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on. This is strikingly proved by the case of particular species; for we find that their abundance in individuals bears no relation whatever to their fertility in producing offspring. Perhaps the most remarkable instance of an immense bird population is that of the passenger pigeon of the United States, which lays only one, or at most two eggs, and is said to rear generally but one young one. Why is this bird so extraordinarily abundant, while others producing two or three times as many young are much less plentiful? The explanation is not difficult. The food most congenial to this species, and on which it thrives best, is abundantly distributed over a very extensive region, offering such differences of soil and climate, that in one part or another of the area the supply never fails. The bird is capable of a very rapid and long-continued flight, so that it can pass without fatigue over the whole of the district it inhabits, and as soon as the supply of food begins to fail in one place is able to discover a fresh feeding-ground. This example strikingly shows us that the procuring a constant supply of wholesome food is almost the sole condition requisite for ensuring the rapid increase of a given species, since neither the limited fecundity, nor the unrestrained attacks of birds of prey and of man are here sufficient to check it. In no other birds are these peculiar circumstances so strikingly combined. Either their food is more liable to failure, or they have not sufficient power of wing to search for it over an extensive area, or during some season of the year it becomes very scarce, and less wholesome substitutes have to be found; and thus, though more fertile in offspring, they can never increase beyond the supply of food in the least favourable seasons.
1571:, based on observation of C. O. Whitman's captive passenger pigeons in 1903. Craig compiled these records to assist in identifying potential survivors in the wild (as the physically similar mourning doves could otherwise be mistaken for passenger pigeons), while noting this "meager information" was likely all that would be left on the subject. According to Craig, one call was a simple harsh "keck" that could be given twice in succession with a pause in between. This was said to be used to attract the attention of another pigeon. Another call was a more frequent and variable scolding. This sound was described as "kee-kee-kee-kee" or "tete! tete! tete!", and was used to call either to its mate or towards other creatures it considered to be enemies. One variant of this call, described as a long, drawn-out "tweet", could be used to call down a flock of passenger pigeons passing overhead, which would then land in a nearby tree. "Keeho" was a soft cooing that, while followed by louder "keck" notes or scolding, was directed at the bird's mate. A nesting passenger pigeon would also give off a stream of at least eight mixed notes that were both high and low in tone and ended with "keeho". Overall, female passenger pigeons were quieter and called infrequently. Craig suggested that the loud, strident voice and "degenerated" musicality was the result of living in populous colonies where only the loudest sounds could be heard.
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them to the female over her back. The male then went in search of more nesting material while the female constructed the nest beneath herself. Nests were built between 2.0 and 20.1 m (6.6 and 65.9 ft) above the ground, though typically above 4.0 m (13.1 ft), and were made of 70 to 110 twigs woven together to create a loose, shallow bowl through which the egg could easily be seen. This bowl was then typically lined with finer twigs. The nests were about 150 mm (5.9 in) wide, 61 mm (2.4 in) high, and 19 mm (0.75 in) deep. Though the nest has been described as crude and flimsy compared to those of many other birds, remains of nests could be found at sites where nesting had taken place several years prior. Nearly every tree capable of supporting nests had them, often more than 50 per tree; one hemlock was recorded as holding 317 nests. The nests were placed on strong branches close to the tree trunks. Some accounts state that ground under the nesting area looked as if it had been swept clean, due to all the twigs being collected at the same time, yet this area would also have been covered in dung. As both sexes took care of the nest, the pairs were
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foods easier to find, once they had fallen from the trees. Some have argued that such Native
American land-use practices increased the populations of various animal species, including the passenger pigeon, by increasing the food available to them, while elsewhere it has been claimed that, by hunting passenger pigeons and competing with them for some kinds of nuts and acorns, Native Americans suppressed their population size. Genetic research may shed some light on this question. A 2017 study of passenger-pigeon DNA found that the passenger-pigeon population size was stable for 20,000 years prior to its 19th-century decline and subsequent extinction, while a 2016 study of ancient Native American DNA found that the Native American population went through a period of rapid expansion, increasing 60-fold, starting about 13β16 thousand years ago. If both of these studies are correct, then a great change in the size of the Native American population had no apparent impact on the size of the passenger-pigeon population. This suggests that the net effect of Native American activities on passenger-pigeon population size was neutral.
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had been made in twenty-one minutes. I traveled on, and still met more the farther I proceeded. The air was literally filled with
Pigeons; the light of noon-day was obscured as by an eclipse; the dung fell in spots, not unlike melting flakes of snow, and the continued buzz of wings had a tendency to lull my senses to repose ... I cannot describe to you the extreme beauty of their aerial evolutions, when a hawk chanced to press upon the rear of the flock. At once, like a torrent, and with a noise like thunder, they rushed into a compact mass, pressing upon each other towards the center. In these almost solid masses, they darted forward in undulating and angular lines, descended and swept close over the earth with inconceivable velocity, mounted perpendicularly so as to resemble a vast column, and, when high, were seen wheeling and twisting within their continued lines, which then resembled the coils of a gigantic serpent ... Before sunset I reached Louisville, distant from Hardensburgh fifty-five miles. The Pigeons were still passing in undiminished numbers and continued to do so for three days in succession.
2697:, is estimated to have shipped 1.8 million pigeons to larger cities in 1851 alone at a price of 31 to 56 cents a dozen. By the late 19th century, the trade of passenger pigeons had become commercialized. Large commission houses employed trappers (known as "pigeoners") to follow the flocks of pigeons year-round. A single hunter is reported to have sent three million birds to eastern cities during his career. In 1874, at least 600 people were employed as pigeon trappers, a number which grew to 1,200 by 1881. Pigeons were caught in such numbers that by 1876, shipments of dead pigeons were unable to recoup the costs of the barrels and ice needed to ship them. The price of a barrel full of pigeons dropped to below fifty cents, due to overstocked markets. Passenger pigeons were instead kept alive so their meat would be fresh when killed, and sold once their market value had increased. Thousands of birds were kept in large pens, though the bad conditions led many to die from lack of food and water, and by fretting (gnawing) themselves; many rotted away before they could be sold.
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also frequently used as bait, and many trappers set up near salt springs. At least one trapper used alcohol-soaked grain as bait to intoxicate the birds and make them easier to kill. Another method of capture was to hunt at a nesting colony, particularly during the period of a few days after the adult pigeons abandoned their nestlings, but before the nestlings could fly. Some hunters used sticks to poke the nestlings out of the nest, while others shot the bottom of a nest with a blunt arrow to dislodge the pigeon. Others cut down a nesting tree in such a way that when it fell, it would also hit a second nesting tree and dislodge the pigeons within. In one case, 6 km (1,500 acres) of large trees were speedily cut down to get birds, and such methods were common. A severe method was to set fire to the base of a tree nested with pigeons; the adults would flee and the juveniles would fall to the ground.
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as the birds were badly treated before and after such contests. Conservationists were ineffective in stopping the slaughter. A bill was passed in the
Michigan legislature making it illegal to net pigeons within 3 km (1.9 mi) of a nesting area. In 1897, a bill was introduced in the Michigan legislature asking for a 10-year closed season on passenger pigeons. Similar legal measures were passed and then disregarded in Pennsylvania. The gestures proved futile, and by the mid-1890s, the passenger pigeon had almost completely disappeared, and was probably extinct as a breeding bird in the wild. Small flocks are known to have existed at this point, since large numbers of birds were still being sold at markets. Thereafter, only small groups or individual birds were reported, many of which were shot on sight.
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flight during migration or immediately after, when they commonly perched in dead, exposed trees. Hunters only had to shoot toward the sky without aiming, and many pigeons would be brought down. The pigeons proved difficult to shoot head-on, so hunters typically waited for the flocks to pass overhead before shooting them. Trenches were sometimes dug and filled with grain so that a hunter could shoot the pigeons along this trench. Hunters largely outnumbered trappers, and hunting passenger pigeons was a popular sport for young boys. In 1871, a single seller of ammunition provided three tons of powder and 16 tons (32,000 lb) of shot during a nesting. In the latter half of the 19th century, thousands of passenger pigeons were captured for use in the
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2890:. It is unclear exactly where, when, and by whom these photos were taken, but some appear to have been taken in Chicago in 1896, others in Massachusetts in 1898, the latter by a J. G. Hubbard. By 1902, Whitman owned sixteen birds. Many eggs were laid by his pigeons, but few hatched, and many hatchlings died. A newspaper inquiry was published that requested "fresh blood" to the flock which had now ceased breeding. By 1907, he was down to two female passenger pigeons that died that winter, and was left with two infertile male hybrids, whose subsequent fate is unknown. By this time, only four (all males) of the birds Whitman returned to Whittaker were alive, and these died between November 1908 and February 1909.
2938:, and offers of a $ 1,000 reward for finding a mate for her brought even more visitors to see her. During her last four years in solitude (her cage was 5.4 by 6 m (18 by 20 ft)), Martha became steadily slower and more immobile; visitors would throw sand at her to make her move, and her cage was roped off in response. Martha died of old age on September 1, 1914, and was found lifeless on the floor of her cage. It was claimed that she died at 1 p.m., but other sources suggest she died some hours later. Depending on the source, Martha was between 17 and 29 years old at the time of her death, although 29 is the generally accepted figure. At the time, it was suggested that Martha might have died from an
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narrow columns that twisted and undulated, and they were reported as being in nearly every conceivable shape. A skilled flyer, the passenger pigeon is estimated to have averaged 100 km/h (62 mph) during migration. It flew with quick, repeated flaps that increased the bird's velocity the closer the wings got to the body. It was equally adept and quick flying through a forest as through open space. A flock was also adept at following the lead of the pigeon in front of it, and flocks swerved together to avoid a predator. When landing, the pigeon flapped its wings repeatedly before raising them at the moment of landing. The pigeon was awkward when on the ground, and moved around with jerky, alert steps.
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closer look at a native species. Recognizing the decline of the wild populations, Whitman and the
Cincinnati Zoo consistently strove to breed the surviving birds, including attempts at making a rock dove foster passenger pigeon eggs. In 1902, Whitman gave a female passenger pigeon to the zoo; this was possibly the individual later known as Martha, which would become the last living member of the species. Other sources argue that Martha was hatched at the Cincinnati Zoo, lived there for 25 years, and was the descendant of three pairs of passenger pigeons purchased by the zoo in 1877. It is thought this individual was named Martha because her last cage mate was named George, thereby honoring
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2343:) was known as the "great pigeon hawk" due to its successes, and these hawks allegedly followed migrating passenger pigeons. While many predators were drawn to the flocks, individual pigeons were largely protected due to the sheer size of the flock, and overall little damage could be inflicted on the flock by predation. Despite the number of predators, nesting colonies were so large that they were estimated to have a 90% success rate if not disturbed. After being abandoned and leaving the nest, the very fat juveniles were vulnerable to predators until they were able to fly. The sheer number of juveniles on the ground meant that only a small percentage of them were killed;
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others gradually diminishing In power. The male assumes a pompous demeanor, and follows the female, whether on the ground or on the branches, with spread tail and drooping wings, which it rubs against the part over which it is moving. The body is elevated, the throat swells, the eyes sparkle. He continues his notes, and now and then rises on the wing, and flies a few yards to approach the fugitive and timorous female. Like the domestic Pigeon and other species, they caress each other by billing, in which action, the bill of the one is introduced transversely into that of the other, and both parties alternately disgorge the contents of their crop by repeated efforts.
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the back of the flock flew to the front in order to pick over unsearched ground; however, birds never ventured far from the flock and hurried back if they became isolated. It is believed that the pigeons used social cues to identify abundant sources of food, and a flock of pigeons that saw others feeding on the ground often joined them. During the day, the birds left the roosting forest to forage on more open land. They regularly flew 100 to 130 km (62 to 81 mi) away from their roost daily in search of food, and some pigeons reportedly traveled as far as 160 km (99 mi), leaving the roosting area early and returning at night.
1744:(which itself fluctuates). The study suggested the bird was not always abundant, mainly persisting at around 1/10,000 the amount of the several billions estimated in the 1800s, with vastly larger numbers present during outbreak phases. Some early accounts also suggest that the appearance of flocks in great numbers was an irregular occurrence. These large fluctuations in population may have been the result of a disrupted ecosystem and have consisted of outbreak populations much larger than those common in pre-European times. The authors of the 2014 genetic study note that a similar analysis of the human population size arrives at an "
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2071:, which could expand to about the size of an orange, causing the neck to bulge and allowing a bird quickly to grab any food it discovered. The crop was described as being capable of holding at least 17 acorns or 28 beechnuts, 11 grains of corn, 100 maple seeds, plus other material; it was estimated that a passenger pigeon needed to eat about 61 cm (3.7 in) of food a day to survive. If shot, a pigeon with a crop full of nuts would fall to the ground with a sound described as like the rattle of a bag of marbles. After feeding, the pigeons perched on branches and digested the food stored in their crop overnight.
2462:. Most early accounts dwell on the vast number of pigeons, the resulting darkened skies, and the enormous amount of hunted birds (50,000 birds were reportedly sold at a Boston market in 1771). The early colonists thought that large flights of pigeons would be followed by ill fortune or sickness. When the pigeons wintered outside of their normal range, some believed that they would have "a sickly summer and autumn." In the 18th and 19th centuries, various parts of the pigeon were thought to have medicinal properties. The blood was supposed to be good for eye disorders, the powdered stomach lining was used to treat
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data was recorded, it is not possible to give more than estimates on the size and population of these nesting areas, but most accounts mention colonies containing millions of birds. The largest nesting area ever recorded was in central
Wisconsin in 1871; it was reported as covering 2,200 km (850 sq mi), with the number of birds nesting there estimated to be around 136,000,000. As well as these "cities", there were regular reports of much smaller flocks or even individual pairs setting up a nesting site. The birds do not seem to have formed as vast breeding colonies at the periphery of their range.
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in size and extent, from a few acres to 260 km (100 sq mi) or greater. Some roosting areas would be reused for subsequent years, others would only be used once. The passenger pigeon roosted in such numbers that even thick tree branches would break under the strain. The birds frequently piled on top of each other's backs to roost. They rested in a slumped position that hid their feet. They slept with their bills concealed by the feathers in the middle of the breast while holding their tail at a 45-degree angle. Dung could accumulate under a roosting site to a depth of over 0.3 m (1.0 ft).
2886:, whose collection began with passenger pigeons bought from Whittaker beginning in 1896. He had an interest in studying pigeons, and kept his passenger pigeons with other pigeon species. Whitman brought his pigeons with him from Chicago to Massachusetts by railcar each summer. By 1897, Whitman had bought all of Whittaker's birds, and upon reaching a maximum of 19 individuals, he gave seven back to Whittaker in 1898. Around this time, a series of photographs were taken of these birds; 24 of the photos survive. Some of these images have been reproduced in various media, copies of which are now kept at the
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2879:. Being common birds, these attracted little interest, until the species became rare in the 1890s. By the turn of the 20th century, the last known captive passenger pigeons were divided in three groups; one in Milwaukee, one in Chicago, and one in Cincinnati. There are claims of a few further individuals having been kept in various places, but these accounts are not considered reliable today. The Milwaukee group was kept by David Whittaker, who began his collection in 1888, and possessed fifteen birds some years later, all descended from a single pair.
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1810:, reduced their genetic diversity, but not if population instability did. The study concluded that earlier suggestion that population instability contributed to the extinction of the species was invalid. Evolutionary biologist A. Townsend Peterson said of the two passenger-pigeon genetic studies (published in 2014 and 2017) that, though the idea of extreme fluctuations in the passenger-pigeon population was "deeply entrenched," he was persuaded by the 2017 study's argument, due to its "in-depth analysis" and "massive data resources."
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the male except that the outer edges of the primary feathers were edged in buff or rufous buff. The wings had more spotting than those of the male. The tail was shorter than that of the male, and the legs and feet were a paler red. The iris was orange red, with a grayish blue, naked orbital ring. The wing of the female was 180 to 210 mm (7.1 to 8.3 in), the tail 150 to 200 mm (5.9 to 7.9 in), the bill 15 to 18 mm (0.59 to 0.71 in), and the tarsus was 25 to 28 mm (0.98 to 1.10 in).
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have been a single egg, but there is some uncertainty about this, as two have also been reported from the same nests. Occasionally, a second female laid its egg in another female's nest, resulting in two eggs being present. The egg was white and oval shaped and averaged 40 by 34 mm (1.6 by 1.3 in) in size. If the egg was lost, it was possible for the pigeon to lay a replacement egg within a week. A whole colony was known to re-nest after a snowstorm forced them to abandon their original colony. The egg was
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that some portion of their seeds would be too large for passenger pigeons to swallow (thus allowing some of their seeds to escape predation and grow new trees). White oak, in contrast, with its seeds sized consistently in the edible range, evolved an irregular masting pattern that took place in the fall, when fewer passenger pigeons would have been present. The study further concluded that this allowed white oaks to be the dominant tree species in regions where passenger pigeons were commonly present in the spring.
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2615:). The passenger pigeon was of particular value on the frontier, and some settlements counted on its meat to support their population. The flavor of the flesh of passenger pigeons varied depending on how they were prepared. In general, juveniles were thought to taste the best, followed by birds fattened in captivity and birds caught in September and October. It was common practice to fatten trapped pigeons before eating them or storing their bodies for winter. Dead pigeons were commonly stored by
2501:, published between 1827 and 1838. Audubon's image has been praised for its artistic qualities, but criticized for its supposed scientific inaccuracies. As Wallace Craig and R. W. Shufeldt (among others) pointed out, the birds are shown perched and billing one above the other, whereas they would instead have done this side by side, the male would be the one passing food to the female, and the male's tail would not be spread. Craig and Shufeldt instead cited illustrations by American artist
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2087:. Specifically, the study found that between 13% and 69% of red oak seeds were too large for passenger pigeons to have swallowed, that only a "small proportion" of the seeds of black oaks and American chestnuts were too large for the birds to consume, and that all white oak seeds were sized within an edible range. They also found that seeds would be completely destroyed during digestion, which therefore hindered dispersal of seeds this way. Instead, passenger pigeons may have spread seeds by
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2205:. The nestling begged in the nest for a day or two, before climbing from the nest and fluttering to the ground, whereafter it moved around, avoided obstacles, and begged for food from nearby adults. It was another three or four days before it fledged. The entire nesting cycle lasted about 30 days. It is unknown whether colonies re-nested after a successful nesting. The passenger pigeon sexually matured during its first year and bred the following spring.
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1606:. Within this range, it constantly migrated in search of food and shelter. It is unclear if the birds favored particular trees and terrain, but they were possibly not restricted to one type, as long as their numbers could be supported. It originally bred from the southern parts of eastern and central Canada south to eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Georgia in the United States, but the primary breeding range was in southern Ontario and the
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3033:) during the same period. It has also been suggested that after the population was thinned out, it would be harder for few or solitary birds to locate suitable feeding areas. In addition to the birds killed or driven away by hunting during breeding seasons, many nestlings were also orphaned before being able to fend for themselves. Other, less convincing contributing factors have been suggested at times, including mass drownings,
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2772:, in 1878 (following one in Pennsylvania a few days earlier), where 50,000 birds were killed each day for nearly five months. The surviving adults attempted a second nesting at new sites, but were killed by professional hunters before they had a chance to raise any young. Scattered nestings were reported into the 1880s, but the birds were now wary, and commonly abandoned their nests if persecuted.
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1465:). The wings were very long and pointed, and measured 220 mm (8.7 in) from the wing-chord to the primary feathers, and 120 mm (4.7 in) to the secondaries. The tail, which accounted for much of its overall length, was long and wedge-shaped (or graduated), with two central feathers longer than the rest. The body was slender and narrow, and the head and neck were small.
