203:(e) For purposes of this section, "personal information" means an individual's first name or first initial and last name in combination with any one or more of the following data elements, when either the name or the data elements are not encrypted: (1) Social security number. (2) Driver's license number or California Identification Card number. (3) Account number, credit or debit card number, in combination with any required security code, access code, or password that would permit access to an individual's financial account. (f) For purposes of this section, "personal information" does not include publicly available information that is lawfully made available to the general public from federal, state, or local government records.
230:, in the sense that a person may not wish for it to become publicly known, without being personally identifiable. Moreover, sometimes multiple pieces of information, none sufficient by itself to uniquely identify an individual, may uniquely identify a person when combined; this is one reason that multiple pieces of evidence are usually presented at criminal trials. It has been shown that, in 1990, 87% of the population of the United States could be uniquely identified by gender,
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3204:
2301:
1312:
2293:
152:
name, in official standards like the NIST Guide, demonstrates a proactive approach to ensuring robust privacy safeguards amid the dynamic landscape of data security. This integration into established standards is a foundational framework for organizations to adopt and implement effective measures in safeguarding individuals' personal information.
128:(HIPAA), PII items have been specifically defined. In broader data protection regimes such as the GDPR, personal data is defined in a non-prescriptive principles-based way. Information that might not count as PII under HIPAA can be personal data for the purposes of GDPR. For this reason, "PII" is typically deprecated internationally.
216:(SSN) without a name or some other associated identity or context information is not SB1386 "personal information", but it is PII. For example, the SSN 078-05-1120 by itself is PII, but it is not SB1386 "personal information". However the combination of a valid name with the correct SSN is SB1386 "personal information".
865:
Personal information removal services work by identifying and requesting data brokers to delete the personal information of their clients. This process can be manual or fully automated, but it is nevertheless complex because it involves dealing with numerous data brokers, each with different policies
151:
Information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual's identity, such as their name, social security number, biometric records, etc. alone, or when combined with other personal or recognizing linked or linkable information, such as date and place of birth, as well as the mother's maiden
530:
Additional U.S.-specific personally identifiable information includes, but is not limited to, I-94 records, Medicaid ID numbers, and
Internal Revenue Service (I.R.S.) documentation. Exclusivity of personally identifiable information affiliated with the U.S. highlights national data security concerns
385:
On 1 June 2023, the Hong Kong Office of the
Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data published an investigation report on a data breach involving the unauthorised access of a credit reference database platform. The Report highlights the need for organizations to take adequate steps to protect personal
266:
deals with the protection of individual privacy, using the OECD Privacy
Principles from the 1980s to set up a broad, principles-based regulatory model (unlike in the US, where coverage is generally not based on broad principles but on specific technologies, business practices or data items). Section
207:
The concept of information combination given in the SB1386 definition is key to correctly distinguishing PII, as defined by OMB, from "personal information", as defined by SB1386. Information, such as a name, that lacks context cannot be said to be SB1386 "personal information", but it must be said
183:
Any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person ('data subject'); an identifiable natural person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identifier such as a name, an identification number, location data, an online identifier or
169:
Article 2a: 'personal data' shall mean any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person ('data subject'); an identifiable person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identification number or to one or more factors specific to
77:
Special
Publication 800-122 defines personally identifiable information as "any information about an individual maintained by an agency, including (1) any information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual's identity, such as name, social security number, date and place of birth,
219:
The combination of a name with a context may also be considered PII; for example, if a person's name is on a list of patients for an HIV clinic. However, it is not necessary for the name to be combined with a context in order for it to be PII. The reason for this distinction is that bits of
512:(PHI), which is similar to PII. The U.S. Senate proposed the Privacy Act of 2005, which attempted to strictly limit the display, purchase, or sale of PII without the person's consent. Similarly, the (proposed) Anti-Phishing Act of 2005 attempted to prevent the acquiring of PII through
271:"personal information" means information or an opinion about an identified individual, or an individual who is reasonably identifiable whether the information or opinion is true or not; and whether the information or opinion is recorded in a material form or not.
501:, a United States federal law, establishes a Code of Fair Information Practice that governs the collection, maintenance, use, and dissemination of personally identifiable information about individuals that is maintained in systems of records by federal agencies.
868:
Companies offering personal information removal also face some issues. They struggle to ensure comprehensive data removal as new data brokers emerge and existing ones don’t always comply with removal requests. Most of them are also limited to certain regions or
1938:
345:
681:
The following are less often used to distinguish individual identity, because they are traits shared by many people. However, they are potentially PII, because they may be combined with other personal information to identify an individual.
386:
data as the mere imposition of contractual obligations and policies is insufficient if such obligations and policies are not effective or are not enforced. The Report also clarifies that credit data is a form of "sensitive" personal data.
473:
of 19 June 1992 (in force since 1993) has set up a protection of privacy by prohibiting virtually any processing of personal data which is not expressly authorized by the data subjects. The protection is subject to the authority of the
1412:"Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (General Data Protection Regulation)"
921:(Taylor, 2004), two-sided markets (Cornière, 2011) and marketing strategies (Anderson and de Palma, 2012). The theories became complex, and showed that the impact of privacy on the economy highly depended on the context.
