Phagocyte - Knowledge

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of the amoebae engulf bacteria and absorb toxins while circulating within the slug, and these amoebae eventually die. They are genetically identical to the other amoebae in the slug; their self-sacrifice to protect the other amoebae from bacteria is similar to the self-sacrifice of phagocytes seen in the immune system of higher vertebrates. This ancient immune function in social amoebae suggests an evolutionarily conserved cellular foraging mechanism that might have been adapted to defense functions well before the diversification of amoebae into higher forms. Phagocytes occur throughout the animal kingdom, from marine sponges to insects and lower and higher vertebrates. The ability of amoebae to distinguish between self and non-self is a pivotal one, and is the root of the immune system of many species of amoeba.

1476: 928: 295: 1855: 877: 819: 22: 473: 748: 335: 383: 327:. The bacterium is then subjected to an overwhelming array of killing mechanisms and is dead a few minutes later. Dendritic cells and macrophages are not so fast, and phagocytosis can take many hours in these cells. Macrophages are slow and untidy eaters; they engulf huge quantities of material and frequently release some undigested back into the tissues. This debris serves as a signal to recruit more phagocytes from the blood. Phagocytes have voracious appetites; scientists have even fed macrophages with 1135: 1048: 685: 311:, and cellular and foreign debris by a cell. It involves a chain of molecular processes. Phagocytosis occurs after the foreign body, a bacterial cell, for example, has bound to molecules called "receptors" that are on the surface of the phagocyte. The phagocyte then stretches itself around the bacterium and engulfs it. Phagocytosis of bacteria by human neutrophils takes on average nine minutes. Once inside this phagocyte, the bacterium is trapped in a compartment called a 709:, where there are millions of lymphocytes. This enhances immunity because the lymphocytes respond to the antigens presented by the dendritic cells just as they would at the site of the original infection. But dendritic cells can also destroy or pacify lymphocytes if they recognize components of the host body; this is necessary to prevent autoimmune reactions. This process is called tolerance. 1596: 410:, produces reactive oxygen-containing molecules that are anti-microbial. The oxygen compounds are toxic to both the invader and the cell itself, so they are kept in compartments inside the cell. This method of killing invading microbes by using the reactive oxygen-containing molecules is referred to as oxygen-dependent intracellular killing, of which there are two types. 366:. "Complement" is the name given to a complex series of protein molecules found in the blood that destroy cells or mark them for destruction. Scavenger receptors bind to a large range of molecules on the surface of bacterial cells, and Toll-like receptors—so called because of their similarity to well-studied receptors in fruit flies that are encoded by the 1501:; without this response to infection phagocytes cannot respond adequately. Third, some species of bacteria can inhibit the ability of phagocytes to travel to the site of infection by interfering with chemotaxis. Fourth, some bacteria can avoid contact with phagocytes by tricking the immune system into "thinking" that the bacteria are "self". 1798:. Here, activated neutrophils release the contents of their toxic granules into the lung environment. Experiments have shown that a reduction in the number of neutrophils lessens the effects of acute lung injury, but treatment by inhibiting neutrophils is not clinically realistic, as it would leave the host vulnerable to infection. In the 580:

components of the innate immune system can, to a limited extent, control viruses, once a virus is inside a cell the adaptive immune responses, particularly the lymphocytes, are more important for defense. At the sites of viral infections, lymphocytes often vastly outnumber all the other cells of the immune system; this is common in viral

1159:. The activated helper T cells interact with macrophages and B cells to activate them in turn. In addition, dendritic cells can influence the type of immune response produced; when they travel to the lymphoid areas where T cells are held they can activate T cells, which then differentiate into cytotoxic T cells or helper T cells. 1918:

that are resistant to environmental dangers. Before the formation of fruiting bodies, the cells will migrate as a slug-like organism for several days. During this time, exposure to toxins or bacterial pathogens has the potential to compromise survival of the species by limiting spore production. Some

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Dendritic cells are specialized antigen-presenting cells that have long outgrowths called dendrites, that help to engulf microbes and other invaders. Dendritic cells are present in the tissues that are in contact with the external environment, mainly the skin, the inner lining of the nose, the lungs,

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The intra-cellular granules of the human neutrophil have long been recognized for their protein-destroying and bactericidal properties. Neutrophils can secrete products that stimulate monocytes and macrophages. Neutrophil secretions increase phagocytosis and the formation of reactive oxygen compounds

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to other cells of the immune system. Monocytes form two groups: a circulating group and a marginal group that remain in other tissues (approximately 70% are in the marginal group). Most monocytes leave the blood stream after 20–40 hours to travel to tissues and organs and in doing so transform into

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can reproduce only inside cells, and they can gain entry by using many of the receptors involved in immunity. Once inside the cell, viruses use the cell's biological machinery to their own advantage, forcing the cell to make hundreds of identical copies of themselves. Although phagocytes and other

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Macrophages and neutrophils, in particular, play a central role in the inflammatory process by releasing proteins and small-molecule inflammatory mediators that control infection but can damage host tissue. In general, phagocytes aim to destroy pathogens by engulfing them and subjecting them to a

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All phagocytes, and especially macrophages, exist in degrees of readiness. Macrophages are usually relatively dormant in the tissues and proliferate slowly. In this semi-resting state, they clear away dead host cells and other non-infectious debris and rarely take part in antigen presentation.

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and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, constituting 50% to 60% of the total circulating white blood cells. One litre of human blood contains about five billion neutrophils, which are about 10 micrometers in diameter and live for only about five days. Once they have received the appropriate

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Antigen presentation is a process in which some phagocytes move parts of engulfed materials back to the surface of their cells and "present" them to other cells of the immune system. There are two "professional" antigen-presenting cells: macrophages and dendritic cells. After engulfment, foreign

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and mesenchymal cells. They are called non-professional phagocytes, to emphasize that, in contrast to professional phagocytes, phagocytosis is not their principal function. Fibroblasts, for example, which can phagocytose collagen in the process of remolding scars, will also make some attempt to

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on the surface of bacteria, which are involved in adhesion to tissues. In addition to these functions, mast cells produce cytokines that induce an inflammatory response. This is a vital part of the destruction of microbes because the cytokines attract more phagocytes to the site of infection.

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molecules and which prepares them for presenting antigens. In this state, macrophages are good antigen presenters and killers. If they receive a signal directly from an invader, they become "hyperactivated", stop proliferating, and concentrate on killing. Their size and rate of phagocytosis

735:. Some self reactive T cells escape the thymus for a number of reasons, mainly due to the lack of expression of some self antigens in the thymus. Another type of T cell; T regulatory cells can down regulate self reactive T cells in the periphery. When immunological tolerance fails, 809:

In the blood, neutrophils are inactive but are swept along at high speed. When they receive signals from macrophages at the sites of inflammation, they slow down and leave the blood. In the tissues, they are activated by cytokines and arrive at the battle scene ready to kill.

