jenner, Matthew A.; Wills, Emiliano; Dell'Ampio, Günther; Pass, Ingo; Ebersberger, Benjamin; Meyer, Stefan; Koenemann, Thomas M. Iliffe (2012).
1807:
Stackebrabdt, E.; Tindell, B.; Ludwig, W.; Goodfellow, M. (1999). "Prokaryotic
Diversity and Systematics". In Lengeler, Joseph W.; Drews, Gerhart; Schlegel, Hans Günter (eds.).
408:
525:
One of the goals of modern taxonomy over the past fifty years has been to eliminate paraphyletic "groups", such as the examples given here, from formal classifications.
2861:, the Vendian mollusc-like organism (White sea region, Russia): palaeoecological and evolutionary implications". In Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower, Patricia (eds.).
114:. Reptilia contains the last common ancestor of reptiles and all descendants of that ancestor except for birds. Other commonly recognized paraphyletic groups include
426:. "Dicotyledon" has not been used as a botanic classification for decades, but is allowed as a synonym of Magnoliopsida. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that the
2632:
Parhi, J.; Tripathy, P.S.; Priyadarshi, H.; Mandal S.C.; Pandey P.K. (2019). "Diagnosis of mitogenome for robust phylogeny: A case of
Cypriniformes fish group".
403:
are prokaryotes, but archaea and eukaryotes share a common ancestor that is not ancestral to the bacteria. The prokaryote/eukaryote distinction was proposed by
33:; it is composed of a common ancestor (the lowest green vertical stem) and some of its descendants, but it excludes the blue group (a monophyletic group) which
1850:"The Phylogenetic Position of Cetaceans: Further Combined Data Analyses, Comparisons with the Stratigraphic Record and a Discussion of Character Optimization"
749:, ancestral to quadrupedal ones, were descendants of the last common ancestor of quadrupedal dinosaurs and other quadrupedal archosaurs like the crocodilians.
3977:
Funk, D. J.; Omland, K. E. (2003). "Species-level paraphyly and polyphyly: Frequency, cause and consequences, with insights from animal mitochondrial DNA".
3907:
Greenhill, Simon J. and
Russell D. Gray. (2009.) "Austronesian Language and Phylogenies: Myths and Misconceptions About Bayesian Computational Methods", in
2087:
David R. Andrew (2011). "A new view of insect–crustacean relationships II. Inferences from expressed sequence tags and comparisons with neural cladistics".
3979:
542:
have a special status in systematics as being an observable feature of nature itself and as the basic unit of classification. Some articulations of the
304:(monophyletic groups) are excluded to form a separate group. Philosopher of science Marc Ereshefsky has argued that paraphyletic taxa are the result of
2980:
2348:
595:, the families that contain these various artiodactyls, are all monophyletic groups) has taken place in environments so different from that of the
1355:
170:), meaning "genus, species", and refers to the situation in which one or several monophyletic subgroups of organisms (e.g., genera, species) are
3212:
Thewissen, J. G. M.; Williams, E. M. (2002). "The Early
Radiations of Cetacea (Mammalia): Evolutionary Pattern and Developmental Correlations".
758:
The following list recapitulates a number of paraphyletic groups proposed in the literature, and provides the corresponding monophyletic taxa.
412:
2408:
599:(whales, dolphins, and porpoises) that the Artiodactyla are often studied in isolation even though the cetaceans are a descendant group. The
461:). Under a traditional classification, these two taxa are separate classes. However birds are sister taxon to a group of dinosaurs (part of
2001:
1156:
407:
in 1937 and was generally accepted after being adopted by Roger
Stanier and C.B. van Niel in 1962. The botanical code (the ICBN, now the
345:
groupings. Paraphyletic groups are often relics from outdated hypotheses of phylogenic relationships from before the rise of cladistics.
2945:
Martindale, Mark; Finnerty, J.R.; Henry, J.Q. (September 2002). "The
Radiata and the evolutionary origins of the bilaterian body plan".
3848:
2406:
Aubert, D. (2015). "A formal analysis of phylogenetic terminology: Towards a reconsideration of the current paradigm in systematics".
3911:, edited by Alexander Adelaar and Andrew Pawley. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The
4031:
3045:
Reeder, Tod W.; Townsend, Ted M.; Mulcahy, Daniel G.; Noonan, Brice P.; Wood, Perry L.; Sites, Jack W.; Wiens, John J. (2015).
2137:"Pancrustacean phylogeny in the light of new phylogenomic data: support for Remipedia as the possible sister group of Hexapoda"
603:
group is another example; it is paraphyletic because it is composed of two Domains (Eubacteria and Archaea) and excludes (the
3942:
3163:
2878:
2841:
2776:
2616:
2477:
2289:
1830:
1648:
1612:
1546:
4226:
3047:"Integrated Analyses Resolve Conflicts over Squamate Reptile Phylogeny and Reveal Unexpected Placements for Fossil Taxa"
2495:"Fallacies and false premises—a critical assessment of the arguments for the recognition of paraphyletic taxa in botany"
701:
are polyphyletic, not paraphyletic. Although they appear similar, several different groups of amphibious fishes such as
411:) abandoned consideration of bacterial nomenclature in 1975; currently, prokaryotic nomenclature is regulated under the
1627:
Williams, D. M. and Ebach. M. C. 2020. Cladistics: a guide to biological classification. Cambridge University Press.
4186:
3891:
3769:
3480:
3196:
3029:
2902:
Butterfield, N.J. (December 2006). "Hooking some stem-group "worms": fossil lophotrochozoans in the Burgess Shale".
199:), meaning "alone, only, unique", and refers to the fact that a monophyletic group includes organisms consisting of
4266:
4271:
4204:
2148:
2184:
Schuh, Randall T. "The Linnaean system and its 250-year persistence." The Botanical Review 69, no. 1 (2003): 59.
607:). It is very useful because it has a clearly defined and significant distinction (absence of a cell nucleus, a
160:
4432:
4281:
4211:
3912:
3571:
Marques, Antonio C.; Allen G. Collins (March 2004). "Cladistic analysis of Medusozoa and cnidarian evolution".
2792:
Schlegel, Martin; Hülsmann, Norbert (2 August 2007). "Protists – A textbook example for a paraphyletic taxon".
2020:
Johnson, Brian R.; Borowiec, Marek L.; Chiu, Joanna C.; Lee, Ernest K.; Atallah, Joel; Ward, Philip S. (2013).
