437:
534:
meets the temperature and chemical requirements of the method and type specified between customer and vendor. While nitric acid is commonly used as a passivating acid for stainless steel, citric acid is gaining in popularity as it is far less dangerous to handle, less toxic, and biodegradable, making disposal less of a challenge. Passivating temperatures can range from ambient to 60 °C (140 °F), while minimum passivation times are usually 20 to 30 minutes. After passivation, the parts are neutralized using a bath of aqueous
201:
504:
577:
671:
to Tetris, i.e., we always want the layer to be full. A small molecule with the function of passivation is some kind of square that can be inserted where there is an empty space and then a complete layer is obtained. These molecules will generally have lone electron pairs or pi-electrons, so they can bind to the defective states on the surface of the cell film and thus achieve passivation of the material. Therefore, molecules such as
285:, but if the iron is placed in concentrated nitric acid and then returned to the dilute nitric acid, little or no reaction will take place. In 1836, Schönbein named the first state the active condition and the second the passive condition while Faraday proposed the modern explanation of the oxide film described above (Schönbein disagreed with it), which was experimentally proven by
596:. This layer makes it resistant to further corrosion, aside from gradual growth of the oxide layer, thickening to ~25 nm after several years in air. This protective layer makes it suitable for use even in corrosive environments such as sea water. Titanium can be anodized to produce a thicker passivation layer. As with many other metals, this layer causes
670:
is passivation. These defects usually lead to deep energy level defects in solar cells due to the presence of hanging bonds on the surface of perovskite films. Usually, small molecules or polymers are doped to interact with the hanging bonds and thus reduce the defect states. This process is similar
567:
or some other accreditation system. Various testing methods are available to determine the passivation (or passive state) of stainless steel. The most common methods for validating the passivity of a part is some combination of high humidity and heat for a period of time, intended to induce rusting.
375:
Chromate conversion coating converts the surface aluminium to an aluminium chromate coating in the range of 0.00001–0.00004 inches (250–1,000 nm) in thickness. Aluminium chromate conversion coatings are amorphous in structure with a gel-like composition hydrated with water. Chromate conversion
678:
In addition, passivation not only improves the photoelectric conversion efficiency of perovskite cells, but also contributes to the improvement of device stability. For example, adding a passivation layer of a few nanometers thickness can effectively achieve passivation with the effect of stopping
545:
Passivation processes are generally controlled by industry standards, the most prevalent among them today being ASTM A 967 and AMS 2700. These industry standards generally list several passivation processes that can be used, with the choice of specific method left to the customer and vendor. The
538:, then rinsed with clean water and dried. The passive surface is validated using humidity, elevated temperature, a rusting agent (salt spray), or some combination of the three. The passivation process removes exogenous iron, creates/restores a passive oxide layer that prevents further oxidation (
533:
Common among all of the different specifications and types are the following steps: Prior to passivation, the object must be cleaned of any contaminants and generally must undergo a validating test to prove that the surface is 'clean.' The object is then placed in an acidic passivating bath that
211:
There has been much interest in determining the mechanisms that govern the increase of thickness of the oxide layer over time. Some of the important factors are the volume of oxide relative to the volume of the parent metal, the mechanism of oxygen diffusion through the metal oxide to the parent
558:
is often required as an additive to oxidise the chromium in certain 'types' of nitric-based acid baths, however this chemical is highly toxic. With citric acid, simply rinsing and drying the part and allowing the air to oxidise it, or in some cases the application of other chemicals, is used to
1880:. Many of the specifics of Black Oxide coatings may be found in MIL-DTL-13924 (formerly MIL-C-13924). This Mil-Spec document additionally identifies various classes of Black Oxide coatings, for use in a variety of purposes for protecting ferrous metals against rust.
128:
that adheres loosely, is of higher volume than the original displaced metal, and sloughs off readily; all of which permit & promote further oxidation.) The passivation layer of oxide markedly slows further oxidation and corrosion in room-temperature air for
921:
403:
Anodizing is an electrolytic process that forms a thicker oxide layer. The anodic coating consists of hydrated aluminium oxide and is considered resistant to corrosion and abrasion. This finish is more robust than the other processes and also provides
1086:
Fernando, K. A. Shiral; Sahu, Sushant; Liu, Yamin; Lewis, William K.; Guliants, Elena A.; Jafariyan, Amirhossein; Wang, Ping; Bunker, Christopher E.; Sun, Ya-Ping (2015). "Carbon
Quantum Dots and Applications in Photocatalytic Energy Conversion".