1787:) intensify the damage. This release of substances promotes chemotaxis of more neutrophils to the site of infection, and glomerular cells can be damaged further by the adhesion molecules during the migration of neutrophils. The injury done to the glomerular cells can cause 911:

Mature macrophages do not travel far but stand guard over those areas of the body that are exposed to the outside world. There they act as garbage collectors, antigen presenting cells, or ferocious killers, depending on the signals they receive. They derive from monocytes,

237:, a tiny transparent animal that can be examined directly under a microscope. He discovered that fungal spores that attacked the animal were destroyed by phagocytes. He went on to extend his observations to the white blood cells of mammals and discovered that the bacterium 861:

cell-lined organs to sites of infection, and although this is an important component of fighting infection, the migration itself can result in disease-like symptoms. During an infection, millions of neutrophils are recruited from the blood, but they die after a few days.

1764:. If a phagocyte fails to engulf its target, these toxic agents can be released into the environment (an action referred to as "frustrated phagocytosis"). As these agents are also toxic to host cells, they can cause extensive damage to healthy cells and tissues. 1487:

A pathogen is only successful in infecting an organism if it can get past its defenses. Pathogenic bacteria and protozoa have developed a variety of methods to resist attacks by phagocytes, and many actually survive and replicate within phagocytic cells.

5545:"Cytolysin-dependent escape of the bacterium from the phagosome is required but not sufficient for induction of the Th1 immune response against Listeria monocytogenes infection: distinct role of Listeriolysin O determined by cytolysin gene replacement" 1715: 1833:

is an important chemical that is released by macrophages that causes the blood in small vessels to clot to prevent an infection from spreading. If a bacterial infection spreads to the blood, TNF-α is released into vital organs, which can cause

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of jawed vertebrates—the basis of acquired immunity—is highly specialized and can protect against almost any type of invader. The adaptive immune system is not dependent on phagocytes but lymphocytes, which produce protective proteins called

564:, the efficiency of phagocytes is impaired, and recurrent bacterial infections are a problem. In this disease there is an abnormality affecting different elements of oxygen-dependent killing. Other rare congenital abnormalities, such as 1902:, for example, is an amoeba that lives in the soil and feeds on bacteria. Like animal phagocytes, it engulfs bacteria by phagocytosis mainly through Toll-like receptors, and it has other biological functions in common with macrophages. 279:

Although the importance of these discoveries slowly gained acceptance during the early twentieth century, the intricate relationships between phagocytes and all the other components of the immune system were not known until the 1980s.

144:. When phagocytes come into contact with bacteria, the receptors on the phagocyte's surface will bind to them. This binding will lead to the engulfing of the bacteria by the phagocyte. Some phagocytes kill the ingested pathogen with 705:(MHC) glycoproteins, which carry the peptides back to the phagocyte's surface where they can be "presented" to lymphocytes. Mature macrophages do not travel far from the site of infection, but dendritic cells can reach the body's 139:

During an infection, chemical signals attract phagocytes to places where the pathogen has invaded the body. These chemicals may come from bacteria or from other phagocytes already present. The phagocytes move by a method called

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Phagocytes can also kill microbes by oxygen-independent methods, but these are not as effective as the oxygen-dependent ones. There are four main types. The first uses electrically charged proteins that damage the bacterium's

1610:. When inside the cell they remain in the cytoplasm and avoid toxic chemicals contained in the phagolysosomes. Some bacteria prevent the fusion of a phagosome and lysosome, to form the phagolysosome. Other pathogens, such as 5646:

Datta V, Myskowski SM, Kwinn LA, Chiem DN, Varki N, Kansal RG, Kotb M, Nizet V (May 2005). "Mutational analysis of the group A streptococcal operon encoding streptolysin S and its virulence role in invasive infection".

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There are several ways bacteria avoid contact with phagocytes. First, they can grow in sites that phagocytes are not capable of traveling to (e.g., the surface of unbroken skin). Second, bacteria can suppress the

666:, which tag invaders for destruction and prevent viruses from infecting cells. Phagocytes, in particular dendritic cells and macrophages, stimulate lymphocytes to produce antibodies by an important process called 755:

Phagocytes of humans and other jawed vertebrates are divided into "professional" and "non-professional" groups based on the efficiency with which they participate in phagocytosis. The professional phagocytes are

549:, monocytes, other macrophages, or dendritic cells. Nitric oxide is then released from the macrophage and, because of its toxicity, kills microbes near the macrophage. Activated macrophages produce and secrete 298:

Phagocytosis in three steps: 1. Unbound phagocyte surface receptors do not trigger phagocytosis. 2. Binding of receptors causes them to cluster. 3. Phagocytosis is triggered and the particle is taken up by the

629:. These molecules mark the cell for phagocytosis by cells that possess the appropriate receptors, such as macrophages. The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an 1379:—which are antibodies and complement attached to invaders by the immune system. Additionally, most non-professional phagocytes do not produce reactive oxygen-containing molecules in response to phagocytosis. 156:, a process in which a phagocyte moves parts of the ingested material back to its surface. This material is then displayed to other cells of the immune system. Some phagocytes then travel to the body's 132:

on their surfaces that can detect harmful objects, such as bacteria, that are not normally found in the body. Non-professional phagocytes do not have efficient phagocytic receptors, such as those for

1706:, needed for phagocytosis. After a bacterium is ingested, it may kill the phagocyte by releasing toxins that travel through the phagosome or phagolysosome membrane to target other parts of the cell. 657:, which animals, including humans, are born with. Innate immunity is very effective but non-specific in that it does not discriminate between different sorts of invaders. On the other hand, the 1375:

Non-professional phagocytes are more limited than professional phagocytes in the type of particles they can take up. This is due to their lack of efficient phagocytic receptors, in particular

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Segal G, Lee W, Arora PD, McKee M, Downey G, McCulloch CA (January 2001). "Involvement of actin filaments and integrins in the binding step in collagen phagocytosis by human fibroblasts".

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alter the infected macrophage's signalling, repress the production of cytokines and microbicidal molecules—nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species—and compromise antigen presentation.

370:—bind to more specific molecules including foreign DNA and RNA. Binding to Toll-like receptors increases phagocytosis and causes the phagocyte to release a group of hormones that cause 826:

When an infection occurs, a chemical "SOS" signal is given off to attract phagocytes to the site. These chemical signals may include proteins from invading bacteria, clotting system

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that bind (via their T cell receptor) to self antigen (presented by dendritic cells on MHC molecules) too strongly are induced to die. The second type of immunological tolerance is

974:. Macrophages are usually only found in tissue and are rarely seen in blood circulation. The life-span of tissue macrophages has been estimated to range from four to fifteen days. 5106:

Valenick LV, Hsia HC, Schwarzbauer JE (September 2005). "Fibronectin fragmentation promotes alpha4beta1 integrin-mediated contraction of a fibrin-fibronectin provisional matrix".

