221:(NSA), all used the phrase "penetration" to describe an attack against a computer system. In a paper, Ware referred to the military's remotely accessible time-sharing systems, warning that "Deliberate attempts to penetrate such computer systems must be anticipated." His colleagues Petersen and Turn shared the same concerns, observing that online communication systems "...are vulnerable to threats to privacy," including "deliberate penetration." Bernard Peters of the NSA made the same point, insisting that computer input and output "...could provide large amounts of information to a penetrating program." During the conference, computer penetration would become formally identified as a major threat to online computer systems.
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possible input streams, such as cookie and session data, the uploaded file stream, RPC channels, or memory. Errors can happen in any of these input streams. The test goal is to first get an unhandled error and then understand the flaw based on the failed test case. Testers write an automated tool to test their understanding of the flaw until it is correct. After that, it may become obvious how to package the payload so that the target system triggers its execution. If this is not viable, one can hope that another error produced by the fuzzer yields more fruit. The use of a fuzzer saves time by not checking adequate code paths where exploits are unlikely.
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and adequacy of implemented data security safeguards." In addition, a number of the RAND analysts insisted that the penetration test exercises all offered several benefits that justified its continued use. As they noted in one paper, "A penetrator seems to develop a diabolical frame of mind in his search for operating system weaknesses and incompleteness, which is difficult to emulate." For these reasons and others, many analysts at RAND recommended the continued study of penetration techniques for their usefulness in assessing system security.
232:, DoD, academia, and industry to formally assess the security of time-sharing computer systems. By relying on many papers presented during the Spring 1967 Joint Computer Conference, the task force largely confirmed the threat to system security that computer penetration posed. Ware's report was initially classified, but many of the country's leading computer experts quickly identified the study as the definitive document on computer security. Jeffrey R. Yost of the
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Institute, in his own work on the history of computer security, also acknowledges that both the RAND Corporation and the SDC had "engaged in some of the first so-called 'penetration studies' to try to infiltrate time-sharing systems in order to test their vulnerability." In virtually all these early studies, tiger teams successfully broke into all targeted computer systems, as the country's time-sharing systems had poor defenses.
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preventive and detective security measures employed to protect assets and data. As part of this service, certified ethical hackers typically conduct a simulated attack on a system, systems, applications or another target in the environment, searching for security weaknesses. After testing, they will typically document the vulnerabilities and outline which defenses are effective and which can be defeated or exploited.
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588:(GSA) has standardized the "penetration test" service as a pre-vetted support service, to rapidly address potential vulnerabilities, and stop adversaries before they impact US federal, state and local governments. These services are commonly referred to as Highly Adaptive Cybersecurity Services (HACS) and are listed at the US GSA Advantage website.
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132-45A Penetration
Testing is security testing in which service assessors mimic real-world attacks to identify methods for circumventing the security features of an application, system, or network. HACS Penetration Testing Services typically strategically test the effectiveness of the organization's
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and documentation for the system. The list of hypothesized flaws is then prioritized on the basis of the estimated probability that a flaw actually exists, and on the ease of exploiting it to the extent of control or compromise. The prioritized list is used to direct the actual testing of the system.
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This effort has identified key service providers which have been technically reviewed and vetted to provide these advanced penetration services. This GSA service is intended to improve the rapid ordering and deployment of these services, reduce US government contract duplication, and to protect and
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is a common technique that discovers vulnerabilities. It aims to get an unhandled error through random input. The tester uses random input to access the less often used code paths. Well-trodden code paths are usually free of errors. Errors are useful because they either expose more information, such
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Legal operations that let the tester execute an illegal operation include unescaped SQL commands, unchanged hashed passwords in source-visible projects, human relationships, and old hashing or cryptographic functions. A single flaw may not be enough to enable a critically serious exploit. Leveraging
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briefly summarized the ongoing efforts of tiger teams to assess system security. As Broad reported, the DoD-sponsored report by Willis Ware had "...showed how spies could actively penetrate computers, steal or copy electronic files and subvert the devices that normally guard top-secret information.