1752:
The most common commercial spec for passivation of stainless steel parts. Used in various industries; latest revision is active for new designs; legacy designs may still require older revisions or older standards, if the engineering has not been
1787:
are frequently used in the aerospace industry, and are sometimes stricter than other standards. Latest revision is active for new designs; legacy designs may still require older revisions or older standards, if the engineering has not been
562:
It is not uncommon for some aerospace manufacturers to have additional guidelines and regulations when passivating their products that exceed the national standard. Often, these requirements will be cascaded down using
212:
metal, and the relative chemical potential of the oxide. Boundaries between micro grains, if the oxide layer is crystalline, form an important pathway for oxygen to reach the unoxidized metal below. For this reason,
443:
colors are produced when steel is heated and a thin film of iron oxide forms on the surface. The color indicates the temperature the steel reached, which made this one of the earliest practical uses of thin-film
48:
by the environment. Passivation involves creation of an outer layer of shield material that is applied as a microcoating, created by chemical reaction with the base material, or allowed to build by spontaneous
329:, however, do not form the oxide layer well, and thus are not protected against corrosion. There are methods to enhance the formation of the oxide layer for certain alloys. For example, prior to storing
554:-based bath, these acids remove surface iron and rust, while sparing the chromium. The various 'types' listed under each method refer to differences in acid bath temperature and concentration.
514:
are corrosion-resistant, but they are not completely impervious to rusting. One common mode of corrosion in corrosion-resistant steels is when small spots on the surface begin to rust because
530:. Some grades of stainless steel are especially resistant to rouging; parts made from them may therefore forgo any passivation step, depending on engineering decisions.
1122:
Gao, Xiaohu; Cui, Yuanyuan; Levenson, Richard M; Chung, Leland W K; Nie, Shuming (2004). "In vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots".
758:
Yang, Xiaoyun; Kirsch, Jeffrey; Fergus, Jeffrey; Simonian, Aleksandr (2013). "Modeling analysis of electrode fouling during electrolysis of phenolic compounds".
1270:
Chen, George Zheng; Fray, Derek J.; Farthing, Tom W. (2001). "Cathodic deoxygenation of the alpha case on titanium and alloys in molten calcium chloride".
675:, nitrogen-containing molecules, and sulfur-containing molecules are considered, and recently it has been shown that π electrons can also play a role.
1851:. Both are now outdated; they are inactive for new designs, but legacy designs may still require their use, if the engineering has not been revisited.
451:
materials, including steel, may be somewhat protected by promoting oxidation ("rust") and then converting the oxidation to a metalophosphate by using
294:
297:
discovered surface passivation of silicon wafers by silicon dioxide, using passivation to build the first silicon dioxide field effect transistors.
216:
oxide coatings – which lack grain boundaries – can retard oxidation. The conditions necessary, but not sufficient, for passivation are recorded in
919:, Lincoln, Derick & Frosch, Carl J., "Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion", issued 1957-08-13
1819:
AMS-QQ-P-35 superseded U.S. federal spec QQ-P-35 on 4 April 1997. AMS-QQ-P-35 itself was canceled and superseded in
February 2005 by AMS 2700.
1165:
368:, which metallurgically bonds thin layers of pure aluminium or alloy to different base aluminium alloy, is not strictly passivation of the
1234:
857:
345:
and dissolves any impurities on the inner surface of the container, and the deionized water rinses away the acid and oxidized impurities.
224:
help the formation of a passivation layer on the surface of the metals to which they are applied. Some compounds, dissolved in solutions (
1037:
1848:
1976:
116:. Aluminium similarly forms a stable protective oxide layer which is why it does not "rust". (In contrast, some base metals, notably
658:. The effect of passivation on the efficiency of solar cells ranges from 3–7%. The surface resistivity is high, > 100 Ωcm.
372:
alloy. However, the aluminium layer clad on is designed to spontaneously develop the oxide layer and thus protect the base alloy.
1356:
600:
which makes the metal surface appear colored, with the thickness of the passivation layer directly affecting the color produced.