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but move through the body interacting with the other phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells of the immune system. They can communicate with other cells by producing chemicals called

1632:, which break down chemicals—such as hydrogen peroxide—produced by phagocytes to kill bacteria. Bacteria may escape from the phagosome before the formation of the phagolysosome: 1120:(NETs). Composed mainly of DNA, NETs cause death by a process called netosis – after the pathogens are trapped in NETs they are killed by oxidative and non-oxidative mechanisms. 1846:. During septic shock, TNF-α release causes a blockage of the small vessels that supply blood to the vital organs, and the organs may fail. Septic shock can lead to death. 1606:

Bacteria have developed ways to survive inside phagocytes, where they continue to evade the immune system. To get safely inside the phagocyte they express proteins called

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molecules and can participate in antigen presentation; however, the mast cell's role in antigen presentation is not very well understood. Mast cells can consume and kill

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Schmalstieg, FC; AS Goldman (2008). "Ilya Ilich Metchnikoff (1845–1915) and Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915): the centennial of the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine".

136:. Phagocytes are crucial in fighting infections, as well as in maintaining healthy tissues by removing dead and dying cells that have reached the end of their lifespan. 1072:

signals, it takes them about thirty minutes to leave the blood and reach the site of an infection. They are ferocious eaters and rapidly engulf invaders coated with

610:—is a normal healthy function of cells. The body has to rid itself of millions of dead or dying cells every day, and phagocytes play a crucial role in this process. 6510: 1092:

filaments—neutrophils can have 2–5 segments. Neutrophils do not normally exit the bone marrow until maturity but during an infection neutrophil precursors called

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from neutrophil granules. When granules fuse with a phagosome, myeloperoxidase is released into the phagolysosome, and this enzyme uses hydrogen peroxide and

962:), where they silently lie in wait. A macrophage's location can determine its size and appearance. Macrophages cause inflammation through the production of 3758:

Takahashi K, Naito M, Takeya M (July 1996). "Development and heterogeneity of macrophages and their related cells through their differentiation pathways".

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products, and cytokines that have been given off by macrophages located in the tissue near the infection site. Another group of chemical attractants are

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Li MO, Sarkisian MR, Mehal WZ, Rakic P, Flavell RA (November 2003). "Phosphatidylserine receptor is required for clearance of apoptotic cells".

557:—a class of signaling molecule—kills cancer cells and cells infected by viruses, and helps to activate the other cells of the immune system. 6503: 4230: 2106: 7017: 6630: 2540: 1116:-antibody-coated bacteria. When encountering bacteria, fungi or activated platelets they produce web-like chromatin structures known as 897:

macrophages or dendritic cells depending on the signals they receive. There are about 500 million monocytes in one litre of human blood.

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Guermonprez P, Valladeau J, Zitvogel L, Théry C, Amigorena S (2002). "Antigen presentation and T cell stimulation by dendritic cells".

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Lange C, Dürr M, Doster H, Melms A, Bischof F (2007). "Dendritic cell-regulatory T-cell interactions control self-directed immunity".

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To reach the site of infection, phagocytes leave the bloodstream and enter the affected tissues. Signals from the infection cause the

128:). The main difference between professional and non-professional phagocytes is that the professional phagocytes have molecules called 6272:

Hanington PC, Tam J, Katzenback BA, Hitchen SJ, Barreda DR, Belosevic M (April 2009). "Development of macrophages of cyprinid fish".

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Monocytes develop in the bone marrow and reach maturity in the blood. Mature monocytes have large, smooth, lobed nuclei and abundant

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When a phagocyte ingests bacteria (or any material), its oxygen consumption increases. The increase in oxygen consumption, called a

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Antoine JC, Prina E, Lang T, Courret N (October 1998). "The biogenesis and properties of the parasitophorous vacuoles that harbour

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Iwatsuki K, Yamasaki O, Morizane S, Oono T (June 2006). "Staphylococcal cutaneous infections: invasion, evasion and aggression".

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Schroder K, Hertzog PJ, Ravasi T, Hume DA (February 2004). "Interferon-gamma: an overview of signals, mechanisms and functions".

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Dendritic cells also promote immunological tolerance, which stops the body from attacking itself. The first type of tolerance is

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inside the phagocyte, which helps them persist and replicate. Some bacteria are capable of living inside of the phagolysosome.

1584: 184:(1845–1916) first recognized that specialized cells were involved in defense against microbial infections. In 1882, he studied 100:

Phagocytes of humans and other animals are called "professional" or "non-professional" depending on how effective they are at

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tree into the larvae. After a few hours, he noticed that the motile cells had surrounded the thorns. Mechnikov traveled to

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Denkers EY, Butcher BA (January 2005). "Sabotage and exploitation in macrophages parasitized by intracellular protozoans".

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made of proteins or sugars that coat their cells and interfere with phagocytosis. Some examples are the K5 capsule and O75

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the stomach, and the intestines. Once activated, they mature and migrate to the lymphoid tissues where they interact with

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1 cells can recruit other phagocytes to the site of the infection in several ways. They secrete cytokines that act on the

164:. This process is important in building immunity, and many pathogens have evolved methods to evade attacks by phagocytes. 625:

surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a protein known as

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and cell death keeps the number of cells relatively constant in adults. There are two different ways a cell can die: by

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Dying cells and foreign organisms are consumed by cells other than the "professional" phagocytes. These cells include

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and interact with dendritic cells, B cells, and T cells to help mediate adaptive immune functions. Mast cells express

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Meyer KC (September 2004). "Neutrophils, myeloperoxidase, and bronchiectasis in cystic fibrosis: green is not good".

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Moraes TJ, Zurawska JH, Downey GP (January 2006). "Neutrophil granule contents in the pathogenesis of lung injury".

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capsular serotype 19F is more resistant to C3 deposition and less sensitive to opsonophagocytosis than serotype 6B"

3574: 702: 196:, believing they were important to the animals' immune defenses. To test his idea, he inserted small thorns from a 1579:

to block antibody receptors, which decreases the effectiveness of opsonins. Enteropathogenic species of the genus

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shortly after the divergence of plants, and they share many specific functions with mammalian phagocytic cells.

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is the process by which phagocytes follow the cytokine "scent" to the infected spot. Neutrophils travel across

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The killing of microbes is a critical function of phagocytes that is performed either within the phagocyte (

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behave like macrophage phagocytes, which suggests that phagocytes appeared early in the evolution of life.

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Fang FC (October 2004). "Antimicrobial reactive oxygen and nitrogen species: concepts and controversies".

927: 74:. Phagocytes are important throughout the animal kingdom and are highly developed within vertebrates. One 2033: 1830: 971: 876: 506:, which are present in neutrophil granules and remove essential iron from bacteria. The fourth type uses 5369:

Sansonetti P (December 2001). "Phagocytosis of bacterial pathogens: implications in the host response".

7255: 5026: 1854: 1647: 1547: 5500:: correlating production of catalase and superoxide dismutase with levels of inflammatory cytokines". 3985:"Passive deformability of mature, immature, and active neutrophils in healthy and septicemic neonates" 5410:

invasin protein enhances integrin-mediated uptake into mammalian cells and promotes self-association"

4574:"Mast cells process bacterial Ags through a phagocytic route for class I MHC presentation to T cells" 1562: 853:

loosen the junctions connecting endothelial cells, allowing the phagocytes to pass through the wall.

