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3974:. Even though parasite-host interactions were plainly ecological and important in evolution, the history of parasitology caused what the evolutionary ecologist Robert Poulin called a "takeover of parasitism by parasitologists", leading ecologists to ignore the area. This was in his opinion "unfortunate", as parasites are "omnipresent agents of natural selection" and significant forces in evolution and ecology. In his view, the long-standing split between the sciences limited the exchange of ideas, with separate conferences and separate journals. The technical languages of ecology and parasitology sometimes involved different meanings for the same words. There were philosophical differences, too: Poulin notes that, influenced by medicine, "many parasitologists accepted that evolution led to a decrease in parasite virulence, whereas modern evolutionary theory would have predicted a greater range of outcomes".
1174:
454:
3908:(SA) signalling pathways. The different biochemical pathways are activated by different attacks, and the two pathways can interact positively or negatively. In general, plants can either initiate a specific or a non-specific response. Specific responses involve recognition of a parasite by the plant's cellular receptors, leading to a strong but localised response: defensive chemicals are produced around the area where the parasite was detected, blocking its spread, and avoiding wasting defensive production where it is not needed. Non-specific defensive responses are systemic, meaning that the responses are not confined to an area of the plant, but spread throughout the plant, making them costly in energy. These are effective against a wide range of parasites. When damaged, such as by
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1782:
1802:
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72:
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9807:
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1259:
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844:
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3543:. The fact that flamingos share parasites with ducks and geese was initially taken as evidence that these groups were more closely related to each other than either is to storks. However, evolutionary events such as the duplication, or the extinction of parasite species (without similar events on the host phylogeny) often erode similarities between host and parasite phylogenies. In the case of flamingos, they have similar lice to those of
1207:
769:
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diversity of traits brought about by sexual reproduction. Parasites provide an opportunity for the transfer of genetic material between species, facilitating evolutionary change. Many parasites require multiple hosts of different species to complete their life cycles and rely on predator-prey or other stable ecological interactions to get from one host to another. The presence of parasites thus indicates that an ecosystem is healthy.
3941:
10975:
3125:
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3827:, toxic to most microorganisms, is the next line of defence. Some intestinal parasites have a thick, tough outer coating which is digested slowly or not at all, allowing the parasite to pass through the stomach alive, at which point they enter the intestine and begin the next stage of their life. Once inside the body, parasites must overcome the
3379:, as, all else being equal, it is in the evolutionary interest of the parasite that its host thrives. A parasite may evolve to become less harmful for its host or a host may evolve to cope with the unavoidable presence of a parasite—to the point that the parasite's absence causes the host harm. For example, although animals parasitised by
3888:. The tineid moth lays its eggs within the wasps' nests and then these eggs hatch into larvae that can burrow from cell to cell and prey on wasp pupae. Adult wasps attempt to remove and kill moth eggs and larvae by chewing down the edges of cells, coating the cells with an oral secretion that gives the nest a dark brownish appearance.
1716:, wholly dependent on females of their own species for survival, permanently attached below the female's body, and unable to fend for themselves. The female nourishes the male and protects him from predators, while the male gives nothing back except the sperm that the female needs to produce the next generation.
3743:, the shuffling of genes to create varied combinations. Hamilton showed by mathematical modelling that sexual reproduction would be evolutionarily stable in different situations, and that the theory's predictions matched the actual ecology of sexual reproduction. However, there may be a trade-off between
6098:
Predation, herbivory, and parasitism exist along a continuum of severity in terms of the extent to which they negatively affect an organism's fitness. ... In most situations, parasites do not kill their hosts. An exception, however, occurs with parasitoids, which blur the line between parasitism and
3662:
often have parasitoid wasp larvae attached to them which alter their web-building behavior. Instead of producing their normal sticky spiral shaped webs, they made simplified webs when the parasites were attached. This manipulated behavior lasted longer and was more prominent the longer the parasites
1111:
as well as wasps, lay their eggs inside young hosts, usually larvae. These are allowed to go on growing, so the host and parasitoid develop together for an extended period, ending when the parasitoids emerge as adults, leaving the prey dead, eaten from inside. Some koinobionts regulate their host's
4715:
A 2022 study examined the naming of some 3000 parasite species discovered in the previous two decades. Of those named after scientists, over 80% were named for men, whereas about a third of authors of papers on parasites were women. The study found that the percentage of parasite species named for
1217:
A micropredator attacks more than one host, reducing each host's fitness by at least a small amount, and is only in contact with any one host intermittently. This behavior makes micropredators suitable as vectors, as they can pass smaller parasites from one host to another. Most micropredators are
3241:
Parasitism is a major aspect of evolutionary ecology; for example, almost all free-living animals are host to at least one species of parasite. Vertebrates, the best-studied group, are hosts to between 75,000 and 300,000 species of helminths and an uncounted number of parasitic microorganisms. On
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partly or completely destroy their host's ability to reproduce, diverting the energy that would have gone into reproduction into host and parasite growth, sometimes causing gigantism in the host. The host's other systems remain intact, allowing it to survive and to sustain the parasite. Parasitic
4048:
Although parasites are widely considered to be harmful, the eradication of all parasites would not be beneficial. Parasites account for at least half of life's diversity; they perform important ecological roles; and without parasites, organisms might tend to asexual reproduction, diminishing the
542:
assigned in order to analyse the population movements of the host–parasite groupings. The microorganisms and viruses that can reproduce and complete their life cycle within the host are known as microparasites. Macroparasites are the multicellular organisms that reproduce and complete their life
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in the life-history evolution of their parasites. The outcomes depend on whether the drugs decrease the chance of a helminth larva reaching adulthood. If so, natural selection can be expected to favour the production of eggs at an earlier age. If on the other hand the drugs mainly affects adult
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and egg-grasping appendages. Various species of helminth castrate their hosts (such as insects and snails). This may happen directly, whether mechanically by feeding on their gonads, or by secreting a chemical that destroys reproductive cells; or indirectly, whether by secreting a hormone or by
4062:. It was host to a louse, which lived only on it. Any lice found were "deliberately killed" during the program, to keep the condors in the best possible health. The result was that one species, the condor, was saved and returned to the wild, while another species, the parasite, became extinct.
3327:
As hosts and parasites evolve together, their relationships often change. When a parasite is in a sole relationship with a host, selection drives the relationship to become more benign, even mutualistic, as the parasite can reproduce for longer if its host lives longer. But where parasites are
870:; and many species of nematodes, fungi, protozoans, bacteria, and viruses. Whether endoparasites or ectoparasites, each has a single host-species. Within that species, most individuals are free or almost free of parasites, while a minority carry a large number of parasites; this is known as an
529:
does not. Parasite life cycles involving only one host are called "direct"; those with a definitive host (where the parasite reproduces sexually) and at least one intermediate host are called "indirect". An endoparasite lives inside the host's body; an ectoparasite lives outside, on the host's
5111:
Parasitism is a form of symbiosis, an intimate relationship between two different species. There is a biochemical interaction between host and parasite; i.e. they recognize each other, ultimately at the molecular level, and host tissues are stimulated to react in some way. This explains why
4852:
Trophically-transmitted parasites are transmitted to their definitive host, a predator, when their intermediate host is eaten. These parasites often modify the behaviour of their intermediate hosts, causing them to behave in a way that makes them likely to be eaten, such as by climbing to a
621:
of a parasite's hosts; the number of hosts they have per life stage; whether the host is prevented from reproducing; and whether the effect depends on intensity (number of parasites per host). From this analysis, the major evolutionary strategies of parasitism emerge, alongside predation.
1130:
4103:
A single parasite species usually has an aggregated distribution across host animals, which means that most hosts carry few parasites, while a few hosts carry the vast majority of parasite individuals. This poses considerable problems for students of parasite ecology, as it renders
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Parasites can exploit their hosts to carry out a number of functions that they would otherwise have to carry out for themselves. Parasites which lose those functions then have a selective advantage, as they can divert resources to reproduction. Many insect ectoparasites including
1486:
feed on another parasite, as exemplified by protozoa living in helminth parasites, or facultative or obligate parasitoids whose hosts are either conventional parasites or parasitoids. Levels of parasitism beyond secondary also occur, especially among facultative parasitoids. In
6255:
de Boer, Jetske G.; Robinson, Ailie; Powers, Stephen J.; Burgers, Saskia L. G. E.; Caulfield, John C.; Birkett, Michael A.; Smallegange, Renate C.; van
Genderen, Perry J. J.; Bousema, Teun; Sauerwein, Robert W.; Pickett, John A.; Takken, Willem; Logan, James G. (August 2017).
1092:
parasitoids sting their often-large prey on capture, either killing them outright or paralysing them immediately. The immobilised prey is then carried to a nest, sometimes alongside other prey if it is not large enough to support a parasitoid throughout its development. An
1150:
2744:, or both. This provides them with the ability to extract water and nutrients from the host. A parasitic plant is classified depending on where it latches onto the host, either the stem or the root, and the amount of nutrients it requires. Since holoparasites have no
3655:
are drawn to this scent, which may increase transmission to feline hosts. The malaria parasite modifies the skin odour of its human hosts, increasing their attractiveness to mosquitoes and hence improving the chance that the parasite will be transmitted. The spider
248:, from parasitic castration to modification of host behaviour. Parasites increase their own fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their survival, in particular by feeding on them and by using intermediate (secondary) hosts to assist in their
2915:
and necrotrophs. Biotrophic fungi derive nutrients from living plant cells, and during the course of infection they colonise their plant host in such a way as to keep it alive for a maximally long time. One well-known example of a biotrophic pathogen is
4007:. Even though the parasite was eradicated in all but four countries, the worm began using frogs as an intermediary host before infecting dogs, making control more difficult than it would have been if the relationships had been better understood.
10618:
A satirist seeking to portray client misery naturally focuses on the relationship with the greatest dependency, that in which a client gets his food from his patron, and for this the prefabricated persona of the parasite proved itself extremely
2664:
with the largest numbers of parasitic species are listed in the table. Numbers are conservative minimum estimates. The columns for Endo- and Ecto-parasitism refer to the definitive host, as documented in the
Vertebrate and Invertebrate columns.
1173:
3727:
Hosts have evolved a variety of defensive measures against their parasites, including physical barriers like the skin of vertebrates, the immune system of mammals, insects actively removing parasites, and defensive chemicals in plants.
4925:
Parasites, in a phrase, are predators that eat prey in units of less than one. Tolerable parasites are those that have evolved to ensure their own survival and reproduction but at the same time with minimum pain and cost to the
1801:
9118:
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average, a mammal species hosts four species of nematode, two of trematodes, and two of cestodes. Humans have 342 species of helminth parasites, and 70 species of protozoan parasites. Some three-quarters of the links in
3527:
from
African and Asian primates were found to be closely congruent in branching order and divergence times, implying that the simian foamy viruses cospeciated with Old World primates for at least 30 million years.
1867:
546:
Much of the thinking on types of parasitism has focused on terrestrial animal parasites of animals, such as helminths. Those in other environments and with other hosts often have analogous strategies. For example, the
938:
of their intermediate hosts, increasing their chances of being eaten by a predator. As with directly transmitted parasites, the distribution of trophically transmitted parasites among host individuals is aggregated.
1676:), "thief"), parasites steal food gathered by the host. The parasitism is often on close relatives, whether within the same species or between species in the same genus or family. For instance, the many lineages of
494:, the parasitic relationship harms the host, either feeding on it or, as in the case of intestinal parasites, consuming some of its food. Because parasites interact with other species, they can readily act as
534:, for example—enter an opening in the host's body and remain partly embedded there. Some parasites can be generalists, feeding on a wide range of hosts, but many parasites, and the majority of protozoans and
2868:, and their leaves are reduced to small scales, as they do not photosynthesize. Their seeds are very small and numerous, so they appear to rely on being infected by a suitable fungus soon after germinating.
1645:
those of their hosts, while some cowbird eggs have tough shells, making them hard for the hosts to kill by piercing, both mechanisms implying selection by the hosts against parasitic eggs. The adult female
1821:
207:, parasites, with the exception of parasitoids, are typically much smaller than their hosts, do not kill them, and often live in or on their hosts for an extended period. Parasites of animals are highly
1282:, free-living infectious stages, and vectors, suiting their differing hosts, life cycles, and ecological contexts. Examples to illustrate some of the many possible combinations are given in the table.
6667:
Van
Oystaeyen, Annette; Araujo Alves, Denise; Caliari Oliveira, Ricardo; Lima do Nascimento, Daniela; Santos do Nascimento, Fábio; Billen, Johan; Wenseleers, Tom (September 2013). "Sneaky queens in
9042:"Evaluation of manipulative effects by an ichneumonid spider-ectoparasitoid larva upon an orb-weaving spider host (Araneidae: Cyclosa argenteoalba) by means of surgical removal and transplantation"
3981:
simultaneously, and would set up loops of energy flow, confusing the analysis. Further, since nearly every animal has (multiple) parasites, parasites would occupy the top levels of every food web.
995:
parasites rely on a third party, an intermediate host, where the parasite does not reproduce sexually, to carry them from one definitive host to another. These parasites are microorganisms, namely
3500:
were infected with bacteria both of which had toxins able to kill the other strain, neither strain was excluded, and their virulence was less than when the insect was infected by a single strain.
3588:, which states that interactions between species lead to constant natural selection for coadaptation. Parasites track the locally common hosts' phenotypes, so the parasites are less infective to
4088:
among their hosts, most hosts having no parasites, and a few hosts harbouring most of the parasite population. This distribution makes sampling difficult and requires careful use of statistics.
3163:
are obligate intracellular parasites, characterised by extremely limited biological function, to the point where, while they are evidently able to infect all other organisms from bacteria and
1522:
can limit bacterial infections. It is likely, though little researched, that most pathogenic microparasites have hyperparasites which may prove widely useful in both agriculture and medicine.
5628:
Randle, C. P.; Cannon, B. C.; Faust, A. L.; et al. (2018). "Host Cues
Mediate Growth and Establishment of Oak Mistletoe (Phoradendron leucarpum, Viscaceae), an Aerial Parasitic Plant".
10826:"'Alien' Evolution: Explore Every Stage in the Xenomorph's Gruesome Life Cycle. Celebrate Alien Day with a look at the past, present and future of cinema's most terrifying extraterrestrial"
8970:
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in the intermediate host. When the intermediate-host animal is eaten by a predator, the definitive host, the parasite survives the digestion process and matures into an adult; some live as
9936:
2864:
by taking carbon from a fungus rather than exchanging it for minerals. They have much reduced roots, as they do not need to absorb water from the soil; their stems are slender with few
538:
that parasitise animals, are specialists and extremely host-specific. An early basic, functional division of parasites distinguished microparasites and macroparasites. These each had a
4776:
argues that as a "thief, seducer, creator, and mimic, Dracula is the ultimate parasite. The whole point of vampirism is sucking other people's blood—living at other people's expense."
1732:), brother), also known as sibling-parasitism, occurs where the host species is closely related to the parasite, often in the same family or genus. In the citrus blackfly parasitoid,
9149:
1762:
8568:"Invasion of the Gender Benders: by manipulating sex and reproduction in their hosts, many parasites improve their own odds of survival and may shape the evolution of sex itself"
196:, and micropredation. One major axis of classification concerns invasiveness: an endoparasite lives inside the host's body; an ectoparasite lives outside, on the host's surface.
4378:
developed in the 19th century with accurate observations and experiments by many researchers and clinicians; the term was first used in 1870. In 1828, James
Annersley described
3531:
The presumption of a shared evolutionary history between parasites and hosts can help elucidate how host taxa are related. For instance, there has been a dispute about whether
1781:
1582:, a eusocial bee whose virgin queens escape killer workers and invade another colony without a queen. An extreme example of interspecific social parasitism is found in the ant
3977:
Their complex relationships make parasites difficult to place in food webs: a trematode with multiple hosts for its various life cycle stages would occupy many positions in a
2934:
10452:
2795:(witchweeds) are estimated to cost billions of dollars a year in crop yield loss, infesting over 50 million hectares of cultivated land within Sub-Saharan Africa alone.
8121:
5759:
4323:, and linked it to "his own loose stools". This was the first protozoan parasite of humans to be seen under a microscope. A few years later, in 1687, the Italian biologists
6492:
Pietsch, Theodore W. (25 August 2005). "Dimorphism, parasitism, and sex revisited: modes of reproduction among deep-sea ceratioid anglerfishes (Teleostei: Lophiiformes)".
858:
Directly transmitted parasites, not requiring a vector to reach their hosts, include such parasites of terrestrial vertebrates as lice and mites; marine parasites such as
578:, skin odours, visual and heat signatures, and moisture. Parasitic plants can use, for example, light, host physiochemistry, and volatiles to recognize potential hosts.
9166:
Yahalom, Dayana; Atkinson, Stephen D.; Neuhof, Moran; Chang, E. Sally; Philippe, Hervé; Cartwright, Paulyn; Bartholomew, Jerri L.; Huchon, Dorothée (19 February 2020).
1469:
Among the many variations on parasitic strategies are hyperparasitism, social parasitism, brood parasitism, kleptoparasitism, sexual parasitism, and adelphoparasitism.
4502:
among mosquitoes, and repeated failure of vaccines as the parasite mutates. The first and as of 2015 the only licensed vaccine for any parasitic disease of humans is
2933:
Hemibiotrophic pathogens begin their colonising their hosts as biotrophs, and subsequently killing off host cells and feeding as necrotrophs, a phenomenon termed the
574:
The sensory inputs that a parasite employs to identify and approach a potential host are known as "host cues". Such cues can include, for example, vibration, exhaled
4478:
Given the importance of malaria, with some 220 million people infected annually, many attempts have been made to interrupt its transmission. Various methods of
7668:"Biotrophy-necrotrophy switch in pathogen evoke differential response in resistant and susceptible sesame involving multiple signaling pathways at different phases"
11190:
5319:. Australian Society of Parasitology and Australian Research Council/National Health and Medical Research Council) Research Network for Parasitology. July 2010.
5099:. Australian Society of Parasitology and Australian Research Council/National Health and Medical Research Council) Research Network for Parasitology. July 2010.
9232:
10652:
Playfair is comparing the popular usage to a biologist's view of parasitism, which he calls (heading the same page) "an ancient and respectable view of life".
4116:
is recommended by several authors, but this can give rise to further problems, so quantitative parasitology is based on more advanced biostatistical methods.
10542:
4194:
2948:- obligate intracellular parasitic fungi that largely affect insects, but may also affect vertebrates including humans, causing the intestinal infection
7040:
5008:
821:
6803:
Bourke, Andrew F. G.; Franks, Nigel R. (July 1991). "Alternative adaptations, sympatric speciation and the evolution of parasitic, inquiline ants".
8424:
5342:"The mesoparasitic copepod Pennella balaenopterae and its significance as a visible indicator of health status in dolphins (Delphinidae): a review"
8931:
4650:, in which a person could live off the hospitality of others, in return for "flattery, simple services, and a willingness to endure humiliation".
3413:, that natural selection drives relationships from parasitism to mutualism when resources are limited. This process may have been involved in the
10518:
4828:
4228:
3496:) produced by the two strains involved. When only one bacterium could kill the other, the other strain was excluded by the competition. But when
9967:
5341:
3870:. The spread of the parasitic fungus is limited by defensive chemicals produced by the tree, resulting in circular patches of damaged tissue.
3328:
competing, selection favours the parasite that reproduces fastest, leading to increased virulence. There are thus varied possibilities in
252:
from one definitive (primary) host to another. Although parasitism is often unambiguous, it is part of a spectrum of interactions between
11183:
8567:
4672:
In everyday speech, the term 'parasite' is loaded with derogatory meaning. A parasite is a sponger, a lazy profiteer, a drain on society.
