1897:
1824:
temperatures and larger amounts of water contribute to higher rates of chemical weathering. Increased rates of decomposition cause smaller amounts of fulvic acid to percolate and leach metals from the zone of active weathering. Thus, in stark contrast to soil in temperate forests, tropical forests have little to no podzolization and therefore do not have marked visual and chemical contrasts with the soil layers. Instead, the mobile metals Mg, Fe and Al are precipitated as oxide minerals giving the soil a rusty red color.
1869:
3630:
3265:
3619:
3646:
1883:
1862:. To study soils in deserts, pedologists have used the concept of chronosequences to relate the timing and development of the soil layers. It has been shown that phosphorus leaches very quickly from the system, and soil P-levels decrease with age. Furthermore, carbon buildup in the soils is decreased due to slower decomposition rates. As a result, the rates of carbon circulation in the biogeochemical cycle is decreased.
2441:
1236:. Small burrowing mammals store food, grow young and may hibernate in the pedosphere altering the course of soil evolution. Large mammalian herbivores above ground transport nutrients in form of nitrogen-rich waste and phosphorus-rich antlers, while predators leave phosphorus-rich piles of bones on the soil surface, leading to localized enrichment of the soil.
1469:
but began to find the reduced form of iron in pyrite within the ancient soils near the end of the
Permian and into the Triassic. These results suggest that conditions became less oxygen rich, even anoxic, during the late Permian, which eventually led to the greatest extinction in Earth’s history, the
1841:
and fulvic acids in the upper soil profile. Low amounts of precipitation and high levels of evapotranspiration limit the downward percolation of water and organic acids, reducing chemical weathering and soil development. The depth to the maximum concentration of clay increases in areas of increased
109:
systems, regolith and finally ends at some depth in the bedrock where the biosphere and hydrosphere cease to make significant changes to the chemistry at depth. As part of the larger global system, any particular environment in which soil forms is influenced solely by its geographic position on the
1433:
This equation will tend to move to the right in acidic conditions. Higher redox potentials are found at lower pH levels. Bacteria, heterotrophic organisms, consume oxygen while decomposing organic material. This depletes the soils of oxygen, thus decreasing the redox potential. At high redox
1299:) it is reduced. In a system, it will likely donate electrons to a part that has a low concentration of electrons, or an oxidized environment, to equilibrate to the chemical gradient. An oxidized environment has high redox potential, whereas a reduced environment has a low redox potential.
1823:
and rainfall over longer growing seasons than any other environment on earth. With these elevated temperatures, insolation and rainfall, biomass is extremely productive leading to the production of as much as 800 grams of carbon per square meter per year (8 tons of C/hectare/year). Higher
1836:
is equal to or less than evapotranspiration and causes soil development to operate in relative drought. Leaching and migration of weathering products is therefore decreased. Large amounts of evaporation cause a buildup of calcium (Ca), and other large cations flocculate
117:
The pedosphere lies below the vegetative cover of the biosphere and above the hydrosphere and lithosphere. The soil forming process (pedogenesis) can begin without the aid of biology but is significantly quickened in the presence of biologic reactions, where it forms a
776:
1767:
and the occurrence of metals in soil solutions results in lower pH levels in the soil. Gases that escape from the pedosphere to the atmosphere include the gaseous byproducts of carbonate dissolution, decomposition, redox reactions and microbial
1283:). Other anaerobic microbial processes are linked to changes in the oxidation state of iron and manganese. As a result of anaerobic decomposition, the soil stores large amounts of organic carbon because the soil carbon sponge stays intact.
122:. Soil formation begins with the chemical and/or physical breakdown of minerals to form the initial material that overlies the bedrock substrate. Biology quickens this by secreting acidic compounds that help break rock apart. Particular
1853:
Deserts behave similarly to grasslands but operate in constant drought as precipitation is less than evapotranspiration. Chemical weathering proceeds more slowly than in grasslands and beneath the caliche layer may be a layer of
180:
and metavolcanic rocks. The rock type and the processes that lead to its exposure at the surface are controlled by the regional geologic setting of the specific area under study, which revolve around the underlying theory of
1772:. The main inputs from the atmosphere are aeolian sedimentation, rainfall and gas diffusion. Eolian sedimentation includes anything that can be entrained by wind or that stays suspended in air and includes a wide variety of
1185:
can produce high rates of sediment accumulation. Nonetheless, lichen can certainly withstand harsher conditions than most vascular plants, and although they have slower colonization rates, they do form the dominant group in
104:
flux into and out of these respective systems and is made up of gaseous, mineralic, fluid and biologic components. The pedosphere lies within the
Critical Zone, a broader interface that includes vegetation, pedosphere,
1180:
However, lichens are not necessarily the only pioneering organisms nor the earliest form of soil formation as it has been documented that seed-bearing plants may occupy an area and colonize quicker than lichen. Also,
1682:
1290:
describes which way chemical reactions will proceed in oxygen deficient soils and controls the nutrient cycling in flooded systems. Reduction potential is used to express the likelihood of an environment to receive
937:
89:. The pedosphere is the skin of the Earth and only develops when there is a dynamic interaction between the atmosphere (air in and above the soil), biosphere (living organisms), lithosphere (unconsolidated
1428:
466:
1776:
particles, biological particles like pollen, and dust particles. Nitrogen is the most abundant constituent in rain (after water), as water vapor utilizes aerosol particles to nucleate rain droplets.