178:
rules, there has been a more specific notion that the data subject can potentially be identified through additional processing of other attributes—quasi- or pseudo-identifiers. In the GDPR, personal data is defined as:
249:". It is sometimes used to deter collaboration with law enforcement. On occasion, the doxing can trigger an arrest, particularly if law enforcement agencies suspect that the "doxed" individual may panic and disappear.
642:
The following data, often used for the express purpose of distinguishing individual identity, clearly classify as personally identifiable information under the definition used by the NIST (described in detail below):
140:. government used the term "personally identifiable" in 2007 in a memorandum from the Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and that usage now appears in US standards such as the
78:
mother's maiden name, or biometric records; and (2) any other information that is linked or linkable to an individual, such as medical, educational, financial, and employment information." For instance, a user's
275:
It appears that this definition is significantly broader than the
Californian example given above, and thus that Australian privacy law may cover a broader category of data and information than in some US law.
119:
Important confusion arises around whether PII means information which is identifiable (that is, can be associated with a person) or identifying (that is, associated uniquely with a person, such that the PII
892:, though the costs of doing so can be unclear. In relation to companies, consumers often have "imperfect information regarding when their data is collected, with what purposes, and with what consequences".
1480:"Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data"
797:
and can be exploited by individuals. For instance, data can be altered and used to create fake documents, hijack mail boxes and phone calls or harass people, as occurred in 2019 to a customer of the
85:
Personal data is defined under the GDPR as "any information which related to an identified or identifiable natural person". The IP address of an
Internet subscriber may be classed as personal data.
527:. The (proposed) Social Security Number Protection Act of 2005 and (proposed) Identity Theft Prevention Act of 2005 each sought to limit the distribution of an individual's social security number.
2722:
1702:
1316:
220:
information such as names, although they may not be sufficient by themselves to make an identification, may later be combined with other information to identify persons and expose them to harm.
903:
school claimed that protection of privacy could have a negative impact on the market because it could lead to incorrect and non-optimal decisions. Other researchers like Andrew F. Daughety and
910:
In the mid-1990s, Varian retook the
Chicago Boys approach and added a new externality, stating that the consumer would not always have perfect information on how their own data would be used.
291:
of a particular person using the rubric of 'we don't collect personal information' may find that this does not make sense under a broader definition like that in the
Australian Privacy Act.
437:
336:
European Union data protection law does not use the concept of personally identifiable information, and its scope is instead determined by non-synonymous, wider concept of "personal data".
981:
vary. In the United States there is no federal regulation protection for the consumer from data brokers, although some states have begun enacting laws individually. In the
European Union,
2066:
2831:
555:
requires organizations to notify individuals when PII (in combination with one or more additional, specific data elements) is known or believed to be acquired by an unauthorized person.
226:
When a person wishes to remain anonymous, descriptions of them will often employ several of the above, such as "a 34-year-old white male who works at Target". Information can still be
1105:
1988 (Cth) "personal information" also includes information from which the person's identity is "reasonably ascertainable", potentially covering some information not covered by PII.
914:
developed a model in which individuals own their data and have the ability to sell it as a product. He believed that such a system should not be regulated, to create a free market.
1611:
2279:
639:
is a physical sciences laboratory, and a non-regulatory agency of the United States
Department of Commerce. Its mission is to promote innovation and industrial competitiveness.
311:
2240:
804:
Another category can be referred to as financial identity theft, which usually entails bank account and credit card information being stolen, and then being used or sold.
318:
2826:
481:
Additionally, any person may ask in writing a company (managing data files) the correction or deletion of any personal data. The company must respond within thirty days.
2205:
Krombholz, Katharina; Merkl, Dieter; Weippl, Edgar (26 July 2012). "Fake Identities in Social Media: A Case Study on the Sustainability of the Facebook Business Model".
1555:
267:
6 has the relevant definition. The critical detail is that the definition of 'personal information' also applies to where the individual can be indirectly identified:
223:
According to the OMB, it is not always the case that PII is "sensitive", and context may be taken into account in deciding whether certain PII is or is not sensitive.
59:. Not all are equivalent, and for legal purposes the effective definitions vary depending on the jurisdiction and the purposes for which the term is being used. Under
2376:
2876:
2115:
1442:
811:) for celebrities to gather data from other users more easily. Even individuals can be concerned, especially for personal purposes (this is more widely known as
818:
The most critical information, such as one's password, date of birth, ID documents or social security number, can be used to log in to different websites (e.g.
888:
introduced "privacy economics", or the trade of personal data. The value of data can change over time and over different contexts. Disclosing data can reverse
2003:
2891:
2772:
475:
419:
340:
1366:
505:
125:
3103:
1642:
363:
2811:
807:
Personal data can also be used to create fake online identities, including fake accounts and profiles (which can be referred as identity cloning or
3068:
3007:
2896:
109:
2057:
1246:
636:
74:
2762:
184:
to one or more factors specific to the physical, physiological, genetic, mental, economic, cultural or social identity of that natural person
96:
have made it easier to collect PII leading to a profitable market in collecting and reselling PII. PII can also be exploited by criminals to
1536:
735:, particularly the identification and prosecution of criminals, personally identifiable information is critical in establishing evidence in
2841:
2619:
858:
446:
425:
1619:
1586:
324:
1125:
985:
serves to regulate data brokers' operations. Some data brokers report to have large numbers of population data or "data attributes".