1191:
5238:
10993:
10671:. And sold by J. Huggonson, next to Kent's Coffee-house, near Serjeant's-inn, in Chancery-lane; at the bookseller's and pamphletshops.
453:
4058:, became a well-known conservation issue. A major and very costly captive breeding program was run in the United States to rescue the
2644:
Parasitism is widespread in the animal kingdom, and has evolved independently from free-living forms hundreds of times. Many types of
11055:
5029:
4809:
were used to reinforce the shock effect. The scene was filmed in a single take, and the startled reaction of the actors was genuine.
551:
is probably a facultative endoparasite (i.e., it is semiparasitic) that opportunistically burrows into and eats sick and dying fish.
5077:
4412:
independently made the first discovery of the life cycle of a trematode, the sheep liver fluke, by experiment in 1881–1883. In 1877
486:, parasites feed on living hosts, though some parasitic fungi, for instance, may continue to feed on hosts they have killed. Unlike
11065:
4684:
alludes to hyperparasitism in his 1733 poem "On Poetry: A Rhapsody", comparing poets to "vermin" who "teaze and pinch their foes":
3706:, relying instead on their hosts for transport. Trait loss more generally is widespread among parasites. An extreme example is the
9673:
8082:
7455:
5926:
5782:
5172:
3029:
causing disease. Parasitic bacteria are extremely diverse, and infect their hosts by a variety of routes. To give a few examples,
3007:
are endoparasitic. They cause serious diseases in vertebrates including humans—in these examples, malaria, sleeping sickness, and
1576:, a bumblebee which invades the hives of other bees and takes over reproduction while their young are raised by host workers, and
5061:
3612:
935:
8364:
6077:
5045:
2656:
have complete life cycles involving two or more hosts. By far the largest group is the parasitoid wasps in the
Hymenoptera. The
11176:
7508:
Westwood, James H.; Yoder, John I.; Timko, Michael P.; dePamphilis, Claude W. (2010). "The evolution of parasitism in plants".
3927:
that signal they are being attacked; one effect of this is to attract parasitoid wasps, which in turn attack the caterpillars.
567:
closely resemble ectoparasites, attacking much larger plants; they serve as vectors of bacteria, fungi and viruses which cause
9893:
3547:. Flamingos and grebes do have a common ancestor, implying cospeciation of birds and lice in these groups. Flamingo lice then
1599:
Intraspecific social parasitism occurs in parasitic nursing, where some individual young take milk from unrelated females. In
10983:
10954:
10926:
10900:
10867:
10780:
10745:
10645:
10611:
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10242:
9919:
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6439:
6135:
5874:
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5324:
5104:
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1621:, the hosts act as parents as they raise the young as their own. Brood parasites include birds in different families such as
10479:
Hoddle, M. S.; Van
Driesche, R. G.; Sanderson, J. P. (1998). "Biology and Use of the Whitefly Parasitoid Encarsia Formosa".
10426:
4449:
1120:
whenever the parasitoid is ready to moult. They may do this by producing hormones that mimic the host's moulting hormones (
7128:
5191:"Definitions of parasitism, considering its potentially opposing effects at different levels of hierarchical organization"
10126:
8913:
7337:
4798:
8678:"Parasite and host assemblages: embracing the reality will improve our knowledge of parasite transmission and virulence"
4526:
1070:
are insects which sooner or later kill their hosts, placing their relationship close to predation. Most parasitoids are
11774:
11032:
10810:
9323:"Construction and Utilization of Multiple Combs in Polistes canadensis in Relation to the Biology of a Predaceous Moth"
2752:, they are always obligate parasites, deriving all their food from their hosts. Some parasitic plants can locate their
1892:
Parasitism has an extremely wide taxonomic range, including animals, plants, fungi, protozoans, bacteria, and viruses.
926:. They have complex life cycles involving hosts of two or more species. In their juvenile stages they infect and often
200:
6758:
1688:
are specialised in pirating food from other seabirds, relentlessly chasing them down until they disgorge their catch.
587:
177:
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11759:
11374:
4016:
3444:
3409:
1097:
on top of the prey and the nest is then sealed. The parasitoid develops rapidly through its larval and pupal stages,
606:; and micropredation. These apply to parasites whose hosts are plants as well as animals. These strategies represent
208:
9239:
3715:, an ectoparasite of fish and the only animal known to have lost the ability to respire aerobically: its cells lack
11769:
4359:
is transmitted by mosquitoes. This 1897 notebook page records his first observations of the parasite in mosquitoes.
4109:
3167:
to animals, plants and fungi, it is unclear whether they can themselves be described as living. They can be either
944:
807:, the testes of over two-thirds of their crab hosts degenerate sufficiently for these male crabs to develop female
8365:
Thanit
Nonsrirach, Serge Morand, Alexis Ribas, Sita Manitkoon, Komsorn Lauprasert, Julien Claude (9 August 2023).
8314:
Ponomarenko, A.G. (1976) A new insect from the
Cretaceous of Transbaikalia, a possible parasite of pterosaurians.
3246:
include a parasite, important in regulating host numbers. Perhaps 40 per cent of described species are parasitic.
1592:
ants. A mechanism for the evolution of social parasitism was first proposed by Carlo Emery in 1909. Now known as "
517:
classify parasites in a variety of overlapping schemes, based on their interactions with their hosts and on their
10892:
10283:
Ioli, A.; Petithory, J. C.; Theodorides, J. (1997). "Francesco Redi and the birth of experimental parasitology".
7363:
Kokla, Anna; Melnyk, Charles W. (1 October 2018). "Developing a thief: Haustoria formation in parasitic plants".
5989:
3524:
1030:
10539:
10145:
3633:, which are more likely to feed on infected killifish than on uninfected fish. Another example is the protozoan
1725:
1086:. They can be divided into two groups, idiobionts and koinobionts, differing in their treatment of their hosts.
117:
characterised parasites as "predators that eat prey in units of less than one". Parasites include single-celled
9754:
Blakeslee, April M. H.; Keogh, Carolyn L.; Fowler, Amy E.; Griffen, Blaine D.; Todd, Peter Alan (1 June 2015).
2922:, causative agent of the corn smut disease. Necrotrophic pathogens on the other hand, kill host cells and feed
317:
developed in the 19th century. In human culture, parasitism has negative connotations. These were exploited to
2944:) are estimated to kill 1.6 million people each year. One example of a potent fungal animal pathogen are
2940:
Pathogenic fungi are well-known causative agents of diseases on animals as well as humans. Fungal infections (
11277:
7049:
4004:
3816:
3616:
3329:
3322:
2911:
Plant pathogenic fungi are classified into three categories depending on their mode of nutrition: biotrophs,
1596:", it states that social parasites tend to be closely related to their hosts, often being in the same genus.
617:
A perspective on the evolutionary options can be gained by considering four key questions: the effect on the
10795:
4998:
11257:
7771:
Didier, E. S.; Stovall, M. E.; Green, L. C.; Brindley, P. J.; Sestak, K.; Didier, P. J. (9 December 2004).
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3748:
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808:
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10825:
7645:
4833:
4725:
4665:
4659:
3621:
3608:
3601:
3565:
3203:, relying entirely on the host cell's ability to replicate DNA and synthesise proteins. Most viruses are
1901:
1742:
eggs in the fully developed larvae of their own species, producing male offspring, while the marine worm
826:
571:. As female scale insects cannot move, they are obligate parasites, permanently attached to their hosts.
9565:"Cross-talk between jasmonate and salicylate plant defense pathways: effects on several plant parasites"
9365:"Plant defenses against parasitic plants show similarities to those induced by herbivores and pathogens"
5314:
5094:
3047:, which can survive for years outside the body, can enter a host through an abrasion or may be inhaled.
1503:
42:
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Insects often adapt their nests to reduce parasitism. For example, one of the key reasons why the wasp
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5440:
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recorded human and animal parasites including roundworms, threadworms, the Guinea worm and tapeworms.
11893:
10847:
10682:
9114:
8932:"Altered behavior of parasitized killifish increases susceptibility to predation by bird final hosts"
5692:
5388:
4647:
4592:
4113:
4054:
3954:
3335:
1369:
953:
900:-transmitted parasites are transmitted by being eaten by a host. They include trematodes (all except
847:
383:
63:
38:
17:
9806:
9652:
7244:"Quantifying the unquantifiable: why Hymenoptera, not Coleoptera, is the most speciose animal order"
6914:"A novel method of rejection of brood parasitic eggs reduces parasitism intensity in a cowbird host"
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5737:
5614:
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Several groups of parasites, including microbial pathogens and parasitoidal wasps have been used as
3884:, rather than building a single comb like much of the rest of its genus, is to avoid infestation by
11919:
11168:
11108:
9563:
Thaler, Jennifer S.; Karban, Richard; Ullman, Diane E.; Boege, Karina; Bostock, Richard M. (2002).
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5356:
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conspicuous point: this gets the parasites transmitted at the cost of the intermediate host's life.
4439:
11005:
Parasitology Resources on the World Wide Web: A Powerful Tool for Infectious Disease Practitioners
6738:
Emery, Carlo (1909). "Über den Ursprung der dulotischen, parasitischen un myrmekophilen Ameisen".
3807:
detect chemicals produced by the skin to locate their hosts when they enter the water. Vertebrate
1684:
in the same family. Kleptoparasitism is uncommon generally but conspicuous in birds; some such as
1049:, have infective stages in the host's blood which are transported to new hosts by biting insects.
482:, a close and persistent long-term biological interaction between a parasite and its host. Unlike
71:
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4182:
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1603:, higher ranking females sometimes take milk from low ranking females without any reciprocation.
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871:
610:; intermediate strategies are possible, but organisms in many different groups have consistently
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which appeared in Spanish as Chapter 2, pp. 7–27 in: J. A. López-Sáez, P. Catalán and L. Sáez ,
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6423:
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bursts out of the chest of a dead man, with blood squirting out under high pressure assisted by
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59:
Relationship between species where one organism lives on or in another organism, causing it harm
11202:
11025:
10946:
10388:
9756:"Assessing the Effects of Trematode Infection on Invasive Green Crabs in Eastern North America"
9647:
6680:
6372:
butterflies achieve elevated status in host societies by mimicking the acoustics of queen ants"
6127:
4870:
is a solitary predator, hunting alone. Neither strategy is conventionally considered parasitic.
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to investigate. Ross confirmed that the prediction was correct in 1897–1898. At the same time,
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3640:
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in order to increase their transmission between hosts, often in relation to predator and prey (
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3087:
1584:
1306:
393:
261:
10735:
10572:
10317:
10311:
9088:
8650:
6463:
3464:, which were similar in the two families. Cospeciation did occur, but it led to flamingos and
3433:
Competition between parasites can be expected to favour faster reproducing and therefore more
11929:
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11367:
11227:
10635:
9871:"IJEE Soapbox: World free of parasites and vectors: Would it be heaven, or would it be hell?"
8418:
8367:"First discovery of parasite eggs in a vertebrate coprolite of the Late Triassic in Thailand"
7310:
6838:
O'Brien, Timothy G. (1988). "Parasitic nursing behavior in the wedge-capped capuchin monkey (
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Dissanaike, A. S. (1957). "On Protozoa hyperparasitic in Helminth, with some observations on
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5246:
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can be total; despite extensive research, no method of control has been entirely successful.
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599:
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Lafferty, Kevin D.; Allesina, Stefano; Arim, Matias; Briggs, Cherie J.; et al. (2008).
6258:"Odours of Plasmodium falciparum-infected participants influence mosquito–host interactions"
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3984:
Parasites can play a role in the proliferation of non-native species. For example, invasive
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hosts (those within their same geographical area) more effectively, as has been shown with
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derive some or all of their nutritional requirements from plants, other fungi, or animals.
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Parasites use a variety of methods to infect animal hosts, including physical contact, the
1272:
779:
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526:
448:
181:
10363:
6205:"Networks and the ecology of parasite transmission: A framework for wildlife parasitology"
5126:"Ecological and Evolutionary Stabilities of Biotrophism, Necrotrophism, and Saprotrophism"
8:
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2008:
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9771:
9643:
9624:
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9440:
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8885:
8775:
8443:"The hygiene hypothesis and the increasing prevalence of chronic inflammatory disorders"
8401:
8382:
8366:
8273:
8158:
7918:
Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology (Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews Series)
7876:
7683:
7485:
Nickrent, D. L.; Musselman, L. J. (2004). "Introduction to Parasitic Flowering Plants".
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are often clearly harmed, such infections may also reduce the prevalence and effects of
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5918:
5840:
5815:
5721:
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5554:
5499:
5408:
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4972:
4940:"Biomass transformation webs provide a unified approach to consumer-resource modelling"
4939:
4544:
4521:
4307:
4163:
4143:
3897:
3520:
3347:
3339:
3105:
3031:
2861:
2757:
2736:, which penetrate the host plants, connecting them to the conductive system—either the
1853:
1708:
539:
8256:
Wolff, Ewan D. S.; Salisbury, Steven W.; Horner, John R.; Varrichio, David J. (2009).
6589:"On the Biology of the Inhabitants of Oak Galls of Cynipidae (Hymenoptera) in Britain"
5778:
4341:, marking it as the first disease of humans with a known microscopic causative agent.
3313:. This rare find in Thailand reveals more about the ecology of prehistoric parasites.
1258:
11878:
11523:
11103:
11018:
10950:
10922:
10915:
10896:
10863:
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10716:
10687:"What's in a name? Taxonomic and gender biases in the etymology of new species names"
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to kill off the parasites in the blood, the eradication of its mosquito vectors with
4483:
4337:
4277:
4240:
4059:
4039:
3945:
3824:
3803:, which is toxic to most microorganisms. On the other hand, larger parasites such as
3795:
of reptiles, birds and mammals keeps invading microorganisms from entering the body.
3672:
3635:
3560:
3523:(SFV) and its primate hosts. The phylogenies of SFV polymerase and the mitochondrial
3438:
3371:
Long-term coevolution sometimes leads to a relatively stable relationship tending to
3255:
3081:, is spread by the fecal–oral route from animals, or by eating insufficiently cooked
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9986:"Everything in Moderation: Principles of Parasite Control for Wildlife Conservation"
9870:
9822:"Possible Role of Fish and Frogs as Paratenic Hosts of Dracunculus medinensis, Chad"
9604:
9546:
9346:
8332:
Zhang, Yanjie; Shih, Chungkun; Rasnitsyn, Alexandr; Ren, Dong; Gao, Taiping (2020).
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6702:
6573:
6521:
6457:
6349:
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has characterised parasites as "predators that eat prey in units of less than one".
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is by definition not a symbiosis, as the interaction is brief, but the entomologist
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8117:
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8004:
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7954:
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7812:"Transmission and epidemiology of zoonotic protozoal diseases of companion animals"
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7281:
7263:
7206:
7120:
7013:
6976:
6933:
6925:
6894:
6885:
Rothstein, S. I. (1990). "A model system for coevolution: avian brood parasitism".
6851:
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6690:
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6559:
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on the Eastern Atlantic coast. This helps them outcompete native crabs such as the
3775:
3764:
3744:
3176:
3141:, by injecting its DNA through its tail, which attaches to the bacterium's surface.
3137:
2949:
2941:
2789:(broomrapes) are among the most economically destructive of all plants. Species of
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1744:
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1663:
1618:
1612:
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Hyperparasites can control their hosts' populations, and are used for this purpose
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326:
10492:
10404:
9168:"A cnidarian parasite of salmon (Myxozoa: Henneguya) lacks a mitochondrial genome"
7521:
6694:
5922:
4146:
and tapeworms are mentioned in Egyptian papyrus records from 3000 BC onwards; the
1882:(lower left), is also an adelphoparasite, laying eggs in larvae of its own species
1015:
arthropods such as fleas, lice, ticks, and mosquitoes. For example, the deer tick
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11706:
10910:
10666:
10599:
10546:
10092:
9780:
8623:
8458:
8391:
8282:
7788:
7543:
Leake, J. R. (1994). "The biology of myco-heterotrophic ('saprophytic') plants".
6963:"A parasite in wolf's clothing: hawk mimicry reduces mobbing of cuckoos by hosts"
6781:
6458:
Slater, Peter J. B.; Rosenblatt, Jay S.; Snowdon, Charles T.; Roper, Timothy J.;
6220:
4806:
4784:
4564:
4495:
4491:
4473:
4409:
4405:
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4003:
Ecological parasitology can be important to attempts at control, like during the
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Parasitism and parasite evolution were until the twenty-first century studied by
3404:
3118:
3078:
3058:
3040:
2899:
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2822:
2777:
2721:
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1879:
1858:
1835:, relentlessly pursuing other seabirds until they disgorge their catches of food.
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Social parasites take advantage of interspecific interactions between members of
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1507:
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at a faster rate than their hosts. Classic examples include interactions between
81:
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9090:
On the Wing: Insects, Pterosaurs, Birds, Bats and the Evolution of Animal Flight
7995:; Rohwer, F. (2005). "Here a virus, there a virus, everywhere the same virus?".
7748:
7731:
7667:
7641:
7587:
7376:
7242:
Forbes, Andrew A.; Bagley, Robin K.; Beer, Marc A.; et al. (12 July 2018).
6002:
5517:
Lawrence, P. O. (1981). "Host vibration—a cue to host location by the parasite,
3763:
encourages the growth of secondary sex characteristics, favouring such males in
1637:. These do not build nests of their own, but leave their eggs in nests of other
11830:
11806:
11789:
11584:
11123:
10986:—class outline with links to full text articles on parasitism and parasitology.
10977:
Parasitic Insects, Mites and Ticks: Genera of Medical and Veterinary Importance
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wrote the first description of a trematode endoparasite, the sheep liver fluke
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takes place in a single primary host, can sometimes occur in helminths such as
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8815:"Reinterpreting the origins of flamingo lice: cospeciation or host-switching?"
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Dobson, A.; Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M.; Hechinger, R. F.; Jetz, W. (2008).
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Thomas, J. A.; Schönrogge, K.; Bonelli, S.; Barbero, F.; Balletto, E. (2010).
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Pollitt, Laura C.; MacGregor, Paula; Matthews, Keith; Reece, Sarah E. (2011).
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Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi
4204:
Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi
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Plants respond to parasite attack with a series of chemical defences, such as
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Switzer, William M.; Salemi, Marco; Shanmugam, Vedapuri; et al. (2005).
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6044:
5816:"Infestation of parasitic barnacle Sacculina spp. in commercial marine crabs"
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4382:, protozoal infections of the intestines and the liver, though the pathogen,
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disorders in animal hosts, including humans. In a more extreme example, some
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105:, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the
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Networking: Communicating with Bodies and Machines in the Nineteenth Century
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9192:
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8223:
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6782:"Über den Ursprung der dulotischen, parasitischen und myrmekophilen Ameisen"
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The 19th century might be thought of as the genesis of modern parasitology.
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De Marsico, M. C.; Gloag, R.; Ursino, C. A.; Reboreda, J. C. (March 2013).
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4280:. Redi noted that parasites develop from eggs, contradicting the theory of
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3760:
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3691:
3540:
3516:, that the phylogenies of the host and parasite come to mirror each other.
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913:
901:
556:
552:
507:
487:
435:
353:
348:
314:
288:
284:
212:
114:
87:
10341:
10309:
9468:
9388:
9041:
6387:
5697:"Evolution of parasitism along convergent lines: from ecology to genomics"
3025:
Many bacteria are parasitic, though they are more generally thought of as
897:
595:
185:
11681:
11666:
11661:
11651:
11646:
11630:
11589:
11579:
11426:
11421:
11416:
11237:
11157:
11118:
10936:
10574:
24 Hours in Ancient Rome: A Day in the Life of the People Who Lived There
9707:
9057:
8485:
7827:
6612:"The role of hyperparasitism in microbial pathogen ecology and evolution"
4769:
4747:
4716:
relatives or friends of the author has risen sharply in the same period.