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disturb the adult pigeons, and instead ate only the juveniles as they were afraid that the adults might desert their nesting grounds; in some tribes, disturbing the adult pigeons was considered a crime. Away from the nests, large nets were used to capture adult pigeons, sometimes up to 800 at a time. Low-flying pigeons could be killed by throwing sticks or stones. At one site in
3118:), which would then be transformed into egg and sperm cells, and placed into the eggs of rock pigeons, resulting in rock pigeons bearing passenger pigeon sperm and eggs. The offspring of these would have passenger pigeon traits, and would be further bred to favor unique features of the extinct species. The idea is currently being pursued by the American non-profit organization
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millions of birds in the 1850s. The population must have been decreasing in numbers for many years, though this went unnoticed due to the apparent vast number of birds, which clouded their decline. In 1856 BΓ©nΓ©dict Henry RΓ©voil may have been one of the first writers to voice concern about the fate of the passenger pigeon, after witnessing a hunt in 1847:
2533:'s 2014 mural in Cincinnati, which commemorates the 100th anniversary of Martha's death. The centennial of its extinction was used by the "Project Passenger Pigeon" outreach group to spread awareness about human-induced extinction, and to recognize its relevance in the 21st century. It has been suggested that the passenger pigeon could be used as a "
1193:, which means "to pass by" in a fleeting manner. While the pigeon was extant, the name "passenger pigeon" was used interchangeably with "wild pigeon". The bird also gained some less-frequently used names, including blue pigeon, merne rouck pigeon, wandering long-tailed dove, and wood pigeon. In the 18th century, the passenger pigeon was known as
2705:, since entire crops could be destroyed by feeding flocks. The bird was described as a "perfect scourge" by some farming communities, and hunters were employed to "wage warfare" on the birds to save grain, as shown in another newspaper illustration from 1867 captioned as "Shooting wild pigeons in Iowa". When comparing these "pests" to the
1429:. It is a washed brown on the upper parts, wing covert, secondary feathers, and tail (where it would otherwise have been gray), and white on the primary feathers and underparts. The normally black spots are brown, and it is pale gray on the head, lower back, and upper-tail covert feathers, yet the iridescence is unaffected. The brown
468:. The pigeon migrated in enormous flocks, constantly searching for food, shelter, and breeding grounds, and was once the most abundant bird in North America, numbering around 3 billion, and possibly up to 5 billion. A very fast flyer, the passenger pigeon could reach a speed of 100 km/h (62 mph). The bird fed mainly on
1349:. The greater and median wing-covert feathers were pale gray, with a small number of irregular black spots near the end. The primary and secondary feathers of the wing were a blackish-brown with a narrow white edge on the outer side of the secondaries. The two central tail feathers were brownish gray, and the rest were white.
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is unlikely that enough birds could be created for revival to be successful, and it is unclear whether there is enough appropriate habitat left for its reintroduction. Furthermore, the parent pigeons that would raise the cloned passenger pigeons would belong to a different species, with a different way of rearing young.
3106:) was the first extinct animal to be cloned back to life; the clone lived for only seven minutes before dying of lung defects. A hindrance to cloning the passenger pigeon is the fact that the DNA of museum specimens has been contaminated and fragmented, due to exposure to heat and oxygen. American geneticist
2643:", the controlled release of birds from special traps. Competitions could also consist of people standing regularly spaced while trying to shoot down as many birds as possible in a passing flock. The pigeon was considered so numerous that 30,000 birds had to be killed to claim the prize in one competition.
1764:" of 13 million birds is still only about 1/300th of the bird's estimated historic population of approximately 3β5 billion before their "19th century decline and eventual extinction." A similar study inferring human population size from genetics (published in 2008, and using human mitochondrial DNA and
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In 1909, Martha and her two male companions at the
Cincinnati Zoo became the only known surviving passenger pigeons. One of these males died around April that year, followed by George, the remaining male, on July 10, 1910. It is unknown whether the remains of George were preserved. Martha soon became
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The
Cincinnati Zoo, one of the oldest zoos in the United States, kept passenger pigeons from its beginning in 1875. The zoo kept more than twenty individuals, in a ten-by-twelve-foot cage. Passenger pigeons do not appear to have been kept at the zoo due to their rarity, but to enable guests to have a
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By the time of these last nestings, laws had already been enacted to protect the passenger pigeon, but these proved ineffective, as they were unclearly framed and hard to enforce. H. B. Roney, who witnessed the
Petoskey slaughter, led campaigns to protect the pigeon, but was met with resistance,
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was alien to the early colonists, because the number of birds did not appear to diminish, and also because the concept of extinction was yet to be defined. The bird seems to have been slowly pushed westward after the arrival of
Europeans, becoming scarce or absent in the east, though there were still
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There were a wide variety of other methods used to capture and kill passenger pigeons. Nets were propped up to allow passenger pigeons entry, then closed by knocking loose the stick that supported the opening, trapping twenty or more pigeons inside. Tunnel nets were also used to great effect, and one
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Generally, the eggs were laid during the first two weeks of April across the pigeon's range. Each female laid its egg immediately or almost immediately after the nest was completed; sometimes the pigeon was forced to lay it on the ground if the nest was not complete. The normal clutch size appears to
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Mast occurs in large quantities in different places at different times, and rarely in consecutive years, which is one of the reasons why the large flocks were constantly on the move. As mast is produced during autumn, there would have to be a large amount of it left by the summer, when the young were
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A study released in 2018 concluded that the "vast numbers" of passenger pigeons present for "tens of thousands of years" would have influenced the evolution of the tree species whose seeds they ate. Those masting trees that produced seeds during the spring nesting season (such as red oaks) evolved so
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The passenger pigeon drank at least once a day, typically at dawn, by fully inserting its bill into lakes, small ponds, and streams. Pigeons were seen perching on top of each other to access water, and if necessary, the species could alight on open water to drink. One of the primary causes of natural
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species, the passenger pigeon chose roosting sites that could provide shelter and enough food to sustain their large numbers for an indefinite period. The time spent at one roosting site may have depended on the extent of human persecution, weather conditions, or other, unknown factors. Roosts ranged
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was described as being 1.5 km (0.93 mi) wide and 500 km (310 mi) long, took 14 hours to pass, and held in excess of 3.5 billion birds. Such a number would likely represent a large fraction of the entire population at the time, or perhaps all of it. Most estimations of numbers were
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The noise produced by flocks of passenger pigeons was described as deafening, audible for miles away, and the bird's voice as loud, harsh, and unmusical. It was also described by some as clucks, twittering, and cooing, and as a series of low notes, instead of an actual song. The birds apparently made
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The general idea of re-creating extinct species has been criticized, since the large funds needed could be spent on conserving currently threatened species and habitats, and because conservation efforts might be viewed as less urgent. In the case of the passenger pigeon, since it was very social, it
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The last recorded nest and egg in the wild were collected in 1895 near
Minneapolis. The last wild individual in Louisiana was discovered among a flock of mourning doves in 1896, and subsequently shot. Many late sightings are thought to be false or due to confusion with mourning doves. The last fully
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seeking protection for the passenger pigeon, yet a Select Committee of the Senate filed a report stating that the bird did not need protection, being "wonderfully prolific", and dismissing the suggestion that the species could be destroyed. Public protests against trap-shooting erupted in the 1870s,
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Everything leads to the belief that the pigeons, which cannot endure isolation and are forced to flee or to change their way of living according to the rate at which North America is populated by the European inflow, will simply end by disappearing from this continent, and, if the world does not end
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It would therefore appear that, as far as the continuance of the species and the keeping up the average number of individuals are concerned, large broods are superfluous. On the average all above one become food for hawks and kites, wild cats and weasels, or perish of cold and hunger as winter comes
2059:
The passenger pigeon foraged in flocks of tens or hundreds of thousands of individuals that overturned leaves, dirt, and snow with their bills in search of food. One observer described the motion of such a flock in search of mast as having a rolling appearance, as birds in the back of the flock flew
1865:
produced acorns during the spring, which were devoured by the pigeons. The absence of the passenger pigeon's seed consumption may have contributed to the modern dominance of red oaks. Due to the immense amount of dung present at roosting sites, few plants grew for years after the pigeons left. Also,
1759:
of 41 individuals. This study found evidence that the passenger-pigeon population had been stable for at least the previous 20,000 years. The study also found that the size of the passenger pigeon population over that time period was larger than the found in the 2014 genetic study. However, the 2017
2663:
or "stool pigeons" (sometimes blinded by having their eyelids sewn together) were tied to a stool. When a flock of pigeons passed by, a cord would be pulled that made the stool pigeon flutter to the ground, making it seem as if it had found food, and the flock would be lured into the trap. Salt was
2150:
After observing captive birds, Wallace Craig found that this species did less charging and strutting than other pigeons (as it was awkward on the ground), and thought it probable that no food was transferred during their brief billing (unlike in other pigeons), and he therefore considered Audubon's
2145:
Thither the countless myriads resort, and prepare to fulfill one of the great laws of nature. At this period the note of the Pigeon is a soft coo-coo-coo-coo much shorter than that of the domestic species. The common notes resemble the monosyllables kee-kee-kee-kee, the first being the loudest, the
2111:
bird to nest and raise its young. It is not certain how many times a year the birds bred; once seems most likely, but some accounts suggest more. The nesting period lasted around four to six weeks. The flock arrived at a nesting ground around March in southern latitudes, and some time later in more
2074:
The pigeon could eat and digest 100 g (3.5 oz) of acorns per day. At the historic population of three billion passenger pigeons, this amounted to 210,000,000 L (55,000,000 US gal) of food a day. The pigeon could regurgitate food from its crop when more desirable food became
1340:
in size and coloration. It weighed between 260 and 340 g (9.2 and 12.0 oz). The adult male was about 390 to 410 mm (15.4 to 16.1 in) in length. It had a bluish-gray head, nape, and hindneck. On the sides of the neck and the upper mantle were iridescent display feathers that have
1148:
DNA in old museum specimens is often degraded and fragmentary, and passenger pigeon specimens have been used in various studies to discover improved methods of analyzing and assembling genomes from such material. DNA samples are often taken from the toe pads of bird skins in museums, as this can be
2858:
claimed to have seen a "flock of about a dozen two or three times on the wing" while on retreat at his cabin in Pine Knot, Virginia, and that they lit on a dead tree "in such a characteristically pigeon-like attitude"; this sighting was corroborated by a local gentleman whom he had "rambled around
2446:
people considered the passenger pigeon to be the bird of the chief, as they were served whenever the chieftain gave a feast. The Seneca people believed that a white pigeon was the chief of the passenger pigeon colony, and that a Council of Birds decided that the pigeons had to give their bodies to
2212:
2165:
Nests were built immediately after pair formation and took two to four days to construct; this process was highly synchronized within a colony. The female chose the nesting site by sitting on it and flicking her wings. The male then carefully selected nesting materials, typically twigs, and handed
2063:
When nuts on a tree loosened from their caps, a pigeon would land on a branch and, while flapping vigorously to stay balanced, grab the nut, pull it loose from its cap, and swallow it whole. Collectively, a foraging flock was capable of removing nearly all fruits and nuts from their path. Birds in
1685:
I dismounted, seated myself on an eminence, and began to mark with my pencil, making a dot for every flock that passed. In a short time finding the task which I had undertaken impracticable, as the birds poured in in countless multitudes, I rose and, counting the dots then put down, found that 163
1390:
than those of the male. The lower throat and breast were a buff-gray that developed into white on the belly and undertail-coverts. It was browner on the upperparts and paler buff brown and less rufous on the underparts than the male. The wings, back, and tail were similar in appearance to those of
2115:
The colonies, which were known as "cities", were immense, ranging from 49 ha (120 acres) to thousands of hectares in size, and were often long and narrow in shape (L-shaped), with a few areas untouched for unknown reasons. Due to the topography, they were rarely continuous. Since no accurate
1711:
believed that it accounted for between 25 and 40 percent of the total land bird population in the United States. The passenger pigeon's historic population is roughly the equivalent of the number of birds that overwinter in the United States every year in the early 21st century. Even within their
2988:
was driven by the need to free land for agriculture and expanding towns, but also due to the demand for lumber and fuel. About 728,000 km (180 million acres) were cleared for farming between 1850 and 1910. Though there are still large woodland areas in eastern North America, which support a
2553:
The passenger pigeon was an important source of food for the people of North America. Native Americans ate pigeons, and tribes near nesting colonies would sometimes move to live closer to them and eat the juveniles, killing them at night with long poles. Many Native Americans were careful not to
2426:
of unwanted trees, and the planting and tending of favored trees suppressed the populations of a number of tree species that did not produce nuts, acorns, or fruit, while increasing the populations of numerous tree species that did. In addition, the burning away of forest-floor litter made these
2119:
Courtship took place at the nesting colony. Unlike other pigeons, courtship took place on a branch or perch. The male, with a flourish of the wings, made a "keck" call while near a female. The male then gripped tightly to the branch and vigorously flapped his wings up and down. When the male was
1841:
If the pigeon became alert, it would often stretch out its head and neck in line with its body and tail, then nod its head in a circular pattern. When aggravated by another pigeon, it raised its wings threateningly, but passenger pigeons almost never actually fought. The pigeon bathed in shallow
1690:
These flocks were frequently described as being so dense that they blackened the sky and as having no sign of subdivisions. The flocks ranged from only 1.0 m (3.3 ft) above the ground in windy conditions to as high as 400 m (1,300 ft). These migrating flocks were typically in
2634:
Passenger pigeons were shot with such ease that many did not consider them to be a game bird, as an amateur hunter could easily bring down six with one shotgun blast; a particularly good shot with both barrels of a shotgun at a roost could kill 61 birds. The birds were frequently shot either in
2485:
The passenger pigeon was featured in the writings of many significant early naturalists, as well as accompanying illustrations. Mark Catesby's 1731 illustration, the first published depiction of this bird, is somewhat crude, according to some later commentators. The original watercolor that the
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into and clasped the male's bill, shook for a second, and separated quickly while standing next to each other. The male then scrambled onto the female's back and copulated, which was then followed by soft clucking and occasionally more preening. John James Audubon described the courtship of the
1886:
over less fire-tolerant species, such as red oaks, thus helping to explain the change in the composition of eastern forests since the passenger pigeon's extinction (from white oaks, bur oaks, and black oaks predominating in presettlement forests, to the "dramatic expansion" of red oaks today).
2700:
Hunting of passenger pigeons was documented and depicted in contemporaneous newspapers, wherein various trapping methods and uses were featured. The most often reproduced of these illustrations was captioned "Winter sports in northern Louisiana: shooting wild pigeons", and published in 1875.
2466:, and the dung was used to treat a variety of ailments, including headaches, stomach pains, and lethargy. Though they did not last as long as the feathers of a goose, the feathers of the passenger pigeon were frequently used for bedding. Pigeon feather beds were so popular that for a time in
500:. A slow decline between about 1800 and 1870 was followed by a rapid decline between 1870 and 1890. In 1900, the last confirmed wild bird was shot in southern Ohio. The last captive birds were divided in three groups around the turn of the 20th century, some of which were photographed alive.
3024:
The 2014 genetic study that found natural fluctuations in population numbers prior to human arrival also concluded that the species routinely recovered from lows in the population, and suggested that one of these lows may have coincided with the intensified hunting by humans in the 1800s, a
2112:
northern areas. The pigeon had no site fidelity, often choosing to nest in a different location each year. The formation of a nesting colony did not necessarily take place until several months after the pigeons arrived on their breeding grounds, typically during late March, April, or May.
1504:) was large relative to the size of the bird, 33.4 mm (1.31 in), with straighter shafts and more robust articular ends than in other pigeons. The furcula had a sharper V-shape and was more robust, with expanded articular ends. The scapula was long, straight, and robust, and its
1396:
1369:
1321:
2413:
For fifteen thousand years or more before the arrival of Europeans in the Americas, passenger pigeons and Native Americans coexisted in the forests of what would later become the eastern part of the continental United States. A study published in 2008 found that, throughout most of the
1412:
to the adult female, but lacked the spotting on the wings, and was a darker brownish-gray on the head, neck, and breast. The feathers on the wings had pale gray fringes (also described as white tips), giving it a scaled look. The secondaries were brownish-black with pale edges, and the
2490:
and John James Audubon both witnessed large pigeon migrations first hand, and published detailed accounts wherein both attempted to deduce the total number of birds involved. The most famous and often reproduced depiction of the passenger pigeon is Audubon's illustration (handcolored
1621:
The passenger pigeon wintered from Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina south to Texas, the Gulf Coast, and northern Florida, though flocks occasionally wintered as far north as southern Pennsylvania and Connecticut. It preferred to winter in large swamps, particularly those with
3009:" against the passenger pigeon, and it has been labeled one of the greatest and most senseless human-induced extinctions in history. As the flocks dwindled in size, the passenger pigeon population decreased below the threshold necessary to propagate the species, an example of the
2571:) in terms of importance for the Native Americans living in the southeastern United States. The bird's fat was stored, often in large quantities, and used as butter. Archaeological evidence supports the idea that Native Americans ate the pigeons frequently prior to colonization.
2767:
By the 1870s, the decrease in birds was noticeable, especially after the last large-scale nestings and subsequent slaughters of millions of birds in 1874 and 1878. By this time, large nestings only took place in the north, around the Great Lakes. The last large nesting was in
1417:
had a rufous wash. The primaries were also edged with a rufous-brown color. The neck feathers had no iridescence. The legs and feet were dull red, and the iris was brownish, and surrounded by a narrow carmine ring. The plumage of the sexes was similar during their first year.
3089:
Today, at least 1,532 passenger pigeon skins (along with 16 skeletons) are in existence, spread across many institutions all over the world. It has been suggested that the passenger pigeon should be revived when available technology allows it (a concept which has been termed
1912:
has been linked to greater vertebrate diversity in forests by creating more niches for animals to fill. To help fill that ecological gap, it has been proposed that modern land managers attempt to replicate some of their effects on the ecosystem by creating openings in forest
2874:
Most captive passenger pigeons were kept for exploitative purposes, but some were housed in zoos and aviaries. Audubon alone claimed to have brought 350 birds to England in 1830, distributing them among various noblemen, and the species is also known to have been kept at
2201:, produced in the crops of the parent birds) exclusively for the first days after hatching. Adult food was gradually introduced after three to six days. After 13 to 15 days, the parents fed the nestling for a last time and then abandoned it, leaving the nesting area
2509:
is the only "serious" artist known to have drawn the species from life. He did so on at least two occasions; in 1903 he drew a bird possibly in one of the three aviaries with surviving birds, and some time before 1914, he drew Martha, the last individual, in the
1341:
variously been described as being a bright bronze, violet or golden-green, depending on the angle of the light. The upper back and wings were a pale or slate gray tinged with olive brown, that turned into grayish-brown on the lower wings. The lower back and
2610:
population (who, as well as hunting the birds, competed with them for mast) caused by European immigration, and the supplementary food (agricultural crops) the immigrants imported (a theory for which Joel Greenberg offered a detailed rebuttal in his book,
455:
bronze feathers on the neck, and black spots on the wings. The female was 380 to 400 mm (15.0 to 15.7 in), and was duller and browner than the male overall. The juvenile was similar to the female, but without iridescence. It mainly inhabited the
2193:. The nestling developed quickly and within 14 days weighed as much as its parents. During this brooding period both parents took care of the nestling, with the male attending in the middle of the day and the female at other times. The nestlings were fed
2709:
of the Great Plains, the valuable resource needed was not the species of animals but the agriculture which was consumed by said animal. The crops that were eaten were seen as marketable calories, proteins, and nutrients all grown for the wrong species.
491:
on a massive scale for many decades. There were several other factors contributing to the decline and subsequent extinction of the species, including shrinking of the large breeding populations necessary for preservation of the species and widespread
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could throw clubs into their midst, which caused the lead pigeons to try to turn aside and in the process created a blockade that resulted in a large mass of flying, easily hit pigeons. Among the game birds, passenger pigeons were second only to the
3044:, and resulted in new laws and practices which prevented many other species from becoming extinct. The rapid decline of the passenger pigeon has influenced later assessment methods of the extinction risk of endangered animal populations. The
2659:
particularly large net was capable of catching 3,500 pigeons at a time. These nets were used by many farmers on their own property as well as by professional trappers. Food would be placed on the ground near the nets to attract the pigeons.
