Persian Constitutional Revolution

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teaching of modern sciences, and added that the state should not intervene the centers of religious learning (Hawza). He wasn't against formation of organizations and societies that do not create chaos, and in this regard there was no difference between religious and non-religious organizations. In law-making, unlike Nouri, he separated the religious (Sharia) and public law (Urfiya). His opinion was that the personal and family matters should be settled in religious courts by jurists, and the governmental affaris and matters of state should be taken care of by modern judiciary. Parliament added article 71 and 72 into the constitution based on his opinions. Ayatullah Yazdi said that as long as modern constitution did not force people to do what was forbidden by Sharia and refrain from religious duties, there was no reason to oppose democratic rule and the government had the right to prosecute wrongdoers.

1740:سلطنت مشروعه آن است کہ متصدی امور عامه ی ناس و رتق و فتق کارهای قاطبه ی مسلمین و فیصل کافه ی مهام به دست ‏شخص معصوم و موید و منصوب و منصوص و مأمور مِن الله باشد مانند انبیاء و اولیاء و مثل خلافت ‏امیرالمومنین و ایام ظهور و رجعت حضرت حجت، و اگر حاکم مطلق معصوم نباشد، آن سلطنت غیرمشروعه است، ‏چنان‌ کہ در زمان غیبت است و سلطنت غیرمشروعه دو قسم است، عادله، نظیر مشروطه کہ مباشر امور عامه، عقلا و متدینین ‏باشند و ظالمه و جابره است، مثل آنکه حاکم مطلق یک نفر مطلق‌ العنان خودسر باشد. البته به صریح حکم عقل و به فصیح ‏منصوصات شرع «غیر مشروعه ی عادله» مقدم است بر «غیرمشروعه ی جابره». و به تجربه و تدقیقات صحیحه و غور ‏رسی‌ های شافیه مبرهن شده که نُه عشر تعدیات دوره ی استبداد در دوره ی مشروطیت کمتر می‌شود و دفع افسد و اقبح به ‏فاسد و به قبیح واجب است. 1748:. If the absolute guardianship is not with the infallible then it will be a non-islamic government. Since this is a time of occultation, there can be two types of non-islamic regimes: the first is a just democracy in which the affairs of the people are in the hands of faithful and educated men, and the second is a government of tyranny in which a dictator has absolute powers. Therefore, both in the eyes of the Sharia and reason what is just prevails over the unjust. From human experience and careful reflection it has become clear that democracy reduces the tyranny of state and it is obligatory to give precedence to the lesser evil." —Muhammad Kazim Khurasani 1914: 347: 3024:, 3rd printing (T. Fisher Unwin, London, 1913), pp. 48, 119, 179. According to Shuster (p. 48), "Five days later the Persian Minister of Finance, Saniu'd-Dawleh was shot and killed in the streets of Teheran by two Georgians, who also succeeded in wounding four of the Persian police before they were captured. The Russian consular authorities promptly refused to allow these men to be tried by the Persian Government, and took them out of the country under Russian protection, claiming that they would be suitably punished." 501: 310: 40: 1934: 1145: 1870:, (who was a child at the time of the Constitutional Revolution) and theorized that until the return of the Hidden Imam, Islamic jurists should rule Iran, asserted that decades after the collapse of the revolution, that the constitution of 1906 was the work of (Iranian) agents of imperialist Britain, conspiring against Islam who "were instructed by their masters to take advantage of the idea of constitutionalism in order to deceive the people and conceal the true nature of their political crimes". 1076: 996: 156: 5366: 4898: 1056: 522: 511: 1951: 948:, for a 50-year monopoly over the distribution and exportation of tobacco in exchange for £25,000 to the Shah personally and £15,000 a year to the state. Iranians cultivated a variety of tobacco "much prized in foreign markets" that was not grown elsewhere, and the arrangement threatened the job security of a significant portion of the Iranian population – hundreds of thousands of workers in agriculture and the bazaars. 1454:

foreign influence were also put in question by a number of actions – his close connection to the Russians, his refusal to support the early bazaari protests against the Europeans in collecting customs dues, his endorsement of the sale of a cemetery to Russians for the construction of a (Russian) bank, leading to the unplanned exhuming of bodies, and the financing of an anti-constitutionalist rally with funds from that Russian bank.

1972: 409: 1657: 5071: 4401: 5081: 1099:. The two protesting groups sought sanctuary in a Tehran mosque, but the government entered the mosque and dispersed them. The dispersal triggered a larger movement that sought refuge at a shrine outside Tehran. The shah yielded to the demonstrators on January 12, 1906, agreeing to dismiss his prime minister and transfer power to a "house of justice" (forerunner of the Iranian parliament). The 1830: 1744:"According to Shia doctrine, only the infallible Imam has the right to govern, to run the affairs of the people, to solve the problems of the Muslim society and to make important decisions. As it was in the time of the prophets or in the time of the caliphate of the commander of the faithful, and as it will be in the time of the reappearance and return of the 804:, and a small group of radical reformers – argued that Iran's oil industry was being sold to the British, while tax breaks on imports, exports and manufactured textiles were destroying Iran's economy (which had been supported by the bazaar merchants), and that the shah was selling assets to pay interest on the fortune in foreign debt he had accumulated. 1376:. Other opponents included Mullah Qurban Ali Zanjani. Nouri maintained that sharia was a complete code of life, not just for religious ritual, and any other codes were both unnecessary and against Islam. Although he ranked below Marja' religious leaders, he told Shi'i Muslims to ignore the Marja' they followed if that marja' supported democracy. 1281:

themselves as heroes. Inspired by this victory, constitutionalists across Iran set up special committees in Tehran, Rasht, Qazvin, Isfahan and other cities, and the powerful Bakhtiyari tribal leaders threw their support to the Tabriz rebels. Constitutionalist forces marched to Tehran, forced Mohammad Ali Shah's abdication in favor of his young son

913:. But the alliance was based on common enemies rather than common goals. The ulama sought "to extend their own power and to have Shi'i Islam more strictly enforced"; the liberals and radicals desired "greater political and social democracy and economic development"; and the bazaaris "to restrict favored foreign economic status and competition". 1762: 1187: 866:

Major roads between cities that might have appeared to be investments in improving transportation, provided opportunities not for greater trade and prosperity, but for tax collectors to fleece towns along the road, and thus "encouraged the local peasants to settle in more distant regions". A survey for the British Foreign Office reported:

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particularly strong in those countries, like Iran, that had experienced Russian penetration and oppression. Many considered it significant that the only Asian power with a constitution had defeated the only Western power without one, and constitutions came to be looked upon as the "secret of strength" of Western governments.

975:(tobacco monopoly). Bazaars shut down, and Iranians stopped smoking tobacco, Despite the popularity of tobacco – which Iranians were said to be less likely to forego than bread – the religious ban was so successful that it was said that women in the shah's harem quit smoking. 1430:"Because we are aware of the intended reasons for this institution, it is therefore incumbent on every Muslim to support its foundation, and those who try to defeat it, and their action against it, are considered contrary to shari'a." —Mirza Husayn Tehrani, Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, Abdallah Mazandaran. 1464:

The anti-democracy clerics incited violence and one such cleric said that getting in the proximity of the parliament was a bigger sin than adultery, robbery and murder. In Zanjan, Mulla Qurban Ali Zanjani mobilized a force of six hundred thugs who looted shops of pro-democracy merchants, took hold of

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became convinced that "law and order, security of property, and immunity from arbitrary power could all be achieved by importing parliamentary democracy" from Europe. The ulama (i.e. Islamic scholars) had less to gain and a less direct incentive to support a constitution, but were convinced (at least

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Perhaps worst of all the indignities Iran suffered from the superior militaries of European powers were "a series of commercial capitulations." While the sales by the shah of titles, patents, privileges, concessions, monopolies, lands, ... high offices" paid for some improvements, such as a telegraph

1874:

At the beginning of the constitutional movement, when people wanted to write laws and draw up a constitution, a copy of the Belgian legal code was borrowed from the Belgian embassy and a handful of individuals (whose names I do not wish to mention here) used it as the basis for the constitution they

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If a thousand jurists write that this parliament is founded on the command to do good and prohibit evil ... then you are witness that this is not the case and they have erred ... (exactly as if they were to say) this animal is a sheep, and you know it is a dog, you have to say, 'You are mistaken, it

1364:

argued that while complete justice was impossible until the return of the Hidden Imam, "human experience and careful reflection" shows "that democracy reduces the tyranny of state" making it a "lesser evil" in governance and something Shi'i must support until the return of the Imam; also supporting

1297:

The revolution ended in December 1911 when deputies of the Second Majlis, suffering from "internal dissension, apathy of the masses, antagonisms from the upper class, and open enmity from Britain and Russia", were "roughly" expelled from the Majlis and threatened with death if they returned by "the

895:

The Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 and the Russian revolution of 1905 gave impetus to an Iranian opposition movement that had been growing since 1901. After a century of successive defeats, an Asian power had defeated a European power, an event that bolstered pride throughout Asia. This feeling was

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In 1872, Nasir al-Din Shah negotiated a concession granting a British citizen control over Persian roads, telegraphs, mills, factories, extraction of resources, and other public works in exchange for a fixed sum and 60% of net revenue. This concession was rolled back after bitter local opposition.

870:'There are large tracts of fertile land which remain waste owing to their proximity to the main roads, as no village having cultivators on such spots can possibly prosper or enjoy the least immunity from the pestering visits of Government officials, and thefts and robberies committed by the tribes.' 1587:

Shari'a covers all regulations of government, and specifies all obligations and duties, so the needs of the people of Iran in matters of law are limited to the business of government, which, by reason of universal accidents, has become separated from Shari'a. ... Now the people have thrown out the

916:

The intellectuals were a "small but growing" group, many of whom learned of Western ways while travelling abroad and "were generally struck by Western economic development, comparative justice, and lack of arbitrary rule". In their writings these intellectuals criticized Iran's "autocratic rulers,

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This did not mean he supported Fazlullah Nouri and Mohammad Ali Shah. When parliament asked him to review the final draft of constitution, he suggested some changes and signed the document. He said that modern industries were permissible unless explicitly prohibited by Sharia. He also agreed with

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was appointed the commander in chief of High Council, i.e. commander of the constitutionalist forces. By April 1909, the Tabriz rebels had lost large numbers of fighters, but succeeded in driving out royalist forces from the city, and Sattar Khan and his lieutenant Bagher Khan had distinguished

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at least, 10% of "the guilds in this city were weavers; not even 1/5 of those survived" competition with imported textiles. Widows and orphans were hurt, and farmers suffered: by 1894 the price they were paid for wheat harvest dropped to 1/6 what it had been in 1871; irrigation systems had fallen

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To compensate for his lack of an army, the Qajar Shah would use "loyal tribes", putting down a rebellion by declaring a rebellious city or region "open booty" for the tribe, who would then appear to rape and pillage – a far more destructive means of discipline than arresting and punishing rebels.