4627:
4548:
4487:
4435:
4417:
4389:
4352:
4348:
4139:
3912:
3909:
3885:
3548:
3497:
3484:
3469:
3291:
3276:
3227:
2997:
2923:
2853:
2745:
2725:
2679:
2612:
1792:
1748:
has a similar reproductive strategy, although the larvae are planktonic.
1567:
1531:
1247:
1219:
1183:
1121:
1094:
1075:
1045:
1012:
981:
940:
564:
344:
330:
146:
9486:(1996). "Sex against virulence: the coevolution of parasitic diseases".
8783:
8101:
6029:"Malaria and trypanosome transmission: different parasites, same rules?"
4227:(Account of the state, science and practice of the art of shepherding),
3839:, intracellular and cellular, that trigger the adaptive immune system's
3554:
884:
843:
835:
chemically, developing in its gonad and killing its reproductive cells.
11701:
11696:
11686:
11609:
11599:
11487:
11461:
11451:
11338:
11297:
11147:
11010:
10193:
Cox, Francis E. G. (June 2004). "History of human parasitic diseases".
9338:
8966:
5542:
5441:"Parasitism | The Encyclopedia of Ecology and Environmental Management"
4773:
4539:
horticulture, was one of the first biological control agents developed.
4536:
4457:
4430:
4379:
4297:
3997:
3840:
3796:
3707:
3425:
and bacteria, though the sequence of events remains largely undefined.
3100:
3008:
2991:
2928:
2882:
2733:
2607:
2572:
2537:
2502:
2467:
2430:
2391:
2356:
2326:
2043:
1940:
1848:
1828:
1788:
1739:
1703:
1677:
1535:
1423:
1312:
1239:
1231:
1227:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1104:
1067:
1058:
1039:
1026:
922:
917:
607:
603:
514:
483:
374:
229:
216:
193:
110:
10998:
10269:] (in French). Société Française de Parasitologie. pp. 26–29.
7039:
Maggenti, Armand R.; Maggenti, Mary Ann; Gardner, Scott Lyell (2005).
6365:
6157:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
5807:
799:
specifically cause damage to the gonads of their many species of host
11850:
11779:
11722:
11691:
11671:
11656:
11604:
11594:
11574:
11569:
11556:
11466:
11456:
11441:
11431:
11391:
11352:
11325:
11310:
11304:
9425:"Sexual reproduction as an adaptation to resist parasites (a review)"
9285:
8893:
8029:
7773:"Epidemiology of microsporidiosis: sources and modes of transmission"
5814:
Elumalai, V.; Viswanathan, C.; Pravinkumar, M.; Raffi, S. M. (2013).
4677:
4623:
4597:
4587:
4444:
3989:
3967:
3881:
3863:
3804:
3626:
3434:
3418:
3393:
3363:
3342:
applies similar evolutionary thinking to non-parasitic diseases like
3310:
3306:
3172:
3096:
3003:
2917:
2813:
2709:
2653:
2649:
2255:
2181:
2116:
2111:
2080:
2075:
2038:
1588:, an obligate parasite which lives exclusively on the backs of other
1557:
1447:
1397:
1187:
1141:
1089:
1079:
867:
817:
795:
503:
479:
268:
245:
224:
220:
204:
162:
98:
11198:
9522:
9362:
8958:
8759:
7885:
7860:
7666:
Chowdhury, Supriyo; Basu, Arpita; Kundu, Surekha (8 December 2017).
7309:
Morand, Serge; Krasnov, Boris R.; Littlewood, D. Timothy J. (2015).
4398:
in humans in 1835. James McConnell described the human liver fluke,
4344:
4069:, they usually occupy the top position. Parasites can function like
3739:
could have evolved to help to defeat multiple parasites by enabling
1206:
768:
11676:
11564:
9538:
6368:"Corruption of ant acoustical signals by mimetic social parasites:
5813:
5641:
5286:
5270:"Classification of Human Parasites, Vectors, and Similar Organisms"
5269:
5144:
4292:), Redi described and illustrated over 100 parasites including the
4217:
4151:
4066:
3978:
3940:
3812:
3644:
3577:
3453:
3388:
3380:
3299:
3295:
3265:
3243:
3110:
3049:
2800:
2712:
derives some of its nutrients from another living plant, whereas a
2645:
2435:
2321:
2291:
2286:
2250:
2003:
1967:
1626:
1545:
1499:
1488:
1335:
1210:
1179:
1083:
1008:
1000:
996:
905:
863:
790:
535:
525:
depends completely on the host to complete its life cycle, while a
272:
256:, grading via parasitoidism into predation, through evolution into
158:
142:
134:
118:
10989:
9269:"Parasite immunomodulation and polymorphisms of the immune system"
8447:
Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
8442:
5574:"Multi-cue integration: how female mosquitoes locate a human host"
4206:(Observations on living animals found inside living animals), 1684
3488:, virulence depended on the relative potency of the antimicrobial
1286:
Examples of transmission methods in different ecological contexts
11816:
11502:
11482:
11406:
11242:
11206:
11199:
11152:
11142:
10391:(March 2006). "Sir David Bruce, a pioneer of tropical medicine".
7985:
5462:
Caira, J. N.; Benz, G. W.; Borucinska, J.; Kohler, N. E. (1997).
4756:
4442:
and others described the malaria parasite's life cycle stages in
4425:
4332:
4112:
of data before the application of parametric test, or the use of
3924:
3820:
3752:
3581:
3422:
3188:
3164:
3082:
3036:
2834:
2808:
2769:
2684:
2542:
2361:
1972:
1812:
1654:, giving her time to lay her eggs in the host's nest unobserved.
1642:
1638:
1622:
1553:
1429:
1243:
1235:
1117:
1108:
1034:
859:
531:
339:
253:
122:
102:
10675:
10310:
Bush, A. O.; Fernández, J. C.; Esch, G. W.; Seed, J. R. (2001).
9935:
Hudson, Peter J.; Dobson, Andrew P.; Lafferty, Kevin D. (2006).
3551:
to ducks, creating the situation which had confused biologists.
3476:
Among competing parasitic insect-killing bacteria of the genera
2926:, an example being the root-colonising honey fungi in the genus
2817:
also threatens a wide range of other important crops, including
1242:, other arthropods such as fleas and ticks, vertebrates such as
11821:
11811:
8030:
Lawrence, C. M.; Menon, S.; Eilers, B. J.; et al. (2009).
6540:"Weather-mediated regulation of olive scale by two parasitoids"
4867:
4668:
in popular usage. According to the immunologist John Playfair,
4642:, the concept of the parasite was not strictly pejorative: the
4306:
seen in dogs and sheep as parasitic; a century later, in 1760,
4170:
called tapeworms "hailstones". The Roman physicians Celsus and
3920:
3848:
3844:
3808:
3791:
The physical barrier of the tough and often dry and waterproof
3343:
3200:
3063:
2970:
2845:
2830:
2791:
2741:
2717:
2693:
2657:
1630:
1439:
927:
377:
318:
166:
9119:"Evolution of parasite life history traits: myths and reality"
8484:
7473:
Parasitic Plants of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands
7235:
4268:), explicitly described ecto- and endoparasites, illustrating
4073:, reducing the dominance of superior competitors and allowing
3819:
of invading bacteria. Should the organism pass the mouth, the
3391:
worms cannot reproduce, or even survive, without infection by
7916:
Fisher, Bruce; Harvey, Richard P.; Champe, Pamela C. (2007).
7507:
7092:
Berec, Ludek; Schembri, Patrick J.; Boukal, David S. (2005).
6911:
6026:
4503:
4424:
transmitted by mosquitoes. Manson further predicted that the
4310:
correctly suggested that these were the larvae of tapeworms.
4269:
4225:
Traité de l'état, science et pratique de l'art de la Bergerie
4171:
3916:
3800:
3687:
3630:
3544:
3489:
3465:
3461:
3192:
3160:
3151:
3124:
3044:
2905:
2849:
2737:
2729:
2396:
1685:
1223:
1004:
560:
150:
9737:
9735:
9625:"Specific and non-specific defense against parasitic attack"
9523:"Parasites, Bright Males, and the Immunocompetence Handicap"
8760:"Ancient co-speciation of simian foamy viruses and primates"
8610:
8140:
6671:
bees selectively detect and infiltrate queenless colonies".
6428:
Host–parasite evolution: General principles and avian models
6254:
3358:
10146:
10.1645/0022-3395(2000)086[0228:QPISOH]2.0.CO;2
9753:
9683:
7940:
7414:
7412:
7410:
4863:
3792:
3780:
3756:
3699:
3695:
3457:
3302:
3287:
3068:
2818:
2765:
1435:
1113:
800:
310:
234:
138:
10552:
10429:. The College of Physicians of Philadelphia. 19 April 2017
10016:
9165:
8676:
Rigaud, T.; Perrot-Minnot, M.-J.; Brown, M. J. F. (2010).
7770:
7098:(Echiura: Bonelliidae): population dynamics and evolution"
1756:
Examples of the major variant strategies are illustrated.
1502:. The controlling effects can be seen in the way that the
10781:"This is clearly an important species we're dealing with"
10457:
10313:
Parasitism: The Diversity and Ecology of Animal Parasites
9732:
8757:
8143:"Homage to Linnaeus: How many parasites? How many hosts?"
6996:
Furness, R. W. (1978). "Kleptoparasitism by great skuas (
5461:
3867:
3184:
3180:
2811:, which are among the world's most important food crops.
1681:
1549:
325:'s 1733 poem "On Poetry: A Rhapsody", comparing poets to
10685:; McDougall, Cameron; Presswell, Bronwen (11 May 2022).
10681:
10604:
The Mask of the Parasite: A Pathology of Roman Patronage
10282:
9692:"Plant Volatiles as a Defense against Insect Herbivores"
9363:
Runyon, J. B.; Mescher, M. C.; De Moraes, C. M. (2010).
9233:"Host–Parasite Interactions Innate Defenses of the Host"
8675:
7407:
5892:"Concomitant infections, parasites and immune responses"
5797:
5795:
3923:
release increased amounts of volatile chemicals such as
3195:
envelope. They thus lack all the usual machinery of the
10691:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
10076:"Parasites in Food Webs: Untangling the Entangled Bank"
9937:"Is a healthy ecosystem one that is rich in parasites?"
9562:
8812:
8725:
Page, Roderic D. M. (27 January 2006). "Cospeciation".
8682:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
8494:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
8032:"Structural and functional studies of archaeal viruses"
7991:
7920:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 332–353.
7308:
7038:
6453:
6451:
6022:
6020:
5468:(Synaphobranchidae) from the heart of a shortfin mako,
4586:, selection could cause delayed maturity and increased
4577:
in domestic sheep and cattle constitutes a worldwide un
1811:, the host raises the young of another species, here a
1491:
systems, there can be up to five levels of parasitism.
10549:
European Commission (2008). Accessed on 9 January 2017
8986:
8867:"Parasite adaptation to locally common host genotypes"
7941:
Koonin, E. V.; Senkevich, T. G.; Dolja, V. V. (2006).
7241:
7168:
7166:
6610:
Parratt, Steven R.; Laine, Anna-Liisa (January 2016).
5687:
5685:
5683:
5681:
5679:
4290:
Observations on Living Animals found in Living Animals
4065:
Although parasites are often omitted in depictions of
1271:, an anaerobic parasitic protozoan transmitted by the
10796:"5 Alien Parasites and Their Real-World Counterparts"
10124:
10010:
9690:
Paré, Paul W.; Tumlinson, James H. (1 October 1999).
9419:
8987:
Berdoy, M.; Webster, J. P.; Macdonald, D. W. (2000).
8813:
Johnson, K. P.; Kennedy, M.; McCracken, K. G (2006).
8480:
8478:
8476:
8331:
8258:"Common Avian Infection Plagued the Tyrant Dinosaurs"
7478:
6113:
6111:
6109:
6107:
5792:
5677:
5675:
5673:
5671:
5669:
5667:
5665:
5663:
5661:
5659:
5393:"The Many Roads to Parasitism: A Tale of Convergence"
3966:, in a science dominated by medicine, rather than by
3512:
with its host, resulting in the pattern described in
1167:
inside their hosts, which continue to grow and moult.
893:, the Chinese liver fluke, is trophically transmitted
10019:"Parasites in food webs: the ultimate missing links"
9934:
7048:. University of Nebraska. p. 22. Archived from
6538:
Rochat, Jacques; Gutierrez, Andrew Paul (May 2001).
6448:
6017:
5760:"Trophic strategies, animal diversity and body size"
5753:
5751:
5749:
5747:
4884:
4388:, was not discovered until 1873 by Friedrich Lösch.
3948:
was a successful if very expensive project, but its
2732:
in the world. All these plants have modified roots,
1213:
are micropredators, and important vectors of disease
305:
described internal and external parasites including
10540:
Encouraging innovation in biopesticide development.
10260:
8806:
7163:
7091:
4590:. Such changes appear to be underway: the nematode
3067:, from the diseases' reservoirs in animals such as
2860:plants, mostly in the tropics, however effectively
1140:
immediately paralyse their hosts for their larvae (
947:, where (by exception) the whole of the parasite's
829:lack mouths, castrates the intertidal marine snail
626:
Evolutionary strategies in parasitism and predation
113:structurally to this way of life. The entomologist
10914:
10851:
9514:
9475:
8538:
8473:
7915:
7665:
7588:"Biotrophic Fungal Pathogens: a Critical Overview"
6593:Transactions of the Society for British Entomology
6104:
5656:
3767:, at the price of reducing their immune defences.
3629:host to avoid predators. This parasite matures in
3592:hosts, those from different geographical regions.
3428:
3353:
3338:analyses how parasites spread and evolve, whereas
1222:, feeding on blood. They include annelids such as
9983:
9928:
8751:
8490:"Interference competition and parasite virulence"
7501:
7484:
7356:
7184:
7085:
6311:
6309:
5744:
5627:
5340:Vecchione, Anna; Aznar, Francisco Javier (2008).
3851:. These have receptors that recognise parasites.
2748:and therefore cannot make food for themselves by
2720:derives all of its nutrients from another plant.
1124:), or by regulating the host's endocrine system.
543:cycle outside of the host or on the host's body.
403: 'one who eats at the table of another'
11906:
10629:
10627:
10228:
10226:
10224:
9984:Stringer, Andrew Paul; Linklater, Wayne (2014).
7943:"The ancient Virus World and evolution of cells"
6603:
5239:"A Classification of Animal-Parasitic Nematodes"
5117:
4317:observed and illustrated the protozoan parasite
4262:Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degl'Insetti
3584:infecting lake snails. This is in line with the
3061:, is transmitted by vectors, ticks of the genus
1772:on the cocoons of its host, itself a parasitoid
513:Within that scope are many possible strategies.
184:, directly transmitted parasitism (by contact),
9429:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
9262:
9260:
9172:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
8648:
8334:"A new flea from the Early Cretaceous of China"
8147:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
7852:
7418:
6960:
6537:
5112:parasitism may lead to disease, but not always.
4829:Effects of parasitic worms on the immune system
614:on these six, which are evolutionarily stable.
62:"Parasite" redirects here. For other uses, see
10125:Rózsa, L.; Reiczigel, J.; Majoros, G. (2000).
9618:
9616:
9614:
9558:
9556:
9358:
9356:
9316:
9314:
8929:
8200:
8198:
8196:
6487:
6485:
6306:
6250:
6248:
6198:
6196:
6151:Wilson, Anthony J.; et al. (March 2017).
6117:
5691:
5339:
4993:
4991:
4052:An ectoparasite, the California condor louse,
3676:is flightless, like many insect ectoparasites.
3568:in rats through infection of neurons in their
11368:
11184:
11026:
10740:. University of Michigan Press. p. 216.
10624:
10606:. University of Michigan Press. p. 148.
10221:
10118:
9977:
9689:
9520:
9481:
9413:
8864:
8488:; Buckling, A.; ffrench-Constant, R. (2004).
8136:
8134:
8080:
7810:Esch, K. J.; Petersen, C. A. (January 2013).
6954:
6905:
6533:
6531:
6361:
6359:
5757:
4494:. All of these have proven problematic, with
4452:for his work, while Grassi was not. In 1903,
4010:
2852:exchange carbon and nutrients in mutualistic
1861:permanently attached below the female's body.
1702:A unique approach is seen in some species of
1560:. Examples include the large blue butterfly,
1043:and sleeping-sickness parasites in the genus
789:crustaceans such as those in the specialised
10817:
10472:
10278:
10276:
9257:
9227:
9225:
9223:
9221:
8860:
8858:
8423:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
7809:
7437:
7144:
6802:
6609:
6417:
6415:
5980:
5383:
5381:
5379:
5377:
5309:
5307:
5305:
5182:
5123:
4901:
4899:
4866:is a social predator, hunting in packs; the
4450:controversially awarded the 1902 Nobel prize
1112:development, for example preventing it from
1011:(disease-causers). Their vectors are mostly
10802:
10787:
10195:Infectious Disease Clinics of North America
10188:
10186:
10184:
10182:
10180:
10178:
10127:"Quantifying parasites in samples of hosts"
9611:
9553:
9521:Folstad, Ivar; Karter, Andrew John (1992).
9353:
9311:
8436:
8434:
8193:
7861:"Adaptive Immunity: Care for the community"
7858:
7362:
6989:
6837:
6482:
6245:
6193:
5987:Steere, A. C. (July 2001). "Lyme disease".
5349:Journal of Marine Animals and Their Ecology
4988:
4931:
4913:. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 112.
4216:, completed in 1025, the Persian physician
3935:
3930:
3595:
3421:from an intracellular relationship between
3260:Parasitism is hard to demonstrate from the
3175:consisting of a single or double strand of
2799:infects both grasses and grains, including
731:Trophically-transmitted parasitic castrator
387:
23:
11375:
11361:
11191:
11177:
11033:
11019:
10994:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
10655:
10067:
8669:
8131:
7934:
7909:
7315:. Cambridge University Press. p. 44.
7187:"Biodiversity of hymenopteran parasitoids"
7185:Polaszek, Andrew; Vilhemsen, Lars (2023).
7149:. Oxford: Elsevier Science. pp. 4–7.
7138:
6773:
6528:
6356:
6315:
6144:
5391:(2011). Rollinson, D.; Hay, S. I. (eds.).
5188:
4999:"The Making of Alien's Chestburster Scene"
4456:identified the protozoan parasite and the
4300:. Redi was the first to name the cysts of
1680:lay their eggs in the nest cells of other
1253:
879:
429:
343:and its many later adaptations featured a
267:People have known about parasites such as
24:
11056:Coloration evidence for natural selection
10772:
10710:
10303:
10273:
10101:
10091:
10050:
10001:
9862:
9845:
9789:
9779:
9715:
9651:
9458:
9448:
9396:
9294:
9284:
9218:
9201:
9191:
9086:
9016:
8855:
8838:
8701:
8649:Sarkar, Sahotra; Plutynski, Anya (2008).
8530:
8513:
8400:
8390:
8349:
8291:
8281:
8232:
8222:
8176:
8166:
8057:
8047:
7968:
7958:
7884:
7835:
7747:
7707:
7285:
7267:
7210:
7042:Online Dictionary of Invertebrate Zoology
6980:
6937:
6884:
6805:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
6684:
6643:
6563:
6412:
6395:
6289:
6228:
6176:
6052:
5839:
5720:
5597:
5455:
5374:
5302:
5285:
5214:
5124:Suzuki, Sayaki U.; Sasaki, Akira (2019).