5676:
Hutchinson, Todd F.; Yaussy, Daniel A.; Long, Robert P.; Rebbeck, Joanne; Sutherland, Elaine Kennedy (December 2012). "Long-term (13-year) effects of repeated prescribed fires on stand structure and tree regeneration in mixed-oak forests".
1782:, which theory and previous empirical studies suggested could have a particularly great impact on species with very large and cohesive populations. Natural selection can reduce genetic diversity over extended regions of a genome through '
1360:-red iris surrounded by a narrow purplish-red eye-ring. The wing of the male measured 196 to 215 mm (7.7 to 8.5 in), the tail 175 to 210 mm (6.9 to 8.3 in), the bill 15 to 18 mm (0.59 to 0.71 in), and the
1903:
they consumedβpassenger pigeons are thought to have influenced both the structure of eastern forests and the composition of the species present there. Due to these influences, some ecologists have considered the passenger pigeon a
1381:
The adult female passenger pigeon was slightly smaller than the male at 380 to 400 mm (15.0 to 15.7 in) in length. It was duller than the male overall, and was a grayish-brown on the forehead, crown, and nape down to the
1356:, grading into a paler pink further down, and into white on the abdomen and undertail covert feathers. The undertail coverts also had a few black spots. The bill was black, while the feet and legs were a bright coral red. It had a
867:
doves of the Old World (collectively termed the "typical pigeons and doves"). The authors of the study suggested that the ancestors of the passenger pigeon may have colonized the New World from South East Asia by flying across the
2687:
had opened new opportunities for pigeon hunters. While previously was too difficult to ship masses of pigeons to eastern cities, the access provided by the railroad permitted pigeon hunting to become commercialized. An extensive
2950:
when she died, she proved difficult to stuff, and previously shed feathers were added to the skin. Martha was on display for many years, but after a period in the museum vaults, she was put back on display at the Smithsonian's
2983:
The main reasons for the extinction of the passenger pigeon were the massive scale of hunting, the rapid loss of habitat, and the extremely social lifestyle of the bird, which made it highly vulnerable to the former factors.
2075:
available. A 2018 study found that the dietary range of the passenger pigeon was restricted to certain sizes of seed, due to the size of its gape. This would have prevented it from eating some of the seeds of trees such as
577:
for that bird. There is nothing to suggest Linnaeus ever saw specimens of these birds himself, and his description is thought to be fully derivative of these earlier accounts and their illustrations. In his 1766 edition of
2692:
system was introduced in the 1860s, which improved communication across the United States, making it easier to spread information about the whereabouts of pigeon flocks. After being opened up to the railroads, the town of
1943:, grew exponentially because of the increased availability of the seeds of the oak, beech and chestnut trees. It has been speculated that the extinction of passenger pigeons may have increased the prevalence of tick-borne
2842:. The boy did not recognize the bird as a passenger pigeon, but his parents identified it, and sent it to a taxidermist. The specimen, nicknamed "Buttons" due to the buttons used instead of glass eyes, was donated to the
2776:
and accusations that he was exaggerating the severity of the situation. Few offenders were prosecuted, mainly some poor trappers, but the large enterprises were not affected. In 1857, a bill was brought forth to the
3067:
Men still live who, in their youth, remember pigeons. Trees still live who, in their youth, were shaken by a living wind. But a decade hence only the oldest oaks will remember, and at long last only the hills will
1456:
The passenger pigeon was physically adapted for speed, endurance, and maneuverability in flight, and has been described as having a streamlined version of the typical pigeon shape, such as that of the generalized
1706:
The passenger pigeon was one of the most social of all land birds. Estimated to have numbered three to five billion at the height of its population, it may have been the most numerous bird on Earth; researcher
887:
pigeon was confirmed. In contrast to the 2010 study, these authors suggested that their results could indicate that the ancestors of the passenger pigeon and its Old World relatives may have originated in the
8059:
1936:) around 1905. As many as thirty billion trees are thought to have died as a result in the following decades, but this did not affect the passenger pigeon, which was already extinct in the wild at the time.
1894:
With the large numbers in passenger pigeon flocks, the excrement they produced was enough to destroy surface-level vegetation at long-term roosting sites, while adding high quantities of nutrients to the
2044:
reared. It is unknown how they located this fluctuating food source, but their eyesight and flight powers helped them survey large areas for places that could provide food enough for a temporary stay.
1778:
The 2017 passenger-pigeon genetic study also found that, in spite of its large population size, the genetic diversity was very low in the species. The authors suggested that this was a side-effect of
1311:, and that the Europeans did not adopt native names for the bird, as it reminded them of their domesticated pigeons, instead calling them "wild" pigeons, as they called the native peoples "wild" men.
487:
Passenger pigeons were hunted by Native Americans, but hunting intensified after the arrival of Europeans, particularly in the 19th century. Pigeon meat was commercialized as cheap food, resulting in
1775:(as of 1600 AD, for Africa, Eurasia, and the Americas combined) that was roughly 1/1000 of the census population estimate for the same time and area based on anthropological and historical evidence.
5373:
1740:" of three individual passenger pigeons) suggested that the passenger pigeon population experienced dramatic fluctuations across the last million years, due to their dependence on availability of
2989:
variety of wildlife, it was not enough to support the vast number of passenger pigeons needed to sustain the population. In contrast, very small populations of nearly extinct birds, such as the
1653:
era, during which the pigeon's range extended to several western states that were not a part of its modern range. The abundance of the species in these regions and during this time is unknown.
2120:
close to the female, he then pressed against her on the perch with his head held high and pointing at her. If receptive, the female pressed back against the male. When ready to mate, the pair
2606:
methods practiced by the natives. Yet it has also been suggested that the species was rare prior to 1492, and that the subsequent increase in their numbers may be due to the decrease in the
6726:
One of eastern North America's most iconic animals vanished forever on Sept. 1, 1914. Now, 97 years later, the passenger pigeon has become an icon for something else: manmade extinction.
1771:
inference methods) showed considerable accuracy in reflecting overall patterns of human population growth as compared to data deduced by other meansβthough the study arrived at a human
2602:
This amounted to about one passenger pigeon per day for each person in the fort. After European colonization, the passenger pigeon was hunted with more intensive methods than the more
1798:, which are some of passenger pigeons' closest living relatives. They also found evidence of lower genetic diversity in regions of the passenger pigeon genome that have lower rates of
1846:
mortality was the weather, and every spring many individuals froze to death after migrating north too early. In captivity, a passenger pigeon was capable of living at least 15 years;
3110:
has proposed that the passenger pigeon genome can be reconstructed by piecing together DNA fragments from different specimens. The next step would be to splice these genes into the
2955:
in 2015. A memorial statue of Martha stands on the grounds of the Cincinnati Zoo, in front of the "Passenger Pigeon Memorial Hut", formerly the aviary wherein Martha lived, now a
2381:, was thought to have been unique to the passenger pigeon, but is now believed to have been a case of a contaminated specimen, as the species is considered to be the still-extant
1445:. This sex-linked mutation is common in female wild birds, but it is thought the white feathers of this specimen are instead the result of bleaching due to exposure to sunlight.
2517:
The bird has been written about (including in poems, songs, and fiction) and illustrated by many notable writers and artists, and is depicted in art to this day, for example in
3806:
Johnson, K. P.; Clayton, D. H.; Dumbacher, J. P.; Fleischer, R. C. (2010). "The flight of the Passenger Pigeon: phylogenetics and biogeographic history of an extinct species".
1614:. Though the western forests were ecologically similar to those in the east, these were occupied by band-tailed pigeons, which may have kept out the passenger pigeons through
3644:
Wilson's American Ornithology: with Notes by Jardine; to which is Added a Synopsis of American Birds, Including those Described by Bonaparte, Audubon, Nuttall, and Richardson
3158:, the species' endling, that he titled "Martha (Last of the Passenger Pigeons)". In connection with the centennial of Martha's death, the song was cited as evidence of her
1866:
the accumulation of flammable debris (such as limbs broken from trees and foliage killed by excrement) at these sites may have increased both the frequency and intensity of
1352:
The tail pattern was distinctive as it had white outer edges with blackish spots that were prominently displayed in flight. The lower throat and breast were richly pinkish-
4956:
Ellsworth, J. W.; McComb, B. C. (2003). "Potential Effects of Passenger Pigeon Flocks on the Structure and Composition of Presettlement Forests of Eastern North America".
669:
for the passenger pigeon, since this was the intended use by the authors on whose work Linnaeus had based his description. This was accepted by the ICZN, which used its
1992:
needed to support nesting and roosting flocks. The passenger pigeon changed its diet depending on the season. In the fall, winter, and spring, it mainly ate beechnuts,
2067:
The passenger pigeon's very elastic mouth and throat and a joint in the lower bill enabled it to swallow acorns whole. It could store large quantities of food in its
2819:, where it remains today. This was not discovered until 2014, when writer Joel Greenberg found out the date of the bird's shooting while doing research for his book
2438:, the souls of the dead changed into passenger pigeons, which were then hunted and eaten. Before hunting the juvenile pigeons, the Seneca people made an offering of
5518:
Przeworski, Molly; Andolfatto, Peter; Venkat, Aarti; SΓ©gurel, Laure; Meyer, Wynn K.; Matute, Daniel R.; Bullaughey, Kevin; Leffler, Ellen M. (September 11, 2012).
2375:
is mainly found on cuckoo-doves, further supports the relation between these pigeons, as the phylogeny of lice broadly mirrors that of their hosts. Another louse,
569:, and was accompanied by the earliest published illustration of the species. Catesby's description was combined with the 1743 description of the mourning dove by
423:, meaning "passing by", due to the migratory habits of the species. The scientific name also refers to its migratory characteristics. The morphologically similar
5315:
557:), wherein he appears to have considered the two identical. This composite description cited accounts of these birds in two pre-Linnean books. One of these was
2971:
1602:
in the east, to the south of Canada in the north, and the north of Mississippi in the southern United States, coinciding with its primary habitat, the eastern
4229:
7191:
6925:
2505:
and Japanese artist K. Hayashi as more accurate depictions of the bird. Illustrations of the passenger pigeon were often drawn after stuffed birds, and
2454:
was the first European to report on passenger pigeons, during his voyage in 1534. The bird was subsequently observed and noted by historical figures such as
2751:
this before a century, I will wager ... that the amateur of ornithology will find no more wild pigeons, except those in the Museums of Natural History.
3048:(IUCN) has used the passenger pigeon as an example in cases where a species was declared "at risk" for extinction even though population numbers are high.
2060:
overhead to the front of the flock, dropping leaves and grass in flight. The flocks had wide leading edges to better scan the landscape for food sources.
1165:(who owned many of the last captive birds around the turn of the 20th century, and kept them with other pigeon species) but the offspring were infertile.
724:. The oldest known fossil of the genus is an isolated humerus (USNM 430960) known from the Lee Creek Mine in North Carolina in sediments belonging to the
5323:
5197:
3501:
658:
451:
in size and coloration. The male was 390 to 410 mm (15.4 to 16.1 in) in length, mainly gray on the upperparts, lighter on the underparts, with
9435:
8028:
6852:
L'histoire notable de la Floride située ès Indes Occidentales: contenant les trois voyages faits en icelle par certains Capitaines et Pilotes françois
5241:
3005:), have been enough to keep those species extant to the present. The combined effects of intense hunting and deforestation has been referred to as a "
2186:
by both parents for 12 to 14 days, with the male incubating it from midmorning to midafternoon and the female incubating it for the rest of the time.
9450:
8257:
6384:
Llamas, B.; Fehren-Schmitz, L.; et al. (2016), "Ancient mitochondrial DNA provides high-resolution time scale of the peopling of the Americas",
2594:
There came to us a manna of wood pigeons in such great numbers, that over a span of about seven weeks, each day we killed more than two hundred with
1630:
trees, were favored roosting sites. There were also sightings of passenger pigeons outside of its normal range, including in several Western states,
1850:, the last known living passenger pigeon, was at least 17 and possibly as old as 29 when she died. It is undocumented how long a wild pigeon lived.
1584:
3604:
1748:" of between 9,000 and 17,000 individuals (or approximately 1/550,000th of the peak total human population size of 7 billion cited in the study).
1185:
habits. The full binomial can thus be translated as "migratory wanderer". The English common name "passenger pigeon" derives from the French word
9265:
8187:
5133:
4418:
1480:
noted several distinct features in a more detailed 2015 description. The pigeon's particularly large breast muscles indicated a powerful flight (
8330:
5073:
3849:
Fulton, T. L.; Wagner, S. M.; Shapiro, B. (2012). "Case Study: Recovery of Ancient Nuclear DNA from Toe Pads of the Extinct Passenger Pigeon".
3045:
2447:
the Seneca because they were the only birds that nested in colonies. The Seneca developed a pigeon dance as a way of showing their gratitude.
9445:
9415:
9330:
8963:
6250:
Abrams, Marc D.; Nowacki, Gregory J. (2008), "Native Americans as active and passive promoters of mast and fruit trees in the eastern USA",
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8816:
8664:
8476:
8424:
8350:
3551:"Miocene and Pliocene birds from the Lee Creek Mine, North Carolina in Geology and Paleontology of the Lee Creek Mine, North Carolina, III"
1861:. This species germinated in the fall, therefore making its seeds almost useless as a food source during the spring breeding season, while
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8895:
8581:
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combination which would have led to the rapid extinction of the species. A similar scenario may also explain the rapid extinction of the
9485:
8486:
8340:
6117:
6066:"Taxonomy of New World Columbicola (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) from the Columbiformes (Aves), with descriptions of five new species"
6065:
2627:. In the early 19th century, commercial hunters began netting and shooting the birds to sell as food in city markets, and even as pig
8721:
7549:
2486:
engraving is based on was bought by the British royal family in 1768, along with the rest of Catesby's watercolors. The naturalists
1720:, noted that "quite a little flock of pigeons bred here last summer," while only seven years later, in 1866, one flock in southern
9239:
6356:
Proceedings Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: a quest for ecological understanding. Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada.
6230:"Deciphering The Ecological Impact of the Passenger Pigeon: A Synthesis of Paleogenetics, Paleoecology, Morphology, and Physiology"
2107:
Other than finding roosting sites, the migrations of the passenger pigeon were connected with finding places appropriate for this
9440:
9278:
7656:
3337:
Aldrich, J. W. (1993). "Classification and Distribution". In Baskett, T.S.; Sayre, M.W.; Tomlinson, R.E.; Mirarchi, R.E. (eds.).
431:) was long thought to be its closest relative, and the two were at times confused, but genetic analysis has shown that the genus
4447:
9430:
9410:
4165:
3705:
Shapiro, B.; Sibthorpe, D.; Rambaut, A.; Austin, J.; Wragg, G. M.; Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P.; Lee, P. L. M.; Cooper, A. (2002).
6027:"On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection"
5189:
2846:
by the family in 1915. The reliability of accounts after the Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana birds are in question. Ornithologist
2215:, used the passenger pigeon as an example of an immensely successful species despite laying fewer eggs than most other birds:
7423:
6947:
6902:
6599:
6331:
6303:
5903:
Neumann, T. W. (1985). "Human-wildlife competition and the passenger pigeon: Population growth from system destabilization".
5870:
5050:
4626:
4397:
4365:
4135:
4076:
3866:
3689:
3533:
3350:
9283:
6210:
5432:
Biraben, J. N. (1979). "Essai sur l'Γ©volution du nombre des hommes" [Essay on the evolution of numbers of mankind].
2213:
On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection
9465:
9455:
6026:
8180:
6708:
3383:
505:
3252:
2582:
What may be the earliest account of Europeans hunting passenger pigeons dates to January 1565, when the French explorer
2442:
and brooches to the old passenger pigeons; these were placed in a small kettle or other receptacle by a smoky fire. The
9425:
2952:
2607:
1974:
1256:
2963:, named "Incus," died in Martha's cage in 1918; the stuffed remains of that bird are exhibited in the "Memorial Hut".
2668:
was sometimes burned beneath the nesting tree to suffocate the birds, which fell out of the tree in a weakened state.
2335:
and falcons pursued and preyed upon pigeons in flight, which in turn executed complex aerial maneuvers to avoid them;
7949:
7847:
7331:
2860:
2583:
1421:
Of the hundreds of surviving skins, only one appears to be aberrant in colorβan adult female from the collection of
9475:
9470:
9335:
9105:
8128:
6295:
Prehistoric Native Americans and Ecological Change: Human Ecosystems in Eastern North America Since the Pleistocene
5393:"mtDNA variation predicts population size in humans and reveals a major southern Asian chapter in human prehistory"
4790:
4244:
2487:
1556:
croaking noises when building nests, and bell-like sounds when mating. During feeding, some individuals would give
8165:
7201:
3183:
9226:
9130:
1857:
forests of eastern North America. For instance, while the passenger pigeon was extant, forests were dominated by
1725:
based on single migrating colonies, and it is unknown how many of these existed at a given time. American writer
1599:
1426:
686:
187:
7266:
6348:
8173:
8116:
7468:
7344:
4958:
3055:
paid tribute to the vanished species in a monument dedication held by the Wisconsin Society for Ornithology at
823:
A more extensive 2010 study instead showed that the passenger pigeon was most closely related to the New World
692:
9047:
8393:
7971:
3752:
Fulton, T. L.; Wagner, S. M.; Fisher, C.; Shapiro, B. (2012). "Nuclear DNA from the Extinct Passenger Pigeon (
1899:. Because of thisβalong with the breaking of tree limbs under their collective weight and the great amount of
9317:
5726:
4127:
2032:, and other invertebrates, particularly while breeding. It took advantage of cultivated grains, particularly
1330:
1149:
done without causing significant damage to valuable specimens. The passenger pigeon had no known subspecies.
8036:
2942:, as she had suffered one a few weeks before dying. Her body was frozen into a block of ice and sent to the
9114:
7524:
5641:
5634:"A mammoth undertaking: harnessing insight from functional ecology to shape de-extinction priority setting"
3375:
Linnaeus, 1766, shall be the oldest available name for the Passenger Pigeon, the type species of the genus
2887:
2694:
1908:, with the disappearance of their vast flocks leaving a major gap in the ecosystem. Their role in creating
899:
below follows the 2012 DNA study showing the position of the passenger pigeon among its closest relatives:
6909:
its leader, Rene de Laudonniere, had been there 200 soldiers without relief over a year, since June 1564..
2347:
may therefore be one of the reasons for the extremely social habits and communal breeding of the species.
9169:
9164:
7600:
3616:
3162:
statureβa symbol of the wanton slaughter of these pigeons and the human-caused extinction of the species.
2471:
2395:
1965:
1532:) were short but robust compared to other pigeons. The leg bones were similar to those of other pigeons.
570:
6680:
3321:
2718:
7742:
7384:
7141:
4884:
4879:
4068:
3230:
2956:
2587:
1729:
has suggested that if the birds flew single file, they would have stretched around the Earth 22 times.
1645:
More than 130 passenger pigeon fossils have been found scattered across 25 US states, including in the
1603:
1513:
202:
7660:
6554:
5633:
3471:
3370:
2623:
the bodies; other times, only the breasts of the pigeons were kept, in which case they were typically
1939:
After the disappearance of the passenger pigeon, the population of another acorn feeding species, the
1932:
on which the passenger pigeon fed was itself almost driven to extinction by an imported Asian fungus (
9143:
7697:"Evolution of Avian Conservation Breeding with Insights for Addressing the Current Extinction Crisis"
7305:
Whaples, R. (2015). "A Feathered River Across the Sky: The Passenger Pigeon's Flight to Extinction".
5039:
Sullivan, J.; Sutton, B.; Cronon, W. (April 2004). "The Passenger Pigeon: Once There Were Billions".