1588:"Enhanced Photoluminescence and Solar Cell Performance via Lewis Base Passivation of Organic-Inorganic Lead Halide Perovskites"
1191:
900:
1627:"Reducing Defects Density and Enhancing Hole Extraction for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells Enabled by π-Pb2+ Interactions"
1492:"Gradient band structure: high performance perovskite solar cells using poly(bisphenol A anhydride-co-1,3-phenylenediamine)"
69:
devices. Undesired passivation of electrodes, called "fouling", increases the circuit resistance so it interferes with some
153:). The inert surface layer formed by reaction with air has a thickness of about 1.5 nm for silicon, 1–10 nm for
425:
718:
161:, growing to 25 nm after several years. Similarly, for aluminium, it grows to about 5 nm after several years.
455:
and add further protection by surface coating. As the uncoated surface is water-soluble, a preferred method is to form
1932:
1919:
1327:
1847:
U.S. federal spec QQ-P-35 was superseded by AMS-QQ-P-35 on 4 April 1997 as part of the changeover instituted by the
839:
165:
270:
1863:
1831:
1800:
1765:
188:, which impair performance of the devices. Surface passivation of silicon usually consists of high-temperature
1674:"In-situ cross-linking strategy for efficient and operationally stable methylammoniun lead iodide solar cells"
1951:
1966:
1889:
793:
588:
and of titanium-rich alloys oxidizes immediately upon exposure to air to form a thin passivation layer of
1870:
1784:
1023:
357:
70:
1961:
1956:
698:
1491:
1981:
1427:"Resolving spatial and energetic distributions of trap states in metal halide perovskite solar cells"
53:
in the air. As a technique, passivation is the use of a light coat of a protective material, such as
333:
in an aluminium container, the container can be passivated by rinsing it with a dilute solution of
24:
1515:"Constructive molecular configurations forsurface-defect passivation of perovskite photovoltaics"
1169:
1012:
1840:
325:, which creates a physical barrier to corrosion or further oxidation in many environments. Some
1739:
ASTM A967: Standard specification for chemical passivation treatments for stainless steel parts
1245:
854:
597:
440:
286:
180:
refers not only to reducing the chemical reactivity of the surface but also to eliminating the
100:, that serves as a passivation layer - i.e. these metals are "self-protecting". In the case of
1035:
507:
The fitting on the left has not been passivated, the fitting on the right has been passivated.
1343:
Aberle, Armin G. (2000). "Surface passivation of crystalline silicon solar cells: A review".
667:
655:
405:
1221:"Stainless Steel Passivation Services – A967 & A380 | Delstar Metal Finishing, Inc"
890:
542:), and cleans the parts of dirt, scale, or other welding-generated compounds (e.g. oxides).
467:. Older, less effective but chemically similar electrochemical conversion coatings included
436:
1685:
1526:
1448:
1383:
693:
464:
54:
20:
8:
616:
221:
1689:
1530:
1452:
1387:
975:
832:
Low-Temperature
Oxidation: The Role of Vitreous Oxides, A Wiley-Interscience Publication
522:) allow water molecules to oxidize some of the iron in those spots despite the alloying
1902:
1733:
1706:
1673:
1654:
1568:
1472:
1438:
1407:
1372:"Performance-limiting nanoscale trap clusters at grain junctions in halide perovskites"
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1147:
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74:
33:
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1915:
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1842:
QQ-P-35: Federal specification: Passivation treatments for corrosion-resistant steel
1299:
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1971:
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113:
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82:
568:
Electro-chemical testers can also be utilized to commercially verify passivation.
1936:
1041:
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488:
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338:
326:
314:
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66:
1314:
1697:
916:
672:
589:
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472:
348:
Generally, there are two main ways to passivate aluminium alloys (not counting
262:
109:
1395:
1283:
1945:
1587:
1316:
New
Perspectives on Surface Passivation: Understanding the Si-Al2O3 Interface
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960:
779:
421:
185:
181:
1538:
1460:
1371:
1929:
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1403:
1143:
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503:
225:
200:
44:
a material so that it becomes "passive", that is, less readily affected or
16:
Physico-chemical processes of protecting a surface from a chemical reaction
576:
1876:
A standard overview on black oxide coatings is provided in MIL-HDBK-205,
1873:(chemical film) per MIL-DTL-5541F for aluminium and aluminium alloy parts
1737:
1626:
551:
547:
468:
460:
334:
290:
278:
246:
78:
1747:
1547:
746:
273:
studied that issue systematically and demonstrated that when a piece of
1192:"Carpenter Technical Articles – HOW TO PASSIVATE STAINLESS STEEL PARTS"
1071:
1054:
991:
643:
254:
229:
173:
1603:
1556:
1357:
10.1002/1099-159X(200009/10)8:5<473::AID-PIP337>3.0.CO;2-D
952:
937:"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"
1912:
1812:
1777:
456:
393:
361:
322:
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154:
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134:
130:
58:
50:
1443:
1135:
612:
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121:
88:
When exposed to air, many metals naturally form a hard, relatively
1814:
AMS QQ-P-35: Passivation treatments for corrosion-resistant steel
527:
448:
381:
349:
342:
257:
in 1790, who also noted that such pre-immersed Fe doesn't reduce
105:
97:
62:
45:
41:
232:) form non-reactive and low solubility films on metal surfaces.