232:), meaning "many, a lot of", and refers to the fact that a polyphyletic group includes organisms arising from
3000:
1474:
679:
Groupings based on independently-developed traits such as these examples of viviparity represent examples of
222:
189:
4459:
2235:
Queiroz, Kevin; Donoghue, Michael J. (December 1988). "Phylogenetic Systematics and the Species Problem".
1970:
4191:
4098:
4054:
4024:
1458:
49:
3514:"Mitochondrial Genome of the Freshwater Jellyfish Craspedacusta sowerbyi and Phylogenetics of Medusozoa"
3970:
88:
148:
4381:
4307:
3951:
2312:
Ross, Howard A. (July 2014). "The incidence of species-level paraphyly in animals: A re-assessment".
391:(single-celled life forms without cell nuclei) are a paraphyletic grouping, because they exclude the
2021:
1868:
2141:
543:
726:
are not paraphyletic, even though their last common ancestor may have had such a fin, because the
4261:
4059:
3188:
2019:
4454:
4420:
4144:
4017:
2606:
1863:
1454:
1442:
84:
3880:
2831:
2279:
1638:
415:
with a starting date of 1 January 1980 (in contrast to a 1753 start date under the ICBN/ICN).
325:
These terms were developed during the debates of the 1960s and 1970s accompanying the rise of
98:
The term received currency during the debates of the 1960s and 1970s accompanying the rise of
4396:
4074:
3992:
3225:
1602:
4233:
4139:
3666:
3611:
3525:
3417:
3120:
3058:
2721:
2543:
2098:
2038:
1494:
710:
692:
655:
647:
313:
3406:"Fast-Evolving Mitochondrial DNA in Ceriantharia: A Reflection of Hexacorallia Paraphyly?"
8:
4276:
4158:
2677:"Do mudskippers and lungfishes elucidate the early evolution of four-limbed vertebrates?"
646:, the production of offspring without the external laying of a fertilized egg, developed
95:. If many subgroups are missing from the named group, it is said to be polyparaphyletic.
52:
and some but not all of its descendant lineages. The grouping is said to be paraphyletic
34:
3670:
3615:
3529:
3421:
3124:
3062:
2725:
2102:
2042:
4199:
4153:
4069:
3996:
3909:
Austronesian Historical Linguistics and Culture History: a Festschrift for Robert Blust
3734:
3690:
3634:
3599:
3584:
3548:
3513:
3440:
3405:
3366:
3341:
3322:
3264:
3181:
3136:
3081:
3046:
2927:
2744:
2709:
2657:
2524:
2450:
2445:
2428:
2260:
2248:
2217:
2196:"Dead on arrival: a postmortem assessment of "phylogenetic nomenclature", 20+ years on"
2064:
1988:
1915:
1854:
1784:
1759:
1740:
1727:
1710:
1450:
1024:
730:
ancestors of porpoises did not have such a fin, whereas pre-Mesozoic fish did have one.
668:
619:
576:
442:
342:
45:
3856:
3105:
2958:
4127:
3938:
3887:
3802:
3783:
3775:
3765:
3726:
3722:
3682:
3639:
3553:
3494:
3486:
3476:
3445:
3371:
3314:
3309:
3292:
3229:
3192:
3159:
3086:
3025:
2962:
2919:
2884:
2874:
2865:. Special publications. Vol. 286. London: Geological Society. pp. 157–179.
2837:
2809:
2772:
2749:
2661:
2649:
2612:
2516:
2511:
2494:
2473:
2353:
2329:
2285:
2252:
2221:
2167:
2114:
2056:
1993:
1789:
1732:
1691:
1644:
1608:
1552:
1542:
26:
4001:
3738:
3404:
Stampar, S.N.; Maronna, M.M.; Kitahara, M.V.; Reimer, J.D.; Morandini, A.C. (2014).
3403:
3326:
3268:
3140:
2931:
2528:
2454:
2264:
1744:
434:
ancestor. Excluding monocots from the dicots makes the latter a paraphyletic group.
334:
4216:
4170:
3988:
3718:
3694:
3674:
3629:
3619:
3580:
3543:
3533:
3435:
3425:
3361:
3353:
3304:
3256:
3221:
3128:
3076:
3066:
2954:
2911:
2866:
2801:
2739:
2729:
2688:
2641:
2582:
2506:
2440:
2362:
2321:
2244:
2207:
2157:
2106:
2046:
1983:
1975:
1965:
1930:
1873:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1722:
1681:
996:
3751:
3462:
2069:
1457:
because they consist of the nine branches of the Austronesian family that are not
719:
are polyphyletic because they independently (in parallel) lost the ability to fly.
244:
4317:
3754:
3624:
3538:
3465:
3430:
3071:
3004:
2602:
2029:
1034:
991:
716:
698:
404:
300:. A paraphyletic group is a monophyletic group from which one or more subsidiary
92:
3752:
Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). "23 GNATHIFERA".
3281:
Parasitic Hymenoptera (Parasitica). RL Zuparko, Encyclopedia of Entomology, 2004
2325:
383:") too are paraphyletic, as the Apocrita are nested inside the Symphytan clades.
4291:
3934:
2645:
2022:"Phylogenomics Resolves Evolutionary Relationships among Ants, Bees, and Wasps"
1934:
1331:
884:
733:
592:
560:
472:
3825:
3233:
2805:
2110:
2051:
483:; more recently, Osteichthyes is treated as a clade, including the tetrapods.
4448:
4286:
4256:
4163:
4040:
3787:
3498:
3463:
Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). "7 CNIDARIA".