584:. Virus-infected cells that have been killed by lymphocytes are cleared from the body by phagocytes. 7077: 6463: 5143:"Loss of resistance to ingestion and phagocytic killing by O(-) and K(-) mutants of a uropathogenic 4573: 2576: 342:

A phagocyte has many types of receptors on its surface that are used to bind material. They include

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or by apoptosis. In contrast to necrosis, which often results from disease or trauma, apoptosis—or

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to receptors of phagocytes from which they influence the cells capability to exert phagocytosis.

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Malaviya R, Abraham SN (February 2001). "Mast cell modulation of immune responses to bacteria".

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Lipu HN, Ahmed TA, Ali S, Ahmed D, Waqar MA (September 2008). "Chronic granulomatous disease".

1864: 1802:, damage by neutrophils can contribute to dysfunction and injury in response to the release of 1703: 1634: 1566: 1190: 1182: 1080:, and damaged cells or cellular debris. Neutrophils do not return to the blood; they turn into 658: 550: 320: 29: 1602:

are small bacteria—here stained red—that grow in the cytoplasm of non-professional phagocytes.

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Rabinovitch M (March 1995). "Professional and non-professional phagocytes: an introduction".

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Papayannopoulos V (February 2018). "Neutrophil extracellular traps in immunity and disease".

4038:"Neutrophil secretion products regulate anti-bacterial activity in monocytes and macrophages" 2541:"A single assay for measuring the rates of phagocytosis and bacterial killing by neutrophils" 1571: 1498: 1013:

that are responsible for the migration of monocytes and neutrophils out of the bloodstream. T

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Heinzelmann M, Mercer-Jones MA, Passmore JC (August 1999). "Neutrophils and renal failure".

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Gregory DJ, Olivier M (2005). "Subversion of host cell signalling by the protozoan parasite

7421: 7354: 7265: 7189: 7059: 6216: 6046: 5991: 4526: 3254: 2180: 1772: 1629: 1558: 1409: 1109: 732: 679: 654: 621:, on their cell surface to attract phagocytes. Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the 426: 153: 66:, "to eat" or "devour", and "-cyte", the suffix in biology denoting "cell", from the Greek 1779:

cells, affecting their ability to filter blood and causing changes in shape. In addition,

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to initiate and orchestrate the adaptive immune response. Mature dendritic cells activate

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Fällman M, Deleuil F, McGee K (February 2002). "Resistance to phagocytosis by Yersinia".

1811: 998: 351: 6220: 6050: 6035:"Porcine innate and adaptative immune responses to influenza and coronavirus infections" 5995: 4530: 3258: 2184: 1029:

destruction by producing TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, nitric oxide, reactive oxygen compounds,

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cells), a sub-group of lymphocytes, are responsible for the activation of macrophages. T

247:. Mechnikov proposed that phagocytes were a primary defense against invading organisms. 79: 7301: 6993: 6392: 6237: 6204: 6185: 6150:

Bozzaro S, Bucci C, Steinert M (2008). "Phagocytosis and host-pathogen interactions in

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Dahlgren, C; A Karlsson (December 17, 1999). "Respiratory burst in human neutrophils".

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to stimulate the production of monocytes and neutrophils, and they secrete some of the

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pigment, which accounts for the green color of secretions rich in neutrophils, such as

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bacteria: the large, stringy capsules protect the organisms from attack by phagocytes.

525:—which was once called macrophage activating factor—stimulates macrophages to produce 417:, which is an oxygen-rich bacteria-killing substance. The superoxide is converted to 78:

of human blood contains about six billion phagocytes. They were discovered in 1882 by

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that contains granules. Monocytes ingest foreign or dangerous substances and present

831: 724: 430: 418: 407: 363: 354:. Opsonin receptors increase the phagocytosis of bacteria that have been coated with 6019: 5925: 5879: 5792: 5676: 5529: 5162: 4495: 4163: 3801:

Krombach F, Münzing S, Allmeling AM, Gerlach JT, Behr J, Dörger M (September 1997).

3625: 3555: 3352:"Phagosome maturation during the removal of apoptotic cells: receptors lead the way" 3336: 3282: 3181: 3080: 3063: 3036: 2939: 2572: 2391: 2271: 2208: 2089: 1771:, the contents of the granule (reactive oxygen compounds and proteases) degrade the 946:. Macrophages are found throughout the body in almost all tissues and organs (e.g., 701:

inside dendritic cells and macrophages. These peptides are then bound to the cell's

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produces several types of capsule that provide different levels of protection, and

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A schematic diagram of the presentation of foreign peptides by MHC 1 molecules

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cells and die. Mature neutrophils are smaller than monocytes and have a segmented

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Some survival strategies often involve disrupting cytokines and other methods of

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infect macrophages, and each has a unique way of taming them. Some species of

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Phagocytosis is the process of taking in particles such as bacteria, invasive

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Phagocyte Function — A guide for research and clinical evaluation

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to prevent the phagocyte's responding to invasion. The protozoan parasites

1276: 1178: 1101: 1085: 1060: 1052: 881: 798: 526: 472: 445: 371: 338:

Macrophages have special receptors that enhance phagocytosis (not to scale)

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Bacteria have developed several ways of killing phagocytes. These include

452:. Hypochlorite is extremely toxic to bacteria. Myeloperoxidase contains a 386:

Simplified diagram of the phagocytosis and destruction of a bacterial cell

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2923: 2255: 1714: 1595: 7449: 7202: 7108: 6842: 6832: 6812: 6804: 6766: 6749: 6739: 6677: 6569: 3914: 3826: 3609: 2489:"It takes a village: Phagocytes play a central role in fungal immunity" 1873: 1823: 1776: 1743: 1695: 1675: 1667: 1657: 1653: 1612: 1599: 1444: 1368: 1364: 1265: 1242: 1186: 921: 858: 854: 706: 650: 626: 581: 514:; these enzymes are used to digest the proteins of destroyed bacteria. 477: 414: 359: 228: 157: 141: 117: 109: 5071:

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Neutrophils also play a key role in the development of most forms of

1699: 1687: 1662: 1576: 1569:

to block engulfment. Some proteins hinder opsonin-related ingestion;

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self-replicating macrophages, monocytes, mast cells, dendritic cells

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could be engulfed and killed by phagocytes, a process that he called

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Ricevuti G (December 1997). "Host tissue damage by phagocytes".

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de Almeida SM, Nogueira MB, Raboni SM, Vidal LR (October 2007).

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This type of phagocyte does not have granules but contains many

793:

But, during an infection, they receive chemical signals—usually

747: 382: 331:

and then used a small magnet to separate them from other cells.

7474: 7462: 7207: 7158: 7012: 6888: 6552: 5814: 3803:"Cell size of alveolar macrophages: an interspecies comparison" 3800: 1942:. Oxford University Press (Guild Publishing). pp. 1566–67. 1915: 1885: 1829:

Chemicals released by macrophages can also damage host tissue.