1044:
164:
The primary conditions for soil development are controlled by the chemical composition of the rock on which the soil will be. Rock types that form the base of the soil profile are often either
1217:. In the soil profile, these organic acids are often concentrated at the top of the profile, while carbonic acid plays a larger role towards the bottom of the profile or below in the aquifer.
1788:
as suggested by the thick humus layers, rich diversity of large trees and animals that live there. Forest soils can form a thick soil carbon sponge. In forests, precipitation exceeds
150:
of the soil layer will deviate away from the initial composition of the bedrock and will evolve to a chemistry that reflects the type of reactions that take place in the soil.
504:
1220:
As the soil column develops further into thicker accumulations, larger animals come to inhabit the soil and continue to alter the chemical evolution of their respective
2106:
Grandstaff, D., 1986, The dissolution rate of forsteritic olivine from
Hawaiian beach sand: Rates of chemical weathering of rocks and minerals, pp. 41–59.
1213:
are released by soil microbes. These organic acids speed up chemical weathering by combining with some of the weathering products in a process known as
1457:
the two forms of Fe (Fe and Fe) can be measured in ancient rocks therefore determining the redox potential for ancient soils. Such a study was done on
2279:
Lajtha, K.; Schlesinger, W.H. (1988). "The
Biogeochemistry of Phosphorus Cycling and Phosphorus Availability Along a Desert Soil Chronosequence".
3427:
130:, mosses and seed bearing plants, but many other inorganic reactions take place that diversify the chemical makeup of the early soil layer. Once
3463:
2339:
1503:
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which results in an excess of water that percolates downward through the soil layers. Slow rates of decomposition leads to large amounts of
1747:
In the pedosphere it is safe to assume that gases are in equilibrium with the atmosphere. Because plant roots and soil microbes release CO
1933:
1172:
The initial conversion of rock into soil is carried on by the pioneer lichens and their successors, the mosses, in which the hair-like
220:
as a weathering product. There are few rock types that lead to localized enrichment of some of the biologically limiting elements like
806:
3437:
2195:
Kelly, D.; Smith, N. (1990). "Organic Sulfur
Compounds in the Environment Biogeochemistry, Microbiology, and Ecological Aspects".
3543:
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1316:
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3515:
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gas. Oxidization is also a major contributor to the breakdown of many silicate minerals and formation of secondary minerals (
1921:
3453:
943:
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1465:
rocks (300–200 million years old) in Japan and
British Columbia. The geologists found hematite throughout the early and
97:) and the hydrosphere (water in, on and below the soil). The pedosphere is the foundation of terrestrial life on Earth.
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48:
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The process of soil formation is dominated by chemical weathering of silicate minerals, aided by acidic products of
3508:
3448:
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products accumulate, a coherent soil body allows the migration of fluids both vertically and laterally through the
1699:
S is still a large fraction of emissions from wetland soils. In most freshwater wetlands there is little sulfate (
3680:
3486:
2160:
Isozaki, Y. (1997). "Permo-Triassic
Boundary Superanoxia and Stratified Superocean: Records from Lost Deep Sea".
111:
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rocks are often deposited on craton margins during sea level rise. The widespread dissolution of carbonate and
2502:
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and therefore become reduced. For example, if a system already has plenty of electrons (anoxic, organic-rich
31:
2097:
Faure, G., 1998, Principles and
Applications of Geochemistry, 600 pp, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
1477:
Decomposition in anoxic or reduced soils is also carried out by sulfur-reducing bacteria which, instead of O
2325:
2116:
Chen, J.; Blume, H.-P.; Beyer, L. (2000). "Weathering of rocks induced by lichen colonization — a review".
1763:) in soil waters is much greater than that in equilibrium with the atmosphere, the high concentration of CO
1168:
has long been viewed as the pioneers of soil development as the following 1997 Isozaki statement suggests:
471:
This is the dominant form of chemical weathering and aides in the breakdown of carbonate minerals (such as
1251:
bacteria metabolize and consume oxygen. They therefore deplete the soil of oxygen and create the need for
771:{\displaystyle {\ce {2 NaAlSi3O8 + 2 H2CO3 + 9 H2O <=> 2 Na+ + 2 HCO3- + 4 H4SiO4 + Al2Si2O5(OH)4}}}
3443:
3001:
1302:
The redox potential is controlled by the oxidation state of the chemical species, pH and the amount of O
1247:
in lakes and freshwater wetlands depends heavily on redox conditions. Under a few millimeters of water,
1152:. These microorganisms, associated with the lichen community or independently inhabiting rocks, include
3622:
3458:
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S gas percolates upwards and reacts with Fe and precipitates pyrite, acting as a trap for the toxic H
186:
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inputs from the atmosphere. Carbonic acid is produced in the atmosphere and soil layers through the
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precipitation and leaching. When leaching is decreased, the calcium precipitates as calcite (CaCO
253:
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there is in the system. The oxidizing environment accepts electrons because of the presence of O
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2642:
24:
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Holloway, J.; Dahlgren, R. (1999). "Geologic nitrogen in terrestrial biogeochemical cycling".