2888:
2827:
2813:
2631:
1556:
1373:
1364:
1312:
1307:
1232:
982:
631:
476:
423:
338:
143:
72:
3132:
2734:
2367:
2162:
294:
Groups that include all the descendants of a common ancestor are said to be
4391:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4312:
4120:
4115:
3882:
Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, Volume 1
3730:
3686:
3643:
3557:
3449:
3375:
3318:
3090:
2966:
2923:
2753:
2653:
2587:
2570:
2520:
2333:
2256:
2171:
2118:
2060:
1997:
1892:
1878:
1849:
1793:
1736:
1695:
1378:
1369:
1350:
1293:
1218:
968:
824:
608:
468:
438:
437:
Among animals, several familiar groups are not, in fact, clades. The order
318:
296:
103:
2693:
2676:
1979:
4386:
4079:
3600:"Phylogenomic analyses support traditional relationships within Cnidaria"
3357:
3017:
1397:
1256:
1227:
1212:
1198:
1184:
1133:
1091:
1043:
987:
552:
534:
519:
507:
419:
388:
353:
3678:
2856:
4064:
3260:
2915:
2571:"Morphology and interrelationships of primitive actinopterygian fishes"
2136:
1686:
1665:
1446:
1436:
1392:
1336:
1237:
1207:
1189:
1165:
1081:
1010:
1005:
931:
912:
829:
778:
740:
723:
702:
662:, a kind of lizard). Put another way, viviparity is a synapomorphy for
643:
622:" is sometimes used for paraphyletic groups. Moreover, the concepts of
604:
600:
548:
518:(insects) are excluded. The modern clade that spans all of them is the
511:
422:(in the traditional sense) are paraphyletic because the group excludes
392:
326:
305:
289:
99:
80:
2212:
2195:
4401:
4365:
4355:
4250:
4132:
2870:
2710:"Phylogenomic evidence for multiple losses of flight in ratite birds"
1345:
1317:
1298:
1288:
1270:
1251:
1193:
1142:
1062:
1015:
973:
907:
870:
865:
851:
815:
783:
736:
680:
642:
Current phylogenetic hypotheses of tetrapod relationships imply that
627:
623:
450:
267:
257:
248:
227:
212:
194:
179:
165:
153:
57:
2944:
2390:
1806:
1576:
1415:
1406:
1326:
1279:
1175:
1170:
1128:
1114:
1086:
950:
940:
893:
879:
797:
788:
745:
727:
706:
580:
515:
503:
491:
480:
462:
396:
380:
376:
364:
3779:
3707:
3490:
2997:
2857:
Fedonkin, M.A.; Simonetta, A; Ivantsov, A.Y. (2007). "New data on
2708:
Harshman, John; Braun, Edward L.; et al. (2 September 2008).
1637:
Schilhab, Theresa; Stjernfelt, Frederik; Deacon, Terrence (2012).
1449:
have found some utility in comparing languages. For instance, the
3952:
Paraphyletic groups as natural units of biological classification
3761:
3472:
2547:
1493:
The history of flowering plant classification can be found under
1274:
1147:
1072:
1053:
1048:
1029:
921:
888:
860:
713:
in distant relatives faced with similar ecological circumstances.
596:
584:
579:(even-toed ungulates, like deer, cows, pigs and hippopotamuses -
572:
539:
471:, bony fish, are paraphyletic when circumscribed to include only
454:
446:
427:
400:
276:
252:
107:
76:
21:
4009:
3293:"A combined approach to the phylogeny of Cephalopoda (Mollusca)"
4092:
3965:
1462:
1411:
1387:
1123:
1067:
964:
959:
834:
802:
663:
588:
445:) as traditionally defined is paraphyletic because it excludes
123:
119:
3103:
2771:(2nd ed.). Belmont CA: Thomson Corporation. p. 360.
510:
except for the Apocrita, a clade deep within the sawfly tree.
4221:
4149:
3886:(3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Johns Hopkins University Press.
3247:
Groves, C. P. (1998). "Systematics of tarsiers and lorises".
1420:
1265:
1100:
926:
810:
806:
753:
431:
361:
301:
272:
61:
2472:(3rd ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
2134:
1760:"The prokaryote–eukaryote dichotomy: meanings and mythology"
3178:
3044:
1246:
1151:
1109:
1105:
945:
902:
843:
487:
458:
357:
115:
111:
48:
term describing a grouping that consists of the grouping's
1954:"The Tree of Life and a New Classification of Bony Fishes"
265:(the prosimians, in blue, including the red patch), and a
3290:
499:
495:
372:
368:
87:. Paraphyletic groups are identified by a combination of
3756:
Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach
3467:
Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach
3291:
Lindgren, A. R.; Giribet, G.; Nishiguchi, M. K. (2004).
2769:
Introductory Botany: Plants, People, and the Environment
2281:
Historical Biogeography of Neotropical Freshwater Fishes
1636:
174:
from all other descendants of a unique common ancestor.
3928:
3570:
3106:"Phylogeny and Systematics of Multituberculate Animals"
2675:
Kutschera, Ulrich; Elliott, J Malcolm (26 March 2013).
1820:
1818:
2429:"An amplification of the phylogenetic species concept"
2395:. St. Louis: Zetetic Publications, Amazon CreateSpace.
2015:
2013:
2011:
3512:
Zou, H.; Zhang, J.; Li, W.; Wu, S.; Wang, G. (2012).
2608:
The Ancestor's Tale, A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life
1971:
10.1371/currents.tol.53ba26640df0ccaee75bb165c8c26288
490:" are paraphyletic, consisting of the narrow-waisted
4088:
3980:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
1843:
1841:
1815:
375:, which are not usually considered to be wasps; the
3656:
3342:"Streptophyte algae and the origin of embryophytes"
2470:
Biological Systematics: principles and applications
2278:Albert, James S.; Reis, Roberto E. (8 March 2011).
2193:
2008:
1951:
3879:
3753:
3464:
3180:
1886:
1441:The concept of paraphyly has also been applied to
3211:
2901:
2541:
1838:
1495:History of the classification of flowering plants
506:) are similarly paraphyletic, forming all of the
457:is paraphyletic because it excludes birds (class
449:(whales, dolphins, etc.). Under the ranks of the
4446:
2791:
2674:
2468:Brower, Andrew V. Z.; Schuh, Randall T. (2021).
1709:Dominguez, Eduardo; Wheeler, Quentin D. (1997).
1708:
3878:Wilson, Don E. & Reeder, DeeAnn M. (2005).
3393:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 404.
2895:
2284:. University of California Press. p. 308.
2234:
2086:
1909:
1907:
1905:
1670:and the role of the genus in paleoanthropology"
637:
565:
3800:
3205:
3104:Kielan-Jaworowska, Z. & Hurum, J. (2001).
2826:
2595:
2492:
2271:
1811:. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag. p. 679.
4025:
3849:"Early Primate Evolution: The First Primates"
3764:. pp. 788ff. – see particularly p. 804.
3391:The Lepidoptera: form, function and diversity
2707:
2427:Nixon, Kevin C.; Wheeler, Quentin D. (1990).
2346:
2130:
2128:
2082:
2080:
1916:"Phylogeny and classification of Hymenoptera"
1829:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSimpson2006 (
1657:
3877:
3511:
3284:
2850:
2426:
1902:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1532:
1530:
1528:
3339:
3179:Savage, R. J. G. & Long, M. R. (1986).
3158:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Science.
2820:
2467:
2392:Framework for Post-Phylogenetic Systematics
2347:Crisp, M.D.; Chandler, G.T. (1 July 1996).