4547:
4173:
3525:
3063:, which had been one of the species' social roost sites. Speaking on May 11, 1947, Leopold remarked:
2910:
2790:
2467:
2088:
1772:
1761:
1745:
1481:
501:
7066:
4840:
4648:
4445:
3956:
3496:
3416:
4842:
Ornithological biography, or, an account of the Habits of the Birds of the United States of America
2859:
with in the woods a good deal" and whom he found to be "a singularly close observer." In 1910, the
603:
20:
9309:
7793:
7575:
6320:"7. Effects on Forests: Northeastern United States β I. Frequency and Type of Presettlement Fires"
736:, between 5.3 and 3.6 million years ago. Its closest living relatives were long thought to be the
8159:
8139:
7941:
7374:
6657:
6133:
5905:
5351:
4455:
4207:
2943:
2902:
2843:
2651:
1252:
554:
9361:
7329:
Jackson, J. A.; Jackson, B. (2007). "Extinction: the Passenger Pigeon, last hopes, letting go".
5316:"Four billion passenger pigeons vanished. Their large population may have been what did them in"
1567:
published an account of the gestures and sounds of this species as a series of descriptions and
606:
in 1760. Brisson's description was later shown to have been based on a female passenger pigeon.
9374:
9270:
9151:
9067:
7666:
7307:
6894:
5724:
sites in the eastern United States: Examination of long-term trends and broad-scale patterns".
4240:
3476:
2838:, on March 24, 1900, when a female bird was killed by a boy named Press Clay Southworth with a
2777:
2526:
2418:, Native American land-use practices greatly influenced forest composition. The regular use of
1717:
1508:
end was enlarged. The sternum was very large and robust compared to that of other pigeons; its
9296:
7907:
6939:
6850:
6467:
6319:
5001:
3648:
9369:
9356:
8143:
7931:
7415:
6713:
6372:
6229:
6197:
6022:
5040:
3041:
3026:
2755:
2731:
2723:
2537:" species to spread awareness of other threatened, but less well-known North American birds.
2502:
2359:
2208:
1818:
1799:
1615:
1611:
610:
461:
308:
284:
9348:
6293:
4392:. New York: American Committee for International Wild Life Protection 13. pp. 304β311.
3995:
2830:
For many years, the last confirmed wild passenger pigeon was thought to have been shot near
2189:
Upon hatching, the nestling (or squab) was blind and sparsely covered with yellow, hairlike
2159:
681:
9213:
9156:
7997:"'Bringing Back the Passenger Pigeon' Meeting convened at Harvard Medical School in Boston"
7882:
7856:
7378:
6568:
6393:
6259:
6166:
6088:
5914:
5819:
5735:
5686:
5256:
5142:
4967:
3909:
3815:
3767:
3428:
3056:
2930:, though it has also been claimed she was named after the mother of a zookeeper's friends.
2883:
2851:
2497:
2430:
The passenger pigeon played a religious role for some northern Native American tribes. The
2405:
2013:
1953:
1807:
1787:
1485:
1237:
1217:
1162:
837:) of western North America, which are related to the Southeast Asian species in the genera
134:
2371:
was rediscovered living on band-tailed pigeons. This, and the fact that the related louse
1871:
8:
9460:
9420:
8064:
8001:
7271:
4416:
Hume, J. P.; van Grouw, H. (2014). "Colour aberrations in extinct and endangered birds".
3207:
3119:
2812:
2470:, every dowry included a bed and pillows made of pigeon feathers. In 1822, one family in
2455:
2314:
2167:
2108:
1826:
1726:
1713:
1509:
743:, based on morphological grounds, particularly the physically similar mourning dove (now
638:
509:
142:
9387:
8086:
7860:
7601:"Reward for Wild Pigeons. Ornithologists Offer $ 3,000 for the Discovery of Their Nests"
6572:
6397:
6263:
5918:
5823:
5739:
5690:
5260:
5146:
4971:
3913:
3819:
3771:
3432:
2863:
offered a reward of $ 3,000 for discovering a nestβ equivalent to $ 83,325 in 2020.
2795:
2387:
of Australia. There is no record of a wild pigeon dying of either disease or parasites.
1853:
The bird is believed to have played a significant ecological role in the composition of
8269:
7996:
7608:
7506:
7356:
7348:
7196:
6887:
6867:
6559:
6414:
6275:
6150:
6043:
5930:
5843:
5792:
5784:
5658:
5546:
5519:
5495:
5468:
5449:
5290:
5165:
5128:
5067:
5021:
4983:
4836:
4813:
4771:
4672:
4571:
4523:
3976:
3932:
3891:
3677:
3638:
3452:
3302:
3115:
2976:
2855:
2769:
2702:
2400:
2344:
2246:
1940:
1875:
1842:
water, and afterwards lay on each side in turn and raised the opposite wing to dry it.
1795:
1765:
1678:
1560:
when facing a threat, and the rest of the flock would join the sound while taking off.
1469:
1337:
889:
883:
of the passenger pigeon was analyzed for the first time, and its relationship with the
830:
771:
756:
725:
696:
481:
448:
351:
197:
6298:, Cambridge Studies in Ecology (1st ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
5129:"Drastic population fluctuations explain the rapid extinction of the passenger pigeon"
4621:(Revised ed.). Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publishing Associates. pp. 96β97.
2946:
in Washington, where it was skinned, dissected, photographed, and mounted. As she was
9343:
9187:
7945:
7868:
7751:
7448:
7419:
7397:
6943:
6898:
6595:
6477:
6419:
6327:
6299:
6279:
6158:
5934:
5866:
5835:
5702:
5551:
5500:
5414:
5311:
5282:
5170:
5046:
4979:
4747:
4622:
4459:
4393:
4361:
4131:
4119:
4072:
3937:
3872:
3862:
3831:
3805:
3783:
3758:
3729:
3685:
3642:
3529:
3444:
3346:
3294:
3034:
2960:
2927:
2923:
2847:
2835:
2816:
2808:
2760:
2727:
2646:
2631:. Once pigeon meat became popular, commercial hunting started on a prodigious scale.
2624:
2506:
2435:
2084:
2068:
2017:
1970:
1948:
1925:
1854:
1779:
1768:
1756:
1733:
1708:
1568:
1422:
1361:
561:'s description of the passenger pigeon, which was published in his 1731 to 1743 work
477:
473:
457:
7360:
5847:
5796:
5662:
5597:"Experimental investigation of the dietary ecology of the extinct passenger pigeon,
5520:"Revisiting an old riddle: what determines genetic diversity levels within species?"
4987:
4177:
3456:
3016:
2639:
industry. The pigeons were used as living targets in shooting tournaments, such as "
2363:, was originally thought to have lived on just passenger pigeons and to have become
708:
9192:
8680:
8673:
8195:
7864:
7818:
7708:
7496:
7340:
6751:
6685:
6409:
6401:
6267:
6142:
6080:
6038:
5922:
5831:
5827:
5774:
5743:
5694:
5650:
5612:
5541:
5531:
5490:
5480:
5467:
Sackton, Timothy B.; Hartl, Daniel L.; Corbett-Detig, Russell B. (April 10, 2015).
5441:
5404:
5294:
5274:
5264:
5160:
5150:
5013:
4975:
4805:
4763:
4664:
4563:
4515:
4446:
Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History (March 2001).
4163:
3968:
3927:
3917:
3854:
3823:
3775:
3721:
3570:
3562:
3436:
3392:
3225:
3107:
3082:
2336:
2080:
1914:
1905:
1879:
1673:, constantly migrating in search of food, shelter, or nesting grounds. In his 1831
1646:
1414:
1280:
1150:
5242:"Natural selection shaped the rise and fall of passenger pigeon genomic diversity"
4199:
3725:
3077:
2477:
2151:
description partially based on analogy with other pigeons as well as imagination.
763:
pigeons that had adapted to the woodlands on the plains of central North America.
625:, due in part to the length of the wings and the wedge shape of the tail. In 1906
480:, and its extreme gregariousness may have been linked with searching for food and
9231:
9179:
8278:
7262:
6935:
6921:
6472:
5747:
5698:
5536:
5485:
4497:
3922:
3612:
3342:
3155:
3151:
2824:
2636:
2530:
2451:
2419:
2254:
2121:
1933:
1909:
1847:
1833:
1813:
1803:
1783:
1661:
1591:
1529:
1268:
1225:
1022:
654:
549:
538:
404:
121:
9322:
3892:"The De Novo Assembly of Mitochondrial Genomes of the Extinct Passenger Pigeon (
3858:
3827:
3779:
3440:
8590:
8309:
8242:
6018:
5720:
Buchanan, M. L.; Hart, J. L. (2012). "Canopy disturbance history of old-growth
5469:"Natural selection constrains neutral diversity across a wide range of species"
5374:"Billions or bust: New genetic clues to the extinction of the passenger pigeon"
3890:
Hung, C. M.; Lin, R. C.; Chu, J. H.; Yeh, C. F.; Yao, C. J.; Li, S. H. (2013).
2831:
2800:
2616:
2603:
2511:
2431:
2183:
1477:
1346:
1182:
670:
6756:
6739:
6644:
5345:
3550:
2990:
2051:
Internal organs of Martha, the last individual: cr. denotes the crop, gz. the
629:
suggested that because Linnaeus had wholly copied Catesby's text when coining
9404:
9291:
9090:
8830:
8628:
8563:
8411:
7937:
7813:
7798:
7755:
7452:
7412:
A Feathered River Across the Sky: The Passenger Pigeon's Flight to Extinction
6931:
6481:
6271:
5706:
3706:
3566:
3298:
3216:
3095:
3091:
2985:
2640:
2459:
2351:
2270:
2238:
1989:
1929:
1900:
1862:
1741:
1694:
1579:
1564:
1548:
1544:
1521:
1342:
1296:
1284:
963:
869:
849:
779:
737:
713:
544:
533:
504:, thought to be the last passenger pigeon, died on September 1, 1914, at the
493:
469:
438:
424:
416:
338:
328:
163:
72:
7713:
7696:
6084:
5654:
5617:
5596:
5409:
5392:
5269:
5155:
2233:
Immature bird; the young were vulnerable to predators after leaving the nest
1837:
Alert parent bird posing defiantly towards the camera (1896, published 1913)
1448:
8979:
8730:
8694:
8642:
8466:
8446:
6591:
6423:
6405:
6162:
5595:
Novak, B. J.; Estes, J. A.; Shaw, H. E.; Novak, E. V.; Shapiro, B. (2018).
5555:
5504:
5418:
5286:
5174:
4060:
3941:
3876:
3835:
3787:
3733:
3448:
3397:
3159:
3103:
3052:
3010:
2574:
2383:
2377:
2190:
1944:
1883:
1858:
1712:
range, the size of individual flocks could vary greatly. In November 1859,
1595:
1154:
1040:
863:
795:
783:
626:
558:
525:
8155:
5839:
2866:
2409:, 1827β1838. This image has been criticized for its scientific inaccuracy.
2047:
1649:
of California. These records date as far back as 100,000 years ago in the
1295:, meaning "big bread", as it was a source of food for their tribes. Chief
9304:
9252:
9099:
9007:
8972:
8925:
8911:
8904:
8850:
8779:
8758:
8751:
8687:
8621:
8549:
8456:
8318:
6615:
5278:
3147:
2811:, on March 12, 1901, when a male bird was killed, stuffed, and placed in
2671:
2564:
2558:, the pigeons leaving their roost every morning flew low enough that the
2545:
2518:
2329:) that preyed on injured adults and fallen nestlings. Hawks of the genus
2173:
2025:
2021:
2009:
1794:
and faster removal of harmful mutations in passenger pigeons compared to
1650:
1607:
1557:
1540:
1387:
1083:
880:
825:
787:
701:
465:
433:
47:
8135:
Project Passenger Pigeon: Lessons from the Past for a Sustainable Future
7466:
Wetmore, A. (October 1936). "Game Birds of Prairie, Forest and Tundra".
7352:
4094:
3751:
2893:
2154:
1590:
The passenger pigeon was found across most of North America east of the
1468:
The internal anatomy of the passenger pigeon has rarely been described.
1177:, translates as "moving about" or "wandering", while the specific name,
9382:
9244:
9014:
8993:
8857:
8840:
8823:
8635:
8607:
8600:
8556:
8517:
8496:
8374:
8287:
8201:
8148:
7525:"Theodore Roosevelt Signed Archive Passenger Pigeons | Raab Collection"
7510:
6154:
5926:
5865:. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 33β35.
5788:
5453:
5025:
4817:
4775:
4676:
4649:"The expressions of emotion in the pigeons. III. The Passenger Pigeon (
4575:
4527:
4357:
3980:
3306:
3282:
3111:
3006:
2876:
2742:
1996:, and chestnuts. During the summer, berries and softer fruits, such as
1918:
1791:
1699:
1626:
trees; if swamps were not available, forested areas, particularly with
1516:, which stiffen the ribcage, were very well developed. The wing bones (
1476:
from that of other pigeons when examining a male skeleton in 1914, but
1300:
1198:
945:
808:
doves were instead shown to be related to the quail-doves of the genus
800:
775:
721:
452:
408:
346:
Distribution map, with former range in orange and breeding zone in red
264:
254:
181:
157:
92:
57:
3574:
3040:
The extinction of the passenger pigeon aroused public interest in the
2350:
Two parasites have been recorded on passenger pigeons. One species of
747:). It was even suggested that the mourning dove belonged to the genus
9024:
9000:
8867:
8772:
8649:
8570:
8542:
8535:
8506:
8367:
8360:
6618:
3060:
2689:
2578:
1881 spread showing methods of trapping pigeons for shooting contests
2463:
2364:
2331:
2286:
2194:
2033:
1997:
1896:
1473:
1458:
1438:
1434:
1249:
989:
896:
839:
816:
810:
786:
et al., museum specimens of the passenger pigeon were included in an
618:
214:
97:
41:
9257:
9061:
7501:
7146:
Collection of Papers Read Before the Bucks County Historical Society
6874:. Vol. XL, no. 6. Ottawa: Graphic Publishers. p. 127.
6383:
6146:
5810:
Blockstein, D. E. (1998). "Lyme Disease and the Passenger Pigeon?".
5779:
5762:
5445:
5042:
Hunting for Frogs on Elston, and Other Tales from Field & Street
5017:
4869:
4809:
4767:
4668:
4567:
4519:
4164:
Tatum, J.; Rementer, J.; the Culture Preservation Committee (2010).
3972:
3154:
singer, wrote a song dedicated to the extinction of the species and
2998:
520:
9205:
9084:
8806:
8765:
8744:
8737:
8712:
8701:
8614:
8224:
8123:
3900:
2939:
2684:
2620:
2595:
2559:
2555:
2534:
2492:
2443:
2423:
2415:
2229:
2125:
2076:
1867:
1489:
1430:
1383:
873:
733:
729:
234:
112:
108:
87:
82:
67:
62:
52:
8134:
5631:
2870:
Whitman's aviary with passenger pigeons and other species, 1896/98
2549:
Depiction of a shooting in northern Louisiana, Smith Bennett, 1875
1345:
were a dark blue-gray that became grayish-brown on the upper tail-
9218:
9138:
8797:
8236:
7484:
6652:
5863:
The Annihilation of Nature: Human Extinction of Birds and Mammals
5517:
4751:
4506:
2947:
2935:
2914:
2262:
2237:
Nesting colonies attracted large numbers of predators, including
2052:
1721:
1631:
1517:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1442:
1409:
1357:
720:
The passenger pigeon was a member of the pigeon and dove family,
497:
488:
412:
102:
77:
4354:
Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World
2040:, which it ingested either from brackish springs or salty soil.
1201:(in modern Canada), but to the French in Europe it was known as
653:), as it appeared on an earlier page in Linnaeus' book. In 1952
594:
for the mourning dove. In the same edition, Linnaeus also named
9125:
8986:
8952:
8932:
8884:
8294:
8218:
8205:
8197:
8111:
6115:
3853:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 840. pp. 29β35.
2839:
2799:"Buttons", the second to last confirmed wild passenger pigeon,
2665:
2628:
2439:
2322:
2306:
2005:
1752:
1737:
1639:
1505:
1353:
790:
analysis for the first time (in a paper focusing mainly on the
464:
and was also recorded elsewhere, but bred primarily around the
224:
130:
6555:"Published figures and plates of the extinct passenger pigeon"
5761:
Ostfeld, Richard S.; Jones, Clive G.; Wolff, Jerry O. (1996).
3957:"The Passenger Pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) in Confinement"
3201:
3199:
3197:
1755:
of two additional passenger pigeons, as well as analyzing the
9200:
8786:
8230:
8060:"Scientists look to revive the long-extinct passenger pigeon"
7841:
Halliday, T. (1980). "The extinction of the passenger pigeon
3094:"), using genetic material from such specimens. In 2003, the
2706:
2676:
2660:
2354:
2282:
2136:
2099:
2029:
2001:
1993:
1981:
1670:
1623:
854:
7071:
for sporting purposes: overlooked illustrated documentation"
5190:"Humans not solely to blame for passenger pigeon extinction"
4752:"A Pleistocene Record of the Passenger Pigeon in California"
3371:"Proposed use of the plenary powers to secure that the name
766:
The passenger pigeon differed from the species in the genus
16:
Extinct migratory pigeon previously endemic to North America
8918:
8877:
7380:
Our Vanishing Wild Life. Its Extermination and Preservation
6740:"Extinct flagships: linking extinct and threatened species"
6211:"Evidence of Pre-Clovis Sites in the Eastern United States"
5675:
3323:
Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands
3194:
2278:
2198:
2129:
2037:
1635:
1627:
1525:
791:
673:
to designate the species for the respective names in 1955.
563:
Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands
244:
7345:
10.1676/1559-4491(2007)119[767:etpplh]2.0.co;2
6358:, Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research, pp. 261β265
2827:, on April 3, 1902, that was stuffed but later destroyed.
2020:, became the main objects of its consumption. It also ate
1404:
Turntable video of a juvenile female specimen at Naturalis
5632:
McCauley, D. J.; Hardesty-Moore, M.; et al. (2016).
5466:
5347:
Why Billions of Passenger Pigeons Died in Under a Century
5239:
3497:"The names of the passenger pigeon and the mourning dove"
3326:. Vol. 1. London: W. Innys and R. Manby. p. 23.
3283:"A Preliminary List of the Birds of Middle Southern Ohio"
2807:
authenticated record of a wild passenger pigeon was near
2474:, killed 4,000 pigeons in a day solely for this purpose.
2294:
2274:
1985:
547:
and the passenger pigeon in the 1758 edition of his work
524:
Earliest published illustration of the species (a male),
508:. The eradication of the species is a notable example of
5306:
5304:
5240:
Murray, G. G. R.; Soares, A. E. R.; et al. (2017).
5002:"General Notes: Thoreau's Notes on the Passenger Pigeon"
4124:
The Passenger Pigeon: Its Natural History and Extinction
3072:
3037:, and migrations to areas outside their original range.
2823:
Greenberg also pointed out a record of a male shot near
1377:
Turntable video of an adult female specimen at Naturalis
6536:
6534:
6349:"The forest primeval in the northeast -- a great myth?"
4791:"A Second Pleistocene Passenger Pigeon from California"
2434:(or Huron) believed that every twelve years during the
7639:
7637:
7635:
7633:
7631:
7629:
7627:
5860:
5391:
Atkinson, Q. D.; Gray, R. D.; Drummond, A. J. (2008).
5218:
Mann, Charles C. (2011). "The Artificial Wilderness".
4955:
4479:
4477:
3605:"The Biology and Natural History of the Mourning Dove"
3205:
1681:
described a migration he observed in 1813 as follows:
6927:
1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus
6122:(Phthiraptera: Philopteridae), with a description of
5861:
Ceballos, G.; Ehrlich, A. H.; Ehrlich, P. R. (2015).
5301:
5220:
1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus
5181:
4845:. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: A. Black. pp. 319β327.