4971:
4896:
4698:And these have smaller fleas to bite 'em.
4612:"An Old Parasite in a New Form": an 1881
3095:and respiratory tract infections such as
934:. Many trophically transmitted parasites
11040:
10637:Living with Germs: In health and disease
10633:
10570:
10441:
10427:"Malaria and Malaria Vaccine Candidates"
10175:
9819:
9238:. University of Colorado. Archived from
9093:. Oxford University Press. p. 119.
9039:
8989:"Fatal attraction in rats infected with
8652:A Companion to the Philosophy of Biology
8431:
8023:
7803:
7443:
6887:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
6756:
5516:
5080:, Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert,
5064:, Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert,
5032:, Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert,
4733:
4607:
4603:
4525:
4343:
4266:Experiences of the Generation of Insects
4193:
4108:as commonly used by biologists invalid.
4079:
4005:campaign for eradicating the Guinea worm
3939:
3858:
3774:
3665:
3651:avoid cat odors, but rats infected with
3553:
3443:
3357:
3214:
3123:
2954:
2870:
2678:
1257:
1205:
1021:acts as a vector for diseases including
970:
883:
842:
767:
452:
369:First used in English in 1539, the word
260:, and in some fungi, shading into being
199:Like predation, parasitism is a type of
180:of exploitation of animal hosts, namely
70:
32:This is an accepted version of this page
10823:
10640:. Oxford University Press. p. 19.
10263:Sept siècles de parasitologie en France
9903:
9878:Israel Journal of Ecology and Evolution
9266:
8930:Lafferty, K. D.; Morris, A. K. (1996).
8207:"Where are the parasites in food webs?"
8204:
7335:
7329:
6995:
6831:
6491:
6426:. In Clayton, D. H.; Moore, J. (eds.).
6203:Godfrey, Stephanie S. (December 2013).
6202:
6118:Gullan, P. J.; Cranston, P. S. (2010).
6075:
5856:
5695:; Randhawa, Haseeb S. (February 2015).
4434:, had a mosquito vector, and persuaded
4092:
3613:parasite increased trophic transmission
3210:
2772:of parasitic plant in approximately 20
1815:'s egg, that has been laid in its nest.
1033:. Protozoan endoparasites, such as the
838:
757:
521:, which are sometimes very complex. An
14:
11907:
11382:
10846:
10808:
10793:
10558:
10316:. Cambridge University Press. p.
9909:
9899:from the original on 8 September 2015.
9741:
9423:; Axelrod, R.; Tanese, R. (May 1990).
9320:
9113:
8865:Lively, C. M.; Dybdahl, M. F. (2000).
8655:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 358.
8565:
8545:. Oxford University Press. p. 8.
7859:McFall-Ngai, Margaret (January 2007).
7764:
7592:Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology
7585:
7312:Parasite Diversity and Diversification
7172:
6150:
6078:"Predation, Herbivory, and Parasitism"
5986:
5801:
5758:Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M. (2002).
5387:
5267:
5048:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
4905:
4890:
1712:, where the males are reduced to tiny
816:diverting nutrients. For example, the
637:Intensity-independent: purple, italics
420: 'wheat, food'. The related term
361:to feature a parasitic alien species.
11356:
11172:
11014:
10661:
10597:
10447:
10387:
10232:
10073:
9622:
9159:
9040:Takasuka, Keizo (16 September 2019).
8536:
7586:Fei, Wang; Liu, Ye (11 August 2022).
7542:
6961:Welbergen, J.; Davies, N. B. (2011).
6779:
6737:
6586:
6421:
6122:The Insects: An Outline of Entomology
5932:from the original on 2 December 2017.
5862:
5571:
4515:
4488:organochlorine and other insecticides
4482:have been tried including the use of
4035:"Why you should care about parasites"
3787:prevents the entry of many parasites.
3103:, is transmitted by droplet contact.
3039:, is spread by contact with infected
2760:in the air or soil given off by host
960:
634:
10984:Aberystwyth University: Parasitology
10778:
10733:
10453:"Malaria vaccine gets 'green light'"
10393:British Journal of Hospital Medicine
10237:. Academic Press. pp. 120–134.
9868:
8724:
8718:
8440:
8127:from the original on 3 October 2019.
7419:Heide-Jørgensen, Henning S. (2008).
7342:. Pitambar Publishing. p. 115.
7134:from the original on 3 October 2019.
6717:"Social Parasites in the Ant Colony"
6430:. Oxford University Press. pp.
5946:. Australian Society of Parasitology
5869:. Elsevier Science. pp. 13–15.
4937:
4695:Hath smaller fleas that on him prey;
4569:Poulin observes that the widespread
3944:The rescuing from extinction of the
3747:and breeding male vertebrate hosts'
1719:
1691:
1525:
10766:The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction
10521:from the original on 27 August 2016
10192:
9327:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
8081:Edwards, R. A.; Rohwer, F. (2005).
8036:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
7634:
7004:L.) at a Shetland seabird colony".
5936:
5889:
4738:Fictional parasitism: oil painting
4392:discovered the intestinal nematode
3759:. This is because the male hormone
2885:feeding on the trees it has killed.
2856:relationships. Some 400 species of
1657:
1641:. The eggs of some brood parasites
1606:
594:; directly transmitted parasitism;
581:
56:
10917:Who Gave Pinta to the Santa Maria?
10877:
10824:Nordine, Michael (25 April 2017).
9679:from the original on 14 June 2001.
8976:from the original on 3 March 2019.
7557:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x
7145:Rollinson, D.; Hay, S. I. (2011).
6817:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1991.tb00591.x
6750:
6462:; Naguib, Marc (30 January 2005).
5409:10.1016/B978-0-12-385897-9.00001-X
5178:from the original on 6 March 2020.
5011:from the original on 30 April 2010
4633:
3403:and others have argued, following
1887:
1472:
811:such as broader abdomens, smaller
57:
11941:
10964:
10854:Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites
10794:Pappas, Stephanie (29 May 2012).
10267:The French School of Parasitology
10261:Humphrey-Smith, Ian, ed. (1993).
9944:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
9488:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
8919:from the original on 7 June 2016.
8566:Werren, John H. (February 2003).
7461:from the original on 6 March 2016
7191:Current Opinion in Insect Science
6465:Advances in the Study of Behavior
5966:"Pathogenic Parasitic Infections"
4772:parasite (a vampire). The critic
4710:Is bit by him that comes behind:
4416:discovered the life cycle of the
4017:Conservation biology of parasites
3988:are minimally affected by native
3815:, an enzyme that breaks down the
3643:but can be carried by many other
3410:Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution
1506:helps to control the damage that
1201:
943:by multiple parasites is common.
630:Intensity-dependent: green, roman
530:surface. Mesoparasites—like some
442:
301:in his microscope in 1681, while
11546:
11001:—parasitology articles and links
10970:
10811:"Parasitism in the Alien Movies"
10754:
10727:
10591:
10564:
10533:
10515:"Parasitoid Wasps (Hymenoptera)"
10507:
10419:
10381:
10356:
10342:"Acarus as the cause of scabies"
10334:
10254:
10043:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01174.x
9813:
9805:
9747:
9107:
9080:
9033:
8980:
8923:
7125:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2005.13350.x
6899:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.21.1.481
6565:10.1046/j.1365-2656.2001.00505.x
6126:(4th ed.). Wiley. pp.
5736:
5613:
4964:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01566.x
4335:as caused by the parasitic mite
4029:
3722:
3564:facilitates its transmission by
3305:were found in the Late Triassic
3249:
3225:with holes possibly caused by a
2881:, is a parasite of trees, and a
1866:
1840:
1820:
1800:
1780:
1761:
1751:
1172:
1149:
1129:
690:Trophically-transmitted pathogen
684:Trophically-transmitted parasite
10893:The University of Chicago Press
10577:. Michael O'Mara. p. 252.
9914:. University of Chicago Press.
9820:Eberhard, M. L. (August 2016).
8642:
8604:
8559:
8541:Evolution of Infectious Disease
8358:
8325:
8308:
8249:
8074:
7724:
7659:
7579:
7536:
7449:"Parasitic Plants of the World"
7302:
7178:
7059:
7032:
6878:
6844:American Journal of Primatology
6796:
6731:
6709:
6660:
6580:
6468:. Academic Press. p. 365.
6069:
5990:New England Journal of Medicine
5958:
5883:
5767:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
5621:
5565:
5510:
5476:Environmental Biology of Fishes
5433:
5333:
5261:
5231:
4856:
4846:
4691:Their foes superior by an inch.
4689:The vermin only teaze and pinch
4626:bustle to a parasitic insect's
4596:is changing its adult size and
4363:
4247:
3525:cytochrome c oxidase subunit II
3508:A parasite sometimes undergoes
3503:
3429:Competition favouring virulence
3354:Coevolution favouring mutualism
3011:—and have complex life cycles.
1724:Adelphoparasitism, (from Greek
1650:further mimics a predator, the
413: 'beside, by' and
109:, causing it some harm, and is
10990:Division of Parasitic Diseases
8205:Sukhdeo, Michael V.K. (2012).
6076:Stevens, Alison N. P. (2010).
5087:
5071:
5055:
5039:
5023:
4911:The Meaning of Human Existence
4693:So nat'ralists observe, a flea
4648:accepted role in Roman society
3770:
3367:bacteria within an insect cell
3316:
3187:, respectively), covered in a
2985:Human parasite § Protozoa
2724:make up about one per cent of
1907:Major parasitic animal groups
1052:
586:There are six major parasitic
424:appears in English from 1611.
176:There are six major parasitic
13:
1:
10779:Dove, Alistair (9 May 2011).
10493:10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.645
10405:10.12968/hmed.2006.67.3.20624
8727:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
8338:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
8153:(Supplement 1): 11482–11489.
7816:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
7522:10.1016/j.tplants.2010.01.004
6695:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.07.001
5820:Journal of Parasitic Diseases
5779:10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02615-0
5189:Rozsa, L.; Garay, J. (2023).
4877:
4708:Thus every poet, in his kind,
4558:
4166:, while the comic playwright
3915:, leaves of plants including
3837:pattern recognition receptors
3749:secondary sex characteristics
3680:
3639:, a parasite that matures in
3617:California coastal salt marsh
1464:
1414:free-living infectious stages
809:secondary sex characteristics
201:consumer–resource interaction
188:parasitism (by being eaten),
10809:Sercel, Alex (19 May 2017).
10093:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001580
9826:Emerging Infectious Diseases
9781:10.1371/journal.pone.0128674
9500:10.1016/0169-5347(96)81047-0
9138:10.1016/0169-4758(95)80187-1
9087:Alexander, David E. (2015).
8459:10.1016/j.trstmh.2007.05.014
8392:10.1371/journal.pone.0287891
8283:10.1371/journal.pone.0007288
7789:10.1016/j.vetpar.2004.09.006
7018:10.1016/0003-3472(78)90107-0
6761:. Nature Education Knowledge
6221:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2013.09.001
5274:Clinical Infectious Diseases
5084:, on Perseus Digital Library
5068:, on Perseus Digital Library
5052:, on Perseus Digital Library
5036:, on Perseus Digital Library
3535:are more closely related to
3135:virus. It infects its host,
3085:, or by contaminated water.
2964:, the bacterium that causes
2935:biotrophy-necrotrophy switch
2768:, respectively. About 4,500
1570:to parasitise certain ants,
920:, and many protozoa such as
364:
85:, replacing the tongue of a
7:
10889:The Art of Being a Parasite
10813:. Signal to Noise Magazine.
10481:Annual Review of Entomology
9912:The Art of being a Parasite
8320:Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal
8090:Nature Reviews Microbiology
7749:10.1038/nmicrobiol.2017.120
7646:Royal Horticultural Society
7487:The Plant Health Instructor
7377:10.1016/j.ydbio.2018.06.013
6759:"Social Parasitism in Ants"
6003:10.1056/NEJM200107123450207
5901:. 122. Supplement: S23–38.
4834:List of parasites of humans
4812:
4726:List of fictional parasites
4660:Parasitism (social offense)
4490:, and the development of a
4189:
3900:, under the control of the
3891:
3783:of vertebrates such as the
3731:The evolutionary biologist
3625:reduces the ability of its
3622:Euhaplorchis californiensis
3602:Behavior-altering parasites
3566:inducing behavioral changes
3014:
2978:
1902:List of parasitic organisms
1518:trees, and in the way that
1186:in the abdomen of a worker
1159:parasitoid wasps like this
1107:parasitoids, which include
186:trophically-transmitted
10:
11946:
11268:Behavior-altering parasite
10999:KSU: Parasitology Research
10860:Princeton University Press
10840:
10762:"Parasitism and Symbiosis"
10517:. University of Maryland.
9956:10.1016/j.tree.2006.04.007
9321:Jeanne, Robert L. (1979).
9046:The Journal of Arachnology
8318:10(3):339-343 (English) /
7742:(8): 17120. 25 July 2017.
7692:10.1038/s41598-017-17248-7
7604:10.1007/s12010-022-04087-0
7495:10.1094/PHI-I-2004-0330-01
7421:Parasitic flowering plants
7212:10.1016/j.cois.2023.101026
7000:Brünn.) and Arctic skuas (
6757:Deslippe, Richard (2010).
6282:10.1038/s41598-017-08978-9
6082:Nature Education Knowledge
4779:Disgusting and terrifying
4723:
4719:
4657:
4653:
4562:
4519:
4471:
4467:
4367:
4174:documented the roundworms
4158:, parasites including the
4138:including roundworms, the
4128:
4124:
4119:
4096:
4014:
4011:Rationale for conservation
3854:
3663:were left on the spiders.
3599:
3519:An example is between the
3472:of flamingo lice to ducks.
3448:Biologists long suspected
3320:
3253:
3234:
3149:
3145:
3018:
2982:
2893:
2672:
1899:
1895:
1878:(centre), a parasitoid of
1738:, unmated females may lay
1695:
1661:
1610:
1529:
1476:
1056:
964:
778:(highlighted) attached to
761:
457:Head (scolex) of tapeworm
446:
433:
244:by general or specialised
61:
11894:Category:Eating behaviors
11869:
11715:
11639:
11618:
11555:
11544:
11511:
11475:
11399:
11390:
11278:Host–parasite coevolution
11213:
11096:
11048:
11007:(Oxford University Press)
10571:Matyszak, Philip (2017).
10233:Cheng, Thomas C. (1973).
10207:10.1016/j.idc.2004.01.001
9589:10.1007/s00442-002-0885-9
8322:1976(3):102-106 (Russian)
8009:10.1016/j.tim.2005.04.003
7269:10.1186/s12898-018-0176-x
6786:Biologisches Centralblatt
6740:Biologischen Centralblatt
6544:Journal of Animal Ecology
6514:10.1007/s10228-005-0286-2
6334:10.1017/s0022149x00033290
6130:, 365–367, 375, 440–441.
5907:10.1017/s003118200001698x
5863:Cheng, Thomas C. (2012).
5832:10.1007/s12639-013-0247-z
5713:10.1017/S0031182013001674
5599:10.1016/j.cub.2015.07.057
5403:. Academic Press: 27–28.
5355:(1): 4–11. Archived from
5207:10.1017/S0031182023000598
4762:its many film adaptations
4593:Teladorsagia circumcincta
4114:non-parametric statistics
4086:distributed very unevenly
4055:Colpocephalum californici
4028:
4023:
3955:Colpocephalum californici
3902:jasmonic acid-insensitive
3751:, such as the plumage of
3336:Evolutionary epidemiology
3330:host–parasite coevolution
3323:Host–parasite coevolution
2668:
1370:Heligmosomoides polygyrus
1099:feeding on the provisions
954:Strongyloides stercoralis
850:are directly transmitted
602:-transmitted parasitism;
598:-transmitted parasitism;
357:was one of many works of
64:Parasite (disambiguation)
11109:Anti-predator adaptation
10344:. University of Cagliari
10074:Chase, Jonathan (2013).
7147:Advances in parasitology
7002:Stercorarius parasiticus
6424:"Avian brood parasitism"
6322:Journal of Helminthology
6045:10.1016/j.pt.2011.01.004
5397:Advances in Parasitology
5316:Overview of Parasitology
5096:Overview of Parasitology
4839:
4440:Giovanni Battista Grassi
3936:Ecology and parasitology
3931:Biology and conservation
3596:Modifying host behaviour
3294:. Eggs that belonged to
3274:may have been caused by
3268:of several specimens of
2889:
2728:and are in almost every
1512:Cryphonectria parasitica
772:The parasitic castrator
651:Single host, stays alive
478:Parasitism is a kind of
39:latest accepted revision
11874:Antipredator adaptation
11203:biological interactions
11083:Paradox of the plankton
10634:Playfair, John (2007).
10598:Damon, Cynthia (1997).
9910:Combes, Claude (2005).
9890:10.1560/IJEE.56.3-4.239
9527:The American Naturalist
9267:Maizels, R. M. (2009).
9193:10.1073/pnas.1909907117
8735:10.1038/npg.els.0004124
8537:Ewald, Paul W. (1994).
8316:Paleontological Journal
8224:10.1186/1756-3305-5-239
8211:Parasites & Vectors
8168:10.1073/pnas.0803232105
7777:Veterinary Parasitology
7732:"Stop neglecting fungi"
7642:"What is honey fungus?"
7510:Trends in Plant Science
7336:Rastogi, V. B. (1997).
7073:. University of Florida
6494:Ichthyological Research
5519:Biosteres longicaudatus
5496:10.1023/a:1007398609346
5466:Simenchelys parasiticus
5133:The American Naturalist
5082:A Greek–English Lexicon
5066:A Greek–English Lexicon
5050:A Greek–English Lexicon
5034:A Greek–English Lexicon
4781:parasitic alien species
4742:by Katrin Alvarez, 2011
4620:Edward Linley Sambourne
4462:African trypanosomiasis
4315:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
4303:Echinococcus granulosus
4183:Enterobius vermicularis
4099:Aggregated distribution
3972:evolutionary biologists
3847:and antibody-producing
3615:). For example, in the
3286:, the Early Cretaceous
3129:Enterobacteria phage T4
1566:, its larvae employing
1389:sex-biased transmission
1254:Transmission strategies
1238:such as mosquitoes and
1037:parasites in the genus
979:protozoan endoparasite
880:Trophically transmitted
872:aggregated distribution
430:Evolutionary strategies
378:
293:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
10703:10.1098/rspb.2021.2708
9838:10.3201/eid2208.160043
9662:10.1006/jtbi.1999.1054
9450:10.1073/pnas.87.9.3566
9009:10.1098/rspb.2000.1182
8831:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0427
8694:10.1098/rspb.2010.1163
8628:. Simon and Schuster.
8506:10.1098/rspb.2004.2676
8351:10.4202/app.00680.2019
8049:10.1074/jbc.R800078200
7997:Trends in Microbiology
7960:10.1186/1745-6150-1-29
7094:"Sex determination in
6930:10.1098/rsbl.2013.0076
6856:10.1002/ajp.1350160406
6636:10.1038/ismej.2015.247
6169:10.1098/rstb.2016.0085
6033:Trends in Parasitology
5268:Garcia, L. S. (1999).
4743:
4713:
4674:
4630:
4600:in response to drugs.
4540:
4500:insecticide resistance
4360:
4325:Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo
4296:in humans that causes
4282:spontaneous generation
4207:
4089:
3959:
3880:nests across multiple
3871:
3788:
3677:
3573:
3570:central nervous system
3473:
3368:
3232:
3207:, infecting bacteria.