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As a rich and high-ranking Qajar court official responsible for conducting marriages and contracts, handling the wills of wealthy men and collected religious funds, Nouri had a powerful vested interest in maintaining the status quo of Iran's political structure. His professions of opposition to

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After the parliament was formed, its members stayed in touch with Akhund Khurasani. Whenever legislative bills were discussed, he was telegraphed with the details for a juristic opinion. In a letter dated June 3, 1907, the parliament told Akhund about a group of anti-constitutionalists who were

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A further split in the revolutionary movement occurred in 1910 when "a group of guerrilla fighters headed by Sattar Khan, refused to obey a government order to disarm." After a "brief but violent confrontation" in which Sattar Khan was wounded, Yeprem Khan, the recently appointed police chief of

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to foreign powers on trade items ranging from weapons to tobacco. The aristocracy, religious authorities, and educated elite began demanding a curb on royal authority and the establishment of the rule of law as their concern about foreign (especially Russian) influence grew. The Qajars had taken

1575:

claiming girls' schools were brothels. Nouri also opposed freedom of the press, modern ways of governance, allocation of funds for modern industry and equal rights for all citizens irrespective of their religion. He bought a printing press and launched a newspaper of his own, "Ruznamih-i-Shaikh

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made speeches and distributed tracts in support of the sources of emulation (Shi'i marja' religious leadership) in Najaf and their position on constitutionalism. They all agreed that the people must counter autocracy and injustice with a constitution that limited the powers of the state and a

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It ended in December 1911 when deputies of the Second Majlis, suffering from "internal dissension, apathy of the masses, antagonisms from the upper class, and open enmity from Britain and Russia", were "roughly" expelled from the Majlis and threatened with death if they returned by "the shah's

1211:

The electoral law of September 9, 1906 defined the regulations for the Elections to the Majlis. (No women, foreigners, men under 25, "persons notorious for mischievous opinions," those with a criminal record, active military personnel, etc. were allowed to vote. Members of the parliament were

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argues that a major lesson of the Revolution is that what separates the "countless uprisings and popular protests" throughout the last hundred odd year of Iranian history from those in 1906, in 1953 and in 1979 that "ultimately resulted in radical change" is the ability to bring together a

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The constitution itself was created by the royal proclamation on August 5, 1906 by Mozzafar al-Din Shah on "for the peace and tranquility of all the people of Persia." The Quran was the foundation of this constitution while the Belgian constitution served as a partial model for the document.

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The tobacco protest of 1891–1892 was "the first mass nationwide popular movement in Iran", and described as a "dress rehearsal for the...Constitutional Revolution", formed from an anti-imperialist and antimonarchist coalition of "clerics, mercantile interests, and dissident intellectuals".

1815:

The Shiʿite state is confined to Persia, and their prestige and prosperity depended upon it. Why have you permitted the ruin of Persia and the utter humiliation of the Shiʿite state? ... You may reply that the mullahs did not allow . This is not credible. ... I can foresee that my country

1810:

was "a well-known figure" and one of "the two most widely recognized clerical leaders of the Revolution" (the other being Sayyed ʿAbd-Allāh Behbahānī). Both were from "old and powerful clerical families" whose authority over the religious community was "beginning to be threatened by rival

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did not offer the liberty to support constitutional politics. In his view, politics was beyond his expertise and therefore he avoided taking part in it. Therefore during the Iranian Constitutional Revolution, he stayed neutral most of the times and seldom issued any political statement.

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The revolution was "the first of its kind in the Islamic world, earlier than the revolution of the Young Turks in 1908". It opened the way for the modern era in Persia, and debate in a burgeoning press. Many groups fought to shape the course of the revolution. The old order, which Shah

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The protest demonstrated to the Iranians "for the first time that it was possible to win out against the Shah and foreign interests… there is a direct line from the coalition which participated in the tobacco movement… culminating in the Constitutional Revolution" and arguably the

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Nouri interpreted Sharia as equivalent to and in competition with written constitutions of modern society, unlike Akhund Khurasani who (in addition to being a higher ranking cleric), viewed the adherence to religion in a society as beyond one person or one interpretation.

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The fundamental laws of December 30, 1906 defined the role of the Majlis as a bicameral legislature: the National Consultative Assembly was to be based "on justice." and there was to be "another Assembly, entitled the Senate." The Constitutional Amendment of 1907 declared

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mojtaheds". Ṭabāṭabāʾī had "demonstrated liberal proclivities since the late period of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah". In a "famous letter" to the prime minister at the time, ʿAyn-al-Dawla in 1323/1905, he attacked "opposition to creation of a national assembly (majles-e mellatī)":

862:(formerly part of Iran) and signed a commercial treaty with Britain. The lack of a standing Iranian army was part of the problem because the forces that were raised to fight the Russians (for example) were "faction-ridden tribal contingents" and lacked modern artillery. 1164:) began, with the goal of limiting the power of the shah. Mozaffar ad-Din Shah agreed on a parliament in August 1906, and the first elections were held that fall. One hundred fifty-six members were elected, the overwhelming majority from Tehran and the merchant class. 1875:

then wrote, supplementing its deficiencies with borrowings from the French and British legal codes. True, they added some of the ordinances of Islam in order to deceive the people, but the basis of the laws that were now thrust upon the people was alien and borrowed.

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Fazlullah", and published leaflets. He believed that the ruler was accountable to no institution other than God and people had no right to limit the powers or question the conduct of the shah; those who supported democratic form of government were corrupt and

1424:اساس این مجلس محترم مقدس بر امور مذکور مبتنی است. بر هر مسلمی سعی و اهتمام در استحکام و تشیید این اساس قویم لازم، و اقدام در موجبات اختلال آن محاده و معانده با صاحب شریعت مطهره علی الصادع بها و آله الطاهرین افضل الصلاه و السلام، و خیانت به دولت قوی شوکت است. 1900:

coalition of "the educated middle class", the mid-level clerics and the seminary students who "maintain an enormous amount of control and power over the pious masses", and "most crucially, the business class – the merchant class – the bazaari merchants".

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and attacked merchants and looted stores. Nouri's ties to the court of the shah and landlords reinforced his fanaticism. He even contacted the Russian embassy for support and his men delivered sermons against democracy in mosques, resulting in chaos.

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The Constitutional Revolution began in 1905 with protest against a foreign director of customs (a Belgian) enforcing "with bureaucratic rigidity" the tariff collections to pay for a loan to another foreign source (Russians) that financed the shah's

781:), Iran's parliament amended the constitution on December 12, 1925, replacing the 1797–1925 Qajar dynasty with the Pahlavi dynasty as the legitimate sovereigns of Iran. The 1906–1907 constitution, though not adhered to, remained until after the 1047:

large loans from Russia and Britain to pay for the Shah's extravagant lifestyle and the cost of the government; the shah financed a royal tour of Europe in 1900 by borrowing ₽22 million from Russia, using Iranian customs receipts as collateral.

1385: 1231:, the sixth Qajar shah, came to power in January 1907. He opposed the constitution. The British switched their support to the shah, abandoning the constitutionalists. In August of that year, taking advantage of Iran's weakness, the 1820:), my stature and prestige, my service to Islam are about to fall into the hands of enemies and all my stature gone. As long as I breathe, therefore, I will strive for the preservation of this country, be it at the cost of my life" 878:

Under the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925), foreign (Western) mass-manufactured products, "especially textiles, undermined the traditional handicrafts, and consequently presented for many bazaars a mutual enemy – the foreigner." In

80:, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Knowledge. 4229: 1694:) of all Shiites, have issued clear fatwas that uphold the necessity of the Constitution. Aside from their words, they have also shown this by their actions. They see in Constitution the support for splendour of Islam. 1887:

named after him. This was despite the fact that Nouri was defending the monarchy against the constitution, and the Islamic Revolution (before Khomeini consolidated power) had been all about the overthrow of the shah.

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required to be fully literate in Persian, "Iranian subjects of Iranian extraction," "locally known," "not be in government employment," between the ages of 30 and 70, and "have some insight into affairs of State."

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the city for several days, and killed the representative Sa'd al-Saltanih. Nouri himself recruited mercenaries from criminal gangs to harass supporters of democracy. On December 22, 1907, Nouri led a mob towards

1637:', (essential the worst condemnation possible in Shi'i Islam). In so doing they established a model of religious secularity in government in the absence of Imam, that still prevails in (some) Shi'i seminaries. 1778:, another prominent Marja of Najaf. Both Mohammad Kazem and Khorasani led a great Shia school in Najaf although they had different views in politics at the same time. While Akhund Khorasani was an eminent 1841:, who, with the assistance of Russian troops staged a coup against the Majlis (parliament) in 1907. In 1909, however, constitutionalists marched onto Tehran, ending the Minor Tyranny. Nouri was arrested. 5037: 1583:

Like Islamists later in the 20th century, Nouri preached the idea of sharia as a complete code of social life, not just religious ritual, and any other codes were both unnecessary and against Islam.

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The first Majlis (October 7, 1906 – June 23, 1908); chairman Mortezā Qoli Khan Sani od-Dauleh, who had been finance minister for seven months when he was assassinated on 6 February 1911 by two

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The Revolutionary Tribunal declared Nouri guilty of inciting mobs against the constitutionalists and issuing fatwas declaring parliamentary leaders "apostates", "atheists," "secret Freemasons" and

1450:

made clear his desire to roll back democracy and reestablish his authority by military and foreign support (in 1908), Shaikh Fazlullah reversed his position and sided with the shah and his court.

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He who wins his own soul, protects his religion, is against following his desires and is obedient to the command of his Master; that is the person whom the people should take as their model.

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The revolution ended in December 1911 when the Shah's ministers oversaw the expulsion of the deputies of the Second Majlis from the parliament "with the support of 12,000 Russian troops".

1479: 1321:

clergy among the Iranian people that went beyond issues directly involved with religion. (Usuli Shi'i consider it obligatory for a Muslim not trained in the religious sciences to obey a

1276:

After shelling the Majles (parliament) of Iran in the capital Tehran, 40,000 of Mohammad Ali Shah's soldiers were ordered to attack Tabriz, where Constitutional rebels were holding out.

4880: 1625: – defended the parliament when it came under attack from the cleric of the shah's court, Nouri. They acted as a legitimising force, invoking the Quranic command of ' 296: 2007: 3401: 1851:(warlike pagans) whose blood ought to be shed by the faithful. He was found guilty of "sowing corruption and sedition on earth," and in July 1909, Nouri was hanged as a traitor. 1220:

to be the state religion, and called for a council of five high ranking Twelver Shia clerics to ensure that the laws passed by the parliament were not against the laws of Islam.

358: 755:

with Russian and British support. This led to a second effort with constitutionalist forces marching to Tehran, forced Mohammad Ali Shah's abdication in favor of his young son

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He argued Islam contained a complete code of life, whereas democracy would allow for "teaching of chemistry, physics and foreign languages", which would cause the spread of

4932: 665: 854:, Iran lost "Georgia, Armenia, and their Caspian navy" to Russia, "gave up its claims to Afghanistan, and paid an indemnity of three million pounds to the tsar". In the 5067: 4434: 564: 1648:, the Thiqa tul-islam from Tabriz, opposed Nuri saying that only the opinion of the sources of emulation is worthy of consideration in the matters of faith. He wrote: 1030:'s accession Persia faced a financial crisis, with annual governmental expenditures far in excess of revenues as a result of the policies of his father. The monarch, 843:

In the late 19th century, like most of the Muslim world, Iran suffered from foreign intrusion and exploitation, military weakness, lack of cohesion, and corruption.