4552:) lately living in the Cincinnati Zoological Gardens"
4548:"Anatomical and other notes on the Passenger Pigeon (
4055:
4053:
4051:
4049:
4047:
4045:
4043:
4041:
4039:
4037:
4035:
4033:
4031:
4029:
4027:
1386:, and the feathers on the sides of the neck had less
759:. The passenger pigeon was supposedly descended from
633:, this name should apply to the passenger pigeon, as
9020:
8873:
8863:
8846:
8836:
8812:
8596:
8502:
8492:
8482:
8472:
8462:
8452:
8442:
8356:
8346:
8336:
8326:
8156:
360 Degree View of Martha, the Last Passenger Pigeon
6619:"Lyrics to "Martha (Last of the Passenger Pigeons)""
6531:
5390:
5222:(2nd ed.). New York: Vintage. pp. 365β367.
5101:
5099:
5097:
5095:
5093:
5091:
5089:
5087:
5085:
5083:
5038:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4287:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4025:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4017:
4015:
4013:
4011:
4009:
4007:
2713:
1751:
For a 2017 genetic study, the authors sequenced the
1512:
was 25 mm (0.98 in) deep. The overlapping
1242:
7740:Shell, H. R. (May 2004). "The Face of Extinction".
7624:
6116:Price, R. D.; Clayton, D. H.; Adams, R. J. (2000).
6063:
5719:
5594:
5324:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
5198:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
5127:Hung, C. M.; Shaner, P. J. L.; et al. (2014).
4474:
4303:
3848:
3502:
Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington
3472:"Mr. Swainson on several new groups in Ornithology"
2367:with them. This was proven inaccurate in 1999 when
659:
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature
7261:
6886:
6681:"13 Memories of Martha, the Last Passenger Pigeon"
6588:Charles R. Knight: The Artist Who Saw Through Time
4883:. Philadelphia: The Birds of North America, Inc.,
4868:
4000:. New York: The Outing Publishing Co. p. 188.
3756:) Confirms a Single Origin of New World Pigeons".
3231:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22690733A152593137.en
1790:'. The authors found evidence of a faster rate of
472:, and also fruits and invertebrates. It practiced
419:. Its common name is derived from the French word
7845:and its relevance to contemporary conservation".
7439:Reeve, S. (March 2001). "Going Down in History".
5760:
5126:
5080:
4274:
4004:
3410:
3408:
3330:
2959:. Incidentally, the last specimen of the extinct
2854:, in April 1905. On May 18, 1907, U.S. President
2481:Painting of a male, K. Hayashi, c. 1900
1969:Taxidermied specimens mounted as if foraging for
9402:
7965:
7963:
7961:
7802:. El Paso, Texas. September 14, 1914. p. 6.
6291:
6118:"Pigeon Lice Down Under: Taxonomy of Australian
6001:
5999:
5997:
5984:
5982:
5980:
5978:
5965:
5963:
5950:
5948:
5946:
5944:
5575:
5573:
5571:
5569:
5567:
5565:
4913:
4911:
4909:
4907:
4905:
4903:
3672:
3670:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3658:
2586:wrote of killing close to 10,000 of them around
2036:, when it found them. It was especially fond of
1817:Juvenile (left), male (center), female (right),
1585:Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University
1305:
770:in being larger, lacking a facial stripe, being
8022:
8020:
7485:"A History of the Passenger Pigeon in Missouri"
7067:"Large-scale live capture of Passenger Pigeons
7003:
7001:
6988:
6986:
6973:
6971:
6820:
6818:
6769:
6767:
6476:. Vol. 51, no. 25. pp. 169β176.
5886:
5884:
5882:
5134:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4928:
4926:
4862:
4860:
4858:
4856:
4854:
4852:
4730:
4728:
4726:
4724:
4722:
4709:
4707:
4705:
4692:
4690:
4688:
4686:
4591:
4589:
4587:
4585:
4324:
4322:
4320:
4318:
3684:. London: T & AD Poyser. pp. 144β146.
3647:. Boston: Otis, Broaders, and Company. p.
3586:
3584:
3519:
2741:The notion that the species could be driven to
8277:
7678:
7676:
7328:
6468:"Once there were billions, now there are none"
6449:
6447:
6434:
6432:
6322:. In Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E. (eds.).
6292:Delcourt, Paul A.; Delcourt, Hazel R. (2004),
6189:
6187:
6073:Annals of the Entomological Society of America
4612:
4610:
4608:
4606:
4604:
4351:
3704:
3405:
3364:
3362:
3184:"β Ectopistes Swainson 1827 (passenger pigeon)"
3046:International Union for Conservation of Nature
3020:Pigeons being shot to save crops in Iowa, 1867
2103:Nesting captive bird, wary of the photographer
1153:occurred between the passenger pigeon and the
8181:
7958:
7910:. Wisconsin Historical Society. December 2003
7142:"The last of the Wild Pigeon in Bucks County"
7139:
7121:
7060:
7058:
7056:
7054:
7052:
6779:
6678:
6346:
6249:
6017:
5994:
5975:
5960:
5941:
5713:
5625:
5562:
4900:
4642:
4640:
4638:
4415:
4230:"The St. JΓ©rΓ΄me Dictionary of Miami-Illinois"
3994:Atkinson, G. E. (1907). Mershon, W. B (ed.).
3889:
3655:
3417:"The scientific name of the Passenger Pigeon"
1947:in modern times as white-footed mice are the
1802:. This is expected if natural selection, via
1408:The juvenile passenger pigeon was similar in
1329:Turntable video of an adult male specimen at
1273:
8017:
7286:
7240:
7228:
7216:
7168:
7156:
7109:
7097:
7085:
7075:Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club
7037:
7025:
7013:
6998:
6983:
6968:
6956:
6830:
6815:
6803:
6791:
6764:
6519:
6507:
6111:
6109:
5879:
5235:
5233:
5231:
5229:
5122:
5120:
5118:
5116:
5114:
4951:
4949:
4947:
4945:
4943:
4941:
4923:
4849:
4719:
4702:
4683:
4582:
4419:Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club
4347:
4345:
4343:
4341:
4339:
4337:
4315:
4145:
3581:
1547:documenting male vocalizations, compiled by
1289:
1261:
1230:
1187:
7972:"How to bring extinct animals back to life"
7774:
7762:
7721:
7673:
7649:
7257:
7255:
6848:
6679:Harvey, C.; Newbern, E. (August 29, 2014).
6444:
6429:
6347:Thompson, D. Q. & Smith, R. H. (1971),
6184:
6057:
4601:
4541:
4539:
4537:
4411:
4409:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4377:
4262:
4228:Costa, D. J. (2005). Wolfart, H. C. (ed.).
4112:
3676:
3549:Ray, Clayton E.; Bohaska, David J. (2001).
3359:
3339:Ecology and management of the Mourning Dove
2679:pigeons for luring wild birds, c. 1870
2390:
2124:each other. This was followed by the birds
1574:
1364:was 26 to 28 mm (1.0 to 1.1 in).
8317:
8188:
8174:
7694:
7655:
7185:
7183:
7049:
6709:"Ode to Martha, the last passenger pigeon"
6495:
6243:
6202:
6005:
5988:
5969:
5954:
5890:
5809:
5579:
5072:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
4917:
4866:
4734:
4713:
4696:
4635:
4595:
4328:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3631:
3590:
3548:
3414:
2224:
613:moved the passenger pigeon from the genus
337:
174:
151:
120:
9436:Native birds of the Eastern United States
8422:
7712:
7500:
7409:
6893:. Sarasota, FL: Pineapple Press. p.
6849:Laudonnière, René de Goulaine de (1853).
6755:
6737:
6700:
6413:
6377:
6368:
6340:
6326:. New York: Academic Press. p. 226.
6221:
6193:
6106:
6042:
6031:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
5778:
5616:
5590:
5588:
5545:
5535:
5494:
5484:
5408:
5384:
5371:
5268:
5226:
5211:
5164:
5154:
5111:
4938:
4334:
4206:. Department of American Indian Studies,
4170:Culture and History of the Delaware Tribe
3931:
3921:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3555:Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology
3396:
3280:
3229:
2285:that preyed on nestlings and adults, and
1610:states south through states north of the
1472:found little to differentiate the bird's
1303:stated that his people called the pigeon
1205:. In modern French, the bird is known as
782:. In a 2002 study by American geneticist
9451:Species made extinct by human activities
7922:
7840:
7814:"Martha β Passenger Pigeon Memorial Hut"
7780:
7768:
7727:
7682:
7482:
7373:
7292:
7252:
7246:
7234:
7222:
7174:
7162:
7127:
7115:
7103:
7091:
7043:
7031:
7019:
7007:
6992:
6977:
6962:
6884:
6866:MacNamara, Charles. Miller, G.A. (ed.).
6836:
6824:
6809:
6797:
6785:
6773:
6706:
6552:
6525:
6513:
6501:
6453:
6438:
6285:
6208:
5187:
5032:
4932:
4788:
4545:
4534:
4495:
4406:
4390:Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World
4387:
4374:
4268:
4237:Papers of the 36th Algonquian Conference
4151:
4118:
3993:
3987:
3524:(Third ed.). Stanford, California:
3520:Schenk, E. T.; McMasters, J. H. (1956).
3469:
3076:
3015:
2970:
2899:The Folly of 1857 and the Lesson of 1912
2892:
2865:
2794:
2754:
2717:
2670:
2645:
2573:
2544:
2476:
2394:
2228:
2172:
2153:
2135:
2098:
2046:
1964:
1832:
1812:
1693:
1660:
1578:
1539:
1447:
1393:
1366:
1318:
707:
691:
680:
519:
8057:
7928:
7786:
7701:Journal of Fish and Wildlife Management
7574:Stukel, E. D. (JanuaryβFebruary 2005).
7465:
7324:
7322:
7304:
7192:"Why the Passenger Pigeon Went Extinct"
7180:
6672:
6645:"Martha: Last of the Passenger Pigeons"
6642:
6311:
5902:
5431:
5343:
5310:
5045:. Chicago, Illinois. pp. 210β213.
4994:
4835:
4352:Gibbs, D.; Barnes, E.; Cox, J. (2001).
3794:
3368:
3336:
3319:
2850:claimed that he saw a pair flying near
1760:study's "conservative" estimate of an "
1656:
1563:In 1911, American behavioral scientist
437:is more closely related to it than the
9403:
8026:
7733:
7643:
7612:. Boston, Massachusetts. April 4, 1910
7573:
7432:
7189:
6842:
6660:from the original on December 11, 2021
6585:
6540:
6317:
5585:
5354:from the original on December 11, 2021
5105:
4831:
4829:
4827:
4746:
4616:
4483:
4309:
4297:
4092:
4059:
3740:
3637:
3602:
1665:Live male in Whitman's aviary, 1896/98
9066:
9065:
8409:
8255:
8169:
8087:"The Great Passenger Pigeon Comeback"
7969:
7739:
7438:
6924:(2005). "The Artificial Wilderness".
6878:
6865:
6855:. Paris: Chez P. Jannet. p. 136.
6643:Gebhart, Parrish (October 17, 2010).
6362:
6227:
6064:Clayton, D. H.; Price, R. D. (1999).
5425:
5372:Achenbach, Joel (November 16, 2017).
4646:
4441:
4439:
4437:
4435:
4433:
4227:
4221:
3954:
3808:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
3494:
3073:Potential resurrection of the species
2269:) that preyed on eggs and nestlings,
9446:Extinct animals of the United States
9416:NatureServe presumed extinct species
7319:
7064:
6920:
6465:
6215:Paleoamerican Origins: Beyond Clovis
5217:
4498:"Osteology of the Passenger Pigeon (
2966:
2934:a celebrity due to her status as an
2701:Passenger pigeons were also seen as
665:for the mourning dove, and the name
129:Live female in 1896/98, kept in the
9481:Species endangered by deforestation
8256:
7806:
7265:; Dobkin, D. S.; Wheye, D. (1988).
4824:
3384:Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature
3217:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
2128:, in which the female inserted its
1736:and on "sequences from most of the
13:
8140:The Demise of the Passenger Pigeon
7580:South Dakota Game Fish & Parks
6738:Kyne, P. M.; Adams, V. M. (2016).
6707:McLendon, R. (September 1, 2011).
6614:
6044:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x
5605:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution
4430:
4243:. pp. 107β133. Archived from
3896:) with Next Generation Sequencing"
3603:Miller, W. J. (January 16, 1969).
2953:National Museum of Natural History
1975:American Museum of Natural History
1698:Illustration of migrating flocks,
1044:(turtle doves and collared doves)
19:For the 2010 mumblecore film, see
14:
9497:
9486:Species endangered by use as food
8410:
8104:
7332:The Wilson Journal of Ornithology
4877:. In Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.).
2821:A Feathered River Across the Sky.
2784:
2714:Decline and conservation attempts
2675:Trapper Albert Cooper with blind
2170:for the duration of the nesting.
1677:, American naturalist and artist
699:, a species in the related genus
565:, which referred to this bird as
9046:
8392:
8122:
8110:
8079:
8051:
7989:
7900:
7875:
7834:
7688:
7593:
7567:
7542:
7517:
7476:
7459:
7403:
7367:
7298:
7133:
6914:
6859:
6731:
6636:
6608:
6579:
6546:
4980:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2003.00230.x
3141:
2613:A Feathered River Across the Sky
2140:Nest and egg in Whitman's aviary
1928:trees that provided much of the
1535:
661:(ICZN) secure the specific name
201:
45:
7883:"Passenger Pigeon/Allee effect"
7554:www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org
6459:
6011:
5896:
5854:
5803:
5754:
5669:
5511:
5460:
5397:Molecular Biology and Evolution
5365:
5337:
4782:
4740:
4489:
4192:
4166:"Extinct Birds the Lenape Knew"
4157:
4086:
3948:
3883:
3842:
3698:
3609:Should Doves be Hunted in Iowa?
3596:
3542:
3513:
3488:
3206:BirdLife International (2019).
3129:
2094:
1732:A 2014 genetic study (based on
1484:for downstroke and the smaller
1437:, due to incomplete synthesis (
1427:Natural History Museum at Tring
687:Field Museum of Natural History
685:Mounted male passenger pigeon,
9441:Extinct birds of North America
6466:Edey, M. (December 22, 1961).
5832:10.1126/science.279.5358.1831c
3463:
3313:
3274:
3245:
3176:
2882:The Chicago group was kept by
2861:American Ornithologists' Union
1433:is a result of a reduction in
1314:
794:), and it was found to be the
590:for the passenger pigeon, and
1:
9431:Pleistocene first appearances
9411:IUCN Red List extinct species
7934:: And Sketches Here and There
6872:The Canadian Field-Naturalist
6567:(5) (5th ed.): 458β481.
5727:Forest Ecology and Management
5679:Forest Ecology and Management
4128:University of Wisconsin Press
3726:10.1126/science.295.5560.1683
3169:
3081:Taxidermied male and female,
2598:in the woods around our fort.
2211:, in his historic 1858 paper
2133:passenger pigeon as follows:
1452:Skeleton of a male bird, 1914
1331:Naturalis Biodiversity Center
8029:"Bringing them back to life"
7869:10.1016/0006-3207(80)90046-4
7794:"Last Passenger Pigeon Dies"
6209:Goodyear, Albert C. (2005),
5748:10.1016/j.foreco.2011.11.034
5699:10.1016/j.foreco.2012.08.036
5537:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001388
5486:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002112
3923:10.1371/journal.pone.0056301
2888:Wisconsin Historical Society
1168:
778:neck feathers and a smaller
676:
645:should take precedence over
586:, and instead used the name
582:, Linnaeus dropped the name
7:
9466:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
9456:Bird extinctions since 1500
7908:"Passenger Pigeon Monument"
6885:McCarthy, Kevin M. (1994).
6868:"Champlain as a Naturalist"
5188:Williams, S. C. P. (2014).
4099:Online Etymology Dictionary
3859:10.1007/978-1-61779-516-9_4
3828:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.05.010
3780:10.1016/j.aanat.2011.02.017
3441:10.1126/science.48.1244.445
3257:. NatureServe Explorer 2.0"
2472:Chautauqua County, New York
1870:, which would have favored
755:by some authors, including
515:
10:
9502:
4885:Cornell Lab of Ornithology
4880:The Birds of North America
4867:Blockstein, D. E. (2002).
4204:Ojibwe People's Dictionary
4069:Princeton University Press
3415:Oberholser, H. C. (1918).
2957:National Historic Landmark
2788:
2540:
18:
9426:Extinct animals of Canada
9074:
9044:
8962:
8942:
8894:
8796:
8720:
8711:
8663:
8580:
8525:
8516:
8433:
8418:
8405:
8390:
8308:
8268:
8264:
8251:
8213:
7887:kevintshoemaker.github.io
7550:"TR Center - ImageViewer"
6757:10.1017/S0030605316000041
5875:– via Open Edition.
4174:Delaware Tribe of Indians
3526:Stanford University Press
3281:Henninger, W. F. (1902).
3224:: e.T22690733A152593137.
3100:Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica
2791:Martha (passenger pigeon)
2683:By the mid-19th century,
2650:Pigeon net in Canada, by
1773:effective population size
1762:effective population size
1746:effective population size
1669:The passenger pigeon was
1583:Specimen in flying pose,
1492:bone (which connects the
1486:musculus supracoracoideus
1482:musculus pectoralis major
1336:The passenger pigeon was
1098:
1080:
1073:
1037:
1019:
1012:
986:
960:
942:
935:
928:
921:
914:
907:
798:of the cuckoo-dove genus
536:coined the binomial name
447:The passenger pigeon was
357:
350:
345:
336:
314:
307:
198:Scientific classification
196:
172:
149:
140:
128:
119:
33:
8208:and their extinct allies
7410:Greenberg, Joel (2014).
6553:Shufeldt, R. W. (1921).
6272:10.1177/0959683608095581
5344:SciShow (July 2, 2018),
4789:Chandler, R. M. (1982).
4546:Shufeldt, R. W. (1915).
4496:Shufeldt, R. W. (1914).
4452:Encyclopedia Smithsonian
4388:Greenway, J. C. (1967).
4067:. Princeton and Oxford:
3567:10.5479/si.00810266.90.1
3470:Swainson, W. J. (1827).
3261:explorer.natureserve.org
3134:
2391:Relationship with humans
2299:Urocyon cinereoargenteus
2197:(a substance similar to
1675:Ornithological Biography
1575:Distribution and habitat
1220:, the pigeon was called
604:Mathurin Jacques Brisson
510:anthropogenic extinction
9476:Birds described in 1766
9471:1914 in the environment
8160:Smithsonian Institution
7942:Oxford University Press
7929:Leopold, Aldo (1989) .
7848:Biological Conservation
7714:10.3996/062010-JFWM-017
7385:Charles Scribner's Sons
6134:Journal of Parasitology
5655:10.1111/1365-2435.12728
5618:10.3389/fevo.2018.00020
5270:10.1126/science.aao0960
5156:10.1073/pnas.1401526111
4456:Smithsonian Institution
4208:University of Minnesota
2944:Smithsonian Institution
2907:Our vanishing wild life
2844:Ohio Historical Society
2652:James Pattison Cockburn
2225:Predators and parasites
1960:
1306:
1290:
1274:
1262:
1243:
1216:In the Native American
857:is also related to the
829:pigeons, including the
716:is not closely related.
712:The physically similar
555:biological nomenclature
553:(the starting point of
9388:Ectopistes-migratorius
9131:ectopistes-migratorius
9106:Ectopistes migratorius
9076:Ectopistes migratorius
8129:Ectopistes migratorius
8117:Ectopistes migratorius
7843:Ectopistes migratorius
7308:The Independent Review
7267:"The Passenger Pigeon"
7140:Paxson, H. D. (1917).
7069:Ectopistes migratorius
6889:Twenty Florida Pirates
6406:10.1126/sciadv.1501385
6318:Little, Silas (1974).
6228:Novak, Ben J. (2016),
6023:Wallace, Alfred Russel
5599:Ectopistes migratorius
4872:Ectopistes migratorius
4651:Ectopistes migratorius
4550:Ectopistes migratorius
4500:Ectopistes migratorius
4448:"The Passenger Pigeon"
4241:University of Manitoba
3894:Ectopistes migratorius
3754:Ectopistes migratorius
3680:; Walters, M. (2012).