608:
564:
484:
389:
385:
365:
318:
258:
169:
101:
1055:"Carbon quantum dots: Synthesis, properties and applications"
743:
719:"Passivation vs Electropolishing – What are the differences?"
519:
480:
213:
93:
1905:: American Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc, pp. 62–63.
376:
is a common way of passivating not only aluminium, but also
539:
377:
274:
142:
125:
117:
580:
Relation between voltage and color for anodized titanium.
397:
892:
Passivation and
Corrosion of Black Rebar with Mill Scale
757:
666:
The easiest and most widely studied method to improve
1878:
Phosphate & Black Oxide
Coating of Ferrous Metals
518:
or embedded bits of foreign matter (such as grinding
1779:
AMS 2700: Passivation of corrosion resistant steels.
1345:
1085:
1121:
974:Huff, Howard; Riordan, Michael (1 September 2007).
615:, owing to the formation of a passivation layer of
245:The fact that iron doesn't react with concentrated
1046:
976:"Frosch and Derick: Fifty Years Later (Foreword)"
459:or zinc compounds by a process commonly known as
1943:
1910:Bockris, John O'M.; Reddy, Amulya K. N. (1977),
1269:
646:, surface passivation is usually implemented by
428:in size) with some form of surface passivation.
1928:Passivisation : Debate over Paintability
935:Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L. (1 September 1957).
915:
1909:
934:
817:
1838:
1489:
973:
650:at about 1000 °C to form a coating of
321:in the atmosphere through a process called
1272:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B
1235:"Pickling and Passivating Stainless Steel"
1215:
1213:
240:
19:For the concept in nonlinear control, see
1705:
1546:
1442:
1263:
1070:
408:, which the other two processes may not.
1930:http://www.coilworld.com/5-6_12/rlw3.htm
1883:
751:
575:
559:perform the passivation of the surface.
502:
435:
420:(CQD) technology, CQDs are small carbon
313:naturally forms a thin surface layer of
199:
112:formed from reaction with environmental
1886:Surface Engineering for Wear Resistance
1631:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1424:
1369:
1210:
1024:Chemical Conversion Coating on Aluminum
829:
341:. The nitric acid and peroxide mixture
184:and other defects that form electronic
96:(termed the "native oxide layer") or a
1944:
1585:
1342:
1089:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
1052:
941:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
1896:
1312:
980:The Electrochemical Society Interface
654:. Surface passivation is critical to
300:
289:only in 1927. Between 1955 and 1957,
23:. For the concept in spacecraft, see
1732:
1671:
1624:
1512:
1490:Nazeeruddin, Mohammad Khaja (2020).
884:
882:
431:
1807:
1772:
834:. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
611:can be used for handling elemental
120:, oxidize readily to form a rough,
13:
1726:
1168:. Arrow Cryogenics. Archived from
888:
498:
14:
1993:
879:
1977:Semiconductor device fabrication
1496:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
1059:Journal of Materials Chemistry C
889:Lu, Xinying (10 February 2023).
166:semiconductor device fabrication
1665:
1618:
1579:
1506:
1483:
1418:
1363:
1336:
1306:
1227:
1184:
1158:
1115:
1079:
1053:Wang, Youfu; Hu, Aiguo (2014).
1028:
1017:
1006:
967:
928:
909:
772:10.1016/j.electacta.2013.01.019
356:, and other barrier coatings):
281:, it will dissolve and produce
870:
848:
823:
811:
786:
737:
711:
550:-based passivating bath, or a
337:and peroxide alternating with
157:, and 1 nm initially for
65:is used during fabrication of
1:
1914:, vol. 2, Plenum Press,
1884:Budinski, Kenneth G. (1988),
1166:"Stainless Steel Passivation"
704:
661:
483:forms a passivating layer in
271:Christian Friedrich Schönbein
195:
79:amperometric chemical sensing
57:, to create a shield against
1892:: Prentice Hall, p. 48.