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1902:
1808:. This process leads to marked contrasts in the appearance and chemistry of the soil layers.
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becomes faster and the mobilization of ions is more widespread. Rocks high in silica produce
16:
Outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes
1735:), which are released to the atmosphere. Methane is also released during the reduction of CO
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Boggs, S., Jr., 1995, Principles of
Sedimentary and Stratigraphy. Prentice Hall, NJ, USA
1959:
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212:. Igneous and volcanic rocks are also high in silica, but with non-metamorphosed rock,
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1946:
Cooper, R. (1953). "The Role of
Lichens in Soil Formation and Plant Succession".
1816:
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1088:) releases Fe, Mg and Si ions. The Mg is soluble in water and is carried in the
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1442:. In low redox conditions, decomposition rates decrease and the deposition of
1108:, a byproduct of decaying organic material, will also react with iron to form
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Clements, F.E., and Shelford, V.E., 1939, Bioecology. John Wiley, New York.
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Piñol, J.; Alcañiz, J.M.; Rodà, F. (1995). "Carbon dioxide efflux and pCO
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1677:{\displaystyle {\ce {2 H+ + SO4^2- + 2 <=> 2 CO2 + H2S + 2 H2O}}}
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aerate the soil and convert large amounts of organic matter into rich
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between solid, fluid and gaseous phases. As time progresses, the bulk
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assume the role of roots in breaking down the surface into fine dust.
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86:
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1967:
1804:(Al) from the soil and transports them downward, a process known as
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Evidence of this reaction in the field would be elevated levels of
484:
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90:
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Metaigneous and metavolcanic rocks form the largest component of
106:
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release up to 30–50% of the nitrogen pool. Thick successions of
3252:
3187:
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2923:
2825:
2440:
2317:
1859:
1855:
1785:
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1109:
1105:
932:{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCO3 + H2CO3 <=> Ca^2+ + 2 HCO3-}}}
488:
265:
205:
127:
1800:, in conjunction with chemical weathering leaches Mg, Fe, and
3167:
1296:
1229:
1161:
1129:
1120:
levels due to elevated H ions and further precipitation of Fe
229:
1423:{\displaystyle {\ce {O2 + 4 e- + 4 H+ <=>> 2 H2O}}}
1116:) in reducing environments. Pyrite dissolution leads to low
461:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O + CO2 <=> H+ + HCO3- H2CO3}}}
3197:
3032:
3027:
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10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0567:GNITBC>2.3.CO;2
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is split by methanogenic bacteria to produce methane (CH
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as an electron acceptor and produce hydrogen sulfide (H
1117:
1092:, but the Fe often reacts with oxygen to precipitate Fe
1796:, greatly enhancing chemical weathering. The downward
1595:
1382:
1039:{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCO3 <=> Ca^2+ + CO3^2-}}}
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114:
changes occur with changes in longitude and latitude.
1506:
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The pedosphere acts as the mediator of chemical and
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931:
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256:deep water basins that preserve organic material.
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1193:Organic acids released from plant roots include
3428:Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated
1751:to the soil, the concentration of bicarbonate (
1723:, a compound that is a byproduct of fermenting
797:), sodium and silica ions in the water runoff.
3464:National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists
2115:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1715:becomes the dominant form of decomposition by
1449:By using analytical geochemical tools such as
2676:
2333:
2026:Biogeochemistry: an analysis of global change
2003:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1846:) in the lower soil levels, a layer known as
1255:. Some anaerobic microbial processes include
73:processes. It exists at the interface of the
1922:Elissa Levine, 2001, The Pedosphere As A Hub
2024:Schlesinger, W.H.; Bernhardt, E.S. (2013).
1049:The further dissolution of carbonic acid (H
3645:
2683:
2669:
2340:
2326:
2194:
1982:
1080:) in the early soil profile. Oxidation of
110:globe as climatic, geologic, biologic and
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1549:
1511:
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1340:
912:
677:
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3438:Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
2028:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Academic Press.
1263:and are responsible for the release of N
3544:Soil Science Society of America Journal
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2159:
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2091:
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1578:
1373:
965:
857:
599:
367:
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3516:Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
2977:Canadian system of soil classification
1945:
1811:
1497:S) and carbon dioxide in the process:
1434:potential, the oxidized form of iron,
1310:, which acts as an electron acceptor:
800:The breakdown of carbonate minerals:
304:Weathering and dissolution of minerals
2664:
2321:
1201:. During the decay of organic matter
1183:eolian sedimentation (wind generated)
1104:), the oxidized state of iron oxide.