3142:
3088:Haemophilus influenzae
2975:
2886:
2697:
1601:wedge-capped capuchins
1585:Tetramorium inquilinum
1498:and to some extent in
1307:Gyrodactylus turnbulli
1275:
1246:, and mammals such as
1226:, crustaceans such as
1214:
1192:altering its behaviour
1163:lay their eggs via an
1007:, often intracellular
989:
894:
855:
782:
498:of pathogens, causing
475:
388:
329:"vermin". In fiction,
240:Parasites reduce host
227:, the malaria-causing
121:such as the agents of
91:
11049:Patterns of evolution
10003:10.1093/biosci/biu135
9623:Frank, S. A. (2000).
9389:10.4161/psb.5.8.11772
7365:Developmental Biology
7067:"Featured Creatures.
6982:10.1093/beheco/arr008
6587:Askew, R. R. (1961).
6422:Payne, R. B. (1997).
6388:10.4161/cib.3.2.10603
5572:Cardé, R. T. (2015).
5243:plpnemweb.ucdavis.edu
4824:Carcinogenic parasite
4787:, as for instance in
4737:
4724:Further information:
4686:
4670:
4658:Further information:
4611:
4604:Cultural significance
4579:controlled experiment
4563:Further information:
4529:
4520:Further information:
4509:Plasmodium falciparum
4472:Further information:
4448:mosquitoes. Ross was
4385:Entamoeba histolytica
4355:for showing that the
4347:
4197:
4162:are described in the
4129:Further information:
4106:parametric statistics
4097:Further information:
4083:
4015:Further information:
3943:
3862:
3778:
3741:genetic recombination
3669:
3609:modify host behaviour
3600:Further information:
3557:
3460:with their parasitic
3447:
3361:
3348:autoimmune conditions
3321:Further information:
3254:Further information:
3235:Further information:
3218:
3191:coat and sometimes a
3127:
2983:Further information:
2958:
2894:Further information:
2874:
2682:
1900:Further information:
1672:(from Greek κλέπτης (
1662:Further information:
1611:Further information:
1530:Further information:
1453:attracted by odour of
1383:(yellow-necked mouse)
1268:Entamoeba histolytica
1261:
1209:
974:
965:Further information:
887:
846:
771:
672:Conventional parasite
456:
447:Further information:
161:; and plants such as
74:
11293:Parasitic castration
11233:Deception in animals
11061:Convergent evolution
11042:Evolutionary ecology
10734:Otis, Laura (2001).
10668:On Poetry: A Rapsody
10235:General Parasitology
9869:Holt, R. D. (2010).
9708:10.1104/pp.121.2.325
9484:Hamilton, William D.
9155:on 16 February 2012.
9058:10.1636/joa-s-18-082
8441:Rook, G. A. (2007).
8083:"Viral metagenomics"
7828:10.1128/CMR.00067-12
5944:"Helminth Parasites"
5866:General Parasitology
4938:Getz, W. M. (2011).
4730:Parasites in fiction
4395:Trichinella spiralis
4177:Ascaris lumbricoides
4093:Quantitative ecology
3659:Cyclosa argenteoalba
3586:Red Queen hypothesis
3582:digenetic trematodes
3237:Evolutionary ecology
3211:Evolutionary ecology
3093:bacterial meningitis
3074:Campylobacter jejuni
2968:, is transmitted by
2961:Borrelia burgdorferi
2756:plants by detecting
2578:Twisted-wing insects
1795:and social parasite.
1652:European sparrowhawk
1579:Melipona scutellaris
1379:Apodemus flavicollis
936:modify the behaviour
932:intestinal parasites
839:Directly transmitted
786:Parasitic castrators
764:Parasitic castration
758:Parasitic castrators
592:parasitic castration
527:facultative parasite
449:Parasitic life cycle
182:parasitic castration
11889:Carnivorous protist
11743:Intraguild predator
11134:Distraction display
11078:Divergent evolution
10561:, pp. 265–266.
10545:15 May 2012 at the
10035:2008EcolL..11..533L
9772:2015PLoSO..1028674B
9644:2000JThBi.202..283F
9581:2002Oecol.131..227T
9441:1990PNAS...87.3566H
9381:2010PlSiB...5..929R
9184:2020PNAS..117.5358Y
8951:1996Ecol...77.1390L
8886:2000Natur.405..679L
8784:10.1038/nature03341
8776:2005Natur.434..376S
8688:(1701): 3693–3702.
8383:2023PLoSO..1887891N
8274:2009PLoSO...4.7288W
8159:2008PNAS..10511482D
8102:10.1038/nrmicro1163
7877:2007Natur.445..153M
7736:Nature Microbiology
7684:2017NatSR...717251C
7445:Nickrent, Daniel L.
7260:2018BMCE...18...21F
7203:2023COIS...5601026P
7117:2005Oikos.108..473B
6628:2016ISMEJ..10.1815P
6556:2001JAnEc..70..476R
6506:2005IchtR..52..207P
6318:Nosema helminthorum
6274:2017NatSR...7.9283D
6153:"What is a vector?"
5890:Cox, F. E. (2001).
5707:(Suppl 1): S6–S15.
5590:2015CBio...25.R793C
5535:1981Oecol..48..249L
5488:1997EnvBF..49..139C
5443:. Blackwell Science
5007:. 13 October 2009.
4956:2011EcolL..14..113G
4480:malaria prophylaxis
4401:Clonorchis sinensis
4284:. In his 1684 book
4274:nasal flies of deer
4254:early modern period
3958:, was made extinct.
3877:Polistes canadensis
3785:short-horned lizard
3737:sexual reproduction
3712:Henneguya zschokkei
3670:Trait loss: bedbug
3298:worms and probably
3264:, but holes in the
3021:Pathogenic bacteria
2833:, and varieties of
2783:Species within the
2688:(a dodder), a stem
2617:130,000 - 1,100,000
1908:
1455:infected human host
1407:Sphenodon punctatus
1320:Poecilia reticulata
1300:Ecological context
1297:Transmission method
1287:
1144:, pictured) to eat.
890:Clonorchis sinensis
725:Parasitic castrator
641:
465:intestinal parasite
29:Page version status
11884:Carnivorous fungus
11534:Sexual cannibalism
11519:Animal cannibalism
11384:Feeding behaviours
11332:Cleaning symbiosis
11129:Deimatic behaviour
11088:Predator satiation
11073:Parallel evolution
10768:. 10 January 2016.
9973:on 10 August 2017.
9744:, pp. x, 1–2.
9369:Plant Signal Behav
9339:10.1007/bf00297649
9126:Parasitology Today
9117:(September 1995).
7672:Scientific Reports
6968:Behavioral Ecology
6780:Emery, C. (1909).
6460:Brockmann, H. Jane
6376:Commun Integr Biol
6262:Scientific Reports
6163:(1719): 20160085.
5788:on 3 October 2019.
5543:10.1007/BF00347971
4797:. In one scene, a
4783:are widespread in
4744:
4666:a derogatory sense
4631:
4575:anthelmintic drugs
4545:biological control
4541:
4522:Biological control
4516:Biological control
4484:antimalarial drugs
4361:
4308:Peter Simon Pallas
4208:
4164:Hippocratic Corpus
4110:Log-transformation
4090:
3960:
3898:polyphenol oxidase
3872:
3811:and tears contain
3789:
3678:
3574:
3521:simian foamy virus
3474:
3369:
3340:Darwinian medicine
3233:
3143:
3106:Treponema pallidum
3032:Bacillus anthracis
2976:
2887:
2875:The honey fungus,
2858:myco-heterotrophic
2837:. Yield loss from
2698:
1906:
1854:Ceratias holboelli
1768:A hyperparasitoid
1709:Ceratias holboelli
1635:black-headed ducks
1391:(mainly to males)
1353:(Japanese macaque)
1285:
1276:
1215:
993:Vector-transmitted
990:
977:vector-transmitted
961:Vector-transmitted
895:
856:
783:
746:
734:
722:
699:
687:
675:
625:
540:mathematical model
476:
190:vector-transmitted
157:and the agents of
133:; animals such as
99:close relationship
92:
35:
11902:
11901:
11879:Carnivorous plant
11755:Aquatic predation
11542:
11541:
11524:Human cannibalism
11350:
11349:
11166:
11165:
11104:Signalling theory
10956:978-0-7432-0011-0
10928:978-0-15-600585-2
10921:. Harvest Books.
10902:978-0-226-11438-5
10869:978-0-691-12085-0
10747:978-0-472-11213-5
10647:978-0-19-157934-9
10613:978-0-472-10760-5
10584:978-1-78243-857-1
10327:978-0-521-66447-9
10244:978-0-12-170750-7
9921:978-0-226-11438-5
9178:(10): 5358–5363.
9100:978-0-19-999679-7
8991:Toxoplasma gondii
8770:(7031): 376–380.
8744:978-0-470-01617-6
8662:978-0-470-69584-5
8635:978-0-684-81087-4
8552:978-0-19-534519-3
8500:(1541): 785–788.
8453:(11): 1072–1074.
8042:(19): 12599–603.
7927:978-0-7817-8215-9
7430:978-90-04-16750-6
7349:978-81-209-0496-5
7322:978-1-107-03765-6
7156:978-0-12-385897-9
7069:Encarsia perplexa
7055:on 18 April 2018.
6475:978-0-08-049015-1
6441:978-0-19-854892-8
6137:978-1-118-84615-5
5876:978-0-323-14010-2
5584:(18): R793–R795.
5470:Isurus oxyrinchus
5418:978-0-12-385897-9
5326:978-1-86499-991-4
5249:on 6 October 2017
5106:978-1-86499-991-4
4920:978-0-87140-480-0
4907:Wilson, Edward O.
4598:reproductive rate
4535:, widely used in
4338:Sarcoptes scabiei
4278:sheep liver fluke
4241:Fasciola hepatica
4223:In his 1397 book
4213:Canon of Medicine
4075:competing species
4060:California condor
4046:
4045:
4040:Knowable Magazine
3946:California condor
3825:hydrochloric acid
3755:and the manes of
3673:Cimex lectularius
3636:Toxoplasma gondii
3576:Parasites infect
3561:Toxoplasma gondii
3514:Fahrenholz's rule
3439:natural selection
3417:which formed the
3280:-like parasites.
3256:Paleoparasitology
3219:Restoration of a
3009:amoebic dysentery
2989:Protozoa such as
2896:Pathogenic fungus
2878:Armillaria mellea
2642:
2641:
1875:Encarsia perplexa
1735:Encarsia perplexa
1720:Adelphoparasitism
1698:Sexual parasitism
1692:Sexual parasitism
1526:Social parasitism
1516:American chestnut
1462:
1461:
1417:social behaviour
1330:social behaviour
1234:isopods, various
1182:(centre left) is
1078:; others include
1018:Ixodes scapularis
803:. In the case of
775:Sacculina carcini
755:
754:
749:Solitary predator
654:Single host, dies
523:obligate parasite
471:to attach to its
307:sheep liver fluke
131:amoebic dysentery
127:sleeping sickness
26:
16:(Redirected from
11937:
11748:Pursuit predator
11550:
11529:Self-cannibalism
11397:
11396:
11377:
11370:
11363:
11354:
11353:
11341:
11334:
11320:
11313:
11288:Kleptoparasitism
11273:Brood parasitism
11193:
11186:
11179:
11170:
11169:
11035:
11028:
11021:
11012:
11011:
10974:
10960:
10932:
10920:
10911:Desowitz, Robert
10906:
10873:
10857:
10834:
10833:
10821:
10815:
10814:
10806:
10800:
10799:
10791:
10785:
10784:
10783:. Deep Sea News.
10776:
10770:
10769:
10758:
10752:
10751:
10731:
10725:
10724:
10714:
10679:
10673:
10672:
10659:
10653:
10651:
10631:
10622:
10621:
10595:
10589:
10588:
10568:
10562:
10556:
10550:
10537:
10531:
10530:
10528:
10526:
10511:
10505:
10504:
10476:
10470:
10469:
10467:
10465:
10451:(24 July 2015).
10445:
10439:
10438:
10436:
10434:
10423:
10417:
10416:
10385:
10379:
10378:
10376:
10374:
10360:
10354:
10353:
10351:
10349:
10338:
10332:
10331:
10307:
10301:
10300:
10280:
10271:
10270:
10258:
10252:
10251:
10230:
10219:
10218:
10190:
10173:
10172:
10171:on 19 June 2018.
10170:
10164:. Archived from
10131:
10122:
10116:
10115:
10105:
10095:
10071:
10065:
10064:
10054:
10014:
10008:
10007:
10005:
9981:
9975:
9974:
9972:
9966:. Archived from
9941:
9932:
9926:
9925:
9907:
9901:
9900:
9898:
9875:
9866:
9860:
9859:
9849:
9832:(8): 1428–1430.
9817:
9811:
9810:
9809:
9803:
9793:
9783:
9751:
9745:
9739:
9730:
9729:
9719:
9696:Plant Physiology
9687:
9681:
9680:
9678:
9655:
9629:
9620:
9609:
9608:
9560:
9551:
9550:
9518:
9512:
9511:
9479:
9473:
9472:
9462:
9452:
9435:(9): 3566–3573.
9417:
9411:
9410:
9400:
9360:
9351:
9350:
9318:
9309:
9308:
9298:
9288:
9286:10.1186/jbiol166
9264:
9255:
9254:
9252:
9250:
9244:
9237:
9229:
9216:
9215:
9205:
9195:
9163:
9157:
9156:
9154:
9148:. Archived from
9123:
9111:
9105:
9104:
9084:
9078:
9077:
9037:
9031:
9030:
9020:
9003:(1452): 1591–4.
8984:
8978:
8977:
8975:
8945:(5): 1390–1397.
8936:
8927:
8921:
8920:
8918:
8894:10.1038/35015069
8880:(6787): 679–81.
8871:
8862:
8853:
8852:
8842:
8810:
8804:
8803:
8755:
8749:
8748:
8722:
8716:
8715:
8705:
8673:
8667:
8666:
8646:
8640:
8639:
8608:
8602:
8601:
8599:
8597:
8588:. Archived from
8563:
8557:
8556:
8544:
8534:
8528:
8527:
8517:
8482:
8471:
8470:
8438:
8429:
8428:
8422:
8414:
8404:
8394:
8362:
8356:
8355:
8353:
8329:
8323:
8312:
8306:
8305:
8295:
8285:
8253:
8247:
8246:
8236:
8226:
8202:
8191:
8190:
8180:
8170:
8138:
8129:
8128:
8126:
8087:
8078:
8072:
8071:
8061:
8051:
8027:
8021:
8020:
7989:
7983:
7982:
7972:
7962:
7938:
7932:
7931:
7913:
7907:
7906:
7888:
7856:
7850:
7849:
7839:
7807:
7801:
7800:
7783:(1–2): 145–166.
7768:
7762:
7761:
7751:
7728:
7722:
7721:
7711:
7663:
7657:
7656:
7654:
7652:
7638:
7632:
7631:
7583:
7577:
7576:
7540:
7534:
7533:
7505:
7499:
7498:
7482:
7476:
7470:
7468:
7466:
7460:
7453:
7441:
7435:
7434:
7416:
7405:
7404:
7360:
7354:
7353:
7333:
7327:
7326:
7306:
7300:
7299:
7289:
7271:
7239:
7233:
7232:
7214:
7182:
7176:
7170:
7161:
7160:
7142:
7136:
7135:
7133:
7102:
7096:Bonellia viridis
7089:
7083:
7082:
7080:
7078:
7063:
7057:
7056:
7054:
7047:
7036:
7030:
7029:
7006:Animal Behaviour
6993:
6987:
6986:
6984:
6958:
6952:
6951:
6941:
6909:
6903:
6902:
6882:
6876:
6875:
6835:
6829:
6828:
6800:
6794:
6793:
6777:
6771:
6770:
6768:
6766:
6754:
6748:
6747:
6735:
6729:
6728:
6726:
6724:
6713:
6707:
6706:
6688:
6673:Animal Behaviour
6664:
6658:
6657:
6647:
6622:(8): 1815–1822.
6616:The ISME Journal
6607:
6601:
6600:
6584:
6578:
6577:
6567:
6535:
6526:
6525:
6489:
6480:
6479:
6455:
6446:
6445:
6419:
6410:
6409:
6399:
6363:
6354:
6353:
6313:
6304:
6303:
6293:
6252:
6243:
6242:
6232:
6200:
6191:
6190:
6180:
6148:
6142:
6141:
6125:
6115:
6102:
6101:
6095:
6093:
6073:
6067:
6066:
6056:
6024:
6015:
6014:
5984:
5978:
5977:
5975:
5973:
5962:
5956:
5955:
5953:
5951:
5940:
5934:
5933:
5931:
5896:
5887:
5881:
5880:
5860:
5854:
5853:
5843:
5811:
5805:
5799:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5781:. Archived from
5764:
5755:
5742:
5741:
5740:
5734:
5724:
5689:
5654:
5653:
5625:
5619:
5618:
5617:
5611:
5601:
5569:
5563:
5562:
5514:
5508:
5507:
5459:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5448:
5437:
5431:
5430:
5385:
5372:
5371:
5369:
5367:
5362:on 10 April 2018
5361:
5346:
5337:
5331:
5330:
5311:
5300:
5299:
5289:
5265:
5259:
5258:
5256:
5254:
5245:. Archived from
5235:
5229:
5228:
5218:
5186:
5180:
5179:
5177:
5130:
5121:
5115:
5114:
5091:
5085:
5075:
5069:
5059:
5053:
5043:
5037:
5027:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5016:
4995:
4986:
4985:
4975:
4935:
4929:
4928:
4903:
4894:
4888:
4871:
4860:
4854:
4850:
4803:explosive squibs
4764:, the eponymous
4700:And so proceeds
4532:Encarsia formosa
4357:malaria parasite
4329:Diacinto Cestoni
4272:, the larvae of
4237:
4071:keystone species
4033:
4032:
4021:
4020:
3765:sexual selection
3745:immunocompetence
3702:have lost their
3177:genetic material
3138:Escherichia coli
3041:domestic animals
2950:microsporidiosis
2866:vascular bundles
2778:flowering plants
2722:Parasitic plants
2706:partial parasite
2613:Parasitoid wasps
1909:
1905:
1870:
1857:lives as a tiny
1847:The male of the
1844:
1824:
1809:brood parasitism
1804:
1791:butterfly is an
1784:
1765:
1745:Bonellia viridis
1714:sexual parasites
1670:kleptoparasitism
1664:Kleptoparasitism
1658:Kleptoparasitism
1619:brood parasitism
1613:Brood parasitism
1607:Brood parasitism
1573:Bombus bohemicus
1548:animals such as
1451:mosquito vector,
1360:social behaviour
1327:physical contact
1288:
1284:
1280:fecal–oral route
1273:fecal–oral route
1176:
1153:
1138:parasitoid wasps
1133:
1072:parasitoid wasps
910:acanthocephalans
750:
744:
738:
732:
726:
720:
703:
697:
691:
685:
679:
673:
667:(fitness > 0)
642:
638:
631:
624:
582:Major strategies
555:insects such as
467:, has hooks and
391:
381:
327:hyperparasitical
47:6 September 2024
21:
11945:
11944:
11940:
11939:
11938:
11936:
11935:
11934:
11920:Disease ecology
11905:
11904:
11903:
11898:
11865:
11856:Surplus killing
11728:Ambush predator
11711:
11635:
11614:
11551:
11538:
11507:
11471:
11386:
11381:
11351:
11346:
11337:
11330:
11316:
11309:
11209:
11197:
11167:
11162:
11092:
11044:
11039:
10967:
10957:
10935:
10929:
10909:
10903:
10883:
10880:
10878:Further reading
10870:
10843:
10838:
10837:
10822:
10818:
10807:
10803:
10798:. Live Science.