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Other concessions to the British included giving the new Imperial Bank of Persia exclusive rights to issue banknotes, and opening up the Karun River to navigation.

5404: 1521:"Because Nouri is causing trouble and sedition, his interfering in any affair is forbidden." —Mirza Husayn Tehrani, Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, Abdallah Mazandaran. 1191: 1171:

first met in October 1906. The shah was old and frail, and attending the inauguration of parliament was one of his last official acts. Mozaffar ad-Din Shah's son,

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Unlike Islamists, he saw the king as the "executive of the Islamic government", and a debilitation of the power of the king as "a derogation of religion".

632: 615: 5059: 4621: 4135: 3783: 83:

Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.

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Notified about Nouri's activities, Akhund Khurasani consulted the other Marja' and in a letter dated December 30, 1907, they issued a statement:

4771: 52: 5325: 3758: 1333:, understood that he could not use royal prestige and tradition to fight constitutional government. Instead, he would find religious allies. 1095:

for price-gouging. The city's merchants rebelled, closing its bazaar. The clergy followed suit as a result of the alliance formed during the

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However, Nouri continued his activities and a few weeks later Akhund Khurasani and his fellow Marja's argued for his expulsion from Tehran:

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Foran, John. "The Strengths and Weaknesses of Iran's Populist Alliance: A Class Analysis of the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911",

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network and in Tehran a regular police force, a municipal civil service, etc., they were also spent on consumption by the shah's court.

5559: 5554: 5429: 4901: 4420: 3028: 28: 1042:(1896–1907), who often relied on his chancellor to manage his decentralized state. His dire financial straits caused him to sign many 5424: 5389: 4386: 1314:

that effectively shut down tobacco use in Iran and reversed the monopoly agreement on tobacco, showed the enormous influence of the

815:(parliaments), a deposed shah and a 1907 division of the country by Britain and Russia capitalizing on Iran's weak government. A new 373: 2099:

while disarming the revolutionaries in Tehran as commander of Tehran's police force during the interim constitutionalist government.

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was signed, dividing Iran into a Russian zone in the north and a British zone in the south; the center of the country was neutral.

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He firmly opposed the idea of a supervisory committee of Tehran's clerics censoring the conduct of the parliament, and said that:

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As "sanctioned by sacred law and religion", Akhund believes, a theocratic government can only be formed by the infallible Imam.

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trying to undermine legitimacy of democracy in the name of religious law. Akhund Khurasani and the other two members of the trio (

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There were clergy on both sides of the dispute. On the side of constitutional government were three of the highest level clerics (

5052: 4310:(تاریخ مشروطهٔ ایران) (History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution), in Persian, 951 p. (Negāh Publications, Tehran, 2003), 1457:

In his fight against the institution of parliament, he led a large group of followers and began a round-the-clock sit-in in the

1551:"Restore peace and expel Nouri as quickly as possible." – Mirza Husayn Tehrani, Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, Abdallah Mazandaran. 147: 113: 5258: 1426:الاحقر نجل المرحوم الحاج میرزا خلیل قدس سره محمد حسین، حررّہ الاحقر الجانی محمد کاظم الخراسانی، من الاحقر عبدالله المازندرانی 819:

created a parliament, giving it final approval of all loans and the budget. The majles was endorsed by the leading clerics of

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Tilmann J. Röder, "The Separation of Powers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives" in Rainer Grote and Tilmann J. Röder,

1369:, who argued that only the sources of emulation (highest level clerics) should be heeded when it comes to matters of faith. 5439: 5111: 4601: 4561: 4525: 2154: 1883:, Nouri, as the leader of the Constitutional Revolution's opponents, was celebrated enough in the Islamic Republic to have 1678:

Let us consider the idea that the constitution is against Sharia law: all oppositions of this kind are in vain because the

1626: 5369: 5162: 5045: 4500: 4104: 2405: 1884: 292: 91: 5444: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5137: 4342: 4315: 4288: 4271: 4154: 4064: 4040: 3827: 2596:(Oxford University Press 2012), pp. 321–372. The article includes an English translation of the following documents: 2580: 1019: 104:

Content in this edit is translated from the existing Persian Knowledge article at ]; see its history for attribution.

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as Persia's treasurer-general. In response, Russia issued an ultimatum to expel Shuster and suspend the parliament,

5414: 5215: 2133: 1384: 256: 246: 2136:– Aristocrat and landowner who was accused of a bomb attack on Mohammad Ali Shah and freed by British troops 917:

petty officials, venal clerics, and arbitrary courts, and of the low status of women." The "mercantile class" or

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And if the Marja' religious leader that a Shi'i Muslim followed supported democracy, that Muslim should not:

905:

The political base of the constitutionalist movement to control the power of the shah was an alliance of the

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defected from the constitutionalists, helping the shah kill some revolutionaries and bomb the parliament.

1179:) by December 31, 1906, making his power contingent on the will of the people, and died three days later. 1622: 1403: 1349: 832: 3700: 2641: 19:

This article is about the 1905–1911 Iranian revolution. For the revolution that took place in 1979, see

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protesters returned from the shrine in triumph, riding royal carriages and hailed by a jubilant crowd.

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loan for Mozaffar ad-Din Shah's royal tour. In December of that year, two merchants in Tehran were

824: 99: 2703:

The Political Thought of Ayatollah Murtaza Mutahhari: An Iranian Theoretician of the Islamic State

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The Fundamental Law (Qanun-e Asasi-e Mashruteh) of the Iranian Empire of 14th Dhu-‘l-Qa’dah 1324

5499: 5494: 5309: 4829: 4751: 4651: 4510: 2295: 2289: 2212: 1996: 1482: 1458: 1361: 1266: 1023: 855: 537: 445: 3574: 2701: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5294: 5230: 5142: 4885: 4794: 4736: 4706: 4581: 3029:"The retreat by the Parliament in overseeing the financial matters is a retreat of democracy" 2350: 2309: 1786:, many imitators (followers) prayed behind Kazem Yazdi too, as his lessons on legal rulings ( 1645: 1366: 1329:, when seeking to determine Islamically correct behavior.) After this debacle, the new Shah, 1043: 851: 450: 288: 120: 3036: 5304: 5208: 5167: 4681: 4515: 2410: 2345: 2340: 2283: 1980: 1775: 1618: 1399: 1345: 1175:, was unsympathetic to constitutionalism; the shah signed the constitution (modeled on the 828: 785:

a new constitution was approved on 2 and 3 December 1979 establishing an Islamic Republic.

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This book is also available in two volumes, published by Amir Kabir Publications in 1984.

8: 5132: 4789: 4711: 4696: 4676: 4571: 2178: 2139: 1986: 1630: 1547:الداعی محمد حسین نجل المرحوم میرزا خلیل، الداعی محمد کاظم الخراسانی، عبدالله المازندرانی 1388:

The trio: (left to right) Akhund Khurasani, Mirza Husayn Tehrani and Abdullah Mazandarani

1311: 1243:

In 1908, the shah moved to "exploit the divisions within the ranks of the reformers" and

1038:

shortly before his death. Weakness and extravagance continued during the brief reign of

251: 5330: 5183: 5127: 4961: 4834: 4756: 4741: 4661: 4596: 4359: 4186: 4009: 4001: 3813: 2885: 2395: 2375: 2183: 2046: 1880: 1867: 1833:

Shaykh Ibrahim Zanjani was head of the tribunal who sentenced Fazlullah Nouri to death.

1217: 1015: 980: 945: 847: 782: 351: 20: 4059:. Vol. I. Translated by Evan Siegel. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publications. 5152: 5008: 4910: 4849: 4666: 4646: 4606: 4490: 4338: 4311: 4284: 4267: 4246: 4238: 4205: 4150: 4121: 4100: 4081: 4060: 4036: 4013: 3993: 3960: 3950: 3920: 3910: 3885: 3846: 3839: 3823: 3809: 3782:

Mohammad, Linah; Kenin, Justine; Kelly, Mary Louise; Aslan, Reza (October 14, 2022).

3580: 3476: 2707: 2576: 2550: 2390: 2365: 2207: 2189: 2081: 2072: 1918: 1863: 1838: 1195: 968: 760: 748: 647: 527: 459: 213: 95: 4412: 1761: 1156:

in what has been called a "vast open-air school of political science". Demand for a

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Browne, Edward G., "The Persian Revolution of 1905–1909", Mage Publishers (1995).

4258: 4234: 967:, issued a fatwa declaring the use of tobacco to be tantamount to war against the 922:

for a time) that their "hierocracy vis-a-vis the monarchy" would not be weakened.

728:, and has been called an "epoch-making episode in the modern history of Persia". 521: 510: 4992: 4819: 4671: 4641: 4199: 4115: 4075: 3989: 3879: 2380: 2314: 2144: 2102: 1957: 1489:

in 1908. He was hanged by the constitutional revolutionaries on 31 July 1909 (in

1442: 1373: 1360:, (aka Akhund Khurasani) was the most involved in the issue, he and his student 1255: 1096: 999: 931: 798:) extravagant tour of Europe. The revolutionaries – mainly bazaar merchants, the 627: 368: 736:

had struggled for so long to sustain, was finally replaced by new institutions.

3902:

Iran's first revolution: Shi'ism and the constitutional revolution of 1905–1909

3017: 2687:"Pahlavi Dynasty – Dictionary definition of Pahlavi Dynasty – Encyclopedia.com" 2602:

The Amendment of the Fundamental Law of the Iranian Empire of 29th Sha’ban 1325

2174: 2076: 1088: 1087:

In 1905, protests erupted about the imposition of Persian tariffs to repay the

721: 413: 408: 4182: 3924: 3867:

Amanat, Abbas (1992). "Constitutional Revolution i. Intellectual background".

3402:"The Notional Basis of Social Order in Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri's Understanding" 2225:

during the rule of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar who shelled and besieged Parliament

2186:– American teacher who fought with the constitutionalists and was killed 5383: 4865: 4616: 4551: 4303: 4250: 4099:(1st University of Texas Press ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. 4021: 3997: 3964: 3480: 3472: 2400: 2325: 2128: 2120: 2041: 2036: 1933: 1706:, … we don't have the right to entrust government to a group of four or five 1633:, and linked opposition to the constitutional movement to 'a war against the 1261:

Persia tried to remain free of Russian influence through resistance (via the

1251: 1092: 964: 717: 314: 241: 1765:

Kazim Yazdi: the apolitical Marja of Najaf at times of democratic revolution

1250:, staging a coup d'état and creating a period in Iranian history called the 4799: 4691: 4335:

History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution: Tārikh-e Mashrute-ye Iran

4057:

History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution: Tarikh-e Mashrute-ye Iran

3784:"How protests in Iran are similar to the Constitutional Revolution of 1906" 2108: 1352:– who telegraphed fatwa in favor of the constitution from their schools in 984: 3942:

Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani

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During the summer of 1906, about 12,000 men camped in the gardens of the

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to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is

4298: 2173:– Leader of revolutionary forces from the northern provinces of 1950: 1120:

killed 22 protesters and injured 100. The bazaar again closed and the

951:

This led to unprecedented nationwide protest erupting first among the

1779: 1610: 1337: 1326: 1080: 995: 960: 959:. In December 1891, the most important religious authority in Iran, 400: 321: 3757:

Khomeini, Sayyid Ruhullah Musawi (October 4, 2012). "Introduction".