829:
Also, several agencies ask for discretion on subjects related to their work, for the safety of their employees. For this reason, the
199:
Another term similar to PII, "personal information", is defined in a section of the California data breach notification law, SB1386:
955:
but sometimes sourced privately, and selling or licensing such information to third parties for a variety of uses. Sources, usually
2851:
2767:
2757:
2247:
2608:
2595:
754:, which themselves are PII. However, gloves can also leave prints that are just as unique as human fingerprints. After collecting
1522:
2164:
1757:
1726:
1563:
837:
have similar policies, sometimes to the point where employees do not disclose to their friends that they work for the agency.
3083:
1885:
1222:
1195:
283:
businesses based in the US but surreptitiously collecting information from people in other countries in the form of cookies,
895:
Writing in 2015, Alessandro Acquisti, Curtis Taylor and Liad Wagman identified three "waves" in the trade of personal data:
2906:
2712:
2368:
3063:
2871:
2861:
2821:
830:
2528:
2803:
2777:
2737:
2399:
2123:
2025:
1803:
1017:
982:
593:
552:
351:
68:
1439:
1101:
privacy principles, the term used is more often "personal information", which may be somewhat broader: in Australia's
2980:
2901:
2886:
2782:
2646:
2189:
2148:
1260:
Schwartz, Paul M; Solove, Daniel (2014). "Reconciling Personal Information in the United States and European Union".
1057:
604:
494:
2315:
1866:"US-Centric vs. International Personally Identifiable Information: A Comparison Using the UT CID Identity Ecosystem"
2669:
2614:
2418:
Daughety, A.; Reinganum, J. (2010). "Public goods, social pressure, and the choice between privacy and publicity".
614:
1479:
2856:
2787:
2752:
458:
196:
personal data; it is the connection to the person that makes it personal data, not (as in PII) the value itself.
1462:
165:
A term similar to PII, "personal data", is defined in EU directive 95/46/EC, for the purposes of the directive:
3078:
3058:
3012:
2975:
2881:
2836:
1298:
647:
470:
71:(GDPR), the term "personal data" is significantly broader, and determines the scope of the regulatory regime.
2985:
2816:
2791:
2272:
546:
212:" has no meaning in the current context and is therefore not SB1386 "personal information", but it is PII. A
1537:"Comments of Latanya Sweeney, PhD on 'Standards of Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information'"
833:(DoD) has strict policies controlling release of personally identifiable information of DoD personnel. Many
2846:
1042:
948:
509:
1771:
1703:"Less Is (Not) More: The Need for Adequate Data Protection Practices When Monetizing Personal Information"
747:, skin, and hair colour, facial features, and personal marks such as tattoos, birthmarks, moles and scars.
116:
have enacted a series of legislation such as the GDPR to limit the distribution and accessibility of PII.
3250:
2866:
1799:
1411:
2601:
1440:
M-07-16 SUBJECT:Safeguarding Against and Responding to the Breach of Personally Identifiable Information
3220:
1667:
1133:
1037:
287:, trackers and the like may find that their preference to avoid the implications of wanting to build a
238:
1975:"201 CMR 17.00: Standards for The Protection of Personal Information of Residents of the Commonwealth"
977:
There are varying regulations around the world limiting the collection of information on individuals;
743:
Wearing masks, sunglasses, or clothing to obscure or completely hide distinguishing features, such as
104:
of a person, or to aid in the planning of criminal acts. As a response to these threats, many website
3098:
3042:
3022:
2747:
2707:
1748:"The Telecommunications (Lawful Business Practice) (Interception of Communications) Regulations 2000"
968:
2432:
2104:
John J. Harris, Disguised Handwriting, 43 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 685 (1952-1953)
621:
442:
The Telecommunications (Lawful Business Practice) (Interception of Communications) Regulations 2000
403:
396:
370:
2558:
Anderson, S.; de Palma, A. (2012). "Competition for attention in the information (overload) age".
1910:"HIGH-RISK SERIES Urgent Actions Are Needed to Address Cybersecurity Challenges Facing the Nation"
531:
and the influence of personally identifiable information in U.S. federal data management systems.
3093:
3088:
2960:
2742:
1540:
1072:
1006:
879:
346:
Convention for the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data
192:
personal data, but that same value stored as part of a person's record as their "favorite color"
543:
The California state constitution declares privacy an inalienable right in Article 1, Section 1.
3265:
3260:
3134:
2732:
2727:
2674:
2427:
947:
that specializes in collecting personal data (such as income, ethnicity, political beliefs, or
651:
520:
280:
213:
89:
1185:
758:, law enforcement can then match them to gloves that they have collected as evidence. In many
461:
apply. New Zealand enacted the Privacy Act in 2020 to promote and protect individual privacy.
3113:
2684:
2639:
2471:
1688:
904:
889:
288:
2342:
2179:
2138:
1211:
Skiera, Bernd; Miller, Klaus; Jin, Yuxi; Kraft, Lennart; Laub, René; Schmitt, Julia (2022).
2932:
2717:
1974:
918:
823:
304:
907:
suggested that the opposite was true, and that absence of privacy would also lead to this.