1847:
312:A group whose identifying features evolved
106:to apply to well-known taxa like Reptilia (
4032:
4018:
3333:
2990:
2277:
2125:
2077:
1764:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
1711:"Forum – Taxonomic Stability is Ignorance"
754:Non-exhaustive list of paraphyletic groups
4000:
3633:
3623:
3547:
3537:
3439:
3429:
3365:
3308:
3080:
3070:
2743:
2733:
2692:
2586:
2568:
2544:"Amphibians, Systematics, and Cladistics"
2510:
2444:
2366:
2211:
2161:
2068:
2050:
1987:
1969:
1952:Betancur-R, Ricardo; et al. (2013).
1877:
1867:
1783:
1726:
1685:
1674:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1663:
1563:
1525:
630:have been used in deducing key genes for
110:), which is paraphyletic with respect to
3993:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132421
3226:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.020602.095426
3214:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
2863:The Rise and Fall of the Ediacaran Biota
2760:
1945:
666:within mammals, and an autapomorphy for
352:
341:, budding cladogenesis, anagenesis, or
243:
20:
3505:
3397:
2601:
1913:
1824:
1600:
528:
56:the excluded subgroups. In contrast, a
4447:
3823:
3794:
3597:
3388:
3382:
3246:
3183:Mammal Evolution: an illustrated guide
3153:
3147:
2405:
2388:
1536:
709:evolved independently in a process of
4013:
3172:
3016:
3010:
2947:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
2493:Schmidt-Lebuhn, Alexander N. (2012).
2399:
2314:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
2090:Arthropod Structure & Development
1516:
672:(or perhaps a synapomorphy, if other
187:, builds on the Ancient Greek prefix
4427:
3187:. New York: Facts on File. pp.
2766:
2311:
1757:
1539:Abrégé du dictionnaire grec français
1510:
1480:
1461:and are restricted to the island of
650:in the lineages that led to humans (
360:are paraphyletic, consisting of the
3827:Turns out we DID come from monkeys!
2794:Organisms Diversity & Evolution
1601:Roberts, Keith (10 December 2007).
13:
3585:10.1111/j.1744-7410.2004.tb00139.x
2446:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1990.tb00541.x
2249:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1988.tb00518.x
1728:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1997.tb00325.x
1574:
1537:Bailly, Anatole (1 January 1981).
102:, having been coined by zoologist
14:
4471:
4039:
3958:
3933:. Burlington; San Diego; London:
2681:Evolution: Education and Outreach
1899:(6th ed.) Saunders, Philadelphia.
1453:form a paraphyletic group of the
611:) from its excluded descendants.
479:(lungfish, etc.), and to exclude
465:), both of which are "reptiles".
64:) includes a common ancestor and
4426:
4415:
4414:
4267:Phylogenetic comparative methods
4091:
3964:
3929:Simpson, Michael George (2006).
3803:"Nano-Animals, Part I: Rotifers"
3723:10.1111/j.1525-142X.2006.00123.x
3310:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00032.x
2981:"Gnathifera - Richard C. Brusca"
2605:(2004). "Mammal-like Reptiles".
2512:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2011.00367.x
1577:"Greek-french dictionary online"
770:Corresponding monophyletic taxon
686:
283:
271:(the night-active primates, the
239:
220:, uses the Ancient Greek prefix
4272:Phylogenetic niche conservatism
3921:
3901:
3871:
3841:
3817:
3801:Shimek, Ronald (January 2006).
3745:
3701:
3650:
3591:
3564:
3456:
3275:
3240:
3097:
3038:
2973:
2938:
2785:
2701:
2668:
2625:
2562:
2535:
2486:
2461:
2420:
2382:
2340:
2305:
2228:
2187:
2178:
2149:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1800:
1487:
158:), meaning "beside, near", and
71:The terms are commonly used in
3913:Australian National University
3340:Becker, B.; Marin, B. (2009).
1776:10.1128/MMBR.69.2.292-305.2005
1751:
1702:
1630:
1621:
1594:
1521:(4th ed.). W.B. Saunders.
1430:
739:are not a paraphyletic group.
676:species are also viviparous).
551:, whereby a mother species (a
1:
3760:(7th ed.). Belmont, CA:
3471:(7th ed.). Belmont, CA:
2959:10.1016/s1055-7903(02)00208-7
2542:Kazlev, M.A. & White, T.
1895:& Parsons, T. S. (1985):
1504:
1475:Glossary of scientific naming
634:of diverse group of species.
3625:10.1371/journal.pone.0139068
3598:Zapata; et al. (2015).
3539:10.1371/journal.pone.0051465
3431:10.1371/journal.pone.0086612
3072:10.1371/journal.pone.0118199
2611:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
2194:Brower, Andrew V.Z. (2020).
1848:O'Leary, Maureen A. (2001).
1640:The Symbolic Species Evolved
638:Independently evolved traits
566:Uses for paraphyletic groups
544:phylogenetic species concept
514:are not a clade because the
261:(the simians, in yellow), a
129:
7:
4192:Phylogenetic reconciliation
4099:Evolutionary biology portal
4055:Computational phylogenetics
3711:Evolution & Development
3154:Benton, Michael J. (2004).
3024:. Oxford University Press.
2996:Tree of life web project –
2326:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.02.021
1468:
348:
316:in two or more lineages is
10:
4476:
3824:AronRa (16 January 2010).
2836:. Courier. pp. 115–.
2646:10.1016/j.gene.2019.143967
1958:PLOS Currents Tree of Life
1935:10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.25
1809:Biology of the prokaryotes
1434:
690:
532:
287:
221:
188:
159:
147:
4410:
4382:Phylogenetic nomenclature
4374:
4348:
4300:
4242:
4179:
4108:
4086:
4047:
2806:10.1016/j.ode.2006.11.001
2569:Patterson, Colin (1982).
2301:– via Google Books.
2111:10.1016/j.asd.2011.02.001
2052:10.1016/j.cub.2013.08.050
1664:Villmoare, Brian (2018).
1607:. John Wiley & Sons.
1604:Handbook of Plant Science
430:are a development from a
3156:Vertebrate palaeontology
3003:24 February 2007 at the
2389:Zander, Richard (2013).
210:By comparison, the term
4262:Molecular phylogenetics
4212:Distance-matrix methods
4060:Molecular phylogenetics
3133:10.1111/1475-4983.00185
2833:Essay on Classification
2735:10.1073/pnas.0803242105
2368:10.7751/telopea19963037
1914:Sharkey, M. J. (2007).
1758:Sapp, Jan (June 2005).
1445:, where the methods of
142:, derives from the two
16:Type of taxonomic group
4282:Phylogenetics software
4196:Probabilistic methods
4145:Long branch attraction
2349:"Paraphyletic species"
1517:Romer, A. S. (1970) .