2881: 2117:– Satirist, writer and pioneer of the Iranian women's movement 2111:– Bakhtiari tribal leader whose forces captured Tehran in 1909 2075:– Founder of a revolutionary movement based in the forests of 1971: 1124:

went on strike, a large number taking sanctuary in the holy city of

4881:

Russian Empire involvement in the Persian Constitutional Revolution

1322: 1238: 1117: 1113: 1075: 3572: 1829: 2804: 2086: 2031: 1965: 1568: 1517:محمد حسین (نجل) میرزا خلیل، محمد کاظم خراسانی، عبدالله مازندرانی 952: 918: 880: 4077:

Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891-1892

3457:"Religious secularity: A vision for revisionist political Islam" 3318:محسن کدیور، "سیاست نامه خراسانی"، ص١٨٠، طبع دوم، تہران سنه ۲۰۰۸ء 3294:محسن کدیور، "سیاست نامه خراسانی"، ص۱۷۷، طبع دوم، تہران سنه ۲۰۰۸ء 3181:محسن کدیور، "سیاست نامه خراسانی"، ص۱۶۹، طبع دوم، تہران سنه ۲۰۰۸ء 2547:

Armenians and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911

1446:

legislature that represented the country. However, when monarch

77: 5080: 4167:"The Anti-Constitutionalist Arguments of Shaikh Fazlallah Nuri" 2055: 1577: 1265:) to the shah's policies. Parliament appointed American lawyer 1108: 1060: 910: 164:

which established the constitutional monarchy on August 5, 1906

3845:. California: University of California Press. pp. 92–97. 5157: 4391: 4358:, Professor of History and International and Area Studies at 3067:

Tribes & empire on the margins of nineteenth-century Iran

2434: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2426: 2011: 1846: 1791: 1783: 1745: 1634: 1353: 1315: 956: 906: 859: 820: 800: 275: 3905:. Studies in Middle Eastern history. Oxford & New York: 3524: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2612: 2610: 5070: 4942: 3163: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2782: 2780: 2741: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2725: 2723: 1787: 1372:

The leader of those opposing constitutional government was

3974:"Akhund Khurasani and the Iranian Constitutional Movement" 3739: 3737: 3653: 3651: 3302: 3300: 3093: 3091: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2499: 2497: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2423: 4322:

This book is also available in two volumes, published by

3600: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3200: 3123: 3121: 3108: 3106: 2903: 2650: 2607: 1588:

law of the Prophet and have set up their own law instead.

1125: 1106:

During a fight in early 1906, government forces killed a

3881:

The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran

3153: 3151: 3138: 3136: 2940:

The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran

2920: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2820: 2777: 2765: 2753: 2720: 2201: 1461:

on June 21, 1907 which lasted till September 16, 1907.

1441:

At the beginning of the constitutional movement, Sheikh

3781: 3750: 3734: 3675: 3663: 3648: 3636: 3612: 3554: 3542: 3505: 3381: 3369: 3345: 3333: 3297: 3264: 3252: 3240: 3212: 3088: 2526: 2509: 2494: 2473: 2461: 2444: 2095:– Armenian Iranian revolutionary leader. Wounded 1515:چون نوری مخل آسائش و مفسد است، تصرفش در امور حرام است. 16:

1909 Iranian uprising against monarch Mohammad Ali Shah

4940: 3709: 3624: 3530: 3488: 3436: 3357: 3321: 3118: 3103: 3031:(in Persian). Mardom-Salari, No. 1734, 20 Bahman 1386 2971: 971:, using the strongest possible language to oppose the 884:

into ruin, "turning fields and villages into desert".

4442: 4117:

The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the Soul of a Nation

3775: 3148: 3133: 2996: 2850: 2792: 2192:– Liberal nationalist and future prime minister 1485:(d. 1909), a cleric who supported the coup d'état of 698: 579: 4396: 4376:

Photographs of the Constitutional Revolution of Iran

4147:

The History of the Constitutional Revolution of Iran

3424: 3276: 2942:. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1851686162, p. 215 1824: 73: 4228: 3838: 3747:, University of California Press, 1999 p. 24 2215:– Cleric who was hanged after the revolution 1790:) were famous. Yazdi was apolitical, holding that 1298:shah's cabinet, backed by 12,000 Russian troops". 23:. For the series of reforms launched in 1963, see 4281:The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–1911" 2699: 1545:رفع اغتشاشات حادثه و تبعید نوری را عاجلاً اعلام. 5381: 4035:] (in Persian). Tehran: Negāh Publications. 4033:History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution 3399: 3069:, University of Washington Press, 2009. (p. 172) 3026: 2866:"Iranian Revolutions in Comparative Perspective" 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2321:History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution 1859:The legacy of the revolution in Iran is mixed. 1702:this delicate subject shall be submitted to the 1239:The Minor Tyranny and the civil war of 1908–1909 5405:People of the Persian Constitutional Revolution 4297:, Vol. 20, No. 6 (Dec 1991), pp. 795–823. 4161:In 7 volumes, published in 3 volumes (1697 pp.) 3573:Hann, G.; Dabrowska, K.; Greaves, T.T. (2015). 1437:Fazlollah Nouri and the anti-constitutionalists 1285:, and re-established the constitution in 1909. 1139: 720:. The revolution led to the establishment of a 716:, took place between 1905 and 1911 during the 3731:by Amir Adler and Adler (1985), pp. 45–46 1999:– Nationalist writer and literary critic 747:shortly before his death. He was succeeded by 98:accompanying your translation by providing an 64:Click for important translation instructions. 51:expand this article with text translated from 5545:History of civil rights and liberties in Iran 5053: 4926: 4428: 2622: 2221:– Russian colonel and commander of the 2019:– Participated in the defense of Tabriz 944:granted a concession to an Englishman, Baron 909:, liberal and radical intellectuals, and the 704: 565: 5336:Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war 3760:Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist 1983:– First elected Prime Minister of Iran 3576:Iraq: The ancient sites and Iraqi Kurdistan 3454: 3393: 2386:List of modern conflicts in the Middle East 1557: 808:cabinet, backed by 12,000 Russian troops". 5060: 5046: 4933: 4919: 4435: 4421: 4197: 4134: 3841:Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic 3808: 3606: 3400:Naderi, H.; Mohaddesi., H. (Spring 2017). 3224: 3072: 3043: 3013: 3011: 2953:Social Movements in Twentieth-Century Iran 2926: 2786: 2771: 2759: 2747: 2735: 2693: 2532: 2520: 2503: 2488: 2467: 2455: 2438: 2069:– Sālār-e Melli (national chieftain) 1666: 1022:, when he was visiting and praying in the 572: 558: 154: 5326:Russia and the Iran–Israel proxy conflict 4364:in Persian, Radio Zamaneh, August 7, 2008 4330:1961 edition is in one volume, 934 pages. 2572:The Encyclopedia of Political Revolutions 2544: 2157:– Intellectual and social reformer. 460: 5348:Iran and the Russian invasion of Ukraine 3938: 3877: 3756: 3681: 3669: 3657: 3642: 3630: 3618: 3560: 3548: 3511: 3387: 3375: 3363: 3351: 3339: 3306: 3270: 3258: 3246: 3218: 3206: 3190: 3169: 3097: 2968:. University of California, 1969, p. 208 2914: 1970: 1949: 1932: 1912: 1837:Nouri allied himself with the new Shah, 1828: 1760: 1655: 1629:' to justify democracy in the period of 1609:The three of the highest level clerics ( 1477: 1383: 1186: 1143: 1074: 1054: 994: 4094: 4054: 4051:1961 edition is in one 934-page volume. 4020: 3971: 3870:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 2 3715: 3702:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 2 3566: 3536: 3499: 3455:Ghobadzadeh, Naser (October 17, 2013). 3442: 3327: 3127: 3112: 3008: 2977: 2810: 2643:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 2 1903: 1719:Responding to Nouri's arguments Akhund 1670:; January 19, 1861 – December 31, 1911) 1289:Tehran "succeeded in disarming them". 27:. For similarly named revolutions, see 5382: 4226: 4164: 4113: 4073: 3866: 3527:"، ص ۲۱۴-۲۱۵، طبع دوم، تہران سنه ۲۰۰۸ء 3157: 3142: 3002: 2863: 2814: 2798: 2673: 2616: 2594:Constitutionalism in Islamic Countries 900: 148:constitutionalization attempts in Iran 5041: 4914: 4416: 4140:Tārikh-e Enqelāb-e Mashrutyyat-e Iran 3898: 3430: 3282: 3194: 2202:Monarchists (Anti-Constitutionalists) 2105:– Armenian revolutionary leader 2089:– Armenian revolutionary leader 1908: 1116:). In a skirmish shortly afterwards, 751:, who abolished the constitution and 553: 5112:Consulate General of Russia, Isfahan 4149:]. Tehran: Sokhan Publications. 3579:. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 292. 2966:Religion and State in Iran 1785–1906 2549:. Westview Press. pp. 116–117. 2247: 1975:Second anniversary of the revolution 1223: 811:In between there were two different 33: 4383:Slide Show, narrated by Bāqer Āqeli 4283:, Columbia University Press. 1996. 4260:The Persian Constitutional Movement 4230:"Constitutional Revolution in Iran" 3884:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1917:Poster commemorating the July 1909 1665: 1627:enjoining good and forbidding wrong 1379: 1301: 1182: 778: 705: 688: 235:Revolution: June 1905 – August 1906 13: 5410:People executed by Iran by hanging 5163:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action 4501:Malek Mansur Mirza Shoa O-Saltaneh 4220: 3461:Philosophy & Social Criticism' 2991:Smoke: A Global History of Smoking 2406:Women in Constitutional Revolution 1989:– Founder and editor of the 1739: 1543: 1513: 1422: 1014:was assassinated on 1 May 1896 by 990: 925: 891:Nikki R. Keddie points out that 340:Civil war: August 1906 – July 1909 14: 5571: 5560:Armenian Revolutionary Federation 5555:Wars involving the Russian Empire 5430:Persian Constitutional Revolution 5221:Persian Constitutional Revolution 5138:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1723) 4602:Mirza Abdul'Rahim Talibov Tabrizi 4444:Persian Constitutional Revolution 4392:Constitutional Revolution of Iran 4354:Reza Jamāli in conversation with 4348: 3939:Farzaneh, Mateo Mohammad (2015). 3035:(9 February 2008). Archived from 2238:Alexander Khan Setkhanian – 2155:Mirza Abdul'Rahim Talibov Tabrizi 1825:Nouri's execution and celebration 1050: 714:Constitutional Revolution of Iran 681:Persian Constitutional Revolution 583:Persian Constitutional Revolution 141:Persian Constitutional Revolution 5425:20th-century Iranian politicians 5390:19th-century Iranian politicians 5365: 5364: 5341:Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition 5216:Russian conquest of the Caucasus 5079: 5069: 4897: 4896: 4399: 4378:, in Persian, Jadid Online, 2007 4237:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; 3693:Šarīf Kāšānī, I, pp. 61–63; cf. 2231:– Deputy Commander of the 1774:Nouri tried to get support from 1667:ثقة الاسلام میرزا علی آقا تبریزی 1194:treats an injured man after the 983:as well, according to Historian 753:bombarded the parliament in 1908 520: 509: 499: 407: 345: 308: 38: 4637:Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai 3721: 3687: 3517: 3448: 3312: 3288: 3175: 3059: 2983: 2958: 2945: 2932: 2679: 2586: 2356:Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai 2272:Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai 2003:Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai 1881:1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution 1868:1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution 1808:Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai 1136:on the grounds of the embassy. 761:re-established the constitution 451:Haydar Khan Amo-oghli Tariverdi 110:{{Translated|fa|انقلاب مشروطه}} 5550:Iran–Russia military relations 5370:Category:Iran–Russia relations 5269:1908 bombardment of the Majlis 5259:1903 Isfahan anti-Baháʼí riots 4941:Changes in political power in 4547:Kamran Mirza Nayeb es-Saltaneh 4245:(3rd ed.). Brill Online. 3972:Hermann, Denis (May 1, 2013). 2993:. Reaktion Books, 2004, p. 60. 2989:Gilman, Sander, and Zhou Xun. 2870:The American Historical Review 2864:Keddie, Nikki R. (June 1983). 2563: 2538: 2371:Islamic fundamentalism in Iran 2331:Intellectual movements in Iran 1169:National Consultative Assembly 1132:, which agreed to shelter the 108:You may also add the template 1: 5236:Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran 5107:Ambassadors of Russia to Iran 4780:Zahra Khanom Tadj es-Saltaneh 4567:Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni 3699:"Constitutional Revolution". 2640:"Constitutional Revolution". 2417: 2171:Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni 2134:Amanollah Khan Zia' os-Soltan 1923:Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni 1128:. Many merchants went to the 858:, it agreed to withdraw from 838: 488:Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni 5274:Russian occupation of Tabriz 4845:Russian occupation of Tabriz 4825:Persian Constitution of 1906 4496:Mass'oud Mirza Zell-e Soltan 4165:Martin, V. A. (April 1986). 4097:Qājār Persia: eleven studies 3990:10.1080/00263206.2013.783828 3878:Arjomand, Said Amir (1989). 3836: 3815:Iran Between Two Revolutions 3406:Iranian Journal of Sociology 3230: 3078: 3049: 2260:Sayyed Jamal ad-Din Esfahani 2063:– Revolutionary leader 2008:Mohamad Vakil Altodjâr Yazdi 1686:, who are today the models ( 1571:. He propagandized against 1254:. It was at this point that 1203:Persian Constitution of 1906 1140:Creation of the constitution 1083:in Tehran, is in the center. 381:Society of College graduates 198:Persian Constitution of 1906 7: 5440:Iranian democracy movements 5264:Siege of Tabriz (1908–1909) 5241:Iranian famine of 1942–1943 4712:Jahangir-Khan Sur-e-Esrafil 4095:Lambton, Ann K. S. (1988). 3837:Abrahamian, Ervand (1993). 3697:I, pp. 390–391; quoted in: 2938:Mottahedeh, Roy P. (2000). 2302: 1921:. The men on horseback are 1623:Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani 1474:Fatwas for the Constitution 1404:Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani 1350:Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani 833:Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani 699: 293:School of Political Science 10: 5576: 4627:Haji-Mirza Hassan Roshdieh 4592:Morteza Gholi Khan Hedayat 4557:Abdol-Hossein Farman Farma 4521:Abdol-Hossein Farman Farma 4465:Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar 4308:Tārikh-e Mashruteh-ye Iran 4143:تاريخ انقلاب مشروطيت ايران 4026:Tārikh-e Mashruteh-ye Iran 3820:Princeton University Press 3801: 2706:. Routledge. p. 138. 2700:Mahmood T. Davari (2004). 2376:Iranian Revolution of 1979 2229:Eskandar Khan Davidkhanian 2196:Morteza Gholi Khan Hedayat 2166:Abdol-Hossein Farman Farma 1803:Sayyed Moḥammad Ṭabāṭabāʾī 1292: 1200: 1059:Revolutionary fighters in 1040:Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar 1010:The fourth Qajar monarch, 929: 796:Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar 788: 741:Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar 666:Russian Empire involvement 162:Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar 72:Machine translation, like 18: 5361: 5318: 5282: 5251: 5176: 5120: 5102:Embassy of Russia, Tehran 5089: 5022: 5001: 4970: 4949: 4894: 4858: 4812: 4770: 4747:Jamshid Bahman Jamshidian 4539: 4483: 4457: 4450: 4204:. Oneworld Publications. 