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that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles,

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The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology

920:

of pre-existing macrophages. Human macrophages are about 21

598:

In an animal, cells are constantly dying. A balance between

4084: 1638:

can make a hole in the phagosome wall using enzymes called

845:

cells that line the blood vessels to make a protein called

453: 5542: 4944:"Cell-in-Cell Structures in the Liver: A Tale of Four E's" 4571: 1906:

is social; it aggregates when starved to form a migrating

1297:

free and fixed macrophages and monocytes, dendritic cells

1021:

of CD4 T cells once they have responded to antigen in the

334: 93:

for his discovery. Phagocytes occur in many species; some

4663:"The role of mast cells in the defence against pathogens" 4508: 3915:

Stvrtinová, Viera; Ján Jakubovský and Ivan Hulín (1995).

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Freund I, Eigenbrod T, Helm M, Dalpke AH (January 2019).

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who suggested the name "phagocyte" (from the Greek words

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Hampton MB, Vissers MC, Winterbourn CC (February 1994).

1910:. This multicellular organism eventually will produce a 1322:

free and fixed macrophages, monocytes, sinusoidal cells

822:

Neutrophils move from the blood to the site of infection

254:

discovered that phagocytosis was reinforced by specific

6370: 5456: 5025:

Alexander J, Satoskar AR, Russell DG (September 1999).

4942:

Davies SP, Terry LV, Wilkinson AL, Stamataki Z (2020).

4729:"Innate apoptotic immunity: the calming touch of death" 4714: 4023: 1767:

When neutrophils release their granule contents in the

1108:

involved in intracellular killing. Secretions from the

838:

that recruit neutrophils and monocytes from the blood.

413:

The first type is the oxygen-dependent production of a

315:. Within one minute the phagosome merges with either a 6371:

Paoletti, R.; Notario, A.; Ricevuti, G., eds. (1997).

6310: 6259: 4085:

Soehnlein O, Kai-Larsen Y, Frithiof R (October 2008).

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Phagocytosis is common and probably appeared early in

1690:, which form pores in the phagocyte's cell membranes, 938:

caused by bacteria—pus contains millions of phagocytes

802:

increases—some become large enough to engulf invading

784:

of human blood contains about six billion phagocytes.

6536: 6205:"Immune-like phagocyte activity in the social amoeba" 3243:

phosphatidylserine receptor through CED-5 and CED-12"

3151: 3006: 2059: 160:

and display the material to white blood cells called

6332:

Phagocytosis of Bacteria and Bacterial Pathogenicity

6149: 5895: 5193: 4302: 3757: 3525: 3296: 3195: 1088:

with several sections; each section is connected by

751:

Phagocytes derive from stem cells in the bone marrow

104:. The professional phagocytes include many types of 6351: 6315:(11th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. 6033:Charley B, Riffault S, Van Reeth K (October 2006). 5333: 5234: 4290: 3721: 2885: 2017: 1937: 1511:—hides from phagocytes by coating its surface with 641:Phagocytes are usually not bound to any particular 489:

bacteria inside phagocytes and their relative sizes

467: 6518: 6417:(6th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. 6391: 6202: 6156:International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology 4820: 3917:"Neutrophils, central cells in acute inflammation" 3064:"Laboratorial diagnosis of lymphocytic meningitis" 2745: 2486: 1470: 1051:Neutrophils with a segmented nuclei surrounded by 5194:Vuong C, Kocianova S, Voyich JM (December 2004). 4368:"The immunoglobulin E-Toll-like receptor network" 2979: 2963: 2961: 1055:, the intra-cellular granules are visible in the 401: 7522: 6110: 6108: 5891: 5889: 5723: 5721: 5590: 5588: 5286: 5284: 4413: 4372:International Archives of Allergy and Immunology 3196:Nagata S, Sakuragi T, Segawa K (December 2019). 2781:Shatwell, KP; AW Segal (1996). "NADPH oxidase". 2780: 2040:, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967. 1590: 636: 433:, which assist in killing the invading microbe. 16:Cells that ingest harmful matter within the body 6389: 4465: 4365: 4133: 2438: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2237: 2235: 2166: 2164: 2136: 1709: 1025:. Activated macrophages play a potent role in 989:1 cells activate macrophages by signaling with 436:The second type involves the use of the enzyme 6390:Robinson, J. P.; Babcock, G. F., eds. (1998). 6375:. New York: The New York Academy of Sciences. 5762: 5727: 5495: 4625: 3287:(Free registration required for online access) 3186:(Free registration required for online access) 2958: 2696: 2534: 2532: 2398: 1721:amastigotes (arrows) in a macrophage from skin 1350: 227:A year later, Mechnikov studied a fresh water 7093: 6504: 6329: 6265: 6196: 6143: 6114: 6105: 6026: 5932: 5886: 5843: 5808: 5756: 5718: 5683: 5639: 5585: 5536: 5489: 5397: 5362: 5336:International Journal of Medical Microbiology 5327: 5281: 5228: 5187: 5134: 5099: 5064: 4935: 4884: 4849: 4761: 4720: 3878: 3519: 2474: 2462: 2450: 2155: 2140: 2121: 2101: 2099: 2013: 2011: 2009: 2007: 1884:, evolving first in unicellular eukaryotes. 1112:of neutrophils stimulate the phagocytosis of 613:Dying cells that undergo the final stages of 276:for his work on phagocytes and phagocytosis. 6203:Chen G, Zhuchenko O, Kuspa A (August 2007). 5975: 5403: 4710: 4708: 4654: 4619: 4407: 4359: 4233:. The Rockefeller University. Archived from 4176: 4127: 4078: 4029: 3668: 3573:. The Rockefeller University. Archived from 3343: 3189: 3145: 3055: 3000: 2973: 2903: 2844: 2809: 2690: 2639: 2493:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 2487:Feldman MB, Vyas JM, Mansour MK (May 2019). 2480: 2293: 2232: 2161: 2151: 2149: 1754: 633:and is an important function of phagocytes. 6356:(4th ed.). London: Blackwell Science. 5070: 4997: 4995: 4993: 4991: 4989: 4855: 4660: 4565: 4502: 3976: 3751: 3458: 2699:"The phagocytes: neutrophils and monocytes" 2529: 2349: 1982: 1980: 1412:and LGL cells (large granular lymphocytes) 7100: 7086: 6511: 6497: 5368: 4726: 2697:Dale DC, Boxer L, Liles WC (August 2008). 2117: 2115: 2096: 2004: 1583:bind with the use of the virulence factor 1268:, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells 742: 712: 6476:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine 6412: 6330:Ernst, J. D.; Stendahl, O., eds. (2006). 6236: 6099: 6076: 6058: 5849: 5622: 5612: 5568: 5433: 5264: 5211: 5170: 5140: 4969: 4959: 4918: 4908: 4797: 4744: 4705: 4688: 4678: 4548: 4538: 4439: 4414:Kalesnikoff J, Galli SJ (November 2008). 4383: 4353: 4330: 4320: 4202: 4110: 4061: 4000: 3970: 3862: 3860: 3858: 3856: 3854: 3834: 3745: 3709: 3674: 3650: 3638: 3595: 3501: 3422: 3410: 3398: 3375: 3318: 3213: 3114: 3102: 3079: 3049: 2967: 2815: 2714: 2673: 2663: 2633: 2621: 2609: 2512: 2456: 2373: 2332: 2322: 2146: 1842:volume; these in turn can be followed by 1332:free and fixed macrophages and monocytes 6334:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 5981: 4986: 4270:10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.100301.064828 4170: 3966: 3964: 3568: 2816:Klebanoff SJ (1999). "Myeloperoxidase". 2304: 2222: 2220: 2218: 2170: 1977: 1892:that separated from the tree leading to 1853: 1713: 1702:that reduce the supply of a phagocyte's 1594: 1474: 1133: 1046: 926: 875: 817: 746: 683: 529:. The source of interferon-gamma can be 471: 381: 333: 293: 171: 20: 7018:Megakaryocyte–erythroid progenitor cell 5938: 4890: 4461: 4459: 4416:"New developments in mast cell biology" 4249: 4224: 4222: 2355: 2112: 2032:, retrieved on November 28, 2008. From 1938:Little C, Fowler HW, Coulson J (1983). 1849: 673: 176:Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov in his laboratory 7523: 5290: 3851: 3571:"Dendritic Cells and Immune Tolerance" 3349: 3290: 3230: 2283: 2281: 2228:Induced innate responses to infection. 2132: 2130: 2107:Evolution of the innate immune system. 2055: 2053: 1775:of host cells and can cause damage to 1522: 1067:Neutrophils are normally found in the 997:. Other signals include TNF-alpha and 394:killing) or outside of the phagocyte ( 7081: 6492: 4715:Paoletti, Notario & Ricevuti 1997 4511:"Type 1 fimbrial expression enhances 4024:Paoletti, Notario & Ricevuti 1997 3961: 3908: 3562: 3452: 2850: 2215: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1957: 1955: 1953: 1951: 1949: 1940:The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 797:—which increases their production of 377: 274:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 91:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 4456: 4228: 4219: 3239:"Cell corpse engulfment mediated by 3236: 2241: 1933: 1931: 1760:battery of toxic chemicals inside a 1624:, for example, produces the enzymes 981:(also known as effector T cells or T 587: 6484:White blood cell engulfing bacteria 6158:. Vol. 271. pp. 253–300. 4366:Novak N, Bieber T, Peng WM (2010). 4303:Sallusto F, Lanzavecchia A (2002). 2278: 2127: 2050: 2023: 1660:and thereby infect latter as well. 1491: 13: 6004:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb46269.x 5953:10.1097/01.CCM.0000057843.47705.E8 5910:10.1097/01.moh.0000190113.31027.d5 5404:Dersch P, Isberg RR (March 1999). 3772:10.1111/j.1440-1827.1996.tb03641.x 1946: 1123: 1033:proteins, and hydrolytic enzymes. 216:, meaning "to eat or devour", and 14: 7552: 6433: 5141:Burns SM, Hull SI (August 1999). 5001: 4480:10.1034/j.1600-065X.2001.790102.x 4291:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005 3722:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005 3132:Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary 2886:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005 2358:"Medals, memoirs—and Metchnikoff" 2018:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005 1928: 560:In some diseases, e.g., the rare 89:. Mechnikov was awarded the 1908 55:cells. Their name comes from the 6253: 6093: 5864:10.1097/00075198-200102000-00001 5799: 5661:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04583.x 5450: 5018: 4814: 4790:10.1128/IAI.68.12.6939-6945.2000 4727:Birge RB, Ucker DS (July 2008). 