1455:Austronesian languages
1443:historical linguistics
475:(ray-finned fish) and
395:, a descendant group.
384:
280:
85:historical linguistics
38:
4075:Evolutionary taxonomy
3389:Scoble, M.J. (1995).
2694:10.1186/1936-6434-6-8
2163:10.1093/molbev/msr270
773:References and notes
691:Further information:
656:southern water skinks
356:
288:Further information:
247:
203:the descendants of a
177:Conversely, the term
37:from the green group.
29:, the green group is
24:
4234:Three-taxon analysis
4140:Phylogenetic network
3973:at Wikimedia Commons
3573:Invertebrate Biology
3475:. pp. 132–148.
2767:Berg, Linda (2008).
2588:10.1093/icb/22.2.241
1897:The Vertebrate Body.
1879:10.1093/icb/41.3.487
711:convergent evolution
693:Convergent evolution
529:Paraphyly in species
68:of its descendants.
50:last common ancestor
4460:Paraphyletic groups
4277:Phylogenetic signal
3762:Thomson-Brooks/Cole
3679:10.1038/nature06614
3671:2008Natur.452..745D
3616:2015PLoSO..1039068Z
3530:2012PLoSO...751465Z
3473:Thomson-Brooks/Cole
3422:2014PLoSO...986612S
3125:2001Palgy..44..389K
3063:2015PLoSO..1018199R
3022:The Variety of Life
2726:2008PNAS..10513462H
2720:(36): 13462–13467.
2103:2011ArtSD..40..289A
2043:2013CBio...23.2058J
2004:on 13 October 2013.
1541:. Paris: Hachette.
1519:The Vertebrate Body
1025:Even-toed ungulates
443:even-toed ungulates
236:ancestral sources.
4205:Bayesian inference
4200:Maximum likelihood
3859:on 10 January 2018
3853:anthro.palomar.edu
3358:10.1093/aob/mcp044
3261:10.1007/BF02557740
2916:10.1002/bies.20507
2575:American Zoologist
1855:American Zoologist
1827:, pp. 139–140
1687:10.1002/ajpa.23387
1451:Formosan languages
789:Cellular organisms
764:Paraphyletic taxon
669:Eulamprus tympanum
620:evolutionary grade
385:
281:
39:
4442:
4441:
4187:Maximum parsimony
4180:Inference methods
4128:Phylogenetic tree
3969:Media related to
3944:978-0-12-644460-5
3931:Plant systematics
3805:. Reefkeeping.com
3665:(7188): 745–749.
3165:978-0-632-05637-8
2880:978-1-86239-233-5
2843:978-0-486-15135-9
2830:(21 March 2013).
2778:978-0-03-075453-1
2618:978-0-618-00583-3
2479:978-1-5017-5277-3
2291:978-0-520-26868-5
2213:10.1111/cla.12432
2037:(20): 2058–2062.
1650:978-94-007-2335-1
1614:978-0-470-05723-0
1581:www.tabularium.be
1575:Bailly, Anatole.
1548:978-2-01-003528-9
1481:Explanatory notes
1459:Malayo-Polynesian
1428:
1427:
941:Nonavian Dinosaur
683:, not paraphyly.
660:Eulampus tympanum
626:, paraphyly, and
575:evolution of the
207:common ancestor.
93:symplesiomorphies
27:phylogenetic tree
4467:
4430:
4429:
4418:
4417:
4217:Neighbor-joining
4171:Ghost population
4101:
4096:
4095:
4034:
4027:
4020:
4011:
4010:
4006:
4004:
3968:
3948:
3916:
3905:
3899:
3897:
3885:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3855:. Archived from
3845:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3834:
3821:
3815:
3814:
3812:
3810:
3798:
3792:
3791:
3759:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3705:
3699:
3698:
3654:
3648:
3647:
3637:
3627:
3610:(10): e0139068.
3595:
3589:
3588:
3568:
3562:
3561:
3551:
3541:
3509:
3503:
3502:
3470:
3460:
3454:
3453:
3443:
3433:
3401:
3395:
3394:
3386:
3380:
3379:
3369:
3346:Annals of Botany
3337:
3331:
3330:
3312:
3288:
3282:
3279:
3273:
3272:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3186:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3110:
3101:
3095:
3094:
3084:
3074:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3014:
3008:
2994:
2988:
2987:
2985:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2871:10.1144/SP286.12
2854:
2848:
2847:
2824:
2818:
2817:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2764:
2758:
2757:
2747:
2737:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2629:
2623:
2622:
2603:Dawkins, Richard
2599:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2514:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2448:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2370:
2344:
2338:
2337:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2215:
2191:
2185:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2165:
2156:(3): 1031–1045.
2145:
2132:
2123:
2122:
2084:
2075:
2074:
2072:
2054:
2026:
2017:
2006:
2005:
2000:. Archived from
1991:
1973:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1920:
1911:
1900:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1871:
1845:
1836:
1834:
1822:
1813:
1812:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1787:
1755:
1749:
1748:
1730:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1689:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1634:
1628:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1572:
1561:
1560:
1534:
1523:
1522:
1514:
1498:
1491:
997:Multituberculata
761:
760:
717:Flightless birds
502:. The sawflies (
231:
225:
198:
192:
169:
163:
157:
151:
4475:
4474:
4470:
4469:
4468:
4466:
4465:
4464:
4445:
4444:
4443:
4438:
4406:
4370:
4344:
4318:Symplesiomorphy
4296:
4238:
4175:
4104:
4097:
4090:
4084:
4048:Relevant fields
4043:
4038:
3976:
3961:
3956:
3945:
3924:
3919:
3906:
3902:
3894:
3876:
3872:
3862:
3860:
3847:
3846:
3842:
3832:
3830:
3822:
3818:
3808:
3806:
3799:
3795:
3772:
3750:
3746:
3706:
3702:
3655:
3651:
3596:
3592:
3569:
3565:
3510:
3506:
3483:
3461:
3457:
3402:
3398:
3387:
3383:
3352:(7): 999–1004.
3338:
3334:
3289:
3285:
3280:
3276:
3245:
3241:
3210:
3206:
3199:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3152:
3148:
3108:
3102:
3098:
3057:(3): e0118199.