487:). The breakdown of the Na-feldspar,
3618:
3454:International Union of Soil Sciences
2086:
1438:(Fe), will be deposited commonly as
3481:Soil and Water Conservation Society
1371:
1205:are released from plant matter and
13:
2961:Unified Soil Classification System
2493:Soil retrogression and degradation
2199:. Vol. 11. pp. 345–385.
1779:
44: 'ground, earth' and
14:
3692:
2966:AASHTO Soil Classification System
1240:Redox conditions in wetland soils
3644:
3629:
3628:
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3509:Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B
3449:Indian Institute of Soil Science
3433:Canadian Society of Soil Science
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2347:
1895:
1881:
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1144:may begin with lichen and other
276:leads to elevated levels of Mg,
3487:Soil Science Society of America
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2221:
2188:
2153:
2144:
1719:only when sulfate is depleted.
1132:conditions of the environment.
3492:World Congress of Soil Science
3476:Soil Science Society of Poland
2982:Australian Soil Classification
2973:(French classification system)
2109:
2100:
2051:
2042:
1939:
1926:
1915:
1828:Soil in grasslands and deserts
1784:Soil is well developed in the
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2503:Soil compaction (agriculture)
2197:Advances in Microbial Ecology
2138:10.1016/S0341-8162(99)00085-5
1909:
1742:
2174:10.1126/science.276.5310.235
1135:
63:outermost layer of the Earth
7:
3444:German Soil Science Society
3002:List of vineyard soil types
2205:10.1007/978-1-4684-7612-5_9
491:, by carbonic acid to form
10:
3697:
3623:Knowledge:WikiProject Soil
3459:International Year of Soil
2987:Polish Soil Classification
2426:Environmental soil science
300:ions in aqueous solution.
168:(carbonate or siliceous),
157:
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30:
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3011:Non-systematic soil types
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2431:Agricultural soil science
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1164:, and numerous bacteria.
312:and organisms as well as
3581:Infiltration (hydrology)
3375:Geotechnical engineering
2997:List of U.S. state soils
1731:) and carbon dioxide (CO
1259:, sulfate reduction and
1128:ultimately changing the
3650:List of soil scientists
2992:1938 USDA soil taxonomy
2971:Référentiel pédologique
2955:FAO soil classification
1453:or inductively coupled
61: 'sphere') is the
3681:Structure of the Earth
3421:Societies, Initiatives
2643:Soil water (retention)
1739:by the same bacteria.
1678:
1424:
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462:
3640:Category soil science
3324:Soil salinity control
1903:Earth sciences portal
1717:methanogenic bacteria
1679:
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1253:anaerobic respiration
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3405:Agricultural science
3299:Soil guideline value
3123:Calcareous grassland
2700:World Reference Base
1504:
1317:
944:
807:
505:
327:
65:that is composed of
3501:Scientific journals
2692:Soil classification
2633:Soil organic matter
2594:Pore water pressure
2293:1988Ecol...69...24L
2250:1995Biogc..30..191P
2130:2000Caten..39..121C
2072:1999Geo....27..567H
1960:1953Ecol...34..805C
1812:Soil in the tropics
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1288:reduction potential
1057:) and bicarbonate (
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2702:for Soil Resources
2589:Pore space in soil
2532:Soil acidification
2488:Soil contamination
2258:10.1007/BF02186413
2236:montane forests".
2232:in soils of three
1875:Environment portal
1790:evapotranspiration
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1451:X-ray fluorescence
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1321:
1036:
1017:
997:
948:
929:
913:
889:
840:
827:
811:
768:
746:
733:
720:
707:
691:
678:
656:
631:
579:
559:
546:
526:
513:
458:
444:
431:
416:
399:
350:
331:
176:igneous rocks) or
120:soil carbon sponge
3658:
3657:
3289:Soil conservation
3275:
3274:
2549:Soil biodiversity
2396:Soil microbiology
2214:978-1-4684-7614-9
2168:(5310): 235–238.