3477:The Zoological Journal
3398:10.5962/bhl.part.10238
3255:Ectopistes migratorius
3210:Ectopistes migratorius
3102:, a subspecies of the
3086:
3070:
3021:
3003:Porphyrio hochstetteri
2980:
2918:
2871:
2803:
2778:Ohio State Legislature
2764:
2753:
2738:
2680:
2655:
2600:
2590:in a matter of weeks:
2579:
2550:
2527:National Medal of Arts
2482:
2410:
2234:
2222:
2178:
2177:Live nestling or squab
2162:
2148:
2141:
2104:
2056:
1978:
1838:
1822:
1718:Concord, Massachusetts
1703:
1688:
1666:
1587:
1552:
1453:
1405:
1378:
1333:
1231:
1188:
717:
705:
689:
529:
496:, which destroyed its
400:Ectopistes migratorius
321:Ectopistes migratorius
9370:Paleobiology Database
9357:Paleobiology Database
8144:National Public Radio
7932:A Sand County Almanac
7799:El Paso Morning Times
7483:McKinley, D. (1960).
6714:Mother Nature Network
6085:10.1093/aesa/92.5.675
5410:10.1093/molbev/msm277
5314:(November 16, 2017).
3619:on September 20, 2012
3522:Procedure in Taxonomy
3080:
3065:
3042:conservation movement
3027:Rocky Mountain locust
3019:
2974:
2896:
2869:
2798:
2758:
2748:
2732:William Butts Mershon
2724:Louis Agassiz Fuertes
2721:
2695:Plattsburgh, New York
2674:
2649:
2592:
2577:
2548:
2503:Louis Agassiz Fuertes
2480:
2398:
2378:Campanulotes defectus
2360:Columbicola extinctus
2232:
2217:
2209:Alfred Russel Wallace
2176:
2157:
2143:
2139:
2102:
2050:
1968:
1872:fire-tolerant species
1836:
1819:Louis Agassiz Fuertes
1816:
1800:genetic recombination
1697:
1683:
1664:
1616:competitive exclusion
1612:Appalachian Mountains
1582:
1543:
1451:
1403:
1376:
1328:
1279:, or "lost dove", in
1213:, among other names.
879:In a 2012 study, the
711:
695:
684:
611:William John Swainson
523:
462:eastern North America
377:Ectopistes migratoria
8119:at Wikimedia Commons
8058:Landers, J. (2013).
8039:on December 12, 2016
7065:Hume, J. P. (2015).
5818:(5358): 1831cβ1831.
4959:Conservation Biology
4360:. pp. 318β319.
4065:The Passenger Pigeon
3997:The Passenger Pigeon
3707:"Flight of the Dodo"
3369:Hemming, F. (1952).
3320:Catesby, M. (1729).
3120:Revive & Restore
3114:of rock pigeons (or
3057:Wyalusing State Park
2995:Strigops habroptilus
2884:Charles Otis Whitman
2852:Independence, Kansas
2736:The Passenger Pigeon
2498:The Birds of America
2468:Saint-JΓ©rΓ΄me, Quebec
2406:The Birds of America
2315:American black bears
1954:Borrelia burgdorferi
1808:background selection
1788:background selection
1657:Ecology and behavior
1218:Algonquian languages
1163:Charles Otis Whitman
1159:Streptopelia risoria
1087:(New World pigeons)
1026:(Old World pigeons)
872:, or perhaps across
753:E. carolinensis
592:C. carolinensis
573:, who used the name
567:Palumbus migratorius
8065:The Washington Post
8033:National Geographic
8027:Zimmer, C. (2013).
8002:Long Now Foundation
7861:1980BCons..17..157H
7695:D'Elia, J. (2010).
7669:. pp. 167β170.
7667:Hutchinson & Co
7529:The Raab Collection
7469:National Geographic
7272:Stanford University
7204:on January 21, 2015
7190:Yeoman, B. (2014).
6586:Milner, R. (2012).
6573:1921SciMo..12..458S
6398:2016SciA....2E1385L
6324:Fire and Ecosystems
6264:2008Holoc..18.1123A
5919:1985HumEc..13..389N
5824:1998Sci...279.1831B
5740:2012ForEM.267...28B
5691:2012ForEM.286...87H
5378:The Washington Post
5261:2017Sci...358..951M
5147:2014PNAS..11110636H
5141:(29): 10636β10641.
4972:2003ConBi..17.1548E
4617:Fuller, E. (2001).
4093:Harper, D. (2012).
3914:2013PLoSO...856301H
3820:2010MolPE..57..455J
3772:2012AnAAA.194...52F
3433:1918Sci....48..445O
3287:The Wilson Bulletin
3116:band-tailed pigeons
2903:William T. Hornaday
2901:", frontispiece to
2813:Millikin University
2722:Male and female by
2569:Meleagris gallopavo
2456:Samuel de Champlain
2384:Campanulotes flavus
2247:long-tailed weasels
2109:communally breeding
1910:forest disturbances
1827:communally roosting
1796:band-tailed pigeons
1727:Christopher Cokinos
1714:Henry David Thoreau
1488:for upstroke). The
1257:indigenous American
1161:) in the aviary of
639:Harry C. Oberholser
532:Swedish naturalist
300:E. migratorius
143:Conservation status
8270:Mesitornithiformes
8005:. February 7, 2013
7970:Lewis, T. (2013).
7822:. Cincinnati, Ohio
7609:The New York Times
7576:"Passenger Pigeon"
7130:, pp. 177β179
6788:, pp. 133β134
6560:Scientific Monthly
6543:, pp. 124β147
6516:, pp. 132β133
5927:10.1007/BF01531152
5763:"Of Mice and Mast"
5642:Functional Ecology
5436:. French Edition.
5320:Science & AAAS
5312:Pennisi, Elizabeth
5194:Science & AAAS
4870:"Passenger Pigeon
4647:Craig, W. (1911).
4486:, pp. 162β168
4312:, pp. 150β161
4180:on October 6, 2012
4154:, pp. 252β253
3955:Deane, R. (1908).
3495:Bangs, O. (1906).
3373:Columba migratoria
3341:. Harrisburg, PA:
3087:
3031:Melanoplus spretus
3022:
2981:
2977:Smithsonian Museum
2919:
2872:
2856:Theodore Roosevelt
2804:
2770:Petoskey, Michigan
2765:
2739:
2703:agricultural pests
2681:
2656:
2580:
2551:
2483:
2411:
2401:John James Audubon
2345:predator satiation
2341:Accipiter cooperii
2235:
2179:
2163:
2160:MusΓ©um de Toulouse
2142:
2105:
2091:, or after dying.
2057:
1979:
1941:white-footed mouse
1839:
1823:
1792:adaptive evolution
1704:
1679:John James Audubon
1667:
1588:
1553:
1514:uncinate processes
1470:Robert W. Shufeldt
1454:
1406:
1379:
1338:sexually dimorphic
1334:
1287:called the pigeon
1259:languages include
892:of the New World.
890:Neotropical region
831:band-tailed pigeon
772:sexually dimorphic
757:Thomas Mayo Brewer
751:and was listed as
726:Yorktown Formation
718:
706:
697:Band-tailed pigeon
690:
657:proposed that the
651:E. canadensis
647:C. migratoria
643:C. canadensis
596:C. canadensis
588:C. migratoria
530:
482:predator satiation
449:sexually dimorphic
369:Columba canadensis
361:Columba migratoria
9398:
9397:
9344:Open Tree of Life
9068:Taxon identifiers
9059:
9058:
9055:
9054:
9042:
9041:
9038:
9037:
9034:
9033:
8659:
8658:
8401:
8400:
8388:
8387:
8384:
8383:
8304:
8303:
8142:(as broadcast on
8115:Media related to
7646:, pp. 92β121
7425:978-1-62040-534-5
7398:Project Gutenberg
6949:978-1-4000-4006-3
6904:978-1-56164-050-8
6601:978-0-8109-8479-0
6333:978-0-12-424255-5
6305:978-0-521-66270-3
6094:on April 25, 2012
5872:978-1-4214-1718-9
5255:(6365): 951β954.
5052:978-0-226-77993-5
4628:978-0-8014-3954-4
4462:on March 13, 2012
4399:978-0-486-21869-4
4367:978-1-873403-60-0
4137:978-1-930665-96-5
4078:978-0-691-16295-9
3868:978-1-61779-515-2
3759:Annals of Anatomy
3691:978-1-4081-5725-1
3611:. Ames, IA: Ames
3535:978-0-8047-3867-5
3352:978-0-8117-1940-7
3035:Newcastle disease
2967:Extinction causes
2961:Carolina parakeet
2940:apoplectic stroke
2924:George Washington
2848:Alexander Wetmore
2836:Pike County, Ohio
2817:Decatur, Illinois
2809:Oakford, Illinois
2761:Charles R. Knight
2521:'s 2002 painting
2507:Charles R. Knight
2436:Feast of the Dead
2369:C. extinctus
2085:American chestnut
1926:American chestnut
1780:natural selection
1757:mitochondrial DNA
1734:coalescent theory
1709:Arlie W. Schorger
1604:deciduous forests
1569:musical notations
1423:Walter Rothschild
1401:
1374:
1326:
1255:. Other names in
1145:
1144:
1136:
1135:
1127:
1126:
1118:
1117:
1062:
1061:
1053:
1052:
1001:
1000:
975:
974:
600:Turtur canadensis
478:communal breeding
474:communal roosting
458:deciduous forests
387:
386:
381:
373:
365:
288:
191:
167:
22:Passenger Pigeons
9493:
9391:
9390:
9378:
9377:
9365:
9364:
9352:
9351:
9339:
9338:
9326:
9325:
9323:NHMSYS0021109673
9313:
9312:
9300:
9299:
9287:
9286:
9274:
9273:
9261:
9260:
9248:
9247:
9235:
9234:
9222:
9221:
9209:
9208:
9196:
9195:
9183:
9182:
9173:
9172:
9160:
9159:
9147:
9146:
9144:D397FE255A606DE8
9134:
9133:
9121:
9120:
9110:
9109:
9108:
9095:
9094:
9093:
9063:
9062:
9050:
9022:
8875:
8865:
8848:
8838:
8814:
8718:
8717:
8598:
8523:
8522:
8504:
8494:
8484:
8474:
8464:
8454:
8444:
8431:
8430:
8420:
8419:
8407:
8406:
8396:
8358:
8348:
8338:
8328:
8315:
8314:
8275:
8274:
8266:
8265:
8253:
8252:
8190:
8183:
8176:
8167:
8166:
8127:Data related to
8126:
8114:
8098:
8097:
8095:
8093:
8083:
8077:
8076:
8074:
8072:
8055:
8049:
8048:
8046:
8044:
8035:. Archived from
8024:
8015:
8014:
8012:
8010:
7993:
7987:
7986:
7984:
7982:
7967:
7956:
7955:
7926:
7920:
7919:
7917:
7915:
7904:
7898:
7897:
7895:
7893:
7879:
7873:
7872:
7838:
7832:
7831:
7829:
7827:
7819:Roadside America
7810:
7804:
7803:
7790:
7784:
7778:
7772:
7766:
7760:
7759:
7737:
7731:
7725:
7719:
7718:
7716:
7692:
7686:
7680:
7671:
7670:
7653:
7647:
7641:
7622:
7621:
7619:
7617:
7605:
7597:
7591:
7590:
7588:
7586:
7571:
7565:
7564:
7562:
7560:
7546:
7540:
7539:
7537:
7535:
7521:
7515:
7514:
7504:
7480:
7474:
7473:
7463:
7457:
7456:
7436:
7430:
7429:
7407:
7401:
7395:
7393:
7391:
7371:
7365:
7364:
7326:
7317:
7316:
7302:
7296:
7290:
7284:
7283:
7281:
7279:
7259:
7250:
7244:
7238:
7232:
7226:
7220:
7214:
7213:
7211:
7209:
7200:. Archived from
7197:Audubon Magazine
7187:
7178:
7172:
7166:
7160:
7154:
7153:
7137:
7131:
7125:
7119:
7113:
7107:
7101:
7095:
7089:
7083:
7082:
7062:
7047:
7041:
7035:
7029:
7023:
7017:
7011:
7005:
6996:
6990:
6981:
6975:
6966:
6960:
6954:
6953:
6918:
6912:
6911:
6892:
6882:
6876:
6875:
6863:
6857:
6856:
6846:
6840:
6834:
6828:
6822:
6813:
6807:
6801:
6795:
6789:
6783:
6777:
6771:
6762:
6761:
6759:
6735:
6729:
6728:
6723:
6721:
6704:
6698:
6697:
6695:
6693:
6686:Audubon Magazine
6676:
6670:
6669:
6667:
6665:
6649:
6640:
6634:
6633:
6631:
6629:
6612:
6606:
6605:
6583:
6577:
6576:
6550:
6544:
6538:
6529:
6523:
6517:
6511:
6505:
6499:
6493:
6492:
6490:
6488:
6463:
6457:
6451:
6442:
6436:
6427:
6426:
6417:
6386:Science Advances
6381:
6375:
6366:
6360:
6359:
6353:
6344:
6338:
6337:
6315:
6309:
6308:
6289:
6283:
6282:
6258:(7): 1123β1137,
6247:
6241:
6240:
6239:, pp. 10β11
6234:
6225:
6219:
6218:
6206:
6200:
6191:
6182:
6181:
6179:
6177:
6172:on June 10, 2010
6171:
6165:. Archived from
6130:
6113:
6104:
6103:
6101:
6099:
6093:
6087:. Archived from
6070:
6061:
6055:
6054:
6053:
6051:
6046:
6015:
6009:
6003:
5992:
5986:
5973:
5967:
5958:
5952:
5939:
5938:
5900:
5894:
5888:
5877:
5876:
5858:
5852:
5851:
5807:
5801:
5800:
5782:
5758:
5752:
5751:
5717:
5711:
5710:
5673:
5667:
5666:
5649:(5): 1008β1009.
5638:
5629:
5623:
5622:
5620:
5592:
5583:
5577:
5560:
5559:
5549:
5539:
5515:
5509:
5508:
5498:
5488:
5464:
5458:
5457:
5429:
5423:
5422:
5412:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5369:
5363:
5362:
5361:
5359:
5341:
5335:
5334:
5332:
5330:
5308:
5299:
5298:
5272:
5246:
5237:
5224:
5223:
5215:
5209:
5208:
5206:
5204:
5185:
5179:
5178:
5168:
5158:
5124:
5109:
5108:, pp. 50β69
5103:
5078:
5077:
5071:
5063:
5061:
5059:
5036:
5030:
5029:
5012:(1): 111. 1911.
4998:
4992:
4991:
4966:(6): 1548β1558.
4953:
4936:
4930:
4921:
4915:
4898:
4896:
4894:
4892:
4876:
4864:
4847:
4846:
4833:
4822:
4821:
4795:
4786:
4780:
4779:
4744:
4738:
4732:
4717:
4711:
4700:
4694:
4681:
4680:
4644:
4633:
4632:
4614:
4599:
4593:
4580:
4579:
4543:
4532:
4531:
4493:
4487:
4481:
4472:
4471:
4469:
4467:
4458:. Archived from
4443:
4428:
4427:
4413:
4404:
4403:
4385:
4372:
4371:
4349:
4332:
4326:
4313:
4307:
4301:
4300:, pp. 72β88
4295:
4272:
4266:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4255:
4250:on June 11, 2016
4249:
4234:
4225:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4214:
4196:
4190:
4189:
4187:
4185:
4176:. Archived from
4161:
4155:
4149:
4143:
4141:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4095:"Passenger (n.)"
4090:
4084:
4082:
4057:
4002:
4001:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3935:
3925:
3887:
3881:
3880:
3846:
3840:
3839:
3803:
3792:
3791:
3749:
3738:
3737:
3711:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3674:
3653:
3652:
3635:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3624:
3615:. Archived from
3600:
3594:
3588:
3579:
3578:
3546:
3540:
3539:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3492:
3486:
3485:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3412:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3366:
3357:
3356:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3317:
3311:
3310:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3238:
3233:
3203:
3192:
3191:
3180:
3163:
3145:
3108:George M. Church
3083:Laval University
2909:(1913), showing
2759:Life drawing by
2584:René Laudonnière
2488:Alexander Wilson
2450:French explorer
2399:Billing pair by
2373:C. angustus
2319:Ursus americanus
2259:Martes americana
2255:American martens
1917:to provide more
1906:keystone species
1804:selective sweeps
1784:selective sweeps
1647:La Brea Tar Pits
1415:tertial feathers
1402:
1375:
1327:
1309:
1293:
1277:
1265:
1246:
1234:
1211:pigeon migrateur
1207:tourte voyageuse
1191:
1181:, indicates its
1173:The genus name,
1107:passenger pigeon
1076:
1075:
1015:
1014:
938:
937:
931:
930:
924:
923:
917:
916:
910:
909:
903:
902:
835:P. fasciata
745:Z. macroura
728:, dating to the
635:E. macroura
631:C. macroura
584:C. macroura
575:C. macroura
429:Zenaida macroura
391:passenger pigeon
379:
371:
363:
341:
323:
319:
283:
276:
206:
205:
185:
178:
177:
161:
155:
154:
124:
107:
44:
37:Temporal range:
34:Passenger pigeon
31:
30:
9501:
9500:
9496:
9495:
9494:
9492:
9491:
9490:
9401:
9400:
9399:
9394:
9386:
9381:
9373:
9368:
9360:
9355:
9347:
9342:
9334:
9329:
9321:
9316:
9308:
9303:
9295:
9290:
9282:
9277:
9269:
9264:
9256:
9251:
9243:
9238:
9230:
9225:
9217:
9212:
9204:
9199:
9191:
9186:
9178:
9176:
9168:
9163:
9155:
9150:
9142:
9137:
9129:
9124:
9118:
9113:
9104:
9103:
9098:
9089:
9088:
9083:
9070:
9060:
9051:
9030:
8958:
8938:
8890:
8792:
8707:
8655:
8576:
8512:
8427:
8414:
8397:
8380:
8300:
8279:Mesitornithidae
8260:
8258:Pteroclimesites
8247:
8209:
8194:
8107:
8102:
8101:
8091:
8089:
8085:
8084:
8080:
8070:
8068:
8056:
8052:
8042:
8040:
8025:
8018:
8008:
8006:
7995:
7994:
7990:
7980:
7978:
7968:
7959:
7952:
7944:. p. 109.
7927:
7923:
7913:
7911:
7906:
7905:
7901:
7891:
7889:
7881:
7880:
7876:
7839:
7835:
7825:
7823:
7812:
7811:
7807:
7792:
7791:
7787:
7779:
7775:
7767:
7763:
7743:Natural History
7738:
7734:
7726:
7722:
7693:
7689:
7681:
7674:
7654:
7650:
7642:
7625:
7615:
7613:
7603:
7599:
7598:
7594:
7584:
7582:
7572:
7568:
7558:
7556:
7548:
7547:
7543:
7533:
7531:
7523:
7522:
7518:
7502:10.2307/4082414
7481:
7477:
7464:
7460:
7437:
7433:
7426:
7408:
7404:
7389:
7387:
7375:Hornaday, W. T.
7372:
7368:
7327:
7320:
7303:
7299:
7291:
7287:
7277:
7275:
7260:
7253:
7245:
7241:
7233:
7229:
7221:
7217:
7207:
7205:
7188:
7181:
7173:
7169:
7161:
7157:
7138:
7134:
7126:
7122:
7114:
7110:
7102:
7098:
7090:
7086:
7063:
7050:
7042:
7038:
7030:
7026:
7018:
7014:
7006:
6999:
6991:
6984:
6976:
6969:
6961:
6957:
6950:
6936:Alfred A. Knopf
6919:
6915:
6905:
6883:
6879:
6864:
6860:
6847:
6843:
6835:
6831:
6823:
6816:
6808:
6804:
6796:
6792:
6784:
6780:
6772:
6765:
6736:
6732:
6719:
6717:
6705:
6701:
6691:
6689:
6677:
6673:
6663:
6661:
6647:
6641:
6637:
6627:
6625:
6613:
6609:
6602:
6594:. p. 138.