4201:The Mantle of the Prophet 4183:10.1080/00263208608700658 4074:Keddie, Nikki R. (1966). 3947:Syracuse University Press 3705:. 1992. pp. 163–216. 2955:. Lexington, 2005, p. 86. 2646:. 1992. pp. 163–216. 2545:Berberian, Houri (2001). 2361:Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani 2266:Sayyed Abdullah Behbahani 1854: 1130:British embassy in Tehran 591: 483:Najaf-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari 441:Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani 429: 424: 284:Committee of Guild Elders 227: 222: 189: 177: 169: 153: 145: 140: 53:the corresponding article 29:Constitutional Revolution 5445:20th-century revolutions 5148:Anglo-Russian Convention 4876:Jungle Movement of Gilan 4871:1921 Persian coup d'état 4263:. British Academy, 1918. 4142: 4028: 3473:10.1177/0191453713507014 3022:The Strangling of Persia 2336:Muhammad Kazim Khurasani 2298:, anti-constitutionalist 2292:, anti-constitutionalist 2254:Mohammad-Kazem Khorasani 2161:Abdolhossein Teymourtash 1721:Muhammad Kazim Khurasani 1715:Muhammad Kazim Khurasani 1660:Thiqa tul-Islam Tabrizi( 1558:Leading clerical figures 1358:Muhammad Kazim Khurasani 1233:Anglo-Russian Convention 771:1921 Persian coup d'état 5415:Executed Iranian people 5097:Embassy of Iran, Moscow 4785:Bibi Khanoom Astarabadi 4762:Edward Granville Browne 4702:Mohammad Farrokhi Yazdi 4687:Mahammad Amin Rasulzade 4632:Jamal al-Din al-Afghani 4577:Ali-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari 4470:Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar 4324:Amir Kabir Publications 4198:Mottahedeh, R. (2014). 4114:Mackey, Sandra (1996). 4055:Kasravi, Ahmad (2006). 3907:Oxford University Press 2833:"Tobacco Protest, Iran" 2223:Persian Cossack Brigade 2115:Bibi Khanoom Astarabadi 1487:Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar 1448:Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar 1229:Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar 1173:Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar 1020:Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī 734:Naser al-Din Shah Qajar 478:Ali-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari 364:Society of Azerbaijanis 257:Revolutionary Committee 247:Social Democratic Party 204:Constitutional monarchy 119:For more guidance, see 5540:Politics of Qajar Iran 5310:Amir Kazim Mirza Qajar 4752:William Morgan Shuster 4652:Mirza Abutaleb Zanjani 4511:Sheikh Fazlollah Noori 4385:, Jadid Online, 2007: 4243:Encyclopaedia of Islam 4171:Middle Eastern Studies 3978:Middle Eastern Studies 3899:Bayat, Mangol (1991). 3027:Mohammad-Reza Nazari. 2296:Mirza Abutaleb Zanjani 2290:Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri 2213:Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri 1997:Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani 1976: 1968: 1947: 1930: 1877: 1834: 1822: 1766: 1712: 1696: 1671: 1654: 1599: 1590: 1563:Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri 1494: 1483:Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri 1459:Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine 1389: 1365:constitutionalism was 1362:Muhammad Hossein Naini 1356:, Iraq; of the three, 1267:William Morgan Shuster 1198: 1192:Amir Khan Amir al-Alam 1149: 1084: 1072: 1024:Shah Abdul-Azim Shrine 1007: 898: 872: 856:Treaty of Paris (1857) 446:Muhammad Hossein Naini 281:Committee of Merchants 269:Semi-organized groups: 193:Revolutionary victory 160:Royal proclamation by 5420:People from Nur, Iran 5295:Mohammad Taqi Pessian 5231:Battle of Robat Karim 5143:Treaty of Turkmenchay 5076:Iran–Russia relations 4886:Iranian Enlightenment 4795:Bibi Maryam Bakhtiari 4737:Haydar Khan Amo-oghli 4707:Mirza Fatali Akhundov 2600:(December 30, 1906); 2351:Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi 2310:Young Turk Revolution 2240:Second in command to 1974: 1953: 1936: 1916: 1872: 1832: 1813: 1764: 1700: 1676: 1659: 1650: 1646:Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi 1641:Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi 1594: 1585: 1481: 1393:Early fatwa by marja' 1387: 1367:Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi 1190: 1147: 1078: 1058: 1036:the 1906 constitution 998: 893: 868: 852:Treaty of Turkmenchay 745:the 1906 constitution 712:), also known as the 297:School of Agriculture 278:and seminary students 121:Knowledge:Translation 92:copyright attribution 5400:Iranian Shia clerics 5305:Ali Qulu Mirza Qajar 5168:Marine Security Belt 4682:Mohammad Ali Tarbiat 4516:Mirza Nasrullah Khan 4227:Ansari, Ali (2016). 4080:. Psychology Press. 4029:تاریخ مشروطهٔ ایران) 3745:Tortured Confessions 3743:Abrahamian, Ervand, 3193:, pp. 173–174; 2411:Bourgeois revolution 2346:Abdallah Mazandarani 2341:Mirza Husayn Tehrani 2284:Mohammed Kazem Yazdi 2054:– Activist in 1981:Mirza Nasrullah Khan 1904:Notable participants 1776:Mohammed Kazem Yazdi 1770:Mohammed Kazem Yazdi 1619:Mirza Husayn Tehrani 1578:apostates from Islam 1400:Mirza Husayn Tehrani 1346:Mirza Husayn Tehrani 1177:Belgian constitution 1032:Mozaffar ad-Din Shah 1028:Mozaffar al-Din Shah 829:Mirza Husayn Tehrani 710:Enghelāb-e Mashrūteh 5435:Revolutions in Iran 5133:Treaty of Kurakchay 4790:Sediqeh Dowlatabadi 4697:Mohammad-Taqi Bahar 4677:Mirza Alakbar Sabir 4572:Mostowfi ol-Mamalek 4257:Browne, Edward G., 3873:. pp. 163–176. 3729:The Spirit of Allah 3172:, pp. 173–174. 2676:, pp. 150–155. 2619:, pp. 163–176. 2569:Jack A. Goldstone. 2280:, constitutionalist 2278:Mirza Hussein Naini 2274:, constitutionalist 2268:, constitutionalist 2262:, constitutionalist 2256:, constitutionalist 2140:Mohammad-Taqi Bahar 1987:Mirza Jahangir Khan 1312:Mirza Hasan Shirazi 965:Mirza Hasan Shirazi 901:Discontented groups 779:کودتای ۳ اسفند ۱۲۹۹ 660:Associated articles 252:Society of Humanity 5331:Axis of Resistance 5184:Russo-Persian Wars 5128:Treaty of Gulistan 4840:Majlis Bombardment 4757:Howard Baskerville 4742:Mirza Reza Kermani 4662:Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda 4597:Mehdi Qoli Hedayat 4540:Constitutionalists 4360:University of Yale 4295:Theory and Society 4233:. In Fleet, Kate; 3810:Abrahamian, Ervand 3525:سیاست نامه خراسانی 3039:on April 27, 2009. 2951:Poulson, Stephen. 2604:(October 7, 1907). 2396:Secularism in Iran 2184:Howard Baskerville 2047:Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda 2030:– Active in 1977: 1969: 1948: 1931: 1909:Constitutionalists 1835: 1767: 1690:) and the refuge ( 1672: 1495: 1390: 1331:Mohammad Ali Qajar 1199: 1150: 1148:Parliament in 1906 1085: 1073: 1071:are in the center. 1016:Mirza Reza Kermani 1008: 981:Iranian Revolution 946:Paul Julius Reuter 848:Treaty of Gulistan 783:Islamic Revolution 596:Majlis Bombardment 436:Mohammad Tabatabai 100:interlanguage link 21:Iranian Revolution 5490:Conflicts in 1911 5485:Conflicts in 1910 5480:Conflicts in 1909 5475:Conflicts in 1908 5470:Conflicts in 1907 5465:Conflicts in 1906 5460:Conflicts in 1905 5395:Iranian Islamists 5377: 5376: 5153:Tehran Conference 5035: 5034: 4908: 4907: 4850:Triumph of Tehran 4808: 4807: 4667:Rais al-Mojahedin 4647:Mohammad Khiabani 4607:Mirza Malkam Khan 4491:Abdol Majid Mirza 4211:978-1-78074-738-5 4136:Malekzādeh, Mehdi 4127:978-0-525-94005-0 4087:978-0-7146-1971-2 3956:978-0-8156-3388-4 3916:978-0-19-506822-1 3891:978-0-19-504258-0 3586:978-1-84162-488-4 3209:, pp. 50–52. 3018:W. Morgan Shuster 2917:, pp. 48–49. 2750:, pp. 46–47. 2713:978-1-134-29488-6 2575:Routledge, 2015 2556:978-0-8133-3817-0 2441:, pp. 76–77. 2391:Triumph of Tehran 2366:Ruhollah Khomeini 2248:Religious leaders 2208:Abdol Majid Mirza 2190:Mohammed Mosaddeq 2082:Mirza Malkom Khan 2073:Mirza Kuchak Khan 1919:Triumph of Tehran 1864:Ruhollah Khomeini 1839:Mohammad Ali Shah 1752: 1751: 1555: 1554: 1525: 1524: 1434: 1433: 1224:Mohammad Ali Shah 1196:Triumph of Tehran 1112:(a descendant of 1012:Naser al-Din Shah 942:Naser al-Din Shah 749:Mohammad Ali Shah 697: 674: 673: 548: 547: 517:Mohammad Ali Shah 420: 419: 378:Society of Guilds 214:Triumph of Tehran 132: 131: 65: 61: 5567: 5368: 5367: 5353:Axis of Upheaval 5300:Shafi Khan Qajar 5226:Persian Campaign 5090:Diplomatic posts 5084: 5083: 5074: 5073: 5062: 5055: 5048: 5039: 5038: 5027:Politics of Iran 4935: 4928: 4921: 4912: 4911: 4900: 4899: 4835:the First Majlis 4813:Important events 4622:Heydar Latifiyan 4612:Hassan Taqizadeh 4531:Vladimir Liakhov 4475:Ahmad Shah Qajar 4455: 4454: 4437: 4430: 4423: 4414: 4413: 4409: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4254: 4232: 4215: 4194: 4160: 4131: 4110: 4091: 4070: 4046: 4017: 3968: 3945:. Syracuse, NY: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3895: 3874: 3863: 3861: 3859: 3844: 3833: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3779: 3773: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3754: 3748: 3741: 3732: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3707: 3706: 3691: 3685: 3679: 3673: 3667: 3661: 3655: 3646: 3640: 3634: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3604: 3598: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3570: 3564: 3558: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3521: 3515: 3509: 3503: 3497: 3486: 3484: 3452: 3446: 3440: 3434: 3428: 3422: 3421: 3419: 3417: 3397: 3391: 3385: 3379: 3373: 3367: 3361: 3355: 3349: 3343: 3337: 3331: 3325: 3319: 3316: 3310: 3304: 3295: 3292: 3286: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3262: 3256: 3250: 3244: 3238: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3210: 3204: 3198: 3188: 3182: 3179: 3173: 3167: 3161: 3155: 3146: 3140: 3131: 3125: 3116: 3110: 3101: 3095: 3086: 3076: 3070: 3063: 3057: 3047: 3041: 3040: 3015: 3006: 3000: 2994: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2962: 2956: 2949: 2943: 2936: 2930: 2924: 2918: 2912: 2901: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2861: 2848: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2837:Encyclopedia.com 2829: 2818: 2808: 2802: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2775: 2769: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2739: 2733: 2718: 2717: 2697: 2691: 2690: 2683: 2677: 2671: 2648: 2647: 2637: 2620: 2614: 2605: 2590: 2584: 2567: 2561: 2560: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2507: 2501: 2492: 2486: 2471: 2465: 2459: 2453: 2442: 2436: 2242:Vladimir Liakhov 2219:Vladimir Liakhov 2150:Hassan Taqizadeh 2125:Heydar Latifiyan 2028:Hossein Ardabili 2023:Seyed Jamal Vaez 1866:, leader of the 1726: 1725: 1669: 1668: 1615:Akhund Khurasani 1613:) at the time – 1573:female education 1530: 1529: 1500: 1499: 1467:Tupkhanih Square 1409: 1408: 1380:Important events 1342:Akhund Khurasani 1340:) at the time – 1302:Religious debate 1283:Ahmad Shah Qajar 1271:occupying Tabriz 1183:The constitution 1018:, a follower of 825:Akhund Khurasani 780: 757:Ahmad Shah Qajar 708: 707: 702: 692: 690: 586: 584: 574: 567: 560: 551: 550: 533:Vladimir Liakhov 524: 513: 506:Mozafaredin Shah 504: 503: 502: 462: 412: 411: 350: 349: 348: 313: 312: 311: 229: 228: 158: 138: 137: 111: 105: 78:Google Translate 63: 59: 42: 41: 34: 25:White Revolution 5575: 5574: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5565: 5564: 5455:1910s conflicts 5450:1900s conflicts 5380: 5379: 5378: 5373: 5357: 5314: 5278: 5247: 5172: 5116: 5085: 5078: 5068: 5066: 5036: 5031: 5018: 4997: 4966: 4945: 4939: 4909: 4904: 4890: 4854: 4830:Siege of Tabriz 4820:Tobacco Protest 4804: 4766: 4672:Mirzadeh Eshghi 4642:Hassan Modarres 4582:Colonel Pessian 4562:Ali Asghar Khan 4535: 4479: 4446: 4441: 4405: 4400: 4398: 4387:(4 min 30 sec). 