1832:Precipitation in
1695:S gas. However, H
1672:
1660:
1649:
1637:
1621:
1612:
1569:
1557:
1528:
1515:
1455:mass spectrometry
1418:
1406:
1397:
1361:
1344:
1324:
1020:
1004:
999:
951:
916:
896:
891:
843:
830:
814:
753:
736:
723:
710:
694:
681:
659:
642:
633:
594:
582:
562:
549:
529:
516:
481:silicate minerals
447:
434:
419:
406:
401:
353:
346:
334:
310:pioneering plants
288:, Sr, Na, Cl and
124:biologic pioneers
93:and consolidated
3688:
3648:
3647:
3632:
3631:
3621:
3620:
3470:OPAL Soil Centre
3267:
3266:
3163:Hydrophobic soil
2685:
2678:
2671:
2662:
2661:
2626:Soil respiration
2443:
2342:
2335:
2328:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2312:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2192:
2186:
2185:
2157:
2151:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2113:
2107:
2104:
2098:
2095:
2084:
2083:
2055:
2049:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2021:
1980:
1979:
1943:
1937:
1934:Regenerate Earth
1930:
1924:
1919:
1905:
1900:
1899:
1898:
1891:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1877:
1872:
1871:
1817:Tropical forests
1762:
1761:
1760:
1710:
1709:
1708:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1658:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1635:
1629:
1626:
1619:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1601:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1583:
1575:
1573:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1555:
1541:
1533:
1526:
1521:
1520:
1513:
1492:
1491:
1490:
1429:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1404:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1387:
1380:
1378:
1369:
1367:
1366:
1359:
1350:
1349:
1342:
1332:
1329:
1322:
1273:hydrogen sulfide
1245:Nutrient cycling
1154:blue-green algae
1140:Inputs from the
1068:
1067:
1066:
1045:
1043:
1042:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1025:
1018:
1013:
1012:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
995:
988:
980:
979:
977:
970:
962:
959:
956:
949:
938:
936:
935:
930:
928:
926:
921:
914:
905:
904:
894:
892:
890:
888:
887:
880:
872:
871:
869:
862:
854:
851:
848:
841:
838:
835:
828:
822:
819:
812:
796:
795:
794:
777:
775:
774:
769:
767:
765:
762:
757:
751:
744:
741:
734:
731:
728:
721:
718:
715:
708:
702:
699:
692:
689:
686:
679:
669:
664:
657:
648:
647:
640:
634:
632:
630:
629:
622:
614:
613:
611:
604:
596:
592:
590:
587:
580:
570:
567:
560:
557:
554:
547:
537:
534:
527:
524:
521:
514:
467:
465:
464:
459:
457:
455:
452:
445:
442:
439:
432:
429:
424:
417:
412:
411:
404:
402:
400:
398:
397:
390:
382:
381:
379:
372:
364:
361:
358:
351:
344:
342:
339:
332:
299:
298:
297:
287:
286:
285:
244:(> 15% P
232:(< 15% P
228:(N). Phosphatic
208:and are high in
172:or metaigneous (
58:
51:
41:
34:
3696:
3695:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3686:
3685:
3661:
3660:
3659:
3654:
3609:
3591:Crust (geology)
3571:Land management
3566:Land conversion
3549:
3496:
3416:
3395:Earth materials
3343:
3329:Erosion control
3314:Soil governance
3294:Soil management
3277:
3276:
3271:
3257:
3228:Subaqueous soil
3213:Serpentine soil
3073:Parent material
3006:
2943:
2870:
2701:
2694:
2689:
2649:
2569:Soil resilience
2498:Soil compaction
2466:Soil morphology
2444:
2435:
2369:
2351:
2346:
2316:
2301:10.2307/1943157
2277:
2273:
2238:Biogeochemistry
2231:
2226:
2222:
2215:
2193:
2189:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2145:
2114:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2087:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2036:
2022:
1983:
1968:10.2307/1931347
1944:
1940:
1936:, accessed 2022
1932:Jehne, Walter,
1931:
1927:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1901:
1896:
1894:
1887:
1882:
1880:
1873:
1866:
1845:
1830:
1814:
1782:
1780:Soil in forests
1766:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1745:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1666:
1661:
1643:
1638:
1627:
1622:
1604:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1586:
1579:
1577:
1576:
1574:
1563:
1558:
1550:
1534:
1529:
1516:
1512:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1496:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1446:(Fe) increase.
1412:
1407:
1390:
1383:
1381:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1362:
1358:
1345:
1341:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1278:
1270:
1266:
1257:denitrification
1242:
1138:
1127:
1123:
1115:
1099:
1095:
1087:
1074:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1026:
1021:
1005:
1001:
991:
984:
983:
981:
973:
966:
964:
963:
961:
957:
952:
947:
945:
942:
941:
922:
917:
897:
893:
883:
876:
875:
873:
865:
858:
856:
855:
853:
849:
844:
836:
831:
820:
815:
810:
808:
805:
804:
793:
790:
789:
788:
786:
763:
758:
747:
742:
737:
729:
724:
716:
711:
700:
695:
687:
682:
665:
660:
643:
639:
625:
618:
617:
615:
607:
600:
598:
597:
595:
588:
583:
568:
563:
555:
550:
535:
530:
522:
517:
508:
506:
503:
502:
498:is as follows:
453:
448:
440:
435:
425:
420:
407:
403:
393:
386:
385:
383:
375:
368:
366:
365:
363:
359:
354:
340:
335:
330:
328:
325:
324:
306:
296:
293:
292:
291:
289:
284:
281:
280:
279:
277:
251:
247:
239:
235:
183:plate tectonics
162:
156:
69:and subject to
17:
12:
11:
5:
3694:
3684:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3656:
3655:
3653:
3652:
3642:
3636:
3625:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3607:
3602:
3600:Surface runoff
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3557:
3555:
3551:
3550:
3548:
3547:
3540:
3533:
3526:
3523:Plant and Soil
3519:
3512:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3497:
3495:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3478:
3473:
3467:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3435:
3430:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3417:
3415:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3351:
3349:
3348:Related fields
3345:
3344:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3272:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3203:Prime farmland
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3158:Fuller's earth
3155:
3150:
3148:Expansive clay
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2880:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2707:
2705:
2696:
2695:
2688:
2687:
2680:
2673:
2665:
2659:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2635:
2630:
2629:
2628:
2618:
2613:
2611:Soil biomantle
2608:
2603:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2584:Soil structure
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2564:Soil fertility
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2512:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2476:Soil formation
2473:
2468:
2458:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2445:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2421:Soil chemistry
2418:
2416:Soil mechanics
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2370:
2368:
2367:
2362:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2345:
2344:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2315:
2314:
2271:
2244:(3): 191–215.