413:, retained EU law, substantially the same as the EU GDPR with necessary amendments due to
8:
3149:
3017:
3002:
2952:
2689:
1027:
971:, court reports and purchase histories. The information from data brokers may be used in
834:
812:
669:
490:
113:
1501:
3275:
3270:
3189:
2575:
2509:
2222:
1891:
1752:
1721:
1277:
1240:
885:
845:
841:
736:
675:
577:: Standards for the Protection of Personal Information of Residents of the Commonwealth
1463:"Guide to Protecting the Confidentiality of Personally Identifiable Information (PII)"
1177:
597:
3159:
2942:
2571:
2185:
2144:
1939:"California Supreme Court Holds that Zip Code is Personal Identification Information"
1881:
1281:
1228:
1218:
1191:
1032:
1022:
1012:
911:
2579:
1895:
3255:
3207:
3073:
3032:
2970:
2922:
2679:
2632:
2567:
2540:
2499:
2437:
2226:
2214:
1873:
1587:"Anonymous's Operation Hiroshima: Inside the Doxing Coup the Media Ignored (VIDEO)"
1269:
972:
763:
263:
209:
2490:
Taylor, C. R. (2004). "Consumer privacy and the market for customer information".
762:
the act of wearing gloves itself while committing a crime can be prosecuted as an
558:
In 2011, the California State Supreme Court ruled that a person's ZIP code is PII.
2937:
2927:
2473:
Extensions to the theory of markets and privacy: Mechanics of pricing information
1446:
794:
608:
498:
1956:
1838:
1132:. Washington, DC: Department of Veterans Affairs. 6 January 2012. Archived from
3174:
3154:
3027:
1865:
1821:
964:
952:
808:
524:
321:
governs private corporations, unless there is equivalent provincial legislation
242:
175:
105:
101:
64:
60:
2218:
1877:
1747:
1232:
1156:
1148:
145:
Guide to Protecting the Confidentiality of Personally Identifiable Information
3244:
3144:
3139:
3037:
2992:
1392:
Nokhbeh, Razieh (2017). "A study of web privacy policies across industries".
1341:
759:
574:
137:
40:
2598:
A legal analysis of the new European regulatory framework about data privacy
2033:
1909:
1800:
Federal Act on Data Protection of 19 June 1992 (status as of 1 January 2014)
1716:
1126:"Management of Data Breaches Involving Sensitive Personal Information (SPI)"
3184:
2965:
1212:
1077:
1062:
978:
900:
777:
755:
744:
657:
170:
his physical, physiological, mental, economic, cultural or social identity;
739:. Criminals may go to great trouble to avoid leaving any PII, such as by:
3179:
2699:
2544:
1523:"Text of California Senate Bill SB 1386 ref paragraph SEC. 2 1798.29.(e)"
1067:
1052:
940:
932:
770:
751:
314:
and similar provincial legislation governs provincial government agencies
158:
2441:
2181:
Is It Safe? Protecting Your Computer, Your Business, and Yourself Online
2140:
Is It Safe? Protecting Your Computer, Your Business, and Yourself Online
188:
A simple example of this distinction: the color name "red" by itself is
3234:
3164:
2513:
798:
781:
720:
79:
2504:
580:
In 2013, the Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that ZIP codes are PII.
3129:
1870:
2018 International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology (ICCST)
1273:
1000:
732:
706:
438:
Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003
82:
is not classed as PII on its own, but is classified as a linked PII.
3229:
2609:
Power to the People! Giving Citizens their Personal Data Rights Back
245:, the practice of finding and releasing such information is called "
2343:"The best services for deleting yourself from the internet in 2024"
2165:"Card data of 20,000 Pakistani bank users sold on dark web: report"
1449:
FROM: Clay Johnson III, Deputy Director for Management (2007/05/22)
956:
819:
698:
663:
513:
327:
and other similar provincial legislation governs health information
231:
124:
them). In prescriptive data privacy regimes such as the US federal
97:
93:
1957:"NRS: CHAPTER 603A - SECURITY AND PRIVACY OF PERSONAL INFORMATION"
1643:"Doxed: how Sabu was outed by former Anons long before his arrest"
624:, which was ruled invalid by the European Court of Justice in 2020
43:, but the phrase it abbreviates has four common variants based on
2655:
1097:
In other countries with privacy protection laws derived from the
1047:
944:
410:
284:
2369:"What Are Data Removal Services, and What Data Can They Remove?"
2089:
Criminal Law and Procedure for the paralegal: a systems approach
1367:"European Court of Justice rules IP addresses are personal data"
2615:
Rethinking Personal Data New Lens Report – World Economic Forum
2280:
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
1190:. Indianapolis, IN, US: Pearson IT Certification. p. 349.
986:
960:
714:
566:
Nevada Revised Statutes 603A – Security of Personal Information
414:
246:
2596:
Six things you need to know about the new EU privacy framework
2455:
Varian, H. R. (1997). "Economic aspects of personal privacy".
3169:
776:
Masking their internet presence with methods such as using a
319:
Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act
312:
Ontario Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act
3108:
2620:
Why Consent is Different to Marketing Preferences – K Dewar
2398:
Acquisti, Alessandro; Taylor, Curtis; Wagman, Liad (2015).