4515:virulence for the urinary tract" 4054:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2007.03532.x 4002:10.1203/00006450-199812000-00021 3461:"Antigen Presenting Cells (APC)" 2748:Journal of Immunological Methods 2038:Physiology or Medicine 1901–1921 703:major histocompatibility complex 517: 468:Oxygen-independent intracellular 6303: 5163:10.1128/IAI.67.8.3757-3762.1999 4347: 4296: 4284: 4017: 3949: 3896: 3884: 3872: 3794: 3739: 3727: 3715: 3703: 3656: 3644: 3632: 3598:Internal and Emergency Medicine 3589: 3507: 3495: 3483: 3440: 3428: 3416: 3404: 3392: 3120: 3108: 3096: 3081:10.1590/s1413-86702007000500010 3043: 2946: 2891: 2879: 2774: 2739: 2627: 2615: 2603: 2591: 2468: 2432: 2420: 1471:Pathogen evasion and resistance 653:. Phagocytes form part of the 448:, a substance used in domestic 283: 7427:Immunoglobulin class switching 5704:10.1016/j.jdermsci.2006.03.011 4774:by nonprofessional phagocytes" 1992: 1118:neutrophil extracellular traps 1036: 900: 402:Oxygen-dependent intracellular 1: 6164:10.1016/S1937-6448(08)01206-9 6154:with a look at macrophages". 5829:10.1016/S0272-6386(99)70375-6 5475:10.1016/S0966-842X(98)01324-9 5085:10.1016/S0966-842X(02)02343-0 4870:10.1016/S0962-8924(00)88955-2 4177:Steinman RM, Cohn ZA (1973). 3689:10.1016/S0955-0674(03)00103-0 3350:Zhou Z, Yu X (October 2008). 3202:Current Opinion in Immunology 2795:10.1016/S1357-2725(96)00084-2 2760:10.1016/S0022-1759(99)00146-5 1922: 1656:that are in turn ingested by 1591:Survival inside the phagocyte 1406:Blood, lymph and lymph nodes 1398:Blood, lymph and lymph nodes 1162: 787: 727:, that occurs in the thymus. 637:Interactions with other cells 562:chronic granulomatous disease 188:(freely moving) cells in the 6709:Extramedullary hematopoiesis 6464:Resources in other libraries 6313:Roitt's Essential Immunology 4680:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002619 4519:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 3021:10.1097/MOH.0b013e3282f2bcce 2716:10.1182/blood-2007-12-077917 2505:10.1016/j.semcdb.2018.04.008 2307:"Immunology's Coming of Age" 2062:Journal of Medical Biography 1860:scanning electron microscope 1710:Disruption of cell signaling 865: 813: 219: 211: 61: 26:Scanning electron micrograph 7: 6415:How the Immune System Works 5408:Yersinia pseudotuberculosis 5120:10.1016/j.yexcr.2005.05.024 4661:Urb M, Sheppard DC (2012). 4590:10.4049/jimmunol.156.4.1490 3569:Steinman, Ralph M. (2004). 2818:Proc. Assoc. Am. Physicians 2439:Robinson & Babcock 1998 2356:Aterman K (April 1, 1998). 2137:Robinson & Babcock 1998 2109:retrieved on March 20, 2009 1616:, create a highly modified 1507:—the bacterium that causes 1384:Non-professional phagocytes 1351:Non-professional phagocytes 993:and displaying the protein 617:display molecules, such as 10: 7557: 7256:Polyclonal B cell response 5108:Experimental Cell Research 4640:10.2500/108854101778148764 4136:Nature Reviews. Immunology 3459:Lee T, McGibbon A (2004). 2830:10.1111/paa.1999.111.5.383 1681: 1548:Staphylococcus epidermidis 1372:ingest foreign particles. 1166: 1127: 1040: 1023:secondary lymphoid tissues 904: 869: 716: 677: 591: 571: 287: 204:and shared his ideas with 167: 7490: 7448: 7390: 7291: 7221: 7129: 7122: 7042: 7002: 6976: 6948: 6915: 6875:Antigen-presenting cells 6868: 6803: 6794: 6730: 6721: 6701: 6663: 6638: 6629: 6600: 6560: 6551: 6527: 6459:Resources in your library 6286:10.1016/j.dci.2008.11.004 6129:10.1016/j.mib.2008.05.005 5777:10.1017/S0031182005008139 5614:10.3389/fimmu.2021.782495 5514:10.1007/s00011-007-7206-z 3879:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 3368:10.1016/j.tcb.2008.08.002 3215:10.1016/j.coi.2019.11.009 2865:10.1016/j.lab.2004.05.014 2475:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 2463:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 2451:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 2156:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 2141:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 2122:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 1755:Host damage by phagocytes 1561:produce proteins such as 6963:Nucleated red blood cell 6519:Myeloid blood cells and 6478:Medical Subject Headings 6398:. New York: Wiley–Liss. 5742:10.1016/j.pt.2004.10.004 5461:in murine macrophages". 5239:Streptococcus pneumoniae 4961:10.3389/fimmu.2020.00650 4910:10.3389/fimmu.2017.01781 4772:Encephalitozoon cuniculi 3807:Environ. Health Perspect 2324:10.3389/fimmu.2019.00684 2044:August 22, 2008, at the 1908:pseudoplasmodium or slug 1904:Dictyostelium discoideum 1899:Dictyostelium discoideum 1554:Streptococcus pneumoniae 1535:found on the surface of 1227:macrophages, monocytes, 566:Chédiak–Higashi syndrome 7065:Hematopoietic stem cell 6984:Leukocyte extravasation 6853:Foreign-body giant cell 6229:10.1126/science.1143991 6060:10.1196/annals.1373.014 5601:Frontiers in Immunology 5426:10.1093/emboj/18.5.1199 5348:10.1078/1438-4221-00159 5043:10.1242/jcs.112.18.2993 4948:Frontiers in Immunology 4897:Frontiers in Immunology 4823:Journal of Cell Science 4540:10.1073/pnas.93.18.9827 3311:10.1126/science.1092533 3267:10.1126/science.1087641 3166:10.1126/science.1087621 2311:Frontiers in Immunology 2193:10.1126/science.7878464 2074:10.1258/jmb.2008.008006 1527:Bacteria often produce 1219:neutrophils, monocytes 1199:Professional Phagocytes 743:Professional phagocytes 719:Immunological tolerance 713:Immunological tolerance 697:) are broken down into 7370:Tolerance in pregnancy 7112:adaptive immune system 6413:Sompayrac, L. (2019). 5383:10.1006/smim.2001.0335 5213:10.1074/jbc.M411374200 4891:Lin A, Loré K (2017). 4770:"Phagocytic uptake of 4195:10.1084/jem.137.5.1142 3540:10.1038/sj.icb.7100088 2408:. The Nobel Foundation 1877: 1865:Streptococcus pyogenes 1806:produced by bacteria, 1722: 1635:Listeria monocytogenes 1603: 1484: 1393:Variety of phenotypes 1183:gram-negative bacteria 1139: 1064: 1017:1 cells come from the 939: 885: 823: 752: 689: 659:adaptive immune system 547:natural killer T cells 502:. The third type uses 490: 387: 339: 300: 180:The Russian zoologist 177: 82:while he was studying 37: 7405:Somatic hypermutation 7239:Polyclonal antibodies 7234:Monoclonal antibodies 6354:Essential Haematology 6117:Curr. Opin. Microbiol 5771:. 130 Suppl: S27–35. 5498:Staphylococcus aureus 4835:10.1242/jcs.114.1.119 3677:Curr. Opin. Cell Biol 2665:10.3390/genes10020092 1857: 1822:resulting from acute 1717: 1622:Staphylococcus aureus 1598: 1572:Staphylococcus aureus 1499:inflammatory response 1481:Staphylococcus aureus 1478: 1137: 1050: 930: 879: 821: 750: 687: 631:inflammatory response 608:programmed cell death 551:tumor necrosis factor 486:Neisseria gonorrhoeae 475: 385: 337: 297: 182:Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov 175: 80:Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov 24: 7422:Junctional diversity 7190:Antigen presentation 7060:Hematopoietic system 6848:Langhans giant cells 6039:Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci 5984:Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci 5947:(4 Suppl): S195–99. 5561:10.1128/IAI.01779-06 5257:10.1128/IAI.01186-08 4315:(Suppl 3): S127–32. 