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time-sharing computer system. In hopes that further system security study would be useful, attendees requested "...studies to be conducted in such areas as breaking security protection in the time-shared system." In other words, the conference participants initiated one of the first formal requests
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Several operating system distributions are geared towards penetration testing. Such distributions typically contain a pre-packaged and pre-configured set of tools. The penetration tester does not have to hunt down each individual tool, which might increase the risk of complications—such as compile
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Presumably the leading computer penetration expert during these formative years was James P. Anderson, who had worked with the NSA, RAND, and other government agencies to study system security. In the early 1971, the U.S. Air Force contracted
Anderson's private company to study the security of its
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Of early tiger team actions, efforts at the RAND Corporation demonstrated the usefulness of penetration as a tool for assessing system security. At the time, one RAND analyst noted that the tests had "...demonstrated the practicality of system-penetration as a tool for evaluating the effectiveness
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A leading scholar on the history of computer security, Donald MacKenzie, similarly points out that, "RAND had done some penetration studies (experiments in circumventing computer security controls) of early time-sharing systems on behalf of the government." Jeffrey R. Yost of the
Charles Babbage
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to use computer penetration to test system security. Deborah
Russell and G. T. Gangemi Sr. stated that during the 1970s "...'tiger teams' first emerged on the computer scene. Tiger teams were government and industry-sponsored teams of crackers who attempted to break down the defenses of computer
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on certain strings. Submitting random strings to those boxes for a while will hopefully hit the bugged code path. The error shows itself as a broken HTML page half rendered because of an SQL error. In this case, only text boxes are treated as input streams. However, software systems have many
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The goals of a penetration test vary depending on the type of approved activity for any given engagement, with the primary goal focused on finding vulnerabilities that could be exploited by a nefarious actor, and informing the client of those vulnerabilities along with recommended mitigation
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While these various studies may have suggested that computer security in the U.S. remained a major problem, the scholar Edward Hunt has more recently made a broader point about the extensive study of computer penetration as a security tool. Hunt suggests in a recent paper on the history of
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has more recently described the Ware report as "...by far the most important and thorough study on technical and operational issues regarding secure computing systems of its time period." In effect, the Ware report reaffirmed the major threat posed by computer penetration to the new online
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Testing Guide. CREST, a not for profit professional body for the technical cyber security industry, provides its CREST Defensible
Penetration Test standard that provides the industry with guidance for commercially reasonable assurance activity when carrying out penetration tests.
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penetration testing that the defense establishment ultimately "...created many of the tools used in modern day cyberwarfare," as it carefully defined and researched the many ways that computer penetrators could hack into targeted systems.
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computer systems that made resources accessible over communication lines created new security concerns. As the scholars
Deborah Russell and G. T. Gangemi Sr. explain, "The 1960s marked the true beginning of the age of computer security."
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to practice against. Such systems help new security professionals try the latest security tools in a lab environment. Examples include Damn
Vulnerable Linux (DVL), the OWASP Web Testing Environment (WTW), and Metasploitable.
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Reconnaissance: The act of gathering important information on a target system. This information can be used to better attack the target. For example, open source search engines can be used to find data that can be used in a
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penetration test is a combination of the two (where limited knowledge of the target is shared with the auditor). A penetration test can help identify a system's vulnerabilities to attack and estimate how vulnerable it is.
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describes penetration testing as: "A method for gaining assurance in the security of an IT system by attempting to breach some or all of that system's security, using the same tools and techniques as an adversary might."
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Once an attacker has exploited one vulnerability they may gain access to other machines so the process repeats i.e. they look for new vulnerabilities and attempt to exploit them. This process is referred to as pivoting.
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There are different types of penetration testing, depending upon the goal of the organization which include: Network (external and internal), Wireless, Web
Application, Social Engineering, and Remediation Verification.
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Security issues that the penetration test uncovers should be reported to the system owner. Penetration test reports may also assess potential impacts to the organization and suggest countermeasures to reduce the risk.
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Several standard frameworks and methodologies exist for conducting penetration tests. These include the Open Source
Security Testing Methodology Manual (OSSTMM), the Penetration Testing Execution Standard (PTES), the
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multiple known flaws and shaping the payload in a way that appears as a valid operation is almost always required. Metasploit provides a ruby library for common tasks, and maintains a database of known exploits.
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Gaining access: Using the data gathered in the reconnaissance and scanning phases, the attacker can use a payload to exploit the targeted system. For example, Metasploit can be used to automate attacks on known
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Penetration testing is the simulation of an attack on a system, network, piece of equipment or other facility, with the objective of proving how vulnerable that system or "target" would be to a real attack.
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The study touched off more than a decade of quiet activity by elite groups of computer scientists working for the
Government who tried to break into sensitive computers. They succeeded in every attempt."
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The process typically identifies the target systems and a particular goal, then reviews available information and undertakes various means to attain that goal. A penetration test target may be a
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The outcomes of penetration tests vary depending on the standards and methodologies used. There are five penetration testing standards: Open Source Security Testing Methodology Manual (OSSTMM),
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requires penetration testing on a regular schedule, and after system changes. Penetration testing also can support risk assessments as outlined in the NIST Risk Management Framework SP 800-53.
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Over time, Anderson's description of general computer penetration steps helped guide many other security experts, who relied on this technique to assess time-sharing computer system security.
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time-sharing system at the Pentagon. In his study, Anderson outlined a number of major factors involved in computer penetration. Anderson described a general attack sequence in steps:
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In June 1965, for example, several of the U.S.'s leading computer security experts held one of the first major conferences on system security—hosted by the government contractor, the
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Maintaining access: Maintaining access requires taking the steps involved in being able to be persistently within the target environment in order to gather as much data as possible.