1890:Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
305:
253:in 1738 and rediscovered by
71:electrochemical applications
7:
1897:Brimi, Marjorie A. (1965),
1871:Chromate conversion coating
1034:Aluminum Anodizing Process
830:Fehlner, Francis P (1986).
682:
571:
358:chromate conversion coating
77:for wastewater treatment,
10:
1998:
1862:: CS1 maint: postscript (
1830:: CS1 maint: postscript (
1799:: CS1 maint: postscript (
1764:: CS1 maint: postscript (
1698:10.1038/s41467-018-06204-2
1313:Black, Lachlan E. (2016).
876:Fehlner, Francis P, ref.3.
630:
235:
108:is a passivation layer of
92:surface layer, usually an
18:
1586:Snaith, Henry J. (2014).
1396:10.1038/s41586-020-2184-1
1284:10.1007/s11663-001-0093-8
866:Western Oregon University
619:. This fact is useful in
603:
411:
83:electrochemical synthesis
1370:Stranks, Samuel (2020).
818:Bockris & Reddy 1977
794:"Semiconductor Glossary"
471:, historically known as
25:Passivation (spacecraft)
1625:Zhou, Zhongmin (2021).
1539:10.1126/science.aay9698
1461:10.1126/science.aba0893
1425:Jinsong, Huang (2020).
679:water vapor intrusion.
265:anymore. In the 1830s,
241:Discovery and etymology
1672:Fang, Junfeng (2018).
1643:10.1002/anie.202102096
1101:10.1021/acsami.5b00448
699:Pilling–Bedworth ratio
668:perovskite solar cells
598:thin-film interference
581:
508:
445:
287:Ulick Richardson Evans
208:
164:In the context of the
1742:(Rev 05e2 ed.),
1678:Nature Communications
1040:20 March 2019 at the
656:solar cell efficiency
579:
546:"method" is either a
506:
439:
406:electrical insulation
203:
1952:Corrosion prevention
1935:4 March 2016 at the
1811:(16 February 2005),
1251:on 12 September 2012
1124:Nature Biotechnology
1013:Aluminum Passivation
860:3 March 2009 at the
465:phosphate conversion
277:is placed in dilute
222:corrosion inhibitors
21:Feedback passivation
1967:Integrated circuits
1748:10.1520/A0967-05E02
1690:2018NatCo...9.3806L
1637:(32): 17356–17361.
1531:2019Sci...366.1509W
1525:(6472): 1509–1513.
1513:Yang, Yang (2019).
1453:2020Sci...367.1352N
1437:(6484): 1352–1358.
1388:2020Natur.580..360D
895:. Springer Nature.
760:Electrochimica Acta
178:surface passivation
1903:New York, New York
1845:(Rev C ed.).
1817:(Rev A ed.).
1782:(Rev D ed.).
1198:on 22 October 2013
1072:10.1039/C4TC00988F
992:10.1149/2.F02073IF
855:University of Bath
582:
509:
446:
418:carbon quantum dot
301:Specific materials
249:was discovered by
209:
170:MOSFET transistors
168:, such as silicon
75:electrocoagulation
34:physical chemistry
1962:German inventions
1957:Surface finishing
1839:U.S. government,
1604:10.1021/nn5036476
1598:(10): 9815–9821.
1382:(7803): 360–366.
953:10.1149/1.2428650
902:978-981-19-8102-9
648:thermal oxidation
556:Sodium dichromate
526:. This is called
487:environments, as
432:Ferrous materials
331:hydrogen peroxide
251:Mikhail Lomonosov
218:Pourbaix diagrams
190:thermal oxidation
149:, and silicon (a
61:. Passivation of
36:and engineering,
1989:
1982:Swiss inventions
1925:
1906:
1899:Electrofinishing
1893:
1867:
1861:
1853:
1835:
1829:
1821:
1804:
1798:
1790:
1769:
1763:
1755:
1736:(1 March 2010),
1720:
1719:
1709:
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1663:
1662:
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1616:
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1503:
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1446:
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1415:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1321:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1278:(6): 1041–1052.