2316:"How to remove your personal information from the Internet"
2294:"How to Remove Personal Information From Data Broker Sites"
2273:"Protection of victims of sexual violence: Lessons learned"
1098:
534:
141:
2624:
2157:
493:(Pub.L. 93–579, 88 Stat. 1896, enacted 31 December 1974,
377:
Further examples can be found on the EU privacy website.
147:(SP 800-122). The OMB memorandum defines PII as follows:
36:), is any information related to an identifiable person.
1612:"Did LulzSec Trick Police into Arresting the Wrong Guy?"
1556:"The FBI's warning about doxing was too little too late"
989:
purports to have data from 2.5 billion different people.
1320:
1214:
The impact of the GDPR on the online advertising market
1187:
Security Program and Policies: Principles and Practices
67:
data protection regimes, which centre primarily on the
1864:
Rana, R.; Zaeem, R. N.; Barber, K. S. (October 2018).
848:, and victims of domestic violence and other threats.
826:) to gather more information and access more content.
294:
The term "PII" is not used in Australian privacy law.
3218:
2246:. United States Department of Defense. Archived from
637:
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
2397:
2204:
1210:
859:
Personal information removal service § Functionality
476:
Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner
420:
Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights
341:
Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights
208:
to be PII as defined by OMB. For example, the name "
506:
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
126:
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
3104:International Association of Privacy Professionals
2457:Privacy and Self-regulation in the Information Age
2116:"EE failures show how data breaches damages lives"
2056:
519:U.S. lawmakers have paid special attention to the
364:Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications
357:supersedes the Data Protection Directive, 95/46/EC
325:Ontario Personal Health Information Protection Act
2417:
1435:
1433:
457:The twelve Information Privacy Principles of the
3242:
3069:Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility
2603:Personal and professional information management
2557:
884:During the second half of the 20th century, the
1943:Bullivant Houser Bailey Business Matters eAlert
1863:
851:
840:Similar identity protection concerns exist for
1917:United States Government Accountability Office
1430:
1321:National Institute of Standards and Technology
1259:
711:Age, date of birth, especially if non-specific
75:National Institute of Standards and Technology
2640:
1517:
1515:
1394:Journal of Information Privacy & Security
354:adopted in April 2016; effective 25 May 2018
2058:"Police use glove prints to catch criminals"
1539:. Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from
617:, EU harmonisation, adopted on 10 July 2023
1814:
1812:
447:Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001
430:Employers' Data Protection Code of Practice
426:Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000
88:The concept of PII has become prevalent as
39:The abbreviation PII is widely used in the
2647:
2633:
2366:
1512:
1245:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2533:American Economic Journal: Microeconomics
2503:
2431:
2420:American Economic Journal: Microeconomics
1346:General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
873:
2526:
2087:James W.H. McCord and Sandra L. McCord,
1809:
1772:"New Zealand - Data Protection Overview"
1157:"Data Security Breach Notification Laws"
535:State laws and significant court rulings
523:because it can be easily used to commit
2340:
1795:
1793:
1585:Sheets, Connor Adams (4 January 2012).
1457:
1455:
1391:
1154:
769:Avoiding writing anything in their own
307:governs the federal government agencies
3243:
2489:
2469:
2454:
2304:from the original on 27 February 2024.
2177:
2136:
2113:
2081:
1828:, Éditions Loisirs et pédagogie, 2008.
1640:
1584:
1359:
1183:
366:, 2002/58/EC (the E-Privacy Directive)
159:https://www.nist.gov/privacy-framework
3084:Electronic Privacy Information Center
2628:
2367:Fadilpašić, Sead (16 November 2023).
2054:
1691:. European Commission. 11 April 2017.
1553:
603:The Privacy Act of 1974, codified at
252:
2379:from the original on 17 January 2024
2341:Osborne, Charlie (8 December 2023).
2069:from the original on 11 January 2022
2018:
1806:(page visited on 18 September 2016).
1790:
1468:. NIST. Special Publication 800-122.
1452:
1293:
1291:
959:-based since the 1990s, may include
951:) or data about people, mostly from
917:In the 2000s, researchers worked on
793:Personal data is a key component of
399:, which in part implements the GDPR
16:Information that identifies a person
3064:Center for Democracy and Technology
2207:Journal of Service Science Research
2055:Sawer, Patrick (13 December 2008).
2006:. European Commission. 10 July 2023
831:United States Department of Defense
780:to appear to be connecting from an
30:personally identifiable information
13:
1804:Federal Chancellery of Switzerland
1299:"NIST Special Publication 800-122"
1018:General Data Protection Regulation
788:
630:
508:(HIPAA) is to protect a patient's
504:One of the primary focuses of the
352:General Data Protection Regulation
69:General Data Protection Regulation
14:
3287:
2589:
2241:"Memorandum for DoD FOIA Offices"
1705:. Mayer Brown. 28 September 2023.
1554:Ragan, Steve (19 December 2011).
1288:
1253:
1058:Privacy laws of the United States
866:and procedures for data removal.
801:mobile phone operator in the UK.
389:
331:
3228:
3203:
3202:
2670:Right of access to personal data
2572:10.1111/j.1756-2171.2011.00155.x
1980:. Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
1315: This article incorporates
1310:
931:This section is an excerpt from
857:This section is an excerpt from
484:
433:Model Contracts for Data Exports
2551:
2520:
2483:
2463:
2448:
2411:
2391:
2360:
2334:
2308:
2286:
2265:
2233:
2198:
2171:
2130:
2114:Davies, Tom (8 February 2019).