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At the Spring 1967 Joint Computer Conference, many leading computer specialists again met to discuss system security concerns. During this conference, the computer security experts
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A penetration test can determine how a system reacts to an attack, whether or not a system's defenses can be breached, and what information can be acquired from the system
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549:, or altering data. Some companies maintain large databases of known exploits and provide products that automatically test target systems for vulnerabilities:
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Covering tracks: The attacker must clear any trace of compromising the victim system, any type of data gathered, log events, in order to remain anonymous.
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In the following years, computer penetration as a tool for security assessment became more refined and sophisticated. In the early 1980s, the journalist
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Many other specialized operating systems facilitate penetration testing—each more or less dedicated to a specific field of penetration testing.
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In the UK penetration testing services are standardized via professional bodies working in collaboration with National Cyber Security Centre.
201:(SDC). During the conference, someone noted that one SDC employee had been able to easily undermine various system safeguards added to SDC's
97:), including the potential for unauthorized parties to gain access to the system's features and data, as well as strengths, enabling a full
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The illegal operation, or payload in Metasploit terminology, can include functions for logging keystrokes, taking screenshots, installing
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To better understand system weaknesses, the federal government and its contractors soon began organizing teams of penetrators, known as
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errors, dependency issues, and configuration errors. Also, acquiring additional tools may not be practical in the tester's context.
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610:(NIST00), Information System Security Assessment Framework (ISSAF), and Penetration Testing Methodologies and Standards (PTES).
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228:(DoD) in late 1967. Essentially, DoD officials turned to Willis Ware to lead a task force of experts from NSA,
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A number of Linux distributions include known OS and application vulnerabilities, and can be deployed as
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This article is about testing of computer systems. For testing of geotechnical properties of soil, see
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Hunt, Edward (2012). "US Government Computer Penetration Programs and the Implications for Cyberwar".
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1100:"Mathematics, Technology, and Trust: Formal Verification, Computer Security, and the U.S. Military"
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Special Publication 800-115, the Information System Security Assessment Framework (ISSAF) and the
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The threat that computer penetration posed was next outlined in a major report organized by the
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Scanning: Uses technical tools to further the attacker's knowledge of the system. For example,
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network vulnerability scans at least quarterly and after any significant change in the network
108:(about which background and system information are provided in advance to the tester) or a
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8:
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1299:"Open-Source Security Testing Methodology Manual - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
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Broad, William J. (September 25, 1983). "Computer Security Worries Military Experts",
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The process of penetration testing may be simplified into the following five phases:
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695:"What's the difference between a vulnerability assessment and a penetration test?"
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as HTTP server crashes with full info trace-backs—or are directly usable, such as
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112:(about which only basic information other than the company name is provided). A
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are available to assist with penetration testing, including free-of-charge,
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823:"Penetration Testing: Assessing Your Overall Security Before Attackers Do"
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systems in an effort to uncover, and eventually patch, security holes."
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support the US infrastructure in a more timely and efficient manner.
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Imagine a website has 100 text input boxes. A few are vulnerable to
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to use computer penetration as a tool for studying system security.
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1085:, in The History of Information Security: A Comprehensive Handbook
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and penetration prediction technique where a list of hypothesized
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Yost, Jeffrey R. (2007). de Leeuw, Karl; Bergstra, Jan (eds.).
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1218:"Summarizing The Five Phases of Penetration Testing - Cybrary"
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1323:"Definitive Guide to Penetration Testing | Core Sentinel"
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Penetration Testing: Protecting Networks and Systems
93:. The test is performed to identify weaknesses (or
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1001:
772:Cris Thomas (Space Rogue), Dan Patterson (2017).
715:The CISSP® and CAPCM Prep Guide: Platinum Edition
580:Standardized government penetration test services
545:, stealing credentials, creating backdoors using
327:Notable penetration testing OS examples include:
89:of the system; this is not to be confused with a
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980:"CREST releases guidance on penetration testing"
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851:
775:Password Cracking is easy with IBM's Space Rogue
516:When working under budget and time constraints,
85:on a computer system, performed to evaluate the
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999:
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608:National Institute of Standards and Technology
1134:Mechanizing Proof: Computing, Risk, and Trust
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1098:Mackenzie, Donald; Pottinger, Garrel (1997).
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910:The basics of hacking and penetration testing
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213:, Harold Petersen, and Rein Turn, all of the
142:Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard
136:Penetration tests are a component of a full
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656:The Definitive Guide to Penetration Testing
279:Exploit the entry for information recovery.
16:Authorized cyberattack for testing purposes
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993:
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929:Alan Calder and Geraint Williams (2014).