1267:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1250:
1244:. Archived from
1239:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1217:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1194:. Archived from
1188:
1182:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1074:
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1044:
1032:
1026:
1021:
1015:
1010:
1004:
1003:
971:
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932:
926:
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924:
920:
913:
907:
906:
886:
877:
874:
868:
852:
846:
845:
827:
821:
815:
809:
808:
806:
804:
790:
784:
783:
755:
749:
741:
735:
734:
732:
730:
715:
694:Deal–Grove model
637:microelectronics
625:sewage treatment
594:titanium dioxide
536:sodium hydroxide
516:grain boundaries
512:Stainless steels
327:aluminium alloys
317:on contact with
205:Pourbaix diagram
114:hydrogen sulfide
1997:
1996:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1942:
1941:
1937:Wayback Machine
1922:
1855:
1854:
1823:
1822:
1792:
1791:
1776:(8 July 2011),
1757:
1756:
1729:
1727:Further reading
1724:
1723:
1670:
1666:
1623:
1619:
1584:
1580:
1511:
1507:
1488:
1484:
1423:
1419:
1368:
1364:
1341:
1337:
1330:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1268:
1264:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1237:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1219:
1218:
1211:
1201:
1199:
1190:
1189:
1185:
1175:
1173:
1172:on 4 March 2014
1164:
1163:
1159:
1120:
1116:
1095:(16): 8363–76.
1084:
1080:
1065:(34): 6921–39.
1051:
1047:
1042:Wayback Machine
1033:
1029:
1022:
1018:
1011:
1007:
972:
968:
933:
929:
922:
914:
910:
903:
887:
880:
875:
871:
862:Wayback Machine
853:
849:
842:
828:
824:
816:
812:
802:
800:
798:semi1source.com
792:
791:
787:
756:
752:
742:
738:
728:
726:
723:electro-glo.com
717:
716:
712:
707:
685:
664:
652:silicon dioxide
635:In the area of
633:
621:water treatment
617:nickel fluoride
606:
584:The surface of
574:
501:
499:Stainless steel
489:reinforcing bar
469:black oxidizing
453:phosphoric acid
434:
414:
339:deionized water
315:aluminium oxide
308:
303:
295:Lincoln Derrick
267:Michael Faraday
243:
238:
198:
67:microelectronic
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1995:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1940:
1939:
1926:
1920:
1907:
1894:
1881:
1874:
1868:
1836:
1805:
1770:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1664:
1617:
1578:
1505:
1482:
1417:
1362:
1351:(5): 473–487.
1335:
1328:
1305:
1262:
1226:
1209:
1183:
1157:
1136:10.1038/nbt994
1114:
1078:
1045:
1027:
1016:
1005:
966:
927:
908:
901:
878:
869:
847:
840:
822:
820:, p. 1325
810:
785:
750:
736:
725:. 10 June 2019
709:
708:
706:
703:
702:
701:
696:
691:
684:
681:
663:
660:
632:
629:
627:applications.
605:
602:
590:titanium oxide
573:
570:
500:
497:
433:
430:
413:
410:
307:
304:
302:
299:
242:
239:
237:
234:
197:
194:
186:surface states
182:dangling bonds
110:silver sulfide
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1994:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
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1968:
1965:
1963:
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1938:
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1927:
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1921:0-306-25002-0
1917:
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1161:
1153:
1149:
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1141:
1137:
1133:
1130:(8): 969–76.
1129:
1125:
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1110:
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1094:
1090:
1082:
1073:
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478:
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470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
444:interference.
442:
438:
429:
427:
423:
422:nanoparticles
419:
409:
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401:
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99:
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84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
47:
43:
39:
35:
30:
26:
22:
1911:
1898:
1885:
1877:
1846:
1841:
1818:
1813:
1783:
1778:
1751:
1738:
1681:
1677:
1667:
1634:
1630:
1620:
1595:
1591:
1581:
1548:11424/244343
1522:
1518:
1508:
1499:
1495:
1485:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1379:
1375:
1365:
1348:
1344:
1338:
1322:. Springer.