2107:
2098:
2048:
1996:
1984:
1967:
1949:
1931:
1902:
1857:
1831:
1764:
1740:
1709:
1695:
1681:
1660:
1634:
1604:
1578:
1547:
1529:
1494:
1472:
1404:
1385:
1331:Section 3.3.3 "Identifiability"
1155:Stevens, Gina (10 April 2012).
975:used by employers and housing.
925:
3079:Electronic Frontier Foundation
3059:American Civil Liberties Union
3013:Privacy-enhancing technologies
2167:. Dunya News. 6 November 2018.
1991:Tyler v. Michaels Stores, Inc.
1641:Bright, Peter (7 March 2012).
1618:. 28 July 2011. Archived from
1334:
1325:
1204:
1118:
1091:
648:National identification number
586:
471:Federal Act on Data Protection
464:
452:
157:NIST, NIST Privacy Framework,
131:
1:
2560:The RAND Journal of Economics
2492:The RAND Journal of Economics
1112:
547:Online Privacy Protection Act
1591:International Business Times
1043:Protected health information
852:Personal information removal
726:
615:EU–US Data Privacy Framework
510:Protected Health Information
380:
257:
112:, and lawmakers such as the
7:
2804:Data protection authorities
2654:
1993:, 984N.E.2d 737, 739 (2013)
1184:Greene, Sari Stern (2014).
993:
10:
3292:
3008:Social networking services
1717:"Data Protection Act 2018"
1038:Personal Information Agent
930:
877:
856:
784:unassociated with oneself.
750:Wearing gloves to conceal
234:, and full date of birth.
3198:
3122:
3099:Global Network Initiative
3051:
3043:Virtual assistant privacy
3023:Privacy-invasive software
2951:
2915:
2802:
2698:
2662:
2219:10.1007/s12927-012-0008-z
2024:
1878:10.1109/CCST.2018.8585479
676:Debit/credit card numbers
297:
108:specifically address the
2527:Cornière, A. D. (2011).
2401:The Economics of Privacy
2178:Miller, Michael (2008).
2137:Miller, Michael (2008).
1502:"What is personal data?"
1084:
404:Data Protection Act 1998
397:Data Protection Act 2018
371:Data Retention Directive
3094:Future of Privacy Forum
3089:European Digital Rights
1445:8 February 2020 at the
1416:European Data Consilium
1073:Self-sovereign identity
1007:Bundesdatenschutzgesetz
969:social networking sites
880:Surveillance capitalism
373:, 2006/24/EC, Article 5
3135:Cellphone surveillance
3052:Advocacy organizations
2675:Expectation of privacy
2004:"EU-US data transfers"
1317:public domain material
874:Trade of personal data
652:Social Security number
521:social security number
281:behavioral advertising
279:In particular, online
273:
214:Social Security Number
205:
186:
172:
163:
90:information technology
3114:Privacy International
2685:Right to be forgotten
1839:"Privacy Act of 1974"
1758:The National Archives
1727:The National Archives
1262:California Law Review
1217:. Frankfurt am Main.
905:Jennifer F. Reinganum
890:information asymmetry
835:intelligence agencies
289:psychographic profile
269:
201:
181:
167:
149:
2545:10.1257/mic.20130138
2529:"Search advertising"
943:is an individual or
919:price discrimination
824:account verification
622:EU–US Privacy Shield
26:personal information
3150:Global surveillance
3018:Privacy engineering
3003:Personal identifier
2953:Information privacy
2690:Post-mortem privacy
2470:Laudon, K. (1997).
2442:10.1257/mic.2.2.191
2126:on 5 February 2021.
2026:"Anonymity and PII"
1961:www.leg.state.nv.us
1482:. Eur-lex.europa.eu
1028:Personal identifier
491:Privacy Act of 1974
114:European Parliament
3251:Identity documents
3190:Personality rights
2322:. 27 December 2023
2300:. 24 August 2022.
2184:. Que. p. 6.
2143:. Que. p. 4.
2030:cookieresearch.com
1753:legislation.gov.uk
1722:legislation.gov.uk
1668:"Privacy Act 1988"
1622:on 29 October 2013
1566:on 31 October 2012
899:In the 1970s, the
886:digital revolution
842:witness protection
737:criminal procedure
262:In Australia, the
253:Laws and standards
102:steal the identity
3216:
3215:
3160:Mass surveillance
1887:978-1-5386-7931-9
1778:. 5 December 2023
1689:"Data protection"
1616:The Atlantic Wire
1543:on 28 March 2009.
1373:. 19 October 2016
1224:978-3-9824173-0-1
1197:978-0-7897-5167-6
1033:Personal identity
1023:Non-personal Data
1013:De-identification
973:background checks
912:Kenneth C. Laudon
598:§ 1028(d)(7)
3283:
3233:
3232:
3224:
3206:
3205:
3074:Data Privacy Lab
3033:Privacy software
2680:Right to privacy
2649:
2642:
2635:
2626:
2625:
2584:
2583:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2524:
2518:
2517:
2507:
2487:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2435:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2353:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2277:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2253:on 6 August 2020
2252:
2245:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2122:. Archived from
2111:
2105:
2102:
2096:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2060:
2052:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2032:. Archived from
2022:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1919:. September 2018
1914:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1872:. pp. 1–5.