3043:
3039:
3032:
3015:
3011:
3005:Wayback Machine
2995:
2991:
2983:
2979:
2978:
2974:
2943:
2939:
2900:
2896:
2881:
2855:
2851:
2844:
2825:
2821:
2790:
2786:
2779:
2765:
2761:
2706:
2702:
2673:
2669:
2630:
2626:
2619:
2600:
2596:
2567:
2563:
2553:
2551:
2540:
2536:
2491:
2487:
2480:
2466:
2462:
2425:
2421:
2404:
2400:
2387:
2383:
2373:
2371:
2345:
2341:
2310:
2306:
2296:
2294:
2292:
2276:
2272:
2233:
2229:
2192:
2188:
2183:
2179:
2139:
2133:
2126:
2085:
2078:
2030:Current Biology
2024:
2018:
2009:
1950:
1946:
1918:
1912:
1903:
1891:
1887:
1869:10.1.1.555.8631
1846:
1839:
1828:
1823:
1816:
1805:
1801:
1756:
1752:
1707:
1703:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1599:
1595:
1585:
1583:
1573:
1564:
1549:
1535:
1526:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1501:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1471:
1439:
1433:
1035:Cetartiodactyla
992:Arginbaataridae
983:Plagiaulacidans
848:Multiple groups
767:Excluded clades
756:
743:dinosaurs like
722:Animals with a
699:Amphibious fish
695:
689:
640:
568:
537:
531:
405:Edouard Chatton
351:
292:
286:
242:
132:
75:(a subfield of
54:with respect to
17:
12:
11:
5:
4473:
4463:
4462:
4457:
4440:
4439:
4437:
4436:
4424:
4411:
4408:
4407:
4405:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4378:
4376:
4372:
4371:
4369:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4352:
4350:
4346:
4345:
4343:
4342:
4341:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4322:
4321:
4320:
4315:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4294:
4292:Phylogeography
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4246:
4244:
4243:Current topics
4240:
4239:
4237:
4236:
4231:
4230:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4209:
4208:
4207:
4202:
4194:
4189:
4183:
4181:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4173:
4168:
4167:
4166:
4156:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4136:
4135:
4125:
4124:
4123:
4112:
4110:
4109:Basic concepts
4106:
4105:
4103:
4102:
4087:
4085:
4083:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4051:
4049:
4045:
4044:
4037:
4036:
4029:
4022:
4014:
4008:
4007:
3974:
3960:
3959:External links
3957:
3955:
3954:
3949:
3943:
3935:Academic Press
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3917:
3900:
3892:
3870:
3840:
3816:
3793:
3770:
3744:
3717:(6): 502–510.
3700:
3649:
3590:
3563:
3524:(12): e51465.
3504:
3481:
3455:
3396:
3381:
3332:
3303:(5): 454–486.
3283:
3274:
3239:
3204:
3197:
3171:
3164:
3146:
3119:(3): 389–429.
3096:
3037:
3030:
3009:
2989:
2972:
2953:(3): 358–365.
2937:
2910:(12): 1161–6.
2894:
2879:
2849:
2842:
2828:Agassiz, Louis
2819:
2800:(2): 166–172.
2784:
2777:
2759:
2700:
2667:
2624:
2617:
2594:
2581:(2): 241–259.
2561:
2534:
2485:
2478:
2460:
2419:
2398:
2381:
2361:(4): 813–844.
2339:
2304:
2290:
2270:
2243:(4): 317–338.
2227:
2206:(6): 627–637.
2186:
2177:
2124:
2097:(3): 289–302.
2076:
2007:
1980:2027.42/150563
1944:
1901:
1885:
1862:(3): 487–506.
1837:
1814:
1799:
1770:(2): 292–305.
1750:
1721:(4): 367–372.
1701:
1656:
1649:
1629:
1620:
1613:
1593:
1562:
1547:
1524:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1499:
1485:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1470:
1467:
1435:Main article:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1418:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1376:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1334:
1332:Acanthocephala
1329:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1282:
1277:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1221:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1201:
1196:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1159:
1154:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1112:
1103:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1021:
1020:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1002:
1001:
999:
994:
985:
979:
978:
976:
971:
962:
956:
955:
953:
948:
943:
937:
936:
934:
929:
924:
918:
917:
915:
910:
905:
899:
898:
896:
891:
885:Lophotrochozoa
882:
876:
875:
873:
868:
863:
857:
856:
854:
849:
846:
840:
839:
837:
832:
827:
821:
820:
818:
813:
800:
794:
793:
791:
786:
781:
775:
774:
771:
768:
765:
755:
752:
751:
750:
731:
720:
714:
688:
685:
639:
636:
593:Hippopotamidae
567:
564:
561:category error
533:Main article:
530:
527:
473:Actinopterygii
424:monocotyledons
418:Among plants,
350:
347:
285:
282:
241:
238:
131:
128:
89:synapomorphies
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4472:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4455:Phylogenetics
4453:
4452:
4450:
4435:
4434:
4425:
4423:
4422:
4413:
4412:
4409:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4379:
4377:
4373:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4347:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4325:
4323:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4310:
4309:
4306:
4305:
4303:
4299:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4287:Phylogenomics
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4257:DNA barcoding
4255:
4253:
4252:
4248:
4247:
4245:
4241:
4235:
4232:
4228:
4227:Least squares
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4214:
4213:
4210:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4178:
4172:
4169:
4165:
4164:Ghost lineage
4162:
4161:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4129:
4126:
4122:
4119:
4118:
4117:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4107:
4100:
4094:
4089:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4041:Phylogenetics
4035:
4030:
4028:
4023:
4021:
4016:
4015:
4012:
4003:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3981:
3975:
3972:
3967:
3963:
3962:
3953:
3950:
3946:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3927:
3926:
3914:
3910:
3904:
3895:
3893:0-8018-8221-4
3889:
3884:
3883:
3874:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3844:
3829:
3828:
3820:
3804:
3797:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3771:0-03-025982-7
3767:
3763:
3758:
3757:
3748:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3704:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3653:
3645:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3594:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3559:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3508:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3482:0-03-025982-7
3478:
3474:
3469:
3468:
3459:
3451:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3416:(1): e86612.
3415:
3411:
3407:
3400:
3392:
3385:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3336:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3287:
3278:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3208:
3200:
3198:0-8160-1194-X
3194:
3190:
3185:
3184:
3175:
3167:
3161:
3157:
3150:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3113:Palaeontology
3107:
3100:
3092:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3033:
3031:0-19-860426-2
3027:
3023:
3019:
3013:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2993:
2982:
2976:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2853:
2845:
2839:
2835:
2834:
2829:
2823:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2780:
2774:
2770:
2763:
2755:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2704:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2671:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2628:
2620:
2614:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2598:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2549:
2545:
2538:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2505:(2): 174–87.
2504:
2500:
2496:
2489:
2481:
2475:
2471:
2464:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2439:(3): 211–23.