1315:
1308:
1275:
1271:
1265:
1253:. Retrieved
1246:the original
1241:
1229:
1200:. Retrieved
1196:the original
1186:
1174:. Retrieved
1170:the original
1160:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1092:
1088:
1081:
1062:
1058:
1048:
1030:
1019:
1008:
983:
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969:
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930:
911:
891:
872:
850:
841:0471-87448-5
831:
825:
813:
801:. Retrieved
797:
788:
763:
759:
753:
739:
727:. Retrieved
722:
713:
689:Cold welding
677:
665:
641:photovoltaic
634:
607:
583:
561:
544:
532:
510:
447:
415:
402:
374:
369:
347:
309:
244:
210:
177:
163:
87:
37:
31:
29:
1684:(1): 3806.
1176:28 February
766:: 259–268.
644:solar cells
552:citric acid
548:nitric acid
479:. Ordinary
461:parkerizing
424:(less than
335:nitric acid
291:Carl Frosch
279:nitric acid
247:nitric acid
174:solar cells
124:coating of
104:, the dark
55:metal oxide
38:passivation
1946:Categories
1849:Perry memo
1788:revisited.
1753:revisited.
1444:2008.06789
947:(9): 547.
917:US2802760A
803:6 February
729:6 February
705:References
662:Perovskite
255:James Keir
230:molybdates
196:Mechanisms
1785:AMS specs
1659:235321221
1573:209424432
1477:213193915
1412:215775389
1292:1073-5615
1255:1 January
1242:Euro Inox
1000:1064-8208
986:(3): 29.
961:1945-7111
780:0013-4686
592:, mostly
457:manganese
441:Tempering
394:magnesium
366:Alclading
362:anodizing
323:oxidation
311:Aluminium
306:Aluminium
226:chromates
155:beryllium
151:metalloid
135:beryllium
131:aluminium
59:corrosion
51:oxidation
1933:Archived
1858:citation
1826:citation
1795:citation
1760:citation
1716:30228277
1651:34081389
1612:25171692
1592:ACS Nano
1565:31857483
1502:(17113).
1469:32193323
1404:32296189
1300:95616531
1152:41561027
1144:15258594
1109:25845394
1038:Archived
858:Archived
747:Goldbook
683:See also
673:carbonyl
613:fluorine
586:titanium
572:Titanium
524:chromium
493:concrete
491:does in
477:browning
400:alloys.
354:painting
343:oxidizes
283:hydrogen
214:vitreous
207:of iron.
159:titanium
147:titanium
139:chromium
73:such as
46:corroded
1972:MOSFETs
1707:6143610
1686:Bibcode
1557:1574274
1527:Bibcode
1519:Science
1449:Bibcode
1431:Science
1384:Bibcode
631:Silicon
528:rouging
449:Ferrous
382:cadmium
350:plating
263:nitrate
236:History
220:. Some
106:tarnish
98:nitride
63:silicon
42:coating
1918:
1714:
1704:
1657:
1649:
1610:
1571:
1563:
1555:
1475:
1467:
1410:
1402:
1376:Nature
1326:
1298:
1290:
1150:
1142:
1107:
998:
959:
923:
899:
864:&
838:
778:
609:Nickel
604:Nickel
565:Nadcap
485:alkali
473:bluing
412:Carbon
396:, and
390:silver
386:copper
319:oxygen
259:silver
122:porous
102:silver
81:, and
1655:S2CID
1569:S2CID
1473:S2CID
1439:arXiv
1408:S2CID
1320:(PDF)
1296:S2CID
1249:(PDF)
1238:(PDF)
1202:8 May
1148:S2CID
744:IUPAC
520:swarf
481:steel
426:10 nm
261:from
94:oxide
90:inert
1916:ISBN
1864:link
1832:link
1801:link
1766:link
1734:ASTM
1712:PMID
1647:PMID
1608:PMID
1561:PMID
1553:OSTI
1465:PMID
1400:PMID
1324:ISBN
1288:ISSN
1257:2013
1204:2013
1178:2014
1140:PMID
1105:PMID
996:ISSN
957:ISSN
897:ISBN
836:ISBN
805:2022
776:ISSN
731:2022
639:and
623:and
540:rust
378:zinc
370:base
360:and
293:and
275:iron
269:and
172:and
143:zinc
126:rust
118:iron
1809:SAE
1774:SAE
1744:doi
1702:PMC
1694:doi
1639:doi
1600:doi
1543:hdl
1535:doi
1523:366
1457:doi
1435:367
1392:doi
1380:580
1353:doi
1280:doi
1132:doi
1097:doi
1067:doi
988:doi
949:doi
945:104
768:doi
475:or
463:or
416:In
398:tin
40:is
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