2229:
2220:
2213:
2187:
2152:
2143:
2124:(2): 121–146.
2108:
2099:
2085:
2050:
2041:
2035:978-0123858740
2034:
1981:
1954:(4): 805–807.
1938:
1925:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1906:
1892:
1889:Ecology portal
1878:
1843:
1829:
1826:
1813:
1810:
1781:
1778:
1770:photosynthesis
1764:
1757:
1748:
1744:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1713:methanogenesis
1705:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1664:
1655:
1652:
1641:
1633:
1625:
1616:
1607:
1600:
1589:
1582:
1572:
1561:
1553:
1548:
1545:
1540:
1537:
1532:
1524:
1519:
1510:
1494:
1487:
1478:
1472:P-T extinction
1467:middle Permian
1431:
1430:
1410:
1401:
1393:
1386:
1376:
1365:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1339:
1336:
1328:
1307:
1303:
1276:
1268:
1264:
1261:methanogenesis
1241:
1238:
1234:soil fertility
1203:phenolic acids
1188:alpine regions
1146:microorganisms
1137:
1134:
1125:
1121:
1113:
1097:
1093:
1085:
1072:
1063:
1054:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1032:
1029:
1024:
1016:
1011:
1008:
994:
987:
976:
969:
955:
939:
925:
920:
911:
908:
903:
900:
886:
879:
868:
861:
847:
834:
826:
818:
791:
779:
778:
761:
756:
750:
740:
727:
714:
706:
698:
685:
676:
673:
668:
663:
654:
651:
646:
637:
628:
621:
610:
603:
586:
577:
574:
566:
553:
544:
541:
533:
520:
511:
469:
468:
451:
438:
428:
423:
415:
410:
396:
389:
378:
371:
357:
349:
338:
305:
302:
294:
282:
260:(metabasalt),
249:
245:
237:
233:
158:Main article:
155:
152:
102:biogeochemical
71:soil formation
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3693:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3651:
3643:
3641:
3637:
3635:
3634:Category soil
3626:
3624:
3616:
3615:
3612:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3552:
3546:
3545:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3537:Soil Research
3534:
3532:
3531:
3530:Pochvovedenie
3527:
3525:
3524:
3520:
3518:
3517:
3513:
3511:
3510:
3506:
3505:
3503:
3499:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3370:Geomorphology
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3352:
3350:
3346:
3340:
3339:Liming (soil)
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3270:
3269:Types of soil
3260:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3248:Tropical peat
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3133:Dry quicksand
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2948:Other systems
2946:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2681:
2679:
2674:
2672:
2667:
2666:
2663:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2638:Soil moisture
2636:
2634:
2631:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2521:
2518:
2517:
2516:
2515:Soil salinity
2513:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2471:Pedodiversity
2469:
2467:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2442:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2354:
2350:
2343:
2338:
2336:
2331:
2329:
2324:
2323:
2320:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2275:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2224:
2216:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2191:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2156:
2147:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2103:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2054:
2045:
2037:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1893:
1890:
1879:
1876:
1870:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1851:
1849:
1840:
1839:clay minerals
1835:
1825:
1822:
1819:receive more
1818:
1809:
1807:
1806:podzolization
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1740:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1662:
1653:
1650:
1639:
1631:
1623:
1614:
1598:
1587:
1559:
1546:
1543:
1538:
1535:
1530:
1522:
1517:
1508:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1475:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1408:
1399:
1384:
1363:
1354:
1351:
1346:
1337:
1334:
1326:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1274:
1267:(nitrogen), H
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1249:heterotrophic
1246:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1189:
1184:
1177:
1175:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1148:that secrete
1147:
1143:
1133:
1131:
1119:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1091:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1030:
1027:
1022:
1014:
1009:
1006:
985:
974:
953:
940:
923:
918:
909:
906:
901:
898:
877:
866:
845:
832:
824:
816:
803:
802:
801:
798:
784:
759:
738:
725:
712:
704:
696:
683:
674:
671:
666:
661:
652:
649:
644:
635:
619:
608:
584:
575:
572:
564:
551:
542:
539:
531:
518:
509:
501:
500:
499:
497:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
449:
436:
426:
421:
413:
408:
387:
376:
355:
347:
336:
323:
322:
321:
319:
315:
314:carbonic acid
311:
301:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
243:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
202:
200:
196:
192:
188:
185:, subsequent
184:
179:
175:
174:metamorphosed
171:
167:
161:
151:
149:
145:
141:
137:
136:decomposition
133:
129:
125:
121:
115:
113:
112:anthropogenic
108:
103:
98:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
57:
50:
46:
43:
40:
33:
29:
26:
25:Ancient Greek
22:
3676:Geochemistry
3542:
3535:
3528:
3521:
3514:
3507:
3390:Biogeography
3385:Hydrogeology
3360:Geochemistry
3282:Applications
3178:Martian soil
3077:
2606:Soil horizon
2579:Soil texture
2554:Soil quality
2510:Soil sealing
2483:Soil erosion
2460:
2411:Soil physics
2406:Soil ecology
2401:Soil zoology
2391:Soil biology
2349:Soil science
2287:(1): 24–39.