10792:
10788:
10777:
10773:
10760:
10759:
10755:
10748:
10732:
10728:
10680:
10676:
10663:Swift, Jonathan
10660:
10656:
10648:
10632:
10625:
10614:
10596:
10592:
10585:
10569:
10565:
10557:
10553:
10547:Wayback Machine
10538:
10534:
10524:
10522:
10513:
10512:
10508:
10477:
10473:
10463:
10461:
10446:
10442:
10432:
10430:
10425:
10424:
10420:
10386:
10382:
10372:
10370:
10368:Merriam-Webster
10362:
10361:
10357:
10347:
10345:
10340:
10339:
10335:
10328:
10308:
10304:
10281:
10274:
10259:
10255:
10245:
10231:
10222:
10191:
10176:
10168:
10129:
10123:
10119:
10086:(6): e1001580.
10072:
10068:
10023:Ecology Letters
10015:
10011:
9996:(10): 932–937.
9982:
9978:
9970:
9939:
9933:
9929:
9922:
9908:
9904:
9896:
9873:
9867:
9863:
9818:
9814:
9804:
9766:(6): e0128674.
9752:
9748:
9740:
9733:
9688:
9684:
9676:
9653:10.1.1.212.7024
9627:
9621:
9612:
9561:
9554:
9519:
9515:
9482:Ebert, Dieter;
9480:
9476:
9421:Hamilton, W. D.
9418:
9414:
9361:
9354:
9319:
9312:
9265:
9258:
9248:
9246:
9245:on 4 March 2016
9242:
9235:
9231:
9230:
9219:
9164:
9160:
9152:
9121:
9112:
9108:
9101:
9085:
9081:
9038:
9034:
8997:Proc. Biol. Sci
8985:
8981:
8973:
8959:10.2307/2265536
8934:
8928:
8924:
8916:
8869:
8863:
8856:
8819:Biology Letters
8811:
8807:
8756:
8752:
8745:
8723:
8719:
8674:
8670:
8663:
8647:
8643:
8636:
8620:Eldredge, Niles
8609:
8605:
8595:
8593:
8573:Natural History
8564:
8560:
8553:
8535:
8531:
8483:
8474:
8439:
8432:
8416:
8415:
8377:(8): e0287891.
8363:
8359:
8330:
8326:
8313:
8309:
8254:
8250:
8203:
8194:
8139:
8132:
8124:
8085:
8079:
8075:
8028:
8024:
7990:
7986:
7939:
7935:
7928:
7914:
7910:
7886:10.1038/445153a
7857:
7853:
7808:
7804:
7769:
7765:
7730:
7729:
7725:
7664:
7660:
7650:
7648:
7640:
7639:
7635:
7584:
7580:
7545:New Phytologist
7541:
7537:
7506:
7502:
7483:
7479:
7464:
7462:
7458:
7451:
7442:
7438:
7431:
7417:
7408:
7361:
7357:
7350:
7334:
7330:
7323:
7307:
7303:
7240:
7236:
7183:
7179:
7171:
7164:
7157:
7143:
7139:
7131:
7100:
7090:
7086:
7076:
7074:
7065:
7064:
7060:
7052:
7045:
7037:
7033:
6998:Catharacta skua
6994:
6990:
6959:
6955:
6924:(3): 20130076.
6918:Biology Letters
6910:
6906:
6883:
6879:
6840:Cebus olivaceus
6836:
6832:
6801:
6797:
6778:
6774:
6764:
6762:
6755:
6751:
6736:
6732:
6722:
6720:
6715:
6714:
6710:
6686:10.1.1.309.6081
6665:
6661:
6608:
6604:
6585:
6581:
6536:
6529:
6490:
6483:
6476:
6456:
6449:
6442:
6420:
6413:
6364:
6357:
6320:Moniez, 1887".
6314:
6307:
6253:
6246:
6201:
6194:
6149:
6145:
6138:
6116:
6105:
6091:
6089:
6074:
6070:
6025:
6018:
5985:
5981:
5971:
5969:
5964:
5963:
5959:
5949:
5947:
5942:
5941:
5937:
5929:
5894:
5888:
5884:
5877:
5861:
5857:
5812:
5808:
5800:
5793:
5785:
5773:(11): 507–513.
5762:
5756:
5745:
5735:
5690:
5657:
5626:
5622:
5612:
5578:Current Biology
5570:
5566:
5515:
5511:
5464:"Pugnose eels,
5460:
5456:
5446:
5444:
5439:
5438:
5434:
5419:
5386:
5375:
5365:
5363:
5359:
5344:
5338:
5334:
5327:
5313:
5312:
5303:
5266:
5262:
5252:
5250:
5237:
5236:
5232:
5187:
5183:
5175:
5128:
5122:
5118:
5107:
5093:
5092:
5088:
5076:
5072:
5060:
5056:
5044:
5040:
5028:
5024:
5014:
5012:
4997:
4996:
4989:
4944:Ecology Letters
4936:
4932:
4921:
4904:
4897:
4893:, pp. 4–5.
4889:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4874:
4861:
4857:
4851:
4847:
4842:
4815:
4785:science fiction
4732:
4722:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4699:
4697:
4696:
4694:
4692:
4690:
4664:Parasitism has
4662:
4656:
4636:
4634:Classical times
4606:
4584:parasitic worms
4567:
4565:Drug resistance
4561:
4524:
4518:
4496:drug resistance
4492:malaria vaccine
4476:
4474:Malaria vaccine
4470:
4410:Rudolf Leuckart
4406:Algernon Thomas
4372:
4366:
4320:Giardia lamblia
4294:large roundworm
4250:
4231:
4192:
4136:Human parasites
4133:
4127:
4122:
4101:
4095:
4030:
4024:External videos
4019:
4013:
3964:parasitologists
3938:
3933:
3894:
3857:
3773:
3735:suggested that
3725:
3683:
3607:Some parasites
3606:
3604:
3598:
3506:
3468:, with a later
3431:
3405:Peter Kropotkin
3356:
3325:
3319:
3258:
3252:
3239:
3213:
3158:
3150:Main articles:
3148:
3119:sexual activity
3109:, the cause of
3079:gastroenteritis
3059:relapsing fever
3053:, the cause of
3035:, the cause of
3023:
3017:
2987:
2981:
2924:saprophytically
2919:Ustilago maydis
2902:
2900:Plant pathology
2892:
2677:
2675:Parasitic plant
2671:
2149:Horsehair worms
1961:
1956:
1948:
1943:
1936:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1904:
1898:
1890:
1888:Taxonomic range
1883:
1880:citrus blackfly
1871:
1862:
1859:sexual parasite
1845:
1836:
1825:
1816:
1805:
1796:
1785:
1776:
1770:pteromalid wasp
1766:
1754:
1722:
1700:
1694:
1666:
1660:
1648:European cuckoo
1615:
1609:
1563:Phengaris arion
1542:
1528:
1508:chestnut blight
1481:
1475:
1473:Hyperparasitism
1467:
1454:
1452:
1442:
1427:
1410:
1401:
1390:
1382:
1373:
1361:
1352:
1338:
1323:
1310:
1256:
1204:
1195:
1177:
1168:
1154:
1145:
1134:
1065:
1063:Parasitoid wasp
1057:Main articles:
1055:
987:red blood cells
969:
963:
882:
848:Human head-lice
841:
832:Tritia obsoleta
822:Zoogonus lasius
766:
760:
748:
745:
743:Social predator
742:
736:
733:
730:
724:
721:
718:
713:
711:
701:
698:
695:
689:
686:
683:
677:
674:
671:
666:
664:
657:Multiple hosts
636:
633:
629:
627:
584:
451:
445:
438:
432:
375:Medieval French
373:comes from the
367:
359:science fiction
298:Giardia lamblia
82:Cymothoa exigua
67:
60:
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
34:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
11943:
11933:
11932:
11927:
11922:
11917:
11900:
11899:
11897:
11896:
11891:
11886:
11881:
11876:
11870:
11867:
11866:
11864:
11863:
11858:
11853:
11848:
11843:
11838:
11833:
11831:Hypercarnivore
11828:
11827:
11826:
11825:
11824:
11814:
11807:Cattle feeding
11804:
11799:
11798:
11797:
11792:
11790:Feeding frenzy
11787:
11782:
11777:
11775:Suction feeder
11772:
11767:
11762:
11752:
11751:
11750:
11745:
11740:
11735:
11730:
11719:
11717:
11713:
11712:
11710:
11709:
11704:
11699:
11694:
11689:
11684:
11679:
11674:
11669:
11664:
11659:
11654:
11649:
11643:
11641:
11637:
11636:
11634:
11633:
11628:
11622:
11620:
11616:
11615:
11613:
11612:
11607:
11602:
11597:
11592:
11587:
11585:Seed predation
11582:
11577:
11572:
11567:
11561:
11559:
11553:
11552:
11545:
11543:
11540:
11539:
11537:
11536:
11531:
11526:
11521:
11515:
11513:
11509:
11508:
11506:
11505:
11500:
11495:
11490:
11485:
11479:
11477:
11473:
11472:
11470:
11469:
11464:
11459:
11454:
11449:
11444:
11439:
11434:
11429:
11424:
11419:
11414:
11409:
11403:
11401:
11394:
11388:
11387:
11380:
11379:
11372:
11365:
11357:
11348:
11347:
11345:
11344:
11343:
11342:
11335:
11323:
11322:
11321:
11314:
11302:
11301:
11300:
11295:
11290:
11285:
11280:
11275:
11270:
11260:
11255:
11250:
11245:
11240:
11235:
11230:
11225:
11220:
11214:
11211:
11210:
11196:
11195:
11188:
11181:
11173:
11164:
11163:
11161:
11160:
11155:
11150:
11145:
11140:
11138:
11137:
11136:
11131:
11126:
11124:Apparent death
11121:
11116:
11106:
11100:
11098:
11094:
11093:
11091:
11090:
11085:
11080:
11075:
11070:
11069:
11068:
11058:
11052:
11050:
11046:
11045:
11038:
11037:
11030:
11023:
11015:
11009:
11008:
11002:
10996:
10987:
10981:
10966:
10965:External links
10963:
10962:
10961:
10955:
10933:
10927:
10907:
10901:
10885:Combes, Claude
10879:
10876:
10875:
10874:
10868:
10848:Poulin, Robert
10842:
10839:
10836:
10835:
10816:
10801:
10786:
10771:
10753:
10746:
10726:
10683:Poulin, Robert
10674:
10654:
10646:
10623:
10612:
10590:
10583:
10563:
10551:
10532:
10506:
10471:
10440:
10418:
10380:
10364:"Parasitology"
10355:
10333:
10326:
10302:
10272:
10253:
10243:
10220:
10201:(2): 173–174.
10174:
10117:
10066:
10029:(6): 533–546.
10009:
9976:
9950:(7): 381–385.
9927:
9920:
9902:
9884:(3): 239–250.
9861:
9812:
9746:
9731:
9702:(2): 325–332.
9682:
9638:(4): 283–304.
9632:J. Theor. Biol
9610:
9575:(2): 227–235.
9552:
9539:10.1086/285346
9533:(3): 603–622.
9513:
9474:
9412:
9352:
9333:(3): 293–310.
9310:
9256:
9217:
9158:
9132:(9): 342–345.
9115:Poulin, Robert
9106:
9099:
9079:
9032:
8979:
8922:
8854:
8825:(2): 275–278.
8805:
8750:
8743:
8729:. John Wiley.
8717:
8668:
8661:
8641:
8634:
8612:Margulis, Lynn
8603:
8592:on 8 July 2012
8558:
8551:
8529:
8472:
8430:
8357:
8324:
8307:
8248:
8192:
8130:
8096:(6): 504–510.
8073:
8022:
8003:(6): 278–284.
7984:
7947:Biology Direct
7933:
7926:
7908:
7851:
7802:
7763:
7723:
7658:
7633:
7578:
7551:(2): 171–216.
7535:
7516:(4): 227–235.
7500:
7477:
7436:
7429:
7406:
7355:
7348:
7339:Modern Biology
7328:
7321:
7301:
7234:
7177:
7162:
7155:
7137:
7111:(3): 473–484.
7084:
7058:
7031:
6988:
6975:(3): 574–579.
6953:
6904:
6877:
6850:(4): 341–344.
6830:
6811:(3): 157–178.
6795:
6772:
6749:
6730:
6708:
6679:(3): 603–609.
6659:
6602:
6579:
6550:(3): 476–490.
6527:
6500:(3): 207–236.
6481:
6474:
6447:
6440:
6411:
6382:(2): 169–171.
6355:
6328:(1–2): 47–64.
6305:
6244:
6192:
6143:
6136:
6103:
6068:
6039:(5): 197–203.
6016:
5997:(2): 115–125.
5979:
5957:
5935:
5882:
5875:
5855:
5826:(3): 337–339.
5806:
5804:, p. 111.
5791:
5743:
5693:Poulin, Robert
5655:
5642:10.2179/18-173
5636:(2): 249–262.
5620:
5564:
5529:(2): 249–251.
5509:
5482:(1): 139–144.
5454:
5432:
5417:
5389:Poulin, Robert
5373:
5332:
5325:
5301:
5287:10.1086/520425
5280:(4): 734–746.
5260:
5230:
5201:(9): 761–768.
5181:
5145:10.1086/703485
5116:
5105:
5086:
5070:
5054:
5038:
5022:
4987:
4950:(2): 113–124.
4930:
4919:
4895:
4882:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4873:
4872:
4855:
4844:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4837:
4836:
4831:
4826:
4821:
4814:
4811:
4770:blood-drinking
4721:
4718:
4687:
4682:Jonathan Swift
4655:
4652:
4635:
4632:
4605:
4602:
4560:
4557:
4517:
4514:
4469:
4466:
4418:filarial worms
4414:Patrick Manson
4368:Main article:
4365:
4362:
4258:Francesco Redi
4249:
4246:
4200:Francesco Redi
4191:
4188:
4156:ancient Greece
4131:Human parasite
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4094:
4091:
4084:Parasites are
4044:
4043:
4037:, 12.14.2018,
4026:
4025:
4012:
4009:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3906:salicylic acid
3893:
3890:
3856:
3853:
3833:serum proteins
3799:also secretes
3772:
3769:
3733:W. D. Hamilton
3724:
3721:
3704:ability to fly
3682:
3679:
3597:
3594:
3558:The protozoan
3549:switched hosts
3505:
3502:
3437:parasites, by
3430:
3427:
3355:
3352:
3318:
3315:
3290:, parasitized
3251:
3248:
3231:-like parasite
3212:
3209:
3205:bacteriophages
3147:
3144:
3091:, an agent of
3019:Main article:
3016:
3013:
2980:
2977:
2891:
2888:
2750:photosynthesis
2673:Main article:
2670:
2667:
2640:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2621:
2618:
2615:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2540:
2534:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2433:
2427:
2426:
2423:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2324:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2217:Acanthocephala
2213:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2011:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1975:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1950:
1945:
1938:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1913:
1897:
1894:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1872:
1865:
1863:
1846:
1839:
1837:
1833:kleptoparasite
1831:is a powerful
1826:
1819:
1817:
1806:
1799:
1797:
1786:
1779:
1777:
1767:
1760:
1753:
1750:
1721:
1718:
1696:Main article:
1693:
1690:
1659:
1656:
1608:
1605:
1527:
1524:
1520:bacteriophages
1496:in agriculture
1484:Hyperparasites
1477:Main article:
1474:
1471:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1459:
1456:
1444:
1433:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1403:
1393:
1392:
1387:
1384:
1375:
1365:
1364:
1357:
1354:
1349:Macaca fuscata
1345:
1332:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1316:
1302:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1255:
1252:
1203:
1202:Micropredators
1200:
1197:
1196:
1178:
1171:
1169:
1155:
1148:
1146:
1135:
1128:
1054:
1051:
967:Disease vector
962:
959:
881:
878:
840:
837:
762:Main article:
759:
756:
753:
752:
740:
728:
716:
706:
705:
693:
681:
669:
659:
658:
655:
652:
649:
608:adaptive peaks
583:
580:
576:carbon dioxide
569:plant diseases
444:
443:Basic concepts
441:
431:
428:
366:
363:
345:blood-drinking
323:Jonathan Swift
303:Francesco Redi
58:
36:
30:
27:
25:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11942:
11931:
11928:
11926:
11923:
11921:
11918:
11916:
11913:
11912:
11910:
11895:
11892:
11890:
11887:
11885:
11882:
11880:
11877:
11875:
11872:
11871:
11868:
11862:
11859:
11857:
11854:
11852:
11849:
11847:
11844:
11842:
11841:Mesocarnivore
11839:
11837:
11836:Hypocarnivore
11834:
11832:
11829:
11823:
11820:
11819:
11818:
11815:
11813:
11810:
11809:
11808:
11805:
11803:
11800:
11796:
11795:Filter feeder
11793:
11791:
11788:
11786:
11785:Bottom feeder
11783:
11781:
11778:
11776:
11773:
11771:
11768:
11766:
11763:
11761:
11758:
11757:
11756:
11753:
11749:
11746:
11744:
11741:
11739:
11736:
11734:
11733:Apex predator
11731:
11729:
11726:
11725:
11724:
11721:
11720:
11718:
11714:
11708:
11705:
11703:
11700:
11698:
11695:
11693:
11690:
11688:
11685:
11683:
11680:
11678:
11675:
11673:
11670:
11668:
11665:
11663:
11660:
11658:
11655:
11653:
11650:
11648:
11645:
11644:
11642:
11638:
11632:
11629:
11627:
11624:
11623:
11621:
11617:
11611:
11608:
11606:
11603:
11601:
11598:
11596:
11593:
11591:
11588:
11586:
11583:
11581:
11578:
11576:
11573:
11571:
11568:
11566:
11563:
11562:
11560:
11558:
11554:
11549:
11535:
11532:
11530:
11527:
11525:
11522:
11520:
11517:
11516:
11514:
11512:cannibalistic
11510:
11504:
11501:
11499:
11498:Breastfeeding
11496:
11494:
11493:Placentophagy
11491:
11489:
11486:
11484:
11481:
11480:
11478:
11474:
11468:
11465:
11463:
11460:
11458:
11455:
11453:
11450:
11448:
11445:
11443:
11440:
11438:
11435:
11433:
11430:
11428:
11425:
11423:
11420:
11418:
11415:
11413:
11412:Egg predation
11410:
11408:
11405:
11404:
11402:
11398:
11395:
11393:
11389:
11385:
11378:
11373:
11371:
11366:
11364:
11359:
11358:
11355:
11340:
11336:
11333:
11329:
11328:
11327:
11324:
11319:
11315:
11312:
11308:
11307:
11306:
11303:
11299:
11296:
11294:
11291:
11289:
11286:
11284:
11283:Hyperparasite
11281:
11279:
11276:
11274:
11271:
11269:
11266:
11265:
11264:
11261:
11259:
11256:
11254:
11251:
11249:
11246:
11244:
11241:
11239:
11236:
11234:
11231:
11229:
11226:
11224:
11221:
11219:
11216:
11215:
11212:
11208:
11204:
11201:
11200:Inter-species
11194:
11189:
11187:
11182:
11180:
11175:
11174:
11171:
11159:
11156:
11154:
11151:
11149:
11146:
11144:
11141:
11139:
11135:
11132:
11130:
11127:
11125:
11122:
11120:
11117:
11115:
11112:
11111:
11110:
11107:
11105:
11102:
11101:
11099:
11095:
11089:
11086:
11084:
11081:
11079:
11076:
11074:
11071:
11067:
11064:
11063:
11062:
11059:
11057:
11054:
11053:
11051:
11047:
11043:
11036:
11031:
11029:
11024:
11022:
11017:
11016:
11013:
11006:
11003:
11000:
10997:
10995:
10991:
10988:
10985:
10982:
10979:
10978:
10973:
10969:
10968:
10958:
10952:
10948:
10944:
10943:
10938:
10934:
10930:
10924:
10919:
10918:
10912:
10908:
10904:
10898:
10894:
10890:
10886:
10882:
10881:
10871:
10865:
10861:
10856:
10855:
10849:
10845:
10844:
10831:
10827:
10820:
10812:
10805:
10797:
10790:
10782:
10775:
10767:
10763:
10757:
10749:
10743:
10739:
10738:
10730:
10722:
10718:
10713:
10708:
10704:
10700:
10696:
10692:
10688:
10684:
10678:
10670:
10669:
10664:
10658:
10649:
10643:
10639:
10638:
10630:
10628:
10620:
10615:
10609:
10605:
10601:
10594:
10586:
10580:
10576:
10575:
10567:
10560:
10555:
10548:
10544:
10541:
10536:
10520:
10516:
10510:
10502:
10498:
10494:
10490:
10486:
10482:
10475:
10460:
10459:
10454:
10450:
10449:Walsh, Fergus
10444:
10428:
10422:
10414:
10410:
10406:
10402:
10398:
10394:
10390:
10389:Ellis, Harold
10384:
10369:
10365:
10359:
10343:
10337:
10329:
10323:
10319:
10315:
10314:
10306:
10298:
10294:
10290:
10286:
10279:
10277:
10268:
10264:
10257:
10250:
10246:
10240:
10236:
10229:
10227:
10225:
10216:
10212:
10208:
10204:
10200:
10196:
10189:
10187:
10185:
10183:
10181:
10179:
10167:
10163:
10159:
10155:
10151:
10147:
10143:
10140:(2): 228–32.