1861:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1835:
1829:
1820:
1816:
1807:
1797:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1744:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1734:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1699:
1693:
1692:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1562:. Archived from
1551:
1545:
1544:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1519:
1510:
1509:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1467:
1459:
1450:
1437:
1428:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1389:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1338:
1332:
1329:
1323:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1295:
1286:
1285:
1274:10.15779/Z38Z814
1257:
1251:
1250:
1244:
1236:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1161:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1122:
1106:
1095:
949:geolocation data
846:women's shelters
764:inchoate offense
670:Driver's license
600:
459:Privacy Act 1993
264:Privacy Act 1988
161:
110:gathering of PII
106:privacy policies
24:, also known as
3291:
3290:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3280:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3227:
3219:
3217:
3212:
3194:
3118:
3047:
2947:
2911:
2798:
2792:amended in 2020
2694:
2658:
2653:
2592:
2587:
2556:
2552:
2525:
2521:
2488:
2484:
2476:
2468:
2464:
2453:
2449:
2433:10.1.1.544.9031
2416:
2412:
2404:
2396:
2392:
2382:
2380:
2365:
2361:
2351:
2349:
2339:
2335:
2325:
2323:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2275:
2271:
2270:
2266:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2243:
2239:
2238:
2234:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2176:
2172:
2163:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2135:
2131:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2070:
2053:
2049:
2039:
2037:
2036:on 17 June 2011
2023:
2019:
2009:
2007:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1989:
1985:
1977:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1922:
1920:
1912:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1888:
1862:
1858:
1848:
1846:
1843:www.justice.gov
1837:
1836:
1832:
1818:
1817:
1810:
1798:
1791:
1781:
1779:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1732:
1730:
1715:
1714:
1710:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1665:
1661:
1651:
1649:
1639:
1635:
1625:
1623:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1595:
1593:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1567:
1560:The Tech Herald
1552:
1548:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1521:
1520:
1513:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1485:
1483:
1478:
1477:
1473:
1465:
1461:
1460:
1453:
1447:Wayback Machine
1438:
1431:
1421:
1419:
1410:
1409:
1405:
1390:
1386:
1376:
1374:
1371:The Irish Times
1365:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1348:
1342:"Personal Data"
1340:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1326:
1311:
1301:
1297:
1296:
1289:
1258:
1254:
1238:
1237:
1225:
1209:
1205:
1198:
1182:
1178:
1168:
1166:
1159:
1153:
1149:
1139:
1137:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1109:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1082:
996:
991:
990:
936:
928:
882:
876:
871:
870:
862:
854:
795:online identity
791:
789:Personal safety
729:
633:
631:NIST definition
620:supersedes the
592:
589:
537:
487:
467:
455:
402:supersedes the
392:
383:
334:
300:
260:
255:
162:
156:
134:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3289:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3238:
3237:
3214:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3193:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3175:Search warrant
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3155:Identity theft
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3055:
3053:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3028:Privacy policy
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2968:
2963:
2957:
2955:
2949:
2948:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2919:
2917:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2909:
2907:United Kingdom
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2822:European Union
2819:
2814:
2808:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2780:
2778:United Kingdom
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2738:European Union
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2704:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2659:
2652:
2651:
2644:
2637:
2629:
2623:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2606:
2599:
2591:
2590:External links
2588:
2586:
2585:
2550:
2539:(3): 156–188.
2519:
2498:(4): 631–650.
2482:
2462:
2447:
2426:(2): 191–221.
2410:
2390:
2359:
2333:
2307:
2285:
2264:
2232:
2213:(2): 175–212.
2197:
2190:
2170:
2156:
2149:
2129:
2120:PrivSec Report
2106:
2097:
2080:
2047:
2017:
1995:
1983:
1966:
1948:
1930:
1901:
1886:
1856:
1845:. 16 June 2014
1830:
1822:Cesla Amarelle
1808:
1789:
1763:
1739:
1708:
1694:
1680:
1659:
1633:
1603:
1577:
1546:
1528:
1511:
1493:
1471:
1451:
1429:
1418:. 11 June 2015
1403:
1384:
1358:
1333:
1324:
1287:
1252:
1223:
1203:
1196:
1176:
1147:
1136:on 26 May 2015
1116:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1089:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
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1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1003:
997:
995:
992:
965:electoral roll
953:public records
937:
929:
927:
924:
923:
922:
915:
908:
875:
872:
863:
855:
853:
850:
809:identity fraud
790:
787:
786:
785:
774:
767:
748:
728:
725:
724:
723:
718:
712:
709:
704:
701:
696:
693:
690:
687:
679:
678:
673:
667:
661:
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632:
629:
628:
627:
626:
625:
612:
601:
588:
585:
584:
583:
582:
581:
578:
571:Massachusetts
569:
568:
567:
561:
560:
559:
556:
550:
549:(OPPA) of 2003
544:
536:
533:
525:identity theft
486:
483:
466:
463:
454:
451:
450:
449:
443:
440:
434:
431:
428:
422:
417:
408:
407:
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391:
390:United Kingdom
388:
382:
379:
375:
374:
367:
360:
359:
358:
348:
343:
333:
332:European Union
330:
329:
328:
322:
315:
308:
299:
296:
259:
256:
254:
251:
243:Internet slang
154:
133:
130:
65:United Kingdom
61:European Union
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3288:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3266:Data security
3264:
3262:
3261:Personal life
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3248:
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3226:
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3222:
3209:
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3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3145:Eavesdropping
3143:
3141:
3140:Data security
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3127:
3125:
3121:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3038:Secret ballot
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2998:Personal data
2996:
2994:
2991:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
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2969:
2967:
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2809:
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2805:
2801:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2785:
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1776:DataGuidance
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1729:, 2018 c. 12
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1134:the original
1129:
1120:
1103:Privacy Act
1102:
1093:
1078:Surveillance
1063:Pseudonymity
1005:
979:privacy laws
938:
926:Data brokers
901:Chicago Boys
894:
883:
864:
839:
828:
817:
813:sockpuppetry
806:
803:
792:
778:proxy server
756:glove prints
752:fingerprints
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689:Home address
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658:Bank account
654:in the U.S.)