6584:
6580:
6551:
6547:
6539:
6532:
6524:
6520:
6512:
6508:
6500:
6496:
6486:
6484:
6464:
6460:
6452:
6445:
6437:
6430:
6382:
6378:
6367:
6363:
6351:
6345:
6341:
6334:
6316:
6312:
6306:
6290:
6286:
6248:
6244:
6232:
6226:
6222:
6207:
6203:
6192:
6185:
6175:
6173:
6169:
6147:10.2307/3284803
6128:
6114:
6107:
6097:
6095:
6091:
6068:
6062:
6058:
6049:
6047:
6019:Darwin, Charles
6016:
6012:
6006:Blockstein 2002
6004:
5995:
5989:Blockstein 2002
5987:
5976:
5970:Blockstein 2002
5968:
5961:
5955:Blockstein 2002
5953:
5942:
5901:
5897:
5891:Blockstein 2002
5889:
5880:
5873:
5859:
5855:
5808:
5804:
5780:10.2307/1312946
5759:
5755:
5718:
5714:
5674:
5670:
5636:
5630:
5626:
5593:
5586:
5580:Blockstein 2002
5578:
5563:
5530:(9): e1001388.
5516:
5512:
5479:(4): e1002112.
5465:
5461:
5446:10.2307/1531855
5430:
5426:
5389:
5385:
5370:
5366:
5357:
5355:
5342:
5338:
5328:
5326:
5309:
5302:
5244:
5238:
5227:
5216:
5212:
5202:
5200:
5186:
5182:
5125:
5112:
5104:
5081:
5065:
5064:
5057:
5055:
5053:
5037:
5033:
5018:10.2307/4071503
5000:
4999:
4995:
4954:
4939:
4931:
4924:
4918:Blockstein 2002
4916:
4901:
4890:
4888:
4865:
4850:
4834:
4825:
4810:10.2307/1367681
4793:
4787:
4783:
4768:10.2307/1363481
4745:
4741:
4735:Blockstein 2002
4733:
4720:
4714:Blockstein 2002
4712:
4703:
4697:Blockstein 2002
4695:
4684:
4669:10.2307/4071160
4645:
4636:
4629:
4615:
4602:
4596:Blockstein 2002
4594:
4583:
4568:10.2307/4071611
4544:
4535:
4520:10.2307/4071953
4494:
4490:
4482:
4475:
4465:
4463:
4444:
4431:
4414:
4407:
4400:
4386:
4375:
4368:
4350:
4335:
4329:Blockstein 2002
4327:
4316:
4308:
4304:
4296:
4275:
4267:
4263:
4253:
4251:
4247:
4232:
4226:
4222:
4212:
4210:
4198:
4197:
4193:
4183:
4181:
4162:
4158:
4150:
4146:
4138:
4126:. Madison, WI:
4120:Schorger, A. W.
4117:
4113:
4103:
4101:
4091:
4087:
4079:
4058:
4005:
3992:
3988:
3973:10.2307/4070695
3953:
3949:
3888:
3884:
3869:
3847:
3843:
3804:
3795:
3750:
3741:
3709:
3703:
3699:
3692:
3675:
3656:
3636:
3632:
3622:
3620:
3613:Audubon Society
3601:
3597:
3591:Blockstein 2002
3589:
3582:
3561:(90): 299β300.
3547:
3543:
3536:
3518:
3514:
3493:
3489:
3468:
3464:
3413:
3406:
3379:Swainson, 1827"
3367:
3360:
3353:
3343:Stackpole Books
3335:
3331:
3318:
3314:
3279:
3275:
3265:
3263:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3236:
3234:
3204:
3195:
3182:
3181:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3166:
3146:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3075:
2969:
2917:of the species.
2825:Laurel, Indiana
2793:
2787:
2716:
2637:sports shooting
2608:Native American
2543:
2531:John A. Ruthven
2452:Jacques Cartier
2420:prescribed burn
2393:
2251:Neogale frenata
2227:
2158:Preserved egg,
2097:
1973:acorns, at the
1963:
1949:reservoir hosts
1934:chestnut blight
1659:
1592:Rocky Mountains
1577:
1538:
1530:carpometacarpus
1394:
1367:
1347:covert feathers
1319:
1317:
1275:putchee nashoba
1171:
1146:
1137:
1128:
1119:
1063:
1054:
1002:
976:
949:(cuckoo-doves)
679:
655:Francis Hemming
641:suggested that
580:Systema Naturae
550:Systema Naturae
518:
405:extinct species
332:
325:
317:
316:
303:
282:
274:
200:
192:
179:
175:
168:
156:
152:
145:
115:
106:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
39:
38:
35:
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
9499:
9489:
9488:
9483:
9478:
9473:
9468:
9463:
9458:
9453:
9448:
9443:
9438:
9433:
9428:
9423:
9418:
9413:
9396:
9395:
9393:
9392:
9379:
9366:
9353:
9340:
9327:
9314:
9301:
9288:
9275:
9262:
9249:
9236:
9223:
9210:
9197:
9184:
9174:
9161:
9148:
9135:
9122:
9111:
9096:
9080:
9078:
9072:
9071:
9057:
9056:
9053:
9052:
9045:
9043:
9040:
9039:
9036:
9035:
9032:
9031:
9029:
9028:
9018:
9011:
9004:
8997:
8990:
8983:
8976:
8968:
8966:
8960:
8959:
8957:
8956:
8948:
8946:
8940:
8939:
8937:
8936:
8929:
8922:
8915:
8908:
8900:
8898:
8892:
8891:
8889:
8888:
8881:
8871:
8861:
8854:
8844:
8834:
8827:
8820:
8810:
8802:
8800:
8794:
8793:
8791:
8790:
8783:
8776:
8769:
8762:
8755:
8748:
8741:
8734:
8726:
8724:
8715:
8709:
8708:
8706:
8705:
8698:
8691:
8684:
8677:
8669:
8667:
8661:
8660:
8657:
8656:
8654:
8653:
8646:
8639:
8632:
8625:
8618:
8611:
8604:
8594:
8586:
8584:
8578:
8577:
8575:
8574:
8567:
8560:
8553:
8546:
8539:
8531:
8529:
8520:
8514:
8513:
8511:
8510:
8500:
8490:
8480:
8470:
8460:
8450:
8439:
8437:
8435:incertae sedis
8428:
8423:
8416:
8415:
8403:
8402:
8399:
8398:
8391:
8389:
8386:
8385:
8382:
8381:
8379:
8378:
8371:
8364:
8354:
8344:
8334:
8323:
8321:
8312:
8310:Pterocliformes
8306:
8305:
8302:
8301:
8299:
8298:
8291:
8283:
8281:
8272:
8262:
8261:
8249:
8248:
8246:
8245:
8243:Columbimorphae
8239:
8233:
8227:
8221:
8214:
8211:
8210:
8193:
8192:
8185:
8178:
8170:
8164:
8163:
8153:
8137:
8132:
8131:at Wikispecies
8120:
8106:
8105:External links
8103:
8100:
8099:
8078:
8050:
8016:
7988:
7957:
7950:
7921:
7899:
7874:
7855:(2): 157β162.
7833:
7805:
7785:
7773:
7761:
7732:
7720:
7707:(2): 189β210.
7687:
7672:
7657:Rothschild, W.
7648:
7623:
7592:
7566:
7541:
7516:
7495:(4): 399β420.
7475:
7472:. p. 495.
7458:
7431:
7424:
7416:Bloomsbury USA
7402:
7366:
7339:(4): 767β772.
7318:
7297:
7285:
7263:Ehrlich, P. R.
7251:
7239:
7227:
7215:
7179:
7167:
7155:
7132:
7120:
7108:
7096:
7084:
7048:
7036:
7024:
7012:
6997:
6982:
6967:
6955:
6948:
6913:
6903:
6877:
6858:
6841:
6829:
6814:
6802:
6790:
6778:
6763:
6750:(3): 471β476.
6730:
6699:
6671:
6635:
6623:Johnherald.com
6607:
6600:
6578:
6545:
6530:
6518:
6506:
6494:
6458:
6443:
6428:
6376:
6369:Greenberg 2014
6361:
6339:
6332:
6310:
6304:
6284:
6242:
6220:
6201:
6194:Greenberg 2014
6183:
6141:(5): 948β950.
6105:
6079:(5): 675β685.
6056:
6010:
5993:
5974:
5959:
5940:
5913:(4): 389β410.
5895:
5878:
5871:
5853:
5802:
5753:
5734:(267): 28β39.
5712:
5668:
5624:
5584:
5561:
5510:
5459:
5424:
5403:(2): 468β474.
5383:
5364:
5336:
5300:
5225:
5210:
5180:
5110:
5079:
5051:
5031:
4993:
4937:
4922:
4899:
4848:
4837:Audubon, J. J.
4823:
4781:
4739:
4718:
4701:
4682:
4663:(4): 408β427.
4634:
4627:
4600:
4581:
4533:
4514:(3): 358β362.
4488:
4473:
4429:
4405:
4398:
4373:
4366:
4333:
4314:
4302:
4273:
4261:
4220:
4191:
4156:
4144:
4136:
4111:
4085:
4077:
4003:
3986:
3967:(2): 181β183.
3947:
3882:
3867:
3841:
3793:
3739:
3720:(5560): 1683.
3697:
3690:
3654:
3630:
3595:
3580:
3541:
3534:
3528:. p. 89.
3512:
3487:
3462:
3404:
3358:
3351:
3345:. p. 48.
3329:
3312:
3273:
3244:
3193:
3174:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3165:
3164:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3074:
3071:
2975:Martha at the
2968:
2965:
2801:Cincinnati Zoo
2786:
2785:Last survivors
2783:
2715:
2712:
2542:
2539:
2512:Cincinnati Zoo
2495:) in his book
2432:Wyandot people
2392:
2389:
2239:American minks
2226:
2223:
2096:
2093:
1962:
1959:
1658:
1655:
1600:Atlantic coast
1576:
1573:
1537:
1534:
1478:Julian P. Hume
1316:
1313:
1170:
1167:
1143:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1134:
1133:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1097:
1094:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1079:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1064:
1060:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1007:
1004:
1003:
999:
998:
995:
994:
985:
982:
981:
978:
977:
973:
972:
969:
968:
959:
956:
955:
952:
951:
941:
936:
934:
929:
927:
922:
920:
915:
913:
908:
906:
901:
876:in the north.
678:
675:
671:plenary powers
571:George Edwards
517:
514:
506:Cincinnati Zoo
385:
384:
383:
382:
380:Swainson, 1827
374:
372:Linnaeus, 1766
366:
364:Linnaeus, 1766
355:
354:
348:
347:
343:
342:
334:
333:
326:
312:
311:
305:
304:
296:
294:
290:
289:
272:
268:
267:
262:
258:
257:
252:
248:
247:
242:
238:
237:
232:
228:
227:
222:
218:
217:
212:
208:
207:
194:
193:
173:
170:
169:
150:
147:
146:
141:
138:
137:
126:
125:
117:
116:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
46:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9498:
9487:
9484:
9482:
9479:
9477:
9474:
9472:
9469:
9467:
9464:
9462:
9459:
9457:
9454:
9452:
9449:
9447:
9444:
9442:
9439:
9437:
9434:
9432:
9429:
9427:
9424:
9422:
9419:
9417:
9414:
9412:
9409:
9408:
9406:
9389:
9384:
9380:
9376:
9371:
9367:
9363:
9358:
9354:
9350:
9345:
9341:
9337:
9332:
9328:
9324:
9319:
9315:
9311:
9306:
9302:
9298:
9293:
9289:
9285:
9280:
9276:
9272:
9267:
9263:
9259:
9254:
9250:
9246:
9241:
9237:
9233:
9228:
9224:
9220:
9215:
9211:
9207:
9202:
9198:
9194:
9189:
9185:
9181:
9175:
9171:
9166:
9162:
9158:
9153:
9149:
9145:
9140:
9136:
9132:
9127:
9123:
9116:
9112:
9107:
9101:
9097:
9092:
9086:
9082:
9081:
9079:
9077:
9073:
9069:
9064:
9049:
9027:
9026:
9019:
9017:
9016:
9012:
9010:
9009:
9005:
9003:
9002:
8998:
8996:
8995:
8991:
8989:
8988:
8984:
8982:
8981:
8977:
8975:
8974:
8970:
8969:
8967:
8965:
8961:
8955:
8954:
8950:
8949:
8947:
8945:
8941:
8935:
8934:
8930:
8928:
8927:
8923:
8921:
8920:
8916:
8914:
8913:
8909:
8907:
8906:
8902:
8901:
8899:
8897:
8893:
8887:
8886:
8882:
8880:
8879:
8872:
8870:
8869:
8862:
8860:
8859:
8855:
8853:
8852:
8845:
8843:
8842:
8835:
8833:
8832:
8828:
8826:
8825:
8821:
8819:
8818:
8811:
8809:
8808:
8804:
8803:
8801:
8799:
8795:
8789:
8788:
8784:
8782:
8781:
8777:
8775:
8774:
8770:
8768:
8767:
8763:
8761:
8760:
8756:
8754:
8753:
8749:
8747:
8746:
8742:
8740:
8739:
8735:
8733:
8732:
8728:
8727:
8725:
8723:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8710:
8704:
8703:
8699:
8697:
8696:
8692:
8690:
8689:
8685:
8683:
8682:
8678:
8676:
8675:
8671:
8670:
8668:
8666:
8662:
8652:
8651:
8647:
8645:
8644:
8640:
8638:
8637:
8633:
8631:
8630:
8629:Reinwardtoena
8626:
8624:
8623:
8619:
8617:
8616:
8612:
8610:
8609:
8605:
8603:
8602:
8595:
8593:
8592:
8588:
8587:
8585:
8583:
8579:
8573:
8572:
8568:
8566:
8565:
8561:
8559:
8558:
8554:
8552:
8551:
8547:
8545:
8544:
8540:
8538:
8537:
8533:
8532:
8530:
8528:
8524:
8521:
8519:
8515:
8509:
8508:
8501:
8499:
8498:
8491:
8489:
8488:
8481:
8479:
8478:
8471:
8469:
8468:
8461:
8459:
8458:
8451:
8449:
8448:
8441:
8440:
8438:
8436:
8432:
8429:
8426:
8421:
8417:
8413:
8412:Columbiformes
8408:
8404:
8395:
8377:
8376:
8372:
8370:
8369:
8365:
8363:
8362:
8355:
8353:
8352:
8345:
8343:
8342:
8335:
8333:
8332:
8325:
8324:
8322:
8320:
8316:
8313:
8311:
8307:
8297:
8296:
8292:
8290:
8289:
8285:
8284:
8282:
8280:
8276:
8273:
8271:
8267:
8263:
8259:
8254:
8250:
8244:
8240:
8238:
8234:
8232:
8228:
8226:
8222:
8220:
8216:
8215:
8212:
8207:
8203:
8199:
8191:
8186:
8184:
8179:
8177:
8172:
8171:
8168:
8161:
8157:
8154:
8151:
8150:
8145:
8141:
8138:
8136:
8133:
8130:
8125:
8121:
8118:
8113:
8109:
8108:
8088:
8082:
8067:
8066:
8061:
8054:
8038:
8034:
8030:
8023:
8021:
8004:
8003:
7998:
7992:
7977:
7973:
7966:
7964:
7962:
7953:
7951:0-19-505928-X
7947:
7943:
7939:
7935:
7933:
7925:
7909:
7903:
7892:September 25,
7888:
7884:
7878:
7870:
7866:
7862:
7858:
7854:
7850:
7849:
7844:
7837:
7821:
7820:
7815:
7809:
7801:
7800:
7795:
7789:
7782:
7781:Schorger 1955
7777:
7770:
7769:Schorger 1955
7765:
7757:
7753:
7749:
7745:
7744:
7736:
7729:
7728:Schorger 1955
7724:
7715:
7710:
7706:
7702:
7698:
7691:
7684:
7683:Schorger 1955
7679:
7677:
7668:
7664:
7663:
7662:Extinct Birds
7658:
7652:
7645:
7640:
7638:
7636:
7634:
7632:
7630:
7628:
7611:
7610:
7602:
7596:
7581:
7577:
7570:
7555:
7551:
7545:
7530:
7526:
7520:
7512:
7508:
7503:
7498:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7479:
7471:
7470:
7462:
7454:
7450:
7446:
7442:
7435:
7427:
7421:
7417:
7413:
7406:
7399:
7386:
7382:
7381:
7376:
7370:
7362:
7358:
7354:
7350:
7346:
7342:
7338:
7334:
7333:
7325:
7323:
7314:
7310:
7309:
7301:
7295:, p. 146
7294:
7293:Schorger 1955
7289:
7274:
7273:
7268:
7264:
7258:
7256:
7249:, p. 145
7248:
7247:Schorger 1955
7243:
7237:, p. 167
7236:
7235:Schorger 1955
7231:
7225:, p. 142
7224:
7223:Schorger 1955
7219:
7203:
7199:
7198:
7193:
7186:
7184:
7177:, p. 141
7176:
7175:Schorger 1955
7171:
7165:, p. 173
7164:
7163:Schorger 1955
7159:
7151:
7147:
7143:
7136:
7129:
7128:Schorger 1955
7124:
7118:, p. 170
7117:
7116:Schorger 1955
7112:
7106:, p. 172
7105:
7104:Schorger 1955
7100:
7094:, p. 169
7093:
7092:Schorger 1955
7088:
7080:
7076:
7072:
7070:
7061:
7059:
7057:
7055:
7053:
7046:, p. 198
7045:
7044:Schorger 1955
7040:
7034:, p. 192
7033:
7032:Schorger 1955
7028:
7022:, p. 193
7021:
7020:Schorger 1955
7016:
7010:, p. 186
7009:
7008:Schorger 1955
7004:
7002:
6995:, p. 144
6994:
6993:Schorger 1955
6989:
6987:
6980:, p. 131
6979:
6978:Schorger 1955
6974:
6972:
6965:, p. 130
6964:
6963:Schorger 1955
6959:
6951:
6945:
6941:
6937:
6933:
6929:
6928:
6923:
6917:
6910:
6906:
6900:
6896:
6891:
6890:
6881:
6873:
6869:
6862:
6854:
6853:
6845:
6839:, p. 134
6838:
6837:Schorger 1955
6833:
6827:, p. 168
6826:
6825:Schorger 1955
6821:
6819:
6812:, p. 139
6811:
6810:Schorger 1955
6806:
6800:, p. 137
6799:
6798:Schorger 1955
6794:
6787:
6786:Schorger 1955
6782:
6776:, p. 129
6775:
6774:Schorger 1955
6770:
6768:
6758:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6734:
6727:
6716:
6715:
6710:
6703:
6688:
6687:
6682:
6675:
6659:
6655:
6654:
6646:
6639:
6624:
6620:
6617:
6611:
6603:
6597:
6593:
6589:
6582:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6562:
6561:
6556:
6549:
6542:
6537:
6535:
6528:, p. 132
6527:
6526:Schorger 1955
6522:
6515:
6514:Schorger 1955
6510:
6503:
6502:Schorger 1955
6498:
6483:
6479:
6475:
6474:
6469:
6462:
6456:, p. 136
6455:
6454:Schorger 1955
6450:
6448:
6441:, p. 135
6440:
6439:Schorger 1955
6435:
6433:
6425:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6395:
6391:
6387:
6380:
6374:
6370:
6365:
6357:
6350:
6343:
6335:
6329:
6325:
6321:
6314:
6307:
6301:
6297:
6296:
6288:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6253:
6246:
6238:
6237:UC Santa Cruz
6231:
6224:
6216:
6212:
6205:
6199:
6195:
6190:
6188:
6168:
6164:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6135:
6127:
6125:
6121:
6112:
6110:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6067:
6060:
6045:
6040:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6014:
6007:
6002:
6000:
5998:
5990:
5985:
5983:
5981:
5979:
5971:
5966:
5964:
5956:
5951:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5920:
5916:
5912:
5908:
5907:
5906:Human Ecology
5899:
5892:
5887:
5885:
5883:
5874:
5868:
5864:
5857:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5813:
5806:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5757:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5733:
5729:
5728:
5723:
5716:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5672:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5643:
5635:
5628:
5619:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5600:
5591:
5589:
5581:
5576:
5574:
5572:
5570:
5568:
5566:
5557:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5514:
5506:
5502:
5497:
5492:
5487:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5463:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5428:
5420:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5387:
5379:
5375:
5368:
5353:
5349:
5348:
5340:
5325:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5307:
5305:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5279:11250/2480523
5276:
5271:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5243:
5236:
5234:
5232:
5230:
5221:
5214:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5184:
5176:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5135:
5130:
5123:
5121:
5119:
5117:
5115:
5107:
5102:
5100:
5098:
5096:
5094:
5092:
5090:
5088:
5086:
5084:
5075:
5069:
5054:
5048:
5044:
5043:
5035:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4997:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4960:
4952:
4950:
4948:
4946:
4944:
4942:
4935:, p. 205
4934:
4933:Schorger 1955
4929:
4927:
4919:
4914:
4912:
4910:
4908:
4906:
4904:
4887:. p. 611
4886:
4882:
4881:
4875:
4873:
4863:
4861:
4859:
4857:
4855:
4853:
4844:
4843:
4838:
4832:
4830:
4828:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4792:
4785:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4743:
4736:
4731:
4729:
4727:
4725:
4723:
4715:
4710:
4708:
4706:
4698:
4693:
4691:
4689:
4687:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4652:
4643:
4641:
4639:
4630:
4624:
4620:
4619:Extinct Birds
4613:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4605:
4597:
4592:
4590:
4588:
4586:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4551:
4542:
4540:
4538:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4508:
4503:
4501:
4492:
4485:
4480:
4478:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4436:
4434:
4425:
4421:
4420:
4412:
4410:
4401:
4395:
4391:
4384:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4369:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4348:
4346:
4344:
4342:
4340:
4338:
4330:
4325:
4323:
4321:
4319:
4311:
4306:
4299:
4294:
4292:
4290:
4288:
4286:
4284:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4271:, p. 255
4270:
4269:Schorger 1955
4265:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4231:
4224:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4195:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4160:
4153:
4152:Schorger 1955
4148:
4139:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4115:
4100:
4096:
4089:
4080:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4056:
4054:
4052:
4050:
4048:
4046:
4044:
4042:
4040:
4038:
4036:
4034:
4032:
4030:
4028:
4026:
4024:
4022:
4020:
4018:
4016:
4014:
4012:
4010:
4008:
3999:
3998:
3990:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3951:
3943:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3908:(2): e56301.