10139:
10135:
10128:
10121:
10113:
10109:
10104:
10099:
10094:
10089:
10085:
10081:
10077:
10070:
10062:
10058:
10053:
10048:
10044:
10040:
10036:
10032:
10028:
10024:
10020:
10013:
10004:
9999:
9995:
9991:
9987:
9980:
9969:
9965:
9961:
9957:
9953:
9949:
9945:
9938:
9931:
9923:
9917:
9913:
9906:
9895:
9891:
9887:
9883:
9879:
9872:
9865:
9857:
9853:
9848:
9843:
9839:
9835:
9831:
9827:
9823:
9816:
9808:
9801:
9797:
9792:
9787:
9782:
9777:
9773:
9769:
9765:
9761:
9757:
9750:
9743:
9738:
9736:
9727:
9723:
9718:
9713:
9709:
9705:
9701:
9697:
9693:
9686:
9675:
9671:
9667:
9663:
9659:
9654:
9649:
9645:
9641:
9637:
9633:
9626:
9619:
9617:
9615:
9606:
9602:
9598:
9594:
9590:
9586:
9582:
9578:
9574:
9570:
9566:
9559:
9557:
9548:
9544:
9540:
9536:
9532:
9528:
9524:
9517:
9509:
9505:
9501:
9497:
9493:
9489:
9485:
9478:
9470:
9466:
9461:
9456:
9451:
9446:
9442:
9438:
9434:
9430:
9426:
9422:
9416:
9408:
9404:
9399:
9394:
9390:
9386:
9382:
9378:
9375:(8): 929–31.
9374:
9370:
9366:
9359:
9357:
9348:
9344:
9340:
9336:
9332:
9328:
9324:
9317:
9315:
9306:
9302:
9297:
9292:
9287:
9282:
9278:
9274:
9270:
9263:
9261:
9241:
9234:
9228:
9226:
9224:
9222:
9213:
9209:
9204:
9199:
9194:
9189:
9185:
9181:
9177:
9173:
9169:
9162:
9151:
9147:
9143:
9139:
9135:
9131:
9127:
9120:
9116:
9110:
9102:
9096:
9092:
9091:
9083:
9075:
9071:
9067:
9063:
9059:
9055:
9051:
9047:
9043:
9036:
9028:
9024:
9019:
9014:
9010:
9006:
9002:
8998:
8994:
8992:
8983:
8972:
8968:
8964:
8960:
8956:
8952:
8948:
8944:
8940:
8933:
8926:
8915:
8911:
8907:
8903:
8899:
8895:
8891:
8887:
8883:
8879:
8875:
8868:
8861:
8859:
8850:
8846:
8841:
8836:
8832:
8828:
8824:
8820:
8816:
8809:
8801:
8797:
8793:
8789:
8785:
8781:
8777:
8773:
8769:
8765:
8761:
8754:
8746:
8740:
8736:
8732:
8728:
8721:
8713:
8709:
8704:
8699:
8695:
8691:
8687:
8683:
8679:
8672:
8664:
8658:
8654:
8653:
8645:
8637:
8631:
8627:
8626:
8625:What Is Life?
8621:
8617:
8616:Sagan, Dorion
8613:
8607:
8591:
8587:
8583:
8579:
8575:
8574:
8569:
8562:
8554:
8548:
8543:
8542:
8533:
8525:
8521:
8516:
8511:
8507:
8503:
8499:
8495:
8491:
8487:
8486:Massey, R. C.
8481:
8479:
8477:
8468:
8464:
8460:
8456:
8452:
8448:
8444:
8437:
8435:
8426:
8420:
8412:
8408:
8403:
8398:
8393:
8388:
8384:
8380:
8376:
8372:
8368:
8361:
8352:
8347:
8343:
8339:
8335:
8328:
8321:
8317:
8311:
8303:
8299:
8294:
8289:
8284:
8279:
8275:
8271:
8267:
8263:
8259:
8252:
8244:
8240:
8235:
8230:
8225:
8220:
8216:
8212:
8208:
8201:
8199:
8197:
8188:
8184:
8179:
8174:
8169:
8164:
8160:
8156:
8152:
8148:
8144:
8137:
8135:
8123:
8119:
8115:
8111:
8107:
8103:
8099:
8095:
8091:
8084:
8077:
8069:
8065:
8060:
8055:
8050:
8045:
8041:
8037:
8033:
8026:
8018:
8014:
8010:
8006:
8002:
7998:
7994:
7993:Breitbart, M.
7988:
7980:
7976:
7971:
7966:
7961:
7956:
7952:
7948:
7944:
7937:
7929:
7923:
7919:
7912:
7904:
7900:
7896:
7892:
7887:
7882:
7878:
7874:
7871:(7124): 153.
7870:
7866:
7862:
7855:
7847:
7843:
7838:
7833:
7829:
7825:
7821:
7817:
7813:
7806:
7798:
7794:
7790:
7786:
7782:
7778:
7774:
7767:
7759:
7755:
7750:
7745:
7741:
7737:
7733:
7727:
7719:
7715:
7710:
7705:
7701:
7697:
7693:
7689:
7685:
7681:
7677:
7673:
7669:
7662:
7647:
7643:
7637:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7617:
7613:
7609:
7605:
7601:
7597:
7593:
7589:
7582:
7574:
7570:
7566:
7562:
7558:
7554:
7550:
7546:
7539:
7531:
7527:
7523:
7519:
7515:
7511:
7504:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7481:
7474:
7457:
7450:
7446:
7440:
7432:
7426:
7422:
7415:
7413:
7411:
7402:
7398:
7394:
7390:
7386:
7382:
7378:
7374:
7370:
7366:
7359:
7351:
7345:
7341:
7340:
7332:
7324:
7318:
7314:
7313:
7305:
7297:
7293:
7288:
7283:
7279:
7275:
7270:
7265:
7261:
7257:
7253:
7249:
7245:
7238:
7230:
7226:
7222:
7218:
7213:
7208:
7204:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7188:
7181:
7174:
7169:
7167:
7158:
7152:
7148:
7141:
7130:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7110:
7106:
7099:
7097:
7088:
7072:
7070:
7062:
7051:
7044:
7043:
7035:
7027:
7023:
7019:
7015:
7012:: 1167–1177.
7011:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6992:
6983:
6978:
6974:
6970:
6969:
6964:
6957:
6949:
6945:
6940:
6935:
6931:
6927:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6908:
6900:
6896:
6892:
6888:
6881:
6873:
6869:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6834:
6826:
6822:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6799:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6776:
6760:
6753:
6745:
6741:
6734:
6718:
6712:
6704:
6700:
6696:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6670:
6663:
6655:
6651:
6646:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6613:
6606:
6598:
6594:
6590:
6583:
6575:
6571:
6566:
6561:
6557:
6553:
6549:
6545:
6541:
6534:
6532:
6523:
6519:
6515:
6511:
6507:
6503:
6499:
6495:
6488:
6486:
6477:
6471:
6467:
6466:
6461:
6454:
6452:
6443:
6437:
6433:
6429:
6425:
6418:
6416:
6407:
6403:
6398:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6371:
6362:
6360:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6312:
6310:
6301:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6251:
6249:
6240:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6199:
6197:
6188:
6184:
6179:
6174:
6170:
6166:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6147:
6139:
6133:
6129:
6124:
6123:
6114:
6112:
6110:
6108:
6100:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6072:
6064:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6030:
6023:
6021:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5991:
5983:
5967:
5961:
5945:
5939:
5928:
5924:
5920:
5916:
5912:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5893:
5886:
5878:
5872:
5868:
5867:
5859:
5851:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5810:
5803:
5798:
5796:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5761:
5754:
5752:
5750:
5748:
5739:
5732:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5694:
5688:
5686:
5684:
5682:
5680:
5678:
5676:
5674:
5672:
5670:
5668:
5666:
5664:
5662:
5660:
5651:
5647:
5643:
5639:
5635:
5631:
5624:
5616:
5609:
5605:
5600:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5568:
5560:
5556:
5552:
5548:
5544:
5540:
5536:
5532:
5528:
5524:
5520:
5513:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5481:
5477:
5473:
5471:
5467:
5458:
5442:
5436:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5384:
5382:
5380:
5378:
5358:
5354:
5350:
5343:
5336:
5328:
5322:
5318:
5317:
5310:
5308:
5306:
5297:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5264:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5234:
5226:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5208:
5204:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5185:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5139:(1): 90–103.
5138:
5134:
5127:
5120:
5113:
5108:
5102:
5098:
5097:
5090:
5083:
5079:
5074:
5067:
5063:
5058:
5051:
5047:
5042:
5035:
5031:
5026:
5010:
5006:
5005:
5000:
4994:
4992:
4983:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4934:
4927:
4922:
4916:
4912:
4908:
4902:
4900:
4892:
4887:
4883:
4869:
4865:
4859:
4849:
4845:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4819:Antiparasitic
4817:
4816:
4810:
4808:
4807:Animal organs
4804:
4800:
4796:
4795:
4791:'s 1979 film
4790:
4786:
4782:
4777:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4766:Count Dracula
4763:
4759:
4758:
4753:
4752:Gothic horror
4749:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4727:
4717:
4711:
4705:
4704:
4685:
4683:
4679:
4673:
4669:
4667:
4661:
4651:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4640:classical era
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4616:
4610:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4594:
4589:
4585:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4566:
4556:
4554:
4550:
4546:
4538:
4534:
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4528:
4523:
4513:
4511:
4510:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4475:
4465:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4446:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4432:
4427:
4423:
4422:elephantiasis
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4402:
4397:
4396:
4391:
4387:
4386:
4381:
4377:
4371:
4358:
4354:
4351:won the 1902
4350:
4346:
4342:
4340:
4339:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4309:
4305:
4304:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4260:'s 1668 book
4259:
4255:
4245:
4243:
4242:
4235:
4230:
4229:Jehan de Brie
4226:
4221:
4219:
4215:
4214:
4205:
4201:
4198:A plate from
4196:
4187:
4185:
4184:
4179:
4178:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4148:Ebers Papyrus
4145:
4141:
4137:
4132:
4117:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4100:
4087:
4082:
4078:
4077:to co-exist.
4076:
4072:
4068:
4063:
4061:
4057:
4056:
4050:
4042:
4041:
4036:
4027:
4022:
4018:
4008:
4006:
4001:
3999:
3995:
3994:Atlantic Rock
3991:
3987:
3982:
3980:
3975:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3957:
3956:
3951:
3947:
3942:
3928:
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3922:
3918:
3914:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3889:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3878:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3852:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3829:immune system
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3786:
3782:
3777:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3729:
3723:Host defences
3720:
3718:
3714:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3675:
3674:
3668:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3654:
3650:
3647:. Uninfected
3646:
3642:
3638:
3637:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3623:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3603:
3593:
3591:
3587:
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3563:
3562:
3556:
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3511:
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3491:
3487:
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3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3446:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3415:symbiogenesis
3412:
3411:
3406:
3402:
3401:Lynn Margulis
3398:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3366:
3365:
3360:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3331:
3324:
3314:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3284:
3283:Saurophthirus
3279:
3278:
3273:
3272:
3271:Tyrannosaurus
3267:
3263:
3262:fossil record
3257:
3250:Fossil record
3247:
3245:
3238:
3230:
3229:
3224:
3223:
3222:Tyrannosaurus
3217:
3208:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3157:
3156:Bacteriophage
3153:
3140:
3139:
3134:
3133:bacteriophage
3130:
3126:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3107:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3077:, a cause of
3076:
3075:
3070:
3066:
3065:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3033:
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3022:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3005:
3000:
2999:
2994:
2993:
2986:
2973:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2962:
2957:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2946:Microsporidia
2943:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2930:
2925:
2921:
2920:
2914:
2913:hemibiotrophs
2909:
2907:
2901:
2897:
2884:
2880:
2879:
2873:
2869:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
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2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2793:
2788:
2787:
2786:Orobanchaceae
2781:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
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2711:
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2695:
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2504:
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2500:
2496:
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2201:
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2183:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1959:
1954:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1935:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1903:
1893:
1881:
1877:
1876:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1778:
1775:
1774:braconid wasp
1771:
1764:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1752:Illustrations
1749:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1717:
1715:
1711:
1710:
1705:
1699:
1689:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1665:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1604:
1602:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1586:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1523:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1479:Hyperparasite
1470:
1457:
1450:
1449:
1445:
1443:(inc. humans)
1441:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1358:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1342:Strongyloides
1337:
1334:
1333:
1329:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1309:
1308:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1283:
1281:
1274:
1270:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1212:
1208:
1199:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1175:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1132:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1116:or making it
1115:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1101:left for it.
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1076:hymenopterans
1073:
1069:
1064:
1060:
1050:
1048:
1047:
1042:
1041:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
988:
984:
983:
978:
973:
968:
958:
956:
955:
950:
946:
945:Autoinfection
942:
937:
933:
929:
925:
924:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
892:
891:
886:
877:
875:
873:
869:
865:
861:
854:ectoparasites
853:
849:
845:
836:
834:
833:
828:
824:
823:
819:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
797:
792:
787:
781:
780:its crab host
777:
776:
770:
765:
751:
741:
739:
729:
727:
717:
715:
714:(fitness = 0)
708:
707:
704:
702:Micropredator
696:Micropredator
694:
692:
682:
680:
670:
668:
661:
660:
656:
653:
650:
648:
644:
643:
639:
623:
620:
615:
613:
609:
605:
604:parasitoidism
601:
597:
593:
589:
579:
577:
572:
570:
566:
562:
558:
557:scale insects
554:
550:
549:snubnosed eel
544:
541:
537:
533:
528:
524:
520:
516:
511:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
474:
470:
466:
462:
461:
460:Taenia solium
455:
450:
440:
437:
427:
425:
423:
419:
415:
412:
408:
405:
402:
398:
395:
394:Ancient Greek
392:, from
390:
385:
380:
376:
372:
362:
360:
356:
355:
351:'s 1979 film
350:
346:
342:
341:
336:
335:Gothic horror
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
299:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
277:ancient Egypt
274:
270:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
238:
236:
233:species, and
232:
231:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
203:, but unlike
202:
197:
195:
194:parasitoidism
191:
187:
183:
179:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
90:
89:
84:
83:
79:, the isopod
78:
77:fish parasite
73:
69:
65:
48:
44:
40:
33:
28:
19:
11930:Parasitology
11861:Trophallaxis
11845:
11765:Pivot feeder
11760:Lunge feeder
11738:Egg predator
11626:Phagocytosis
11476:reproductive
11447:Myrmecophagy
11437:Molluscivore
11262:
11223:Commensalism
11114:Alarm signal
10980:at Wikibooks
10976:
10942:Parasite Rex
10941:
10937:Zimmer, Carl
10916:
10888:
10853:
10829:
10819:
10804:
10789:
10774:
10765:
10756:
10736:
10729:
10694:
10690:
10677:
10667:
10657:
10636:
10617:
10603:
10593:
10573:
10566:
10554:
10535:
10523:. Retrieved
10509:
10484:
10480:
10474:
10462:. Retrieved
10456:
10443:
10431:. Retrieved
10421:
10396:
10392:
10383:
10371:. Retrieved
10367:
10358:
10346:. Retrieved
10336:
10312:
10305:
10291:(1): 61–66.
10288:
10285:Hist Sci Med
10284:
10266:
10262:
10256:
10248:
10234:
10198:
10194:
10166:the original
10137:
10134:J. Parasitol
10133:
10120:
10083:
10080:PLOS Biology
10079:
10069:
10026:
10022:
10012:
9993:
9989:
9979:
9968:the original
9947:
9943:
9930:
9911:
9905:
9881:
9877:
9864:
9829:
9825:
9815:
9763:
9759:
9749:
9699:
9695:
9685:
9635:
9631:
9572:
9568:
9530:
9526:
9516:
9494:(2): 79–82.
9491:
9487:
9477:
9432:
9428:
9415:
9372:
9368:
9330:
9326:
9276:
9272:
9247:. Retrieved
9240:the original
9175:
9171:
9161:
9150:the original
9129:
9125:
9109:
9089:
9082:
9049:
9045:
9035:
9000:
8996:
8990:
8982:
8942:
8938:
8925:
8877:
8873:
8822:
8818:
8808:
8767:
8763:
8753:
8726:
8720:
8685:
8681:
8671:
8651:
8644:
8624:
8606:
8594:. Retrieved
8590:the original
8577:
8571:
8561:
8540:
8532:
8497:
8493:
8450:
8446:
8419:cite journal
8374:
8370:
8360:
8341:
8337:
8327:
8319:
8315:
8310:
8268:(9): e7288.
8265:
8261:
8251:
8214:
8210:
8150:
8146:
8093:
8089:
8076:
8039:
8035:
8025:
8000:
7996:
7987:
7950:
7946:
7936:
7917:
7911:
7868:
7864:
7854:
7822:(1): 58–85.
7819:
7815:
7805:
7780:
7776:
7766:
7739:
7735:
7726:
7678:(1): 17251.
7675:
7671:
7661:
7649:. Retrieved
7636:
7595:
7591:
7581:
7548:
7544:
7538:
7513:
7509:
7503:
7486:
7480:
7472:
7463:. Retrieved
7439:
7420:
7371:(1): 53–59.
7368:
7364:
7358:
7338:
7331:
7311:
7304:
7251:
7247:
7237:
7194:
7190:
7180:
7175:, p. 6.