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3180:Wiretapping
2892:Switzerland
2877:South Korea
2867:Philippines
2857:Netherlands
2852:Isle of Man
2773:Switzerland
2753:New Zealand
2611:– J Cromack
2383:29 November
2352:20 February
1923:16 November
1819:(in French)
1760:, SI 2000/1
1068:Obfuscation
1053:Privacy law
941:data broker
933:Data broker
771:handwriting
609:§ 552a
587:Federal law
540:California
499:§ 552a
465:Switzerland
453:New Zealand
305:Privacy Act
132:Definitions
57:identifying
3245:Categories
3165:Panopticon
2788:California
2663:Principles
2505:10161/2627
1849:6 December
1652:23 October
1626:23 October
1570:23 October
1400:: 169–185.
1351:23 October
1233:1303894344
1113:References
878:See also:
869:countries.
844:programs,
822:reuse and
782:IP address
721:Web cookie
210:John Smith
122:identifies
80:IP address
49:personally
3276:Anonymity
3271:Data laws
3130:Anonymity
2966:Financial
2943:Workplace
2933:Education
2842:Indonesia
2812:Australia
2768:Sri Lanka
2763:Singapore
2708:Australia
2428:CiteSeerX
2095:, p. 127.
2073:20 August
2063:Telegraph
2010:12 August
1733:14 August
1596:12 August
1506:TrueVault
1486:20 August
1282:141313154
1241:cite book
1001:Anonymity
967:records,
733:forensics
727:Forensics
707:Telephone
686:Full name
594:18 U.S.C.
381:Hong Kong
258:Australia
3208:Category
3123:See also
2976:Facebook
2971:Internet
2923:Consumer
2897:Thailand
2580:11606956
2566:: 1–25.
2377:Archived
2302:Archived
2067:Archived
1896:56719139
1782:14 March
1443:Archived
1377:10 March
1306:nist.gov
994:See also
957:Internet
820:password
699:Postcode
664:Passport
514:phishing
232:ZIP code
155:—
94:Internet
92:and the
45:personal
3256:Privacy
2986:Twitter
2938:Medical
2928:Digital
2847:Ireland
2832:Germany
2817:Denmark
2743:Germany
2733:England
2728:Denmark
2656:Privacy
2514:1593765
2282:. 2019.
2257:1 April
2227:6082130
1422:3 April
1164:fas.org
1048:Privacy
945:company
717:or race
703:Country
660:numbers
650:(e.g.,
611:et seq.
563:Nevada
553:SB 1386
411:UK GDPR
228:private
174:In the
3221:Portal
2981:Google
2902:Turkey
2887:Sweden
2872:Poland
2862:Norway
2827:France
2758:Russia
2718:Canada
2713:Brazil
2578:
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2430:
2326:16 May
2320:OneRep
2298:McAfee
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1673:15 May
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1169:8 June
1140:25 May
1130:VA.gov
987:Acxiom
961:census
715:Gender
672:number
666:number
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415:Brexit
298:Canada
247:doxing
239:hacker
51:, and
3170:PRISM
2993:Email
2916:Areas
2882:Spain
2837:India
2748:Ghana
2723:China
2576:S2CID
2510:JSTOR
2477:(PDF)
2405:(PDF)
2347:ZDNET
2276:(PDF)
2251:(PDF)
2244:(PDF)
2223:S2CID
2093:supra
2040:6 May
1978:(PDF)
1913:(PDF)
1892:S2CID
1466:(PDF)
1302:(PDF)
1278:S2CID
1268:(4).
1160:(PDF)
1085:Notes
695:State
98:stalk
3109:NOYB
2385:2023
2354:2024
2328:2024
2259:2019
2186:ISBN
2145:ISBN
2075:2013
2042:2015
2012:2023
1925:2020
1882:ISBN
1851:2020
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1735:2018
1675:2019
1654:2012
1628:2012
1598:2023
1572:2012
1488:2013
1424:2019
1379:2019
1353:2020
1247:link
1229:OCLC
1219:ISBN
1192:ISBN
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1099:OECD
983:GDPR
963:and
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