2438:
2434:
2430:
2423:
2415:
2411:
2410:
2402:
2394:
2393:
2385:
2369:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2355:
2350:
2343:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2308:
2293:
2287:
2283:
2282:
2274:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2231:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2181:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2150:
2143:
2138:
2131:
2129:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2083:
2081:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2023:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1964:(Edition 1).
1963:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1917:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1898:
1894:
1889:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1856:
1851:
1844:
1842:
1832:
1826:
1821:
1819:
1810:
1803:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1705:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1669:
1660:
1652:
1646:
1642:
1641:
1633:
1624:
1616:
1610:
1606:
1605:
1597:
1582:
1578:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1520:
1513:
1509:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1438:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1374:Siphonophorae
1371:
1368:
1366:
1365:Anthoathecata
1363:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1356:Mecopteroidea
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1313:Panarthropoda
1311:
1309:
1308:Cycloneuralia
1306:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1233:Monocotyledon
1231:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:(Land plants)
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
989:
986:
984:
981:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
966:
963:
961:
958:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
886:
883:
881:
878:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
858:
855:
853:
850:
847:
845:
842:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
826:
825:Invertebrates
823:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
808:
804:
801:
799:
796:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
776:
772:
769:
766:
763:
762:
759:
748:
747:
742:
738:
735:
732:
729:
725:
721:
718:
715:
712:
708:
704:
700:
697:
696:
694:
687:Not paraphyly
684:
682:
677:
675:
671:
670:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
648:independently
645:
635:
633:
629:
625:
621:
616:
612:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
563:
562:
556:
554:
550:
545:
541:
536:
526:
523:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
484:
482:
478:
477:Sarcopterygii
474:
470:
466:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
435:
433:
429:
425:
421:
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
363:
359:
355:
346:
344:
340:
339:chronospecies
336:
330:
328:
323:
321:
320:
315:
310:
307:
303:
299:
298:
291:
284:In cladistics
278:
274:
270:
269:
264:
260:
259:
254:
250:
246:
240:Phylogenetics
237:
235:
230:
224:
219:
215:
214:
208:
206:
202:
197:
191:
186:
182:
181:
175:
173:
168:
162:
156:
150:
145:
144:Ancient Greek
141:
137:
127:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
96:
94:
90:
86:
82:
79:) and in the
78:
74:
73:phylogenetics
69:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
36:
32:
28:
23:
19:
4431:
4419:
4392:Sister group
4375:Nomenclature
4360:
4338:Autapomorphy
4333:Synapomorphy
4313:Plesiomorphy
4301:Group traits
4249:
4121:Cladogenesis
4116:Phylogenesis
3984:
3978:
3930:
3922:Bibliography
3908:
3903:
3881:
3873:
3861:. Retrieved
3857:the original
3852:
3843:
3831:. Retrieved
3826:
3819:
3807:. Retrieved
3796:
3755:
3747:
3714:
3710:
3703:
3662:
3658:
3652:
3607:
3603:
3593:
3579:(1): 23–42.
3576:
3572:
3566:
3521:
3517:
3507:
3466:
3458:
3413:
3409:
3399:
3390:
3384:
3349:
3345:
3335:
3300:
3296:
3286:
3277:
3255:(1): 13–27.
3252:
3248:
3242:
3217:
3213:
3207:
3182:
3174:
3155:
3149:
3116:
3112:
3099:
3054:
3050:
3040:
3021:
3018:Tudge, Colin
3012:
2992:
2975:
2950:
2946:
2940:
2907:
2903:
2897:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2832:
2822:
2797:
2793:
2787:
2768:
2762:
2717:
2713:
2703:
2684:
2680:
2670:
2637:
2633:
2627:
2607:
2597:
2578:
2574:
2564:
2552:. Retrieved
2537:
2502:
2498:
2488:
2469:
2463:
2436:
2432:
2422:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2391:
2384:
2372:. Retrieved
2358:
2352:
2342:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2295:. Retrieved
2280:
2273:
2240:
2236:
2230:
2203:
2199:
2189:
2180:
2153:
2147:
2094:
2088:
2034:
2028:
2002:the original
1961:
1957:
1947:
1938:
1926:
1922:
1896:
1893:Romer, A. S.
1888:
1859:
1853:
1825:Simpson 2006
1808:
1802:
1767:
1763:
1753:
1718:
1714:
1704:
1677:
1673:
1667:
1659:
1643:. Springer.
1639:
1632:
1623:
1603:
1596:
1584:. Retrieved
1580:
1538:
1518:
1512:
1489:
1440:
1379:Hydroidolina
1370:Leptothecata
1351:Siphonaptera
1294:Hydroidolina
1219:Streptophyta
969:Amphisbaenia
757:
744:
678:
673:
667:
659:
652:Homo sapiens
651:
641:
617:
613:
609:plesiomorphy
577:Artiodactyla
569:
559:represent a
557:
538:
524:
494:without the
485:
469:Osteichthyes
467:
439:Artiodactyla
436:
420:dicotyledons
417:
386:
331:
324:
319:polyphyletic
317:
314:convergently
311:
297:monophyletic
295:
293:
266:
262:
256:
255:, showing a
233:
228:
218:polyphyletic
217:
211:
209:
204:
200:
195:
185:monophyletic
184:
178:
176:
171:
166:
154:
140:paraphyletic
139:
135:
133:
104:Willi Hennig
97:
70:
65:
60:grouping (a
58:monophyletic
53:
41:
40:
31:paraphyletic
30:
18:
4387:Crown group
4349:Group types
4080:Systematics
3987:: 397–423.
3833:12 November
2409:Phytoneuron
1929:: 521–548.
1431:Linguistics
1398:Simiiformes
1257:Lepidoptera
1228:Dicotyledon
1213:Embryophyte
1199:Cephalopoda
1185:Nautiloidea
1134:Hymenoptera
1092:Tetraconata
1082:Crustaceans
1068:Simiiformes
1044:Archaeoceti
1006:Pelycosaurs
988:Cimolodonta
779:Prokaryotes
734:Quadrupedal
703:mudskippers
553:paraspecies
535:Paraspecies
520:Tetraconata
512:Crustaceans
508:Hymenoptera
389:prokaryotes
4449:Categories
4065:Cladistics
3780:2003107287
3491:2003107287
3297:Cladistics
3234:4656321698
2859:Kimberella
2640:: 143967.