7146:
7140:
7108:
7104:
7095:
7087:
7075:. Retrieved
7068:
7061:
7050:the original
7041:
7034:
7009:
7005:
7001:
6997:
6991:
6972:
6966:
6956:
6921:
6917:
6907:
6890:
6886:
6880:
6847:
6843:
6839:
6833:
6808:
6804:
6798:
6789:
6785:
6775:
6763:. Retrieved
6752:
6743:
6739:
6733:
6721:. Retrieved
6719:. Antkeepers
6711:
6676:
6672:
6668:
6662:
6619:
6615:
6605:
6596:
6592:
6582:
6547:
6543:
6497:
6493:
6464:
6427:
6379:
6375:
6369:
6325:
6321:
6317:
6265:
6261:
6212:
6208:
6160:
6156:
6146:
6121:
6097:
6090:. Retrieved
6085:
6081:
6071:
6036:
6032:
5994:
5988:
5982:
5970:. Retrieved
5960:
5948:. Retrieved
5938:
5899:Parasitology
5898:
5885:
5865:
5858:
5823:
5819:
5809:
5783:the original
5770:
5766:
5704:
5701:Parasitology
5700:
5633:
5629:
5623:
5581:
5577:
5567:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5512:
5479:
5475:
5469:
5465:
5457:
5445:. Retrieved
5435:
5400:
5396:
5364:. Retrieved
5357:the original
5352:
5348:
5335:
5315:
5277:
5273:
5263:
5251:. Retrieved
5247:the original
5242:
5233:
5198:
5195:Parasitology
5194:
5184:
5136:
5132:
5119:
5110:
5095:
5089:
5081:
5073:
5065:
5057:
5049:
5041:
5033:
5025:
5013:. Retrieved
5004:The Guardian
5002:
4947:
4943:
4933:
4924:
4910:
4886:
4858:
4848:
4792:
4789:Ridley Scott
4778:
4755:
4745:
4739:
4714:
4703:ad infinitum
4701:
4688:
4675:
4671:
4663:
4643:
4637:
4613:
4591:
4571:prophylactic
4568:
4553:horticulture
4542:
4530:
4507:
4477:
4443:
4429:
4399:
4393:
4383:
4376:parasitology
4373:
4370:Parasitology
4364:Parasitology
4336:
4318:
4312:
4301:
4289:
4285:
4265:
4261:
4251:
4248:Early modern
4239:
4224:
4222:
4211:
4209:
4203:
4181:
4175:
4168:Aristophanes
4160:bladder worm
4134:
4102:
4064:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4038:
4002:
3983:
3976:
3961:
3953:
3952:, the louse
3950:ectoparasite
3913:caterpillars
3910:lepidopteran
3895:
3886:tineid moths
3875:
3873:
3790:
3761:testosterone
3730:
3726:
3717:mitochondria
3710:
3684:
3671:
3657:
3652:
3634:
3620:
3619:, the fluke
3605:
3575:
3559:
3530:
3518:
3510:cospeciation
3507:
3504:Cospeciation
3498:caterpillars
3494:bacteriocins
3483:
3479:Photorhabdus
3477:
3475:
3450:cospeciation
3432:
3408:
3399:
3392:
3373:commensalism
3370:
3362:
3334:
3326:
3281:
3275:
3269:
3259:
3240:
3226:
3220:
3159:
3136:
3104:
3086:
3072:
3062:
3055:Lyme disease
3048:
3030:
3024:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2988:
2969:
2966:Lyme disease
2959:
2939:
2927:
2918:
2910:
2903:
2876:
2843:
2838:
2812:
2796:
2790:
2784:
2782:
2714:holoparasite
2705:
2702:hemiparasite
2699:
2690:holoparasite
2683:
2643:
2009:Polypodiozoa
1891:
1873:
1852:
1755:
1743:
1733:
1729:
1723:
1707:
1701:
1673:
1667:
1616:
1598:
1594:Emery's rule
1589:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1561:
1543:
1540:Emery's rule
1511:
1493:
1482:
1468:
1446:
1422:
1405:
1396:
1377:
1374:(a nematode)
1368:
1359:
1347:
1340:
1318:
1305:
1277:
1266:
1248:vampire bats
1240:tsetse flies
1228:branchiurans
1220:hematophagic
1216:
1198:
1122:ecdysteroids
1103:
1088:
1084:phorid flies
1066:
1044:
1038:
1031:anaplasmosis
1023:Lyme disease
1016:
1013:hematophagic
991:
985:among human
980:
952:
921:
914:pentastomids
902:schistosomes
896:
888:
876:
857:
830:
820:
804:
794:
784:
773:
747:
735:
723:
709:
700:
688:
676:
662:
635:
616:
585:
573:
565:caterpillars
553:Plant-eating
545:
512:
508:E. O. Wilson
488:commensalism
477:
458:
439:
436:Parasitology
426:
421:
417:
414:
410:
407:
406:in turn from
404:
400:
397:
370:
368:
352:
349:Ridley Scott
338:
315:parasitology
296:
289:early modern
266:
250:transmission
239:
228:
198:
192:parasitism,
175:
155:honey fungus
147:vampire bats
115:E. O. Wilson
94:
93:
88:Lithognathus
86:
80:
68:
46:
37:This is the
31:
11682:Planktivore
11667:Detritivore
11662:Coprophagia
11652:Bacterivore
11647:Microbivory
11631:Myzocytosis
11590:Nectarivore
11580:Graminivore
11427:Lepidophagy
11422:Insectivore
11417:Hematophagy
11258:Synnecrosis
11238:Inquilinism
11228:Competition
11158:Unkenreflex
11119:Aposematism
10559:Poulin 2007
10487:: 645–669.
10433:11 February
9742:Poulin 2007
8596:15 November
7598:(1): 1–16.
7248:BMC Ecology
7173:Poulin 2007
6893:: 481–508.
6268:(1): 9283.
6215:: 235–245.
6092:12 February
5802:Poulin 2007
5472:(Lamnidae)"
5253:25 February
4891:Poulin 2007
4748:Bram Stoker
4628:exoskeleton
4622:compares a
4618:cartoon by
4549:agriculture
4454:David Bruce
4436:Ronald Ross
4420:that cause
4404:, in 1875.
4390:James Paget
4353:Nobel Prize
4349:Ronald Ross
4232: [
4144:threadworms
4140:Guinea worm
3998:Jonah crabs
3986:green crabs
3841:lymphocytes
3771:Vertebrates
3708:myxosporean
3485:Xenorhabdus
3470:host switch
3317:Coevolution
3277:Trichomonas
3228:Trichomonas
3173:DNA viruses
2998:Trypanosoma
2854:mycorrhizal
2780:are known.
2746:chlorophyll
2726:angiosperms
2081:Monogeneans
1915:Class/Order
1678:cuckoo bees
1590:Tetramorium
1568:ant mimicry
1532:Ant mimicry
1362:(grooming)
1184:laying eggs
1095:egg is laid
1068:Parasitoids
1053:Parasitoids
1046:Trypanosoma
982:Trypanosoma
941:Coinfection
898:Trophically
868:monogeneans
866:amphipods;
596:trophically
519:life cycles
515:Taxonomists
484:saprotrophs
401:(parasitos)
382:, from the
331:Bram Stoker
262:saprophytic
209:specialised
11915:Parasitism
11909:Categories
11846:Parasitism
11780:Bait balls
11770:Ram feeder
11702:Plastivore
11697:Lithotroph
11687:Saprophagy
11610:Osteophagy
11600:Palynivore
11557:Herbivores
11488:Paedophagy
11462:Spongivore
11452:Ophiophagy
11392:Carnivores
11339:Mycorrhiza
11318:Intraguild
11298:Parasitoid
11263:Parasitism
11253:Neutralism
11218:Amensalism
11148:Camouflage
10947:Free Press
10399:(3): 158.
9990:BioScience
9052:(2): 181.
8217:(1): 239.
7651:12 October
7197:: 101026.
6792:: 352–362.
6765:29 October
6746:: 352–362.
6599:: 237–268.
6099:predation.
4878:References
4774:Laura Otis
4624:crinoletta
4559:Resistance
4547:agents in
4537:greenhouse
4460:vector of
4458:tsetse fly
4431:Plasmodium
4428:parasite,
4380:amoebiasis
4331:described
4298:ascariasis
4150:describes
3990:trematodes
3968:ecologists
3817:cell walls
3805:trematodes
3797:Human skin
3681:Trait loss
3590:allopatric
3419:eukaryotes
3397:bacteria.
3385:autoimmune
3292:pterosaurs
3101:bronchitis
2992:Plasmodium
2929:Armillaria
2904:Parasitic
2883:saprophyte
2648:including
2608:Arthropods
2573:Arthropods
2543:True flies
2538:Arthropods
2503:Arthropods
2468:Arthropods
2431:Arthropods
2392:Arthropods
2357:Arthropods
2327:Gastropods
2044:Trematodes
1849:anglerfish
1829:great skua
1789:large blue
1706:, such as
1704:anglerfish
1558:bumblebees
1536:Cuckoo bee
1514:, does to
1504:CHV1 virus
1465:Variations
1424:Plasmodium
1386:fecal–oral
1356:fecal–oral
1313:monogenean
1263:Life cycle
1211:Mosquitoes
1180:Phorid fly
1165:ovipositor
1157:Koinobiont
1136:Idiobiont
1105:Koinobiont
1059:Parasitoid
1040:Plasmodium
1027:babesiosis
949:life cycle
923:Toxoplasma
918:roundworms
827:sporocysts
737:Parasitoid
588:strategies
434:See also:
422:parasitism
347:parasite.
321:effect in
269:roundworms
230:Plasmodium
219:hosts and
217:vertebrate
178:strategies
171:broomrapes
169:, and the
143:mosquitoes
119:protozoans
95:Parasitism
11851:Scavenger
11723:Predation
11692:Xenophagy
11672:Geophagia
11657:Fungivore
11605:Xylophagy
11595:Mellivory
11575:Frugivore
11570:Florivore
11467:Vermivore
11457:Piscivore
11442:Mucophagy
11432:Man-eater
11326:Symbiosis
11311:Carnivore
11305:Predation
11248:Mutualism
10830:IndieWire
9648:CiteSeerX
9569:Oecologia
9279:(7): 62.
9074:202579182
9066:0161-8202
8580:(1): 58.
7700:2045-2322
7628:251474576
7612:0273-2289
7423:. Brill.
7385:0012-1606
7278:1472-6785
7254:(1): 21.
7229:257756440
7077:6 January
6825:0024-4066
6681:CiteSeerX
6370:Maculinea
5950:9 October
5523:Oecologia
5169:133349792
5153:0003-0147
5030:παράσιτος
4799:Xenomorph
4740:Parasites
4678:satirical
4644:parasitus
4588:virulence
4512:malaria.
4445:Anopheles
4313:In 1681,
4067:food webs
3904:(JA) and
3864:Leaf spot
3823:with its
3653:T. gondii
3627:killifish
3578:sympatric
3533:flamingos
3454:flamingos
3394:Wolbachia
3377:mutualism
3364:Wolbachia
3311:phytosaur
3307:coprolite
3300:protozoan
3266:mandibles
3244:food webs
3097:influenza
3027:pathogens
3004:Entamoeba
2839:Orobanche
2823:chickpeas
2814:Orobanche
2758:chemicals
2734:haustoria
2710:mistletoe
2379:1 or more
2236:2 or more
2202:1 or more
2182:Nematodes
2168:1 or more
2134:2 or more
2112:Flatworms
2076:Flatworms
2061:2 or more
2039:Flatworms
1990:2 or more
1944:def. host
1937:def. host
1793:ant mimic
1448:Anopheles
1432:parasite)
1411:(tuatara)
1398:Amblyomma
1336:Nematodes
1236:dipterans
1188:honey-bee
1142:Pimplinae
1090:Idiobiont
1080:dipterans
1074:or other
1009:pathogens
818:trematode
805:Sacculina
796:Sacculina
712:reproduce
710:Unable to
665:reproduce
612:converged
590:, namely
536:helminths
504:Predation
492:mutualism
480:symbiosis
399:παράσιτος
389:parasitus
384:Latinised
365:Etymology
319:satirical
313:. Modern
295:observed
273:tapeworms
258:mutualism
246:pathology
221:tapeworms
213:reproduce
205:predators
163:mistletoe
135:hookworms
18:Parasites
11802:Browsing
11677:Omnivore
11619:Cellular
11565:Folivore
11066:examples
10939:(2001).
10913:(1998).
10887:(2005).
10850:(2007).
10721:35538778
10697:(1974).
10665:(1733).
10543:Archived
10519:Archived
10501:15012401
10413:16562450
10373:13 April
10348:11 April
10297:11625103
10215:15145374
10162:16228008
10154:10780537
10112:23776405
10061:18462196
9964:16713014
9894:Archived
9856:27434418
9800:26030816
9760:PLOS ONE
9726:10517823
9674:Archived
9670:10666361
9605:25912204
9597:28547690
9547:85266542
9508:21237766
9407:20495380
9347:36132488
9305:19664200
9212:32094163
9146:15275316
9027:11007336
8971:Archived
8914:Archived
8902:10864323
8849:17148381
8792:15772660
8712:20667874
8622:(1995).
8524:15255095
8467:17619029
8411:37556448
8402:10411797
8371:PLOS ONE
8302:19789646
8262:PLOS ONE
8243:23092160
8187:18695218
8122:Archived
8110:15886693
8068:19158076
8017:15936660
7979:16984643
7895:17215830
7846:23297259
7797:15567583
7758:28741610
7718:29222513
7620:35951248
7573:85142620
7565:33874520
7530:20153240
7465:10 April
7456:Archived
7447:(2002).
7401:49394142
7393:29935146
7296:30001194
7221:36966863
7129:Archived
7026:53155057
6948:23485877
6872:86176932
6864:32079372
6703:12921696
6669:Melipona
6654:26784356
6574:73607283
6522:24768783
6406:20585513
6350:35487084
6342:13429025
6300:28839251
6239:24533342
6209:Wildlife
6187:28289253
6088:(10): 36
6063:21345732
6011:11450660
5927:Archived
5915:11442193
5850:25035598
5731:24229807
5650:92178009
5630:Castanea
5608:26394099
5551:28309807
5504:37865366
5427:21295676
5366:11 April
5296:10589879
5225:37458178
5216:10478066
5173:Archived
5161:31251653
5078:σιτισμός
5009:Archived
4982:21199247
4909:(2014).
4813:See also
4750:'s 1897
4218:Avicenna
4190:Medieval
4152:hookworm
3979:food web
3925:terpenes
3843:such as
3813:lysozyme
3779:The dry
3753:peacocks
3435:virulent
3407:'s 1902
3389:nematode
3296:nematode
3199:such as
3111:syphilis
3050:Borrelia
3015:Bacteria
2979:Protozoa
2827:tomatoes
2774:families
2716:such as
2708:such as
2692:, on an
2654:cestodes
2646:helminth
2436:Copepods
2322:Molluscs
2292:Bivalves
2287:Molluscs
2251:Annelids
2117:Cestodes
2004:Cnidaria
1968:Cnidaria
1851:species
1730:adelphós
1623:cowbirds
1554:termites
1546:eusocial
1500:medicine
1489:oak gall
1402:(a tick)
1291:Parasite
1244:lampreys
1232:gnathiid
1161:braconid
1114:pupating
1082:such as
1035:malarial
1001:bacteria
997:protozoa
906:cestodes
860:copepods
852:obligate
825:, whose
791:barnacle
678:Pathogen
532:copepods
379:parasite
371:parasite
333:'s 1897
159:ringworm
153:such as
101:between
43:reviewed
11925:Ecology
11817:Grazing
11716:Methods
11503:Weaning
11483:Oophagy
11407:Avivore
11243:Mimicry
11207:ecology
11153:Mimicry
11143:Crypsis
11097:Signals
10841:Sources
10712:9091844
10619:useful.
10464:25 July
10103:3678997
10052:2408649
10031:Bibcode
9847:4982183
9791:4451766
9768:Bibcode
9717:1539229
9640:Bibcode
9577:Bibcode
9469:2185476
9437:Bibcode
9398:3115164
9377:Bibcode
9296:2736671
9273:J. Biol
9203:7071853
9180:Bibcode
9018:1690701
8967:2265536
8947:Bibcode
8939:Ecology
8910:4387547
8882:Bibcode
8840:1618896
8800:4326578
8772:Bibcode
8703:2992712
8586:1759475
8515:1691666
8379:Bibcode
8293:2748709
8270:Bibcode
8234:3523981
8178:2556407
8155:Bibcode
8118:8059643
8059:2675988
7970:1594570
7903:9273396
7873:Bibcode
7837:3553666
7709:5722813
7680:Bibcode
7287:6042248
7256:Bibcode
7199:Bibcode
7113:Bibcode
6939:3645041
6723:4 April
6645:5029149
6624:Bibcode
6552:Bibcode
6502:Bibcode
6432:338–369
6397:2889977
6291:5570919
6270:Bibcode
6230:3862525
6178:5352812
6054:3087881
5972:18 July
5841:4087306
5722:4413784
5586:Bibcode
5559:6182657
5531:Bibcode
5484:Bibcode
5447:8 April
4973:3032891
4952:Bibcode
4757:Dracula
4720:Fiction
4680:cleric
4654:Society
4646:was an
4638:In the
4573:use of
4468:Vaccine
4426:malaria
4374:Modern
4333:scabies
4252:In the
4210:In his
4125:Ancient
4120:History
3855:Insects
3849:B cells
3845:T cells
3821:stomach
3692:batbugs
3688:bedbugs
3645:mammals
3423:archaea
3201:enzymes
3189:protein
3165:archaea
3161:Viruses
3146:Viruses
3083:poultry
3037:anthrax
2942:mycosis
2835:cabbage
2831:carrots
2809:sorghum
2770:species
2685:Cuscuta
2662:classes
2256:Leeches
1973:Myxozoa
1960:Terres-
1920:species
1896:Animals
1813:cowbird
1740:haploid
1726:ἀδελφός
1674:kleptēs
1639:species
1631:cuckoos
1627:whydahs
1440:mammals
1430:malaria
1324:(guppy)
1224:leeches
1005:viruses
916:, many
663:Able to
647:fitness
619:fitness
500:disease
496:vectors
469:suckers
418:(sitos)
340:Dracula
291:times,
254:species
242:fitness
123:malaria
111:adapted
103:species
11822:Forage
11812:Fodder
11640:Others
10953:
10925:
10899:
10866:
10744:
10719:
10709:
10644:
10610:
10581:
10525:6 June
10499:
10411:
10324:
10295:
10241:
10213:
10160:
10152:
10110:
10100:
10059:
10049:
9962:
9918:
9854:
9844:
9798:
9788:
9724:
9714:
9668:
9650:
9603:
9595:
9545:
9506:
9467:
9457:
9405:
9395:
9345:
9303:
9293:
9210:
9200:
9144:
9097:
9072:
9064:
9025:
9015:
8965:
8908:
8900:
8874:Nature
8847:
8837:
8798:
8790:
8764:Nature
8741:
8710:
8700:
8659:
8632:
8584:
8549:
8522:
8512:
8465:
8409:
8399:
8300:
8290:
8241:
8231:
8185:
8175:
8116:
8108:
8066:
8056:
8015:
7977:
7967:
7953:: 29.
7924:
7901:
7893:
7865:Nature
7844:
7834:
7795:
7756:
7716:
7706:
7698:
7626:
7618:
7610:
7571:
7563:
7528:
7427:
7399:
7391:
7383:
7346:
7319:
7294:
7284:
7276:
7227:
7219:
7153:
7024:
6946:
6936:
6870:
6862:
6823:
6701:
6683:
6652:
6642:
6572:
6520:
6472:
6438:
6404:
6394:
6348:
6340:
6298:
6288:
6237:
6227:
6185:
6175:
6134:
6061:
6051:
6009:
5968:. PEOI
5923:150432
5921:
5913:
5873:
5848:
5838:
5729:
5719:
5648:
5606:
5557:
5549:
5502:
5425:
5415:
5323:
5294:
5223:
5213:
5167:
5159:
5151:
5103:
5015:29 May
4980:
4970:
4917:
4868:cougar
4760:, and
4754:novel
4276:, and
3921:cotton
3892:Plants
3809:saliva
3631:egrets
3545:grebes
3537:storks
3490:toxins
3466:grebes
3344:cancer
3115:spread
3064:Ixodes
3045:spores
3043:; its
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