2284:
2280:
2274:
2241:
2237:
2234:Quercus ilex
2233:
2223:
2196:
2190:
2165:
2161:
2155:
2146:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2102:
2063:
2059:
2053:
2044:
2025:
1951:
1947:
1941:
1928:
1917:
1852:
1831:
1815:
1783:
1746:
1686:
1476:
1448:
1444:ferrous iron
1432:
1301:
1285:
1243:
1232:, improving
1219:
1192:
1179:
1171:
1139:
1048:
799:
780:
470:
307:
218:silicic acid
203:
163:
148:geochemistry
144:ion exchange
140:soil profile
116:
99:
55:
52:
45:
38:
35:
28:
20:
18:
3586:Groundwater
3400:Archaeology
3334:Agroecology
3304:Soil survey
3243:Terra rossa
3238:Terra preta
3218:Spodic soil
3138:Duplex soil
3118:Brown earth
3098:Alkali soil
3088:Rhizosphere
3083:Laimosphere
2957:(1974–1998)
2914:Inceptisols
2821:Plinthosols
2786:Kastanozems
2616:Soil carbon
2539:Soil health
2520:Alkali soil
2449:Soil topics
2374:Main fields
1798:percolation
1794:fulvic acid
1436:ferric iron
1211:fulvic acid
1199:citric acid
1195:acetic acid
1158:green algae
1150:oxalic acid
1069:) produces
783:bicarbonate
318:carbonation
242:phosphorite
187:deformation
166:sedimentary
160:Lithosphere
154:Lithosphere
83:hydrosphere
75:lithosphere
3665:Categories
3576:Vegetation
3319:Soil value
3223:Stagnogley
3173:Lunar soil
3128:Dark earth
3113:Brickearth
3078:Pedosphere
3048:Soil crust
2856:Technosols
2841:Solonchaks
2761:Ferralsols
2726:Anthrosols
2601:Soil crust
2574:Soil color
2559:Soil value
2461:Pedosphere
2386:Edaphology
2066:(6): 567.
1910:References
1834:grasslands
1821:insolation
1743:Atmosphere
1226:Earthworms
1207:humic acid
1160:, various
1078:diagenesis
320:reaction.
274:evaporites
258:Greenstone
252:) form in
222:phosphorus
214:weathering
199:deposition
195:subsidence
142:, causing
132:weathering
79:atmosphere
23:(from
21:pedosphere
3605:Petrichor
3380:Hydrology
3365:Petrology
3309:Soil test
3208:Quicksand
3153:Fill dirt
3093:Bulk soil
2939:Vertisols
2929:Spodosols
2919:Mollisols
2909:Histosols
2894:Aridisols
2866:Vertisols
2861:Umbrisols
2851:Stagnosol
2816:Planosols
2811:Phaeozems
2791:Leptosols
2776:Gypsisols
2766:Fluvisols
2746:Chernozem
2741:Cambisols
2736:Calcisols
2731:Arenosols
2655:Soil type
2544:Soil life
1802:aluminium
1725:cellulose
1606:⇀
1599:−
1588:−
1581:↽
1539:−
1392:⇀
1385:−
1375:↽
1347:−
1293:electrons
1215:chelation
1142:biosphere
1136:Biosphere
1031:−
993:⇀
986:−
975:−
968:↽
924:−
885:⇀
878:−
867:−
860:↽
667:−
627:⇀
620:−
609:−
602:↽
493:kaolinite
483:(such as
427:−
395:⇀
388:−
377:−
370:↽
270:carbonate
87:biosphere
3671:Pedology
3561:Land use
3554:See also
3410:Agrology
3193:Paleosol
3108:Blue goo
3063:Gypcrust
2934:Ultisols
2904:Gelisols
2899:Entisols
2889:Andisols
2884:Alfisols
2846:Solonetz
2836:Retisols
2831:Regosols
2806:Nitisols
2801:Luvisols
2796:Lixisols
2781:Histosol
2771:Gleysols
2756:Durisols
2751:Cryosols
2721:Andosols
2711:Acrisols
2621:Soil gas
2381:Pedology
2266:91670150
1463:Triassic
1461:through
1440:hematite
1275:) and CH
1174:rhizoids
1102:hematite
1084:(FeMgSiO
485:feldspar
477:dolomite
262:phyllite