4381: 4368:Audio recording 4351: 4333:Ahmad Kasravi, 4239:Rowson, Everett 4223: 4221:Further reading 4218: 4212: 4157: 4144: 4128: 4107: 4088: 4067: 4043: 4030: 3957: 3929: 3927: 3917: 3892: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3830: 3804: 3799: 3789: 3787: 3780: 3776: 3766: 3764: 3755: 3751: 3742: 3735: 3726: 3722: 3714: 3710: 3698: 3692: 3688: 3680: 3676: 3668: 3664: 3656: 3649: 3641: 3637: 3629: 3625: 3617: 3613: 3607:Mottahedeh 2014 3605: 3601: 3591: 3589: 3587: 3571: 3567: 3559: 3555: 3547: 3543: 3535: 3531: 3522: 3518: 3510: 3506: 3498: 3489: 3453: 3449: 3441: 3437: 3429: 3425: 3415: 3413: 3398: 3394: 3386: 3382: 3374: 3370: 3362: 3358: 3350: 3346: 3338: 3334: 3326: 3322: 3317: 3313: 3305: 3298: 3293: 3289: 3281: 3277: 3269: 3265: 3257: 3253: 3245: 3241: 3229: 3225: 3217: 3213: 3205: 3201: 3189: 3185: 3180: 3176: 3168: 3164: 3156: 3149: 3141: 3134: 3126: 3119: 3111: 3104: 3096: 3089: 3077: 3073: 3065:Arash Khazeni, 3064: 3060: 3048: 3044: 3025: 3016: 3009: 3001: 2997: 2988: 2984: 2976: 2972: 2963: 2959: 2950: 2946: 2937: 2933: 2927:Abrahamian 1982 2925: 2921: 2913: 2904: 2894: 2892: 2882:10.2307/1864588 2862: 2851: 2841: 2839: 2831: 2830: 2821: 2813:, p. 223; 2809: 2805: 2797: 2793: 2787:Abrahamian 1982 2785: 2778: 2772:Abrahamian 1982 2770: 2766: 2760:Abrahamian 1982 2758: 2754: 2748:Abrahamian 1982 2746: 2742: 2736:Abrahamian 1982 2734: 2721: 2714: 2698: 2694: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2672: 2651: 2639: 2638: 2623: 2615: 2608: 2591: 2587: 2568: 2564: 2557: 2543: 2539: 2533:Abrahamian 1982 2531: 2527: 2521:Abrahamian 1982 2519: 2510: 2504:Abrahamian 1982 2502: 2495: 2489:Abrahamian 1982 2487: 2474: 2468:Abrahamian 1982 2466: 2462: 2456:Abrahamian 1982 2454: 2445: 2439:Abrahamian 1982 2437: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2381:Tobacco Protest 2315:History of Iran 2305: 2250: 2233:Cossack Brigade 2204: 2145:Sevkaretsi Sako 2103:Arshak Gafavian 2010:– Deputy 1958:Arshak Gafavian 1955:(left to right) 1911: 1906: 1857: 1827: 1741: 1680:hujjaj al-islam 1635:Imam of the Age 1560: 1548: 1518: 1493:) as a traitor. 1443:Fazlullah Nouri 1427: 1382: 1374:Fazlullah Nouri 1304: 1295: 1241: 1226: 1218:Twelver Shi'ism 1205: 1185: 1154:British embassy 1142: 1097:Tobacco Protest 1053: 1004:British Embassy 993: 991:Mozaffar ad-Din 955:, and then the 940:In March 1890, 934: 932:Tobacco Protest 928: 926:Tobacco protest 903: 841: 817:fundamental law 791: 677: 676: 675: 670: 657: 587: 582: 580: 578: 544: 543: 542: 500: 498: 493: 492: 416: 406: 405: 396:Cossack Brigade 385: 384: 369:Central Society 346: 344: 332: 331: 327:Cossack Brigade 309: 307: 302: 301: 266: 218: 185: 165: 128: 127: 126: 109: 103: 66: 43: 39: 32: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5573: 5563: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5375: 5374: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5344: 5343: 5333: 5328: 5322: 5320: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5286: 5284: 5280: 5279: 5277: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5255: 5253: 5249: 5248: 5246: 5245: 5244: 5243: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5212: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5180: 5178: 5174: 5173: 5171: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5124: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5093: 5091: 5087: 5086: 5065: 5064: 5057: 5050: 5042: 5033: 5032: 5030: 5029: 5023: 5020: 5019: 5017: 5016: 5011: 5005: 5003: 4999: 4998: 4996: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4974: 4972: 4968: 4967: 4965: 4964: 4959: 4953: 4951: 4947: 4946: 4938: 4937: 4930: 4923: 4915: 4906: 4905: 4895: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4862: 4860: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4816: 4814: 4810: 4809: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4776: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4543: 4541: 4537: 4536: 4534: 4533: 4528: 4526:Amin al-Soltan 4523: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4506:Sheikh Khaz'al 4503: 4498: 4493: 4487: 4485: 4484:Authoritarians 4481: 4480: 4478: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4461: 4459: 4452: 4448: 4447: 4440: 4439: 4432: 4425: 4417: 4411: 4410: 4395: 4394: 4389: 4374:Shokā Sahrāi, 4371: 4350: 4349:External links 4347: 4346: 4345: 4331: 4301: 4291: 4274: 4264: 4255: 4235:Krämer, Gudrun 4222: 4219: 4217: 4216: 4210: 4195: 4177:(2): 181–196. 4162: 4155: 4132: 4126: 4111: 4106:978-0292769007 4105: 4092: 4086: 4071: 4065: 4052: 4041: 4022:Kasravi, Ahmad 4018: 3984:(3): 430–453. 3969: 3955: 3936: 3915: 3896: 3890: 3875: 3864: 3851: 3834: 3828: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3797: 3774: 3763:. Al-Islam.org 3749: 3733: 3727:Taheri, Amir, 3720: 3718:, p. 440. 3708: 3695:Tārīḵ-e bīdārī 3686: 3684:, p. 218. 3674: 3672:, p. 217. 3662: 3660:, p. 216. 3647: 3645:, p. 215. 3635: 3623: 3621:, p. 214. 3611: 3609:, p. 118. 3599: 3585: 3565: 3563:, p. 200. 3553: 3551:, p. 201. 3541: 3539:, p. 434. 3529: 3516: 3514:, p. 203. 3504: 3502:, p. 439. 3487: 3447: 3445:, p. 435. 3435: 3433:, p. 181. 3423: 3392: 3390:, p. 198. 3380: 3378:, p. 197. 3368: 3356: 3354:, p. 199. 3344: 3342:, p. 196. 3332: 3330:, p. 437. 3320: 3311: 3309:, p. 212. 3296: 3287: 3285:, p. 182. 3275: 3273:, p. 205. 3263: 3261:, p. 160. 3251: 3249:, p. 193. 3239: 3223: 3221:, p. 195. 3211: 3199: 3197:, p. 181. 3183: 3174: 3162: 3160:, p. 191. 3147: 3145:, p. 183. 3132: 3130:, p. 430. 3117: 3115:, p. 438. 3102: 3100:, p. 162. 3087: 3071: 3058: 3042: 3007: 3005:, p. 131. 2995: 2982: 2980:, p. 248. 2970: 2964:Algar, Hamid. 2957: 2944: 2931: 2919: 2902: 2876:(3): 579–598. 2849: 2819: 2803: 2801:, p. 143. 2791: 2776: 2764: 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Nori 1245:eliminate the 1240: 1237: 1225: 1222: 1201:Main article: 1184: 1181: 1141: 1138: 1052: 1051:First protests 1049: 992: 989: 930:Main article: 927: 924: 902: 899: 840: 837: 790: 787: 672: 671: 669: 668: 662: 661: 656: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 624: 623: 618: 613: 608: 598: 592: 589: 588: 577: 576: 569: 562: 554: 546: 545: 541: 540: 535: 530: 525: 514: 495: 494: 491: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 453: 448: 443: 438: 432: 431: 430: 427: 426: 422: 421: 418: 417: 414:Russian Empire 404: 403: 398: 392: 390:Qajar dynasty 388: 386: 383: 382: 379: 376: 371: 366: 361: 359:Tabriz Council 355: 341: 337: 334: 333: 330: 329: 324: 318: 305: 303: 300: 299: 285: 282: 279: 272: 270: 265: 264: 262:Secret Society 259: 254: 249: 244: 238: 236: 232: 225: 224: 220: 219: 217: 216: 211: 201: 194: 191: 187: 186: 181: 179: 175: 174: 171: 167: 166: 159: 151: 150: 143: 142: 136: 135: 130: 129: 125: 124: 117: 106: 84: 81: 70: 67: 48: 47: 46: 44: 37: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5572: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5500:1910s in Iran 5498: 5496: 5495:1900s in Iran 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5372: 5371: 5360: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5342: 5339: 5338: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5285: 5281: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5256: 5254: 5250: 5242: 5239: 5238: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5186: 5185: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5175: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5088: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5063: 5058: 5056: 5051: 5049: 5044: 5043: 5040: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5021: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5006: 5004: 5000: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4975: 4973: 4969: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4954: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4936: 4931: 4929: 4924: 4922: 4917: 4916: 4913: 4903: 4893: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4866:Qajar dynasty 4864: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4817: 4815: 4811: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4777: 4775: 4773: 4769: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4717:Saad ad-Daula 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4617:Ahmad Kasravi 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4552:Hassan Pirnia 4550: 4548: 4545: 4544: 4542: 4538: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4488: 4486: 4482: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4462: 4460: 4456: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4438: 4433: 4431: 4426: 4424: 4419: 4418: 4415: 4408: 4397: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4384: 4379: 4377: 4372: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4352: 4344: 4343:1-56859-197-7 4340: 4336: 4332: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4316:964-351-138-3 4313: 4309: 4305: 4304:Ahmad Kasravi 4302: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4290: 4289:0-231-10351-4 4286: 4282: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4272:0-934211-45-0 4269: 4265: 4262: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4231: 4225: 4224: 4213: 4207: 4203: 4202: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4156:964-372-095-0 4152: 4148: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4123: 4119: 4118: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4098: 4093: 4089: 4083: 4079: 4078: 4072: 4068: 4066:1-56859-197-7 4062: 4058: 4053: 4050: 4044: 4042:964-351-138-3 4038: 4034: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3937: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3903: 3897: 3893: 3887: 3883: 3882: 3876: 3872: 3871: 3865: 3854: 3848: 3843: 3842: 3835: 3831: 3829:0-691-10134-5 3825: 3821: 3817: 3816: 3811: 3807: 3806: 3785: 3778: 3762: 3761: 3753: 3746: 3740: 3738: 3730: 3724: 3717: 3712: 3704: 3703: 3696: 3690: 3683: 3682:Farzaneh 2015 3678: 3671: 3670:Farzaneh 2015 3666: 3659: 3658:Farzaneh 2015 3654: 3652: 3644: 3643:Farzaneh 2015 3639: 3633:, p. 52. 3632: 3631:Arjomand 1989 3627: 3620: 3619:Farzaneh 2015 3615: 3608: 3603: 3588: 3582: 3578: 3577: 3569: 3562: 3561:Farzaneh 2015 3557: 3550: 3549:Farzaneh 2015 3545: 3538: 3533: 3526: 3523:محسن کدیور، " 3520: 3513: 3512:Farzaneh 2015 3508: 3501: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3451: 3444: 3439: 3432: 3427: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3396: 3389: 3388:Farzaneh 2015 3384: 3377: 3376:Farzaneh 2015 3372: 3366:, p. 51. 3365: 3364:Arjomand 1989 3360: 3353: 3352:Farzaneh 2015 3348: 3341: 3340:Farzaneh 2015 3336: 3329: 3324: 3315: 3308: 3307:Farzaneh 2015 3303: 3301: 3291: 3284: 3279: 3272: 3271:Farzaneh 2015 3267: 3260: 3259:Farzaneh 2015 3255: 3248: 3247:Farzaneh 2015 3243: 3236: 3234: 3227: 3220: 3219:Farzaneh 2015 3215: 3208: 3207:Arjomand 1989 3203: 3196: 3192: 3191:Farzaneh 2015 3187: 3178: 3171: 3170:Farzaneh 2015 3166: 3159: 3154: 3152: 3144: 3139: 3137: 3129: 3124: 3122: 3114: 3109: 3107: 3099: 3098:Farzaneh 2015 3094: 3092: 3084: 3082: 3075: 3068: 3062: 3055: 3053: 3046: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3012: 3004: 2999: 2992: 2986: 2979: 2974: 2967: 2961: 2954: 2948: 2941: 2935: 2929:, p. 73. 