1183:Penetration Tester's Open Source Toolkit
1083:A History of Computer Security Standards
1000:Russell, Deborah; Gangemi, G.T. (1991).
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189:By the mid 1960s, growing popularity of
1105:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
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1043:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
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859:"Writing a Penetration Testing Report"
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1139:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
717:. John Wiley & Sons. 2006-11-06.
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604:Open Web Application Security Project
172:are compiled through analysis of the
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931:PCI DSS: A Pocket Guide, 3rd Edition
54:move details into the article's body
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489:can be used to scan for open ports.
226:United States Department of Defense
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264:Find an exploitable vulnerability.
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160:Flaw hypothesis methodology is a
958:"NIST Risk Management Framework"
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645:Damn Vulnerable Web Application
586:General Services Administration
237:time-sharing computer systems.
1275:. 1 March 2018. Archived from
1249:. 1 March 2018. Archived from
1247:"GSA HACS SIN 132-45 Services"
1176:"Chapter 1:Tools of the Trade"
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675:"What Is Penetration Testing?"
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199:System Development Corporation
126:National Cyber Security Center
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1131:Mackenzie, Donald A. (2004).
1087:. Elsevier. pp. 601–602.
802:"Pen Testing Types explained"
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635:White hat (computer security)
81:, is an authorized simulated
1224:. 2015-05-06. Archived from
782:. Event occurs at 4:30-5:30
319:Specialized OS distributions
217:, and Bernard Peters of the
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267:Design an attack around it.
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1174:Faircloth, Jeremy (2011).
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469:Penetration testing phases
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77:, colloquially known as a
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1358:Computer network security
933:. IT Governance Limited.
305:security assessment tools
234:Charles Babbage Institute
21:Standard penetration test
1004:Computer Security Basics
640:Breach attack simulation
356:December 2012) based on
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219:National Security Agency
91:vulnerability assessment
741:Kevin M. Henry (2012).
1273:"Pen Testing Services"
1008:. O'Reilly Media Inc.
964:. 2020. Archived from
1303:www.sciencedirect.com
908:Patrick Engebretson,
884:"Penetration Testing"
745:. IT Governance Ltd.
1056:10.1109/MAHC.2011.82
836:on February 27, 2014
273:Seize a line in use.
402:Software frameworks
313:commercial software
140:. For example, the
1185:(Third ed.).
1163:The New York Times
915:2017-01-04 at the
651:General references
480:social engineering
418:Metasploit Project
363:Parrot Security OS
303:A wide variety of
1148:978-0-262-13393-7
1118:10.1109/85.601735
940:978-1-84928-554-4
752:978-1-849-28371-7
724:978-0-470-00792-1
276:Enter the attack.
101:to be completed.
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50:length guidelines
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1363:Software testing
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270:Test the attack.
215:RAND Corporation
162:systems analysis
75:penetration test
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48:Please read the
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42:lead section
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1050:(3): 4–21.
243:tiger teams
211:Willis Ware
83:cyberattack
1347:Categories
1332:2018-10-23
1308:2021-10-13
1232:2018-06-25
894:30 October
890:. Aug 2017
868:12 January
840:16 January
808:2018-10-23
786:1 December
700:2020-05-21
680:2018-12-18
661:References
630:Tiger team
554:Metasploit
448:Burp Suite
352:(replaced
350:Kali Linux
336:Arch Linux
1202:4 January
778:(Video).
606:(OWASP),
547:shellcode
453:Wireshark
433:OWASP ZAP
385:Slackware
383:based on
374:based on
365:based on
354:BackTrack
343:based on
334:based on
332:BlackArch
203:AN/FSQ-32
110:black box
106:white box
52:and help
1187:Elsevier
1064:16367311
913:Archived
614:See also
114:gray box
87:security
1283:1 March
1257:1 March
1222:Cybrary
986:. 2022.
620:IT risk
569:OpenVAS
537:Payload
518:fuzzing
482:attack.
463:Hashcat
408:BackBox
395:targets
341:BackBox
185:History
124:The UK
79:pentest
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559:Nessus
543:adware
423:Nessus
376:Gentoo
372:Pentoo
367:Debian
358:Debian
345:Ubuntu
311:, and
1179:(PDF)
1060:S2CID
826:(pdf)
438:SAINT
413:Hping
299:Tools
168:in a
166:flaws
154:OWASP
1285:2018
1259:2018
1204:2018
1191:ISBN
1143:ISBN
1010:ISBN
962:NIST
935:ISBN
896:2018
888:NCSC
870:2015
842:2014
788:2017
747:ISBN
719:ISBN
625:ITHC
584:The
574:W3af
564:Nmap
487:Nmap
443:w3af
428:Nmap
381:WHAX
150:NIST
1114:doi
1052:doi
230:CIA
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