226:nitrogen
224:(P) and
178:volcanic
91:regolith
3638:
3440:(India)
3355:Geology
3143:Eluvium
3103:Bay mud
3068:Caliche
3058:Hardpan
3053:Claypan
3043:Subsoil
3038:Topsoil
2924:Oxisols
2826:Podzols
2716:Alisols
2704:(1998–)
2527:Soil pH
2360:History
2309:1943157
2289:Bibcode
2281:Ecology
2246:Bibcode
2182:9092467
2162:Science
2126:Bibcode
2068:Bibcode
2060:Geology
1976:1931347
1956:Bibcode
1948:Ecology
1848:caliche
1774:aerosol
1721:Acetate
1459:Permian
1281:methane
1082:olivine
473:calcite
206:cratons
170:igneous
107:aquifer
95:bedrock
56:sphaîra
3627:
3253:Yedoma
3188:Muskeg
2307:
2264:
2211:
2180:
2118:CATENA
2032:
1974:
1860:halite
1856:gypsum
1786:forest
1166:Lichen
1110:pyrite
1106:Sulfur
1090:runoff
515:NaAlSi
489:albite
479:) and
266:schist
264:, and
254:anoxic
240:) and
210:silica
191:uplift
128:lichen
49:σφαῖρα
3233:Takir
3168:Loess
2365:Index
2305:JSTOR
2262:S2CID
1972:JSTOR
1711:) so
1687:The H
1297:shale
1230:humus
1222:niche
1162:fungi
1130:redox
230:shale
39:pédon
32:πέδον
27:
3483:(US)
3472:(UK)
3466:(US)
3198:Peat
3033:Loam
3028:Clay
3023:Silt
3018:Sand
2456:Soil
2209:ISBN
2178:PMID
2030:ISBN
1858:and
1481:use
1286:The
1209:and
1197:and
1112:(FeS
950:CaCO
813:CaCO
496:clay
475:and
197:and
134:and
126:are
85:and
67:soil
19:The
3183:Mud
2297:doi
2254:doi
2201:doi
2170:doi
2166:276
2134:doi
2076:doi
1964:doi
1753:HCO
1271:S (
1059:HCO
915:HCO
787:HCO
693:SiO
658:HCO
418:HCO
278:HCO
3667::
2303:.
2295:.
2285:69
2283:.
2260:.
2252:.
2242:30
2240:.
2207:.
2176:.
2164:.
2132:.
2122:39
2120:.
2088:^
2074:.
2064:27
2062:.
1984:^
1970:.
1962:.
1952:34
1950:.
1850:.
1701:SO
1620:CO
1556:CH
1527:SO
1483:SO
1474:.
1224:.
1190:.
1156:,
1118:pH
1071:CO
1053:CO
1019:CO
1003:Ca
895:Ca
842:CO
752:OH
722:Si
709:Al
641:Na
561:CO
446:CO
352:CO
290:SO
201:.
193:,
189:,
81:,
77:,
3598:/
2684:e
2677:t
2670:v
2341:e
2334:t
2327:v
2311:.
2299::
2291::
2268:.
2256::
2248::
2230:2
2217:.
2203::
2184:.
2172::
2140:.
2136::
2128::
2082:.
2078::
2070::
2038:.
1978:.
1966::
1958::
1844:3
1765:2
1758:3
1749:2
1737:2
1733:2
1729:4
1706:4
1697:2
1693:2
1689:2
1671:O
1663:2
1659:H
1654:2
1651:+
1648:S
1640:2
1636:H
1632:+
1624:2
1615:2
1571:]
1568:O
1560:2
1552:[
1547:2
1544:+
1536:2
1531:4
1523:+
1518:+
1514:H
1509:2
1495:2
1488:4
1479:2
1417:O
1409:2
1405:H
1400:2
1364:+
1360:H
1355:4
1352:+
1343:e
1338:4
1335:+
1327:2
1323:O
1308:2
1304:2
1279:(
1277:4
1269:2
1265:2
1126:3
1124:O
1122:2
1114:2
1100:(
1098:3
1096:O
1094:2
1086:4
1073:2
1064:3
1055:3
1051:2
1028:2
1023:3
1015:+
1010:+
1007:2
954:3
919:3
910:2
907:+
902:+
899:2
846:3
833:2
829:H
825:+
817:3
792:3
785:(
760:4
755:)
749:(
739:5
735:O
726:2
713:2
705:+
697:4
684:4
680:H
675:4
672:+
662:3
653:2
650:+
645:+
636:2
593:O
585:2
581:H
576:9
573:+
565:3
552:2
548:H
543:2
540:+
532:8
528:O
519:3
510:2
450:3
437:2
433:H
422:3
414:+
409:+
405:H
356:2
348:+
345:O
337:2
333:H
295:4
283:3
250:5
248:O
246:2
238:5
236:O
234:2
59:)
53:(
42:)
36:(
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