2928: 2923: 2916: 2915:Arjomand 1989 2911: 2909: 2907: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2838: 2834: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2816: 2812: 2807: 2800: 2795: 2789:, p. 59. 2788: 2783: 2781: 2774:, p. 57. 2773: 2768: 2762:, p. 14. 2761: 2756: 2749: 2744: 2738:, p. 51. 2737: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2724: 2715: 2709: 2705: 2704: 2696: 2688: 2682: 2675: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2645: 2644: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2618: 2613: 2611: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2589: 2582: 2581:1-135-93758-3 2578: 2574: 2573: 2566: 2558: 2552: 2548: 2541: 2535:, p. 91. 2534: 2529: 2523:, p. 95. 2522: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2506:, p. 97. 2505: 2500: 2498: 2491:, p. 84. 2490: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2470:, p. 81. 2469: 2464: 2458:, p. 83. 2457: 2452: 2450: 2448: 2440: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2422: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2402: 2401:Ibn al-Sheikh 2399: 2397: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2327: 2326:Ahmad Kasravi 2323: 2322: 2318: 2316: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2307: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2288: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2267: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2252: 2251: 2243: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2220: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2205: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2130: 2129:Ahmad Kasravi 2127: 2124: 2122: 2121:Hassan Pirnia 2119: 2116: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2085: 2083: 2080: 2078: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2057: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2043: 2042:Stepan Zorian 2040: 2038: 2037:Aref Ghazvini 2035: 2033: 2029: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2018: 2015: 2013: 2009: 2006: 2004: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1992: 1991:Sur-e Esrafil 1988: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1978: 1973: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1956: 1952: 1946: 1942: 1939: 1935: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1915: 1901: 1898: 1891: 1890: 1889: 1886: 1885:an expressway 1882: 1876: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1852: 1850: 1848: 1842: 1840: 1831: 1821: 1819: 1812: 1809: 1802: 1801: 1800: 1796: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1769: 1768: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1747: 1743: 1738: 1737: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1727: 1724: 1722: 1714: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1699: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1675: 1663: 1658: 1653: 1649: 1647: 1640: 1639: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1604: 1603: 1602: 1598: 1593: 1589: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1574: 1570: 1562: 1561: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1541: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1531: 1528: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1511: 1507: 1505: 1502: 1501: 1498: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1473: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1462: 1460: 1455: 1451: 1449: 1444: 1436: 1435: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1420: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1392: 1391: 1386: 1377: 1375: 1370: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1319:Twelver Shi'i 1317: 1313: 1309: 1299: 1290: 1286: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1252:Minor Tyranny 1249: 1248: 1236: 1234: 1230: 1221: 1219: 1213: 1209: 1204: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1180: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1146: 1137: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1110: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1082: 1077: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1048: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1005: 1001: 997: 988: 986: 982: 976: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 949: 947: 943: 938: 933: 923: 920: 914: 912: 908: 897: 892: 889: 885: 882: 876: 871: 867: 863: 861: 857: 853: 850:and the 1828 849: 844: 836: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 809: 805: 803: 802: 797: 786: 784: 776: 772: 767: 764: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 737: 735: 729: 727: 726:Persia (Iran) 723: 719: 718:Qajar dynasty 715: 711: 706:انقلاب مشروطه 701: 695: 686: 682: 667: 664: 663: 659: 658: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 603: 602: 599: 597: 594: 593: 590: 585: 575: 570: 568: 563: 561: 556: 555: 552: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 528:Eyn-ed-Dowleh 526: 523: 518: 515: 512: 507: 497: 496: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 463: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 433: 428: 423: 415: 410: 402: 399: 397: 394: 393: 391: 387: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 356: 354: 353: 342: 339: 336: 335: 328: 325: 323: 320: 319: 317: 316: 315:Qajar dynasty 304: 298: 294: 290: 286: 283: 280: 277: 274: 273: 271: 268: 263: 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 242:Secret Center 240: 239: 237: 234: 231: 230: 226: 221: 215: 212: 209: 205: 202: 199: 196: 195: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 163: 157: 152: 149: 144: 139: 134: 122: 118: 115: 107: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 82: 79: 75: 71: 69: 68: 62: 56: 54: 49:You can help 45: 36: 35: 30: 26: 22: 5535:1911 in Iran 5530:1910 in Iran 5525:1909 in Iran 5520:1908 in Iran 5515:1907 in Iran 5510:1906 in Iran 5505:1905 in Iran 5363: 5220: 4993:1980 attempt 4956: 4800:Zainab Pasha 4692:Aref Qazvini 4443: 4382: 4375: 4356:Abbās Amānat 4334: 4328:Amir Kabir's 4327: 4323: 4319: 4307: 4294: 4277:Afary, Janet 4259: 4242: 4200: 4174: 4170: 4146: 4139: 4116: 4096: 4076: 4056: 4049:Amir Kabir's 4048: 4032: 4025: 3981: 3977: 3941: 3928:. Retrieved 3901: 3880: 3869: 3858:December 30, 3856:. Retrieved 3840: 3814: 3788:. Retrieved 3777: 3765:. Retrieved 3759: 3752: 3744: 3728: 3723: 3716:Hermann 2013 3711: 3701: 3694: 3689: 3677: 3665: 3638: 3626: 3614: 3602: 3590:. Retrieved 3575: 3568: 3556: 3544: 3537:Hermann 2013 3532: 3519: 3507: 3500:Hermann 2013 3467:(10): 1009. 3464: 3460: 3450: 3443:Hermann 2013 3438: 3426: 3414:. Retrieved 3409: 3405: 3395: 3383: 3371: 3359: 3347: 3335: 3328:Hermann 2013 3323: 3314: 3290: 3278: 3266: 3254: 3242: 3232: 3231:Abrahamian, 3226: 3214: 3202: 3186: 3177: 3165: 3128:Hermann 2013 3113:Hermann 2013 3080: 3079:Abrahamian, 3074: 3066: 3061: 3051: 3050:Abrahamian, 3045: 3037:the original 3021: 2998: 2990: 2985: 2978:Lambton 1988 2973: 2965: 2960: 2952: 2947: 2939: 2934: 2922: 2893:. Retrieved 2873: 2869: 2840:. Retrieved 2836: 2817:, p. 5. 2811:Lambton 1988 2806: 2794: 2767: 2755: 2743: 2702: 2695: 2681: 2642: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2588: 2571: 2565: 2546: 2540: 2528: 2463: 2319: 2109:Sardar Assad 1990: 1954: 1940: 1895: 1878: 1873: 1861: 1858: 1845: 1843: 1836: 1817: 1814: 1806: 1797: 1773: 1756: 1753: 1718: 1710:from Tehran. 1707: 1703: 1701: 1697: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1651: 1644: 1608: 1605:Three marja' 1600: 1597:is unclean'. 1595: 1591: 1586: 1582: 1566: 1544: 1526: 1514: 1496: 1463: 1456: 1452: 1440: 1423: 1396: 1371: 1335: 1305: 1296: 1287: 1275: 1262: 1260: 1246: 1242: 1227: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1166: 1161: 1151: 1133: 1121: 1107: 1105: 1100: 1086: 1009: 985:Nikki Keddie 977: 972: 950: 939: 935: 915: 904: 894: 890: 886: 877: 873: 869: 864: 846:In the 1813 845: 842: 812: 810: 806: 799: 792: 768: 765: 738: 730: 713: 709: 700:Mashrūtiyyat 680: 678: 621:Shanb Ghazan 581: 425:Lead figures 389: 343: 338: 306: 289:Dar ul-Funun 287:Students of 267: 233: 133: 96:edit summary 87: 60:(March 2021) 58: 50: 5290:Abbas Mirza 5283:Individuals 4971:Coup d'état 4732:Nikol Duman 4722:Sattar Khan 4587:Yeprem Khan 4451:Key figures 4407:Iran portal 3592:February 3, 3158:Martin 1986 3143:Martin 1986 3003:Keddie 1966 2815:Keddie 1966 2799:Mackey 1996 2674:Mackey 1996 2617:Amanat 1992 2097:Sattar Khan 2093:Yeprem Khan 2067:Bagher Khan 2061:Sattar Khan 2017:Nikol Duman 1962:Yeprem Khan 1945:Sattar Khan 1927:Sardar Asad 1631:occultation 1406:) replied: 1278:Sattar Khan 1093:bastinadoed 1069:Bagher Khan 1065:Sattar Khan 1044:concessions 969:Hidden Imam 653:Atabak Park 473:Yeprem Khan 456:Sattar Khan 200:promulgated 190:Resulted in 5384:Categories 5002:Deposition 4950:Revolution 4727:Bāqer Khān 4657:Iraj Mirza 4120:. Dutton. 3925:1051306470 3852:0520081730 3431:Bayat 1991 3283:Bayat 1991 3233:Khomeinism 3195:Bayat 1991 3081:Khomeinism 3052:Khomeinism 2418:References 2179:Mazandaran 2052:Mehdi Cont 1938:Baqir Khan 1897:Reza Aslan 1892:Reza Aslan 1879:After the 1862:Ayatollah 1491:Toopkhaneh 1308:1891 fatwa 1158:parliament 963:-e taqlid 839:Background 769:After the 722:parliament 638:2nd Tabriz 606:Ana Khatun 601:1st Tabriz 538:Rahim Khan 468:Baqir Khan 401:Shahsevans 352:Parliament 210:instituted 208:Parliament 55:in Persian 5252:Incidents 5209:Abbasabad 5204:1826–1828 5199:1804–1813 5194:1722–1723 5189:1651–1653 5177:Conflicts 5121:Diplomacy 4326:in 1984. 4251:1873-9830 4014:143672216 3998:0026-3206 3965:931494838 3930:April 30, 3790:April 30, 3767:April 19, 3481:0191-4537 3416:April 30, 2842:April 19, 2286:, neutral 1993:newspaper 1723:replied: 1325:, i.e. a 1081:Georgians 1000:Sanctuary 763:in 1909. 694:romanized 633:Astarabad 611:Sari Dagh 173:1905–1911 114:talk page 4902:Category 4859:See also 4458:Monarchs 4241:(eds.). 4138:(2004). 4024:(2003). 4006:23471080 3812:(1982). 2303:See also 1849:al-harbi 1734:English 1538:English 1508:English 1417:English 1323:mujtahid 1118:Cossacks 1114:Muhammad 616:Hokmavar 322:Nazmiyeh 178:Location 146:Part of 90:provide 5319:Related 4957:1905–06 4191:4283111 3802:Sources 3237:: p. 95 3085:: p. 93 3056:: p. 92 2895:May 11, 2890:1864588 2087:Khetcho 2032:Mashhad 1966:Khetcho 1792:Usulism 1730:Persian 1708:mullahs 1682:of the 1662:Persian 1569:atheism 1534:Persian 1504:Persian 1413:Persian 1293:The end 1089:Russian 1034:signed 1002:at the 953:bazaari 919:bazaari 881:Isfahan 789:History 775:Persian 743:signed 696:: 689:مشروطیت 685:Persian 643:Isfahan 458: ( 374:Dashnak 223:Parties 112:to the 94:in the 57:. 4341: 4314: 4287: 4270: 4249: 4208: 4189: 4153: 4124: 4103: 4084: 4063: 4039: 4012: 4004: 3996: 3963: 3953: 3923: 3913: 3888: 3849: 3826: 3583: 3479: 3235:, 1993 3083:, 1993 3054:, 1993 2888: 2710: 2583:p. 245 2579: 2553: 2056:Kerman 1964:, and 1941:(left) 1855:Legacy 1847:koffar 1780:Marja' 1704:atabat 1692:malija 1688:marja' 1684:atabat 1611:marja' 1338:marja' 1327:marja' 1263:majlis 1247:majlis 1162:majlis 1109:sayyid 1061:Tabriz 1006:, 1906 961:marja' 911:bazaar 813:majles 759:, and 648:Tehran 519: 508: 183:Persia 4772:Women 4320:Note: 4299:JSTOR 4187:JSTOR 4145:[ 4031:[ 4010:S2CID 4002:JSTOR 3786:. NPR 2886:JSTOR 2175:Gilan 2012:Rasht 1818:waṭan 1784:Najaf 1746:Mahdi 1354:Najaf 1316:Usuli 1134:basti 1122:ulama 1101:basti 1026:. 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