2499:Cladistics
2433:Cladistics
2374:22 January
2237:Cladistics
2200:Cladistics
1715:Cladistics
1505:References
1447:cladistics
1437:Tree model
1393:Hominoidea
1337:Syndermata
1238:Angiosperm
1208:Charophyte
1190:Ammonoidea
1166:Parasitica
1157:Euaculeata
1063:Prosimians
1011:Therapsida
951:Dinosauria
932:Sauropsida
913:Vertebrate
830:Vertebrata
737:archosaurs
724:dorsal fin
707:lungfishes
644:viviparity
618:The term "
605:eukaryotes
601:prokaryote
549:speciation
393:eukaryotes
335:stem group
327:cladistics
306:anagenesis
290:Cladistics
279:, in red).
172:left apart
100:cladistics
81:tree model
4402:Supertree
4366:Polyphyly
4361:Paraphyly
4356:Monophyly
4328:Apomorphy
4308:Primitive
4251:PhyloCode
4133:Cladogram
3971:Paraphyly
3898:, p. 699.
3863:12 August
3788:752875516
3499:752875516
3220:: 73–90.
2998:Chordates
2904:BioEssays
2889:156823511
2814:1439-6092
2662:195828782
2554:16 August
2320:: 10–17.
2222:224927279
1864:CiteSeerX
1680:: 72–89.
1557:461974285
1346:Mecoptera
1318:Ecdysozoa
1299:Medusozoa
1289:Jellyfish
1271:Medusozoa
1252:Butterfly
1194:Coleoidea
1143:Vespoidea
1016:Synapsida
974:Squamates
908:Tetrapoda
871:Eumetazoa
866:Bilateria
852:Nephrozoa
816:Eukaryota
784:Eukaryota
681:polyphyly
674:Eulamprus
632:barcoding
628:polyphyly
624:monophyly
481:tetrapods
451:ICZN Code
447:Cetaceans
268:polyphyly
263:paraphyly
258:monophyly
249:Cladogram
213:polyphyly
180:monophyly
136:paraphyly
134:The term
130:Etymology
46:taxonomic
42:Paraphyly
4421:Category
4324:Derived
4070:Taxonomy
4002:33951905
3739:22823313
3731:17073934
3687:18322464
3644:26465609
3604:PLOS ONE
3558:23240028
3518:PLOS ONE
3450:24475157
3410:PLOS ONE
3376:19273476
3327:85975284
3319:34892953
3269:10869981
3249:Primates
3141:83592270
3091:25803280
3051:PLOS ONE
3020:(2000).
3001:Archived
2967:12220977
2932:29130876
2924:17120226
2754:18765814
2687:(8): 8.
2654:31279710
2529:83900580
2521:34861757
2455:84095773
2334:24583289
2265:40799805
2257:34949064
2172:22049065
2119:21315832
2061:24094856
1998:23653398
1794:15944457
1745:55540349
1737:34911226
1696:29380889
1469:See also
1416:Caprinae
1407:Antelope
1327:Rotifera
1280:Cnidaria
1176:Apocrita
1171:Aculeata
1129:Apocrita
1115:Apocrita
1087:Hexapoda
1073:Primates
922:Reptiles
894:Spiralia
880:Platyzoa
835:Animalia
803:Animalia
798:Protista
746:Eoraptor
728:Mesozoic
581:Cervidae
516:Hexapoda
504:Symphyta
492:Apocrita
463:Diapsida
455:Reptilia
428:monocots
397:Bacteria
381:Symphyta
377:sawflies
367:without
365:Apocrita
349:Examples
277:tarsiers
275:and the
253:primates
234:multiple
108:reptiles
35:diverged
25:In this
4433:Commons
4159:Lineage
3809:27 July
3695:4397099
3667:Bibcode
3635:4605497
3612:Bibcode
3549:3519871
3526:Bibcode
3441:3903554
3418:Bibcode
3367:2707909
3121:Bibcode
3082:4372529
3059:Bibcode
2745:2533212
2722:Bibcode
2550:website
2548:Palaeos
2416:: 1–54.
2354:Telopea
2297:28 June
2144:proofs)
2099:Bibcode
2039:Bibcode
1989:3644299
1923:Zootaxa
1785:1197417
1666:"Early
1586:8 March
1421:Bovidae
1275:Myxozoa
1148:Apoidea
1054:Cetacea
1049:Neoceti
1030:Cetacea
889:Mesozoa
861:Radiata
807:Plantae
741:Bipedal
597:Cetacea
585:Bovidae
573:Neogene
540:Species
401:Archaea
343:'grade'
273:lorises
251:of the
124:lizards
120:monkeys
77:biology
3999:
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1412:Bovini
1388:Monkey
1124:Sawfly
965:Snakes
960:Lizard
809:, and
664:Theria
654:) and
589:Suidae
302:clades
205:unique
167:phûlon
146:words
122:, and
4397:Basal
4222:UPGMA
4154:Grade
4150:Clade
3997:S2CID
3735:S2CID
3691:S2CID
3323:S2CID
3265:S2CID
3137:S2CID
3109:(PDF)
2984:(PDF)
2928:S2CID
2658:S2CID
2525:S2CID
2451:S2CID
2261:S2CID
2218:S2CID
2065:S2CID
2025:(PDF)
1919:(PDF)
1741:S2CID
1266:Coral
1101:Wasps
946:Birds
927:Birds
811:Fungi
488:wasps
486:The "
432:dicot
362:clade
358:Wasps
229:polús
223:πολύς
216:, or
196:mónos
190:μόνος
183:, or
161:φῦλον
138:, or
112:birds
62:clade
44:is a
3939:ISBN
3888:ISBN
3865:2017
3835:2018
3811:2008
3784:OCLC
3776:LCCN
3766:ISBN
3727:PMID
3683:PMID
3640:PMID
3554:PMID
3495:OCLC
3487:LCCN
3477:ISBN
3446:PMID
3372:PMID
3315:PMID
3230:OCLC
3193:ISBN
3160:ISBN
3087:PMID
3026:ISBN
2963:PMID
2920:PMID
2885:OCLC
2875:ISBN
2838:ISBN
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2773:ISBN
2750:PMID
2714:PNAS
2650:PMID
2634:Gene
2613:ISBN
2556:2012
2517:PMID
2474:ISBN
2376:2015
2330:PMID
2299:2011
2286:ISBN
2253:PMID
2168:PMID
2115:PMID
2057:PMID
1994:PMID
1927:1668
1831:help
1790:PMID
1733:PMID
1692:PMID
1668:Homo
1645:ISBN
1609:ISBN
1588:2018
1553:OCLC
1543:ISBN
1247:Moth
1152:Ants
1110:Bees
1106:Ants
903:Fish
844:Worm
705:and
591:and
500:bees
498:and
496:ants
459:Aves
413:ICNB
399:and
387:The
373:bees
371:and
369:ants
155:pará
149:παρά
116:fish
91:and
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