3907:
3903:
3902:
3897:
3895:
3886:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3845:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3802:
3800:
3798:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3760:
3755:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3708:
3701:
3693:
3687:
3683:
3682:Extinct Birds
3679:
3673:
3671:
3669:
3667:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3659:
3650:
3646:
3645:
3640:
3639:Brewer, T. M.
3634:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3599:
3592:
3587:
3585:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3545:
3537:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3516:
3508:
3504:
3503:
3498:
3491:
3483:
3479:
3478:
3473:
3466:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3427:(1244): 445.
3426:
3422:
3418:
3411:
3409:
3399:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3385:
3380:
3378:
3374:
3365:
3363:
3354:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3333:
3325:
3324:
3316:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3277:
3262:
3258:
3256:
3248:
3232:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3218:
3213:
3211:
3202:
3200:
3198:
3189:
3185:
3179:
3175:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3144:
3140:
3127:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3096:Pyrenean ibex
3093:
3092:de-extinction
3084:
3079:
3069:
3064:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3047:
3043:
3038:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3018:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2987:
2986:Deforestation
2978:
2973:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2929:
2926:and his wife
2925:
2916:
2913:in life, the
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2880:
2878:
2868:
2864:
2862:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2782:
2779:
2773:
2771:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2744:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2720:
2711:
2708:
2704:
2698:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2678:
2673:
2669:
2667:
2662:
2653:
2648:
2644:
2642:
2641:trap-shooting
2638:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2597:
2591:
2589:
2588:Fort Caroline
2585:
2576:
2572:
2570:
2566:
2561:
2557:
2547:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2523:Falling Bough
2520:
2515:
2513:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2479:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2460:Cotton Mather
2457:
2453:
2448:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2408:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2356:
2353:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2337:Cooper's hawk
2334:
2333:
2328:
2327:Puma concolor
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2303:Vulpes vulpes
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2271:birds of prey
2268:
2267:Procyon lotor
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2243:Neogale vison
2240:
2231:
2221:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2185:
2175:
2171:
2169:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2138:
2134:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2117:
2113:
2110:
2101:
2092:
2090:
2089:regurgitation
2086:
2082:
2078:
2072:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1988:produced the
1987:
1983:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1958:
1956:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1855:pre-Columbian
1851:
1849:
1843:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1774:
1770:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1716:, writing in
1715:
1710:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1663:
1654:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1586:
1581:
1572:
1570:
1566:
1565:Wallace Craig
1561:
1559:
1550:
1549:Wallace Craig
1546:
1545:Musical notes
1542:
1536:Vocalizations
1533:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1464:
1463:Columba livia
1460:
1450:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1416:
1411:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1365:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1332:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1302:
1298:
1297:Simon Pokagon
1294:
1292:
1286:
1285:Seneca people
1282:
1278:
1276:
1270:
1266:
1264:
1258:
1254:
1251:
1247:
1245:
1239:
1235:
1233:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1190:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1151:Hybridization
1141:
1140:
1132:
1131:
1123:
1122:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1103:
1096:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1085:
1078:
1077:
1071:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1058:
1057:
1049:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1042:
1035:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1024:
1017:
1016:
1010:
1009:
1006:
1005:
997:
996:
993:
992:
991:
984:
983:
980:
979:
971:
970:
967:
966:
965:
964:Reinwardtoena
958:
957:
954:
953:
950:
948:
947:
940:
939:
933:
932:
926:
925:
919:
918:
912:
911:
905:
904:
900:
898:
893:
891:
886:
882:
877:
875:
871:
870:Pacific Ocean
866:
865:
860:
856:
852:
851:
850:Reinwardtoena
846:
842:
841:
836:
832:
828:
827:
821:
819:
818:
813:
812:
807:
803:
802:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
774:, and having
773:
769:
764:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
740:
735:
732:stage of the
731:
727:
723:
715:
714:mourning dove
710:
704:
703:
698:
694:
688:
683:
674:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
607:
605:
602:, as used by
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
551:
546:
545:mourning dove
543:for both the
542:
540:
535:
534:Carl Linnaeus
527:
522:
513:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
494:deforestation
490:
485:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
454:
450:
445:
443:
441:
436:
435:
430:
426:
425:mourning dove
422:
418:
417:North America
414:
410:
406:
402:
401:
396:
392:
378:
375:
370:
367:
362:
359:
358:
356:
353:
349:
344:
340:
335:
330:
324:
322:
313:
310:
309:Binomial name
306:
302:
301:
295:
292:
291:
286:
281:
280:
273:
270:
269:
266:
263:
260:
259:
256:
255:Columbiformes
253:
250:
249:
246:
243:
240:
239:
236:
233:
230:
229:
226:
223:
220:
219:
216:
213:
210:
209:
204:
199:
195:
189:
184: (1914)
183:
171:
165:
160: (1914)
159:
148:
144:
139:
136:
135:C. O. Whitman
132:
127:
123:
118:
114:
110:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
43:
32:
29:
25:
23:
9075:
9023:
9013:
9006:
8999:
8992:
8985:
8980:Drepanoptila
8978:
8971:
8951:
8931:
8924:
8917:
8910:
8903:
8883:
8876:
8866:
8856:
8849:
8839:
8829:
8822:
8815:
8805:
8785:
8778:
8771:
8764:
8757:
8750:
8743:
8736:
8731:Gallicolumba
8729:
8700:
8695:Paraclaravis
8693:
8686:
8679:
8672:
8648:
8643:Streptopelia
8641:
8634:
8627:
8620:
8613:
8606:
8599:
8589:
8569:
8562:
8555:
8548:
8541:
8534:
8505:
8495:
8485:
8475:
8467:Dysmoropelia
8465:
8455:
8447:Arenicolumba
8445:
8434:
8373:
8366:
8359:
8349:
8339:
8331:Archaeoganga
8329:
8293:
8286:
8147:
8090:. Retrieved
8081:
8069:. Retrieved
8063:
8053:
8041:. Retrieved
8037:the original
8032:
8007:. Retrieved
8000:
7991:
7979:. Retrieved
7975:
7930:
7924:
7912:. Retrieved
7902:
7890:. Retrieved
7886:
7877:
7852:
7846:
7842:
7836:
7826:February 29,
7824:. Retrieved
7817:
7808:
7797:
7788:
7783:, p. 30
7776:
7771:, p. 29
7764:
7747:
7741:
7735:
7730:, p. 27
7723:
7704:
7700:
7690:
7685:, p. 28
7661:
7651:
7616:February 29,
7614:. Retrieved
7607:
7595:
7583:. Retrieved
7579:
7569:
7557:. Retrieved
7553:
7544:
7532:. Retrieved
7528:
7519:
7492:
7488:
7478:
7467:
7461:
7447:(3): 60β64.
7444:
7441:Geographical
7440:
7434:
7414:. New York:
7411:
7405:
7390:February 29,
7388:. Retrieved
7383:. New York:
7379:
7369:
7336:
7330:
7312:
7306:
7300:
7288:
7276:. Retrieved
7270:
7242:
7230:
7218:
7206:. Retrieved
7202:the original
7195:
7170:
7158:
7149:
7145:
7135:
7123:
7111:
7099:
7087:
7078:
7074:
7068:
7039:
7027:
7015:
6958:
6926:
6916:
6908:
6888:
6880:
6871:
6861:
6851:
6844:
6832:
6805:
6793:
6781:
6747:
6743:
6733:
6725:
6718:. Retrieved
6712:
6702:
6690:. Retrieved
6684:
6674:
6664:December 12,
6662:. Retrieved
6651:
6638:
6626:. Retrieved
6622:
6610:
6592:Abrams Books
6590:. New York:
6587:
6581:
6564:
6558:
6548:
6521:
6509:
6504:, p. 12
6497:
6485:. Retrieved
6471:
6461:
6389:
6385:
6379:
6364:
6355:
6342:
6323:
6313:
6294:
6287:
6255:
6252:The Holocene
6251:
6245:
6236:
6223:
6214:
6204:
6174:. Retrieved
6167:the original
6138:
6132:
6123:
6120:Campanulotes
6119:
6096:. Retrieved
6089:the original
6076:
6072:
6059:
6048:, retrieved
6037:(9): 46β62,
6034:
6030:
6013:
6008:, p. 14
5991:, p. 13
5972:, p. 12
5957:, p. 11
5910:
5904:
5898:
5862:
5856:
5815:
5811:
5805:
5770:
5766:
5756:
5731:
5725:
5722:Quercus alba
5721:
5715:
5682:
5678:
5671:
5646:
5640:
5627:
5608:
5604:
5598:
5582:, p. 15
5527:
5524:PLOS Biology
5523:
5513:
5476:
5473:PLOS Biology
5472:
5462:
5440:(1): 13β25.
5437:
5433:
5427:
5400:
5396:
5386:
5377:
5367:
5358:February 15,
5356:, retrieved
5346:
5339:
5327:. Retrieved
5319:
5252:
5248:
5219:
5213:
5201:. Retrieved
5193:
5183:
5138:
5132:
5058:February 29,
5056:. Retrieved
5041:
5034:
5009:
5005:
4996:
4963:
4957:
4920:, p. 10
4889:. Retrieved
4878:
4871:
4841:
4801:
4797:
4784:
4762:(1): 12β14.
4759:
4755:
4742:
4660:
4656:
4650:
4618:
4562:(1): 29β41.
4559:
4555:
4549:
4511:
4505:
4499:
4491:
4464:. Retrieved
4460:the original
4451:
4423:
4417:
4389:
4353:
4305:
4264:
4252:. Retrieved
4245:the original
4239:. Winnipeg:
4236:
4223:
4211:. Retrieved
4203:
4194:
4182:. Retrieved
4178:the original
4169:
4159:
4147:
4123:
4114:
4102:. Retrieved
4098:
4088:
4064:
3996:
3989:
3964:
3960:
3950:
3905:
3899:
3893:
3885:
3850:
3844:
3814:(1): 455β8.
3811:
3807:
3763:
3757:
3753:
3717:
3713:
3700:
3681:
3643:
3633:
3621:. Retrieved
3617:the original
3608:
3598:
3558:
3554:
3544:
3521:
3515:
3506:
3500:
3490:
3481:
3475:
3465:
3424:
3420:
3388:
3382:
3376:
3372:
3338:
3332:
3322:
3315:
3293:(3): 77β93.
3290:
3286:
3276:
3264:. Retrieved
3260:
3254:
3247:
3237:November 19,
3235:. Retrieved
3221:
3215:
3209:
3187:
3178:
3143:
3130:Bibliography
3124:
3104:Spanish ibex
3099:
3088:
3066:
3053:Aldo Leopold
3050:
3039:
3030:
3023:
3011:Allee effect
3002:
2994:
2982:
2932:
2920:
2906:
2898:
2881:
2873:
2829:
2820:
2805:
2774:
2766:
2749:
2740:
2735:
2728:frontispiece
2699:
2682:
2657:
2633:
2612:
2601:
2593:
2581:
2568:
2552:
2522:
2516:
2496:
2484:
2449:
2429:
2412:
2404:
2382:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2358:
2352:phtilopterid
2349:
2340:
2330:
2326:
2318:
2310:
2302:
2298:
2290:
2266:
2258:
2250:
2242:
2236:
2218:
2207:
2202:
2188:
2180:
2164:
2149:
2144:
2118:
2114:
2106:
2095:Reproduction
2073:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2042:
2026:caterpillars
1980:
1952:
1945:lyme disease
1938:
1923:
1893:
1889:
1868:forest fires
1852:
1844:
1840:
1824:
1777:
1750:
1731:
1705:
1689:
1684:
1674:
1668:
1644:
1620:
1596:Great Plains
1589:
1562:
1554:
1467:
1462:
1455:
1420:
1407:
1380:
1351:
1335:
1304:
1288:
1272:
1260:
1241:
1229:
1221:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1194:
1186:
1178:
1174:
1172:
1158:
1155:Barbary dove
1147:
1106:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1082:
1081:
1041:Streptopelia
1039:
1038:
1021:
1020:
988:
987:
962:
961:
944:
943:
894:
884:
878:
864:Streptopelia
862:
858:
848:
844:
838:
834:
824:
822:
815:
809:
805:
799:
796:sister taxon
784:Beth Shapiro
767:
765:
760:
752:
748:
744:
738:
719:
702:Patagioenas
700:
666:
662:
650:
646:
642:
634:
630:
627:Outram Bangs
622:
614:
608:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
574:
566:
562:
559:Mark Catesby
548:
537:
531:
526:Mark Catesby
486:
446:
439:
432:
428:
420:
399:
398:
394:
390:
388:
376:
368:
360:
320:
315:
299:
298:
278:
277:
40:5.33β0
28:
21:
9305:NatureServe
9253:iNaturalist
9100:Wikispecies
9008:Lopholaimus
8973:Cryptophaps
8964:Ptilinopini
8926:Phapitreron
8912:Chalcophaps
8905:Alectroenas
8851:Natunaornis
8780:Petrophassa
8759:Leucosarcia
8752:Henicophaps
8688:Metriopelia
8622:Patagioenas
8550:Leptotrygon
8457:Bountyphaps
8319:Pteroclidae
8071:November 6,
8043:October 29,
7914:January 22,
7644:Fuller 2014
7315:(3): 443β6.
6938:. pp.
6922:Mann, C. C.
6541:Fuller 2014
6392:(4): 1β10,
6196:, pp.
6176:December 3,
6098:December 3,
6050:January 14,
5893:, p. 7
5106:Fuller 2014
4737:, p. 6
4716:, p. 5
4699:, p. 3
4598:, p. 8
4484:Fuller 2014
4331:, p. 2
4310:Fuller 2014
4298:Fuller 2014
3851:Ancient DNA
3766:(1): 52β7.
3678:Hume, J. P.
3593:, p. 4
3148:John Herald
3051:Naturalist
2604:sustainable
2565:wild turkey
2519:Walton Ford
2291:Canis lupus
2014:pokeberries
1998:blueberries
1651:Pleistocene
1608:Great Lakes
1594:, from the
1558:alarm calls
1388:iridescence
1315:Description
1307:O-me-me-wog
1179:migratorius
1084:Patagioenas
885:Patagioenas
881:nuclear DNA
826:Patagioenas
788:ancient DNA
667:migratorius
617:to the new
598:, based on
466:Great Lakes
434:Patagioenas
395:wild pigeon
188:NatureServe
9461:Game birds
9421:Columbidae
9405:Categories
9383:Xeno-canto
9015:Ptilinopus
8994:Gymnophaps
8858:Otidiphaps
8841:Microgoura
8824:Didunculus
8817:Deliaphaps
8665:Claravinae
8636:Spilopelia
8608:Macropygia
8601:Ectopistes
8557:Starnoenas
8518:Columbinae
8497:Primophaps
8477:Lithophaps
8425:Colombidae
8375:Syrrhaptes
8351:Leptoganga
8288:Mesitornis
8202:sandgrouse
8196:Genera of
8149:Day to Day
8092:August 10,
7981:August 25,
7665:. London:
7208:August 26,
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4358:Pica Press
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4083:pp. 30-47.
4061:Fuller, E.
3575:10088/2006
3377:Ectopistes
3170:References
3112:stem cells
3007:Blitzkrieg
2997:) and the
2877:London Zoo
2789:See also:
2743:extinction
2596:arquebuses
2311:Lynx rufus
2273:, such as
2168:monogamous
2083:, and the
2018:bunchberry
2010:mulberries
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1884:white oaks
1880:black oaks
1874:, such as
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1769:coalescent
1700:Frank Bond
1441:) of this
1301:Potawatomi
1199:New France
1175:Ectopistes
1102:Ectopistes
946:Macropygia
845:Macropygia
801:Macropygia
776:iridescent
749:Ectopistes
722:Columbidae
637:. In 1918
623:Ectopistes
453:iridescent
279:Ectopistes
265:Columbidae
9025:Tongoenas
9001:Hemiphaga
8944:Treronini
8896:Turturini
8868:Pezophaps
8773:Pampusana
8681:Columbina
8650:Turacoena
8582:Columbini
8571:Zentrygon
8543:Leptotila
8536:Geotrygon
8527:Zenaidini
8507:Rupephaps
8368:Pterocles
8361:Linxiavis
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3266:March 31,
3152:bluegrass
3061:Wisconsin
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2332:Accipiter
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2184:incubated
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2034:buckwheat
1897:ecosystem
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1459:rock dove
1439:oxidation
1435:eumelanin
1384:scapulars
1250:Kaskaskia
1183:migratory
1169:Etymology
990:Turacoena
897:cladogram
840:Turacoena
817:Leptotila
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677:Evolution
619:monotypic
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293:Species:
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8745:Geophaps
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8674:Claravis
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2444:Ho-Chunk
2424:girdling
2416:Holocene
2263:raccoons
2203:en masse
2077:red oaks
2006:cherries
1915:canopies
1876:bur oaks
1863:red oaks
1766:Bayesian
1490:coracoid
1431:mutation
1253:Illinois
1189:passager
874:Beringia
814:and the
734:Pliocene
730:Zanclean
663:macroura
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516:Taxonomy
421:passager
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352:Synonyms
329:Linnaeus
285:Swainson
261:Family:
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231:Phylum:
225:Animalia
211:Domain:
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113:Holocene
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9245:2495898
9139:Avibase
9091:Q191968
8798:Raphini
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8591:Columba
8564:Zenaida
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7857:Bibcode
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93:K
88:J
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78:P
73:C
68:D
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