4148:10.1038/nri.2017.105 3937:on December 31, 2010 3813:(Suppl 5): 1261–63. 3465:Dalhousie University 2579:on December 28, 2012 2557:10.1002/jlb.55.2.147 2375:10.1002/jlb.63.4.515 2305:Kaufmann SH (2019). 1850:Evolutionary origins 1773:extracellular matrix 1630:superoxide dismutase 1559:group A streptococci 880:Monocytes in blood ( 733:peripheral tolerance 680:Antigen presentation 674:Antigen presentation 655:innate immune system 539:natural killer cells 427:superoxide dismutase 425:by an enzyme called 206:Carl Friedrich Claus 154:antigen presentation 7417:V(D)J recombination 7400:Affinity maturation 7152:Antigenic variation 6823:Alveolar macrophage 6221:2007Sci...317..678C 6051:2006NYASA1081..130C 5996:1997NYASA.832..426R 5898:Curr. Opin. Hematol 5852:Curr Opin Crit Care 5805:Paoletti pp. 426–30 5305:10.1038/nrmicro1289 5293:Nat. Rev. Microbiol 4746:10.1038/cdd.2008.58 4628:Allergy Asthma Proc 4531:1996PNAS...93.9827C 3471:on January 12, 2008 3259:2003Sci...302.1563W 3253:(5650): 1563–1566. 3009:Curr. Opin. Hematol 2924:10.1189/jlb.0603252 2256:10.1038/nrmicro1004 2244:Nat. Rev. Microbiol 2185:1995Sci...267.1456T 1812:alcoholic hepatitis 1523:Avoiding engulfment 1386: 1249:Gut and intestinal 1201: 1175:Toll-like receptors 999:lipopolysaccharides 958:macrophages in the 916:stem cells, or the 737:autoimmune diseases 352:Toll-like receptors 348:scavenger receptors 6994:Intrinsic immunity 6858:Touton giant cells 6274:Dev. Comp. Immunol 6262:, pp. 251–252 6260:Delves et al. 2006 4258:Annu. Rev. Immunol 4042:Clin. Exp. Immunol 3956:Delves et al. 2006 3903:Delves et al. 2006 3891:Delves et al. 2006 3867:Delves et al. 2006 3734:Delves et al. 2006 3663:Delves et al. 2006 3610:10.1007/BF02934736 3528:Immunol. Cell Biol 3516:, pp. 237–242 3514:Delves et al. 2006 3490:Delves et al. 2006 3447:Delves et al. 2006 3437:, pp. 171–184 3435:Delves et al. 2006 2953:Delves et al. 2006 2898:Delves et al. 2006 2598:Delves et al. 2006 2427:Delves et al. 2006 2288:Delves et al. 2006 2226:Janeway, Chapter: 2139:, p. 187 and 2105:Janeway, Chapter: 1999:Delves et al. 2006 1987:Delves et al. 2006 1972:Delves et al. 2006 1878: 1838:and a decrease in 1723: 1719:Leishmania tropica 1604: 1504:Treponema pallidum 1485: 1461:Connective tissue 1382: 1197: 1140: 1065: 940: 886: 824: 753: 690: 619:phosphatidylserine 512:hydrolytic enzymes 491: 388: 378:Methods of killing 340: 301: 240:Bacillus anthracis 178: 38: 7516: 7515: 7444: 7443: 7194:professional APCs 7075: 7074: 7038: 7037: 6911: 6910: 6838:Epithelioid cells 6717: 6716: 6697: 6696: 6693: 6692: 6625: 6624: 6440:Library resources 6424:978-1-119-54212-4 6405:978-0-471-12364-4 6382:978-1-57331-102-1 6363:978-0-632-05153-3 6341:978-0-521-84569-4 6322:978-1-4051-3603-7 6173:978-0-12-374728-0 5817:Am. J. Kidney Dis 5406:"A region of the 5037:(18): 2993–3002. 4829:(Pt 1): 119–129. 4733:Cell Death Differ 4420:Nature Immunology 4385:10.1159/000232565 4231:"Dendritic Cells" 4229:Steinman, Ralph. 3930:978-80-967366-1-4 3577:on March 11, 2009 3305:(5650): 1516–17. 3160:(5650): 1560–63. 3068:Braz J Infect Dis 2853:J. Lab. Clin. Med 2290:, pp. 172–84 2179:(5203): 1456–62. 1820:hypovolemic shock 1796:acute lung injury 1738:Trypanosoma cruzi 1732:Toxoplasma gondii 1567:fimbrial proteins 1543:exopolysaccharide 1468: 1467: 1455:Endothelial cells 1361:endothelial cells 1348: 1347: 1261:Connective tissue 1191:fimbrial proteins 1157:cytotoxic T cells 760:, which includes 725:central tolerance 588:Role in apoptosis 431:hydroxyl radicals 419:hydrogen peroxide 408:respiratory burst 262:, from the Greek 106:white blood cells 7548: 7410:Clonal selection 7382:Immune privilege 7377:Immunodeficiency 7332:Cross-reactivity 7322:Hypersensitivity 7127: 7126: 7102: 7095: 7088: 7079: 7078: 7009:Precursor cells 6935:Promegakaryocyte 6801: 6800: 6728: 6727: 6653:Promegakaryocyte 6636: 6635: 6558: 6557: 6549: 6548: 6534: 6533: 6513: 6506: 6499: 6490: 6489: 6428: 6409: 6397: 6386: 6367: 6345: 6326: 6298: 6297: 6269: 6263: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6240: 6215:(5838): 678–81. 6200: 6194: 6193: 6147: 6141: 6140: 6112: 6103: 6097: 6091: 6090: 6080: 6062: 6030: 6024: 6023: 5979: 5973: 5972: 5936: 5930: 5929: 5893: 5884: 5883: 5847: 5841: 5840: 5812: 5806: 5803: 5797: 5796: 5760: 5754: 5753: 5730:Trends Parasitol 5725: 5716: 5715: 5692:J. Dermatol. Sci 5687: 5681: 5680: 5643: 5637: 5636: 5626: 5616: 5592: 5583: 5582: 5572: 5555:(8): 3791–3801. 5540: 5534: 5533: 5493: 5487: 5486: 5463:Trends Microbiol 5454: 5448: 5447: 5437: 5420:(5): 1199–1213. 5401: 5395: 5394: 5366: 5360: 5359: 5331: 5325: 5324: 5288: 5279: 5278: 5268: 5232: 5226: 5225: 5215: 5206:(52): 54881–86. 5191: 5185: 5184: 5174: 5145:Escherichia coli 5138: 5132: 5131: 5103: 5097: 5096: 5073:Trends Microbiol 5068: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5022: 5016: 5015: 5013: 5011: 5002:Todar, Kenneth. 4999: 4984: 4983: 4973: 4963: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4922: 4912: 4888: 4882: 4881: 4858:Trends Cell Biol 4853: 4847: 4846: 4818: 4812: 4811: 4801: 4765: 4759: 4758: 4748: 4739:(7): 1096–1102. 4724: 4718: 4712: 4703: 4702: 4692: 4682: 4658: 4652: 4651: 4623: 4617: 4616: 4614: 4612: 4569: 4563: 4562: 4552: 4542: 4513:Escherichia coli 4506: 4500: 4499: 4463: 4454: 4453: 4443: 4432:10.1038/ni.f.216 4411: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4400: 4387: 4363: 4357: 4356:, pp. 45–46 4351: 4345: 4344: 4334: 4324: 4300: 4294: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4237:on June 27, 2009 4226: 4217: 4216: 4206: 4174: 4168: 4167: 4131: 4125: 4124: 4114: 4103:10.1172/JCI35740 4097:(10): 3491–502. 4082: 4076: 4075: 4065: 4033: 4027: 4021: 4015: 4014: 4004: 3980: 3974: 3968: 3959: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3933:. Archived from 3912: 3906: 3900: 3894: 3888: 3882: 3876: 3870: 3869:, pp. 31–36 3864: 3849: 3848: 3838: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3755: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3731: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3707: 3701: 3700: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3654: 3653:, pp. 18–19 3648: 3642: 3641:, pp. 16–17 3636: 3630: 3629: 3593: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3566: 3560: 3559: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3505: 3499: 3493: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3467:. Archived from 3456: 3450: 3444: 3438: 3432: 3426: 3425:, pp. 27–35 3420: 3414: 3408: 3402: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3379: 3356:Trends Cell Biol 3347: 3341: 3340: 3322: 3294: 3288: 3286: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3217: 3193: 3187: 3185: 3149: 3143: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3124: 3118: 3112: 3106: 3100: 3094: 3093: 3083: 3059: 3053: 3047: 3041: 3040: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2956: 2950: 2944: 2943: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2876: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2813: 2807: 2806: 2778: 2772: 2771: 2743: 2737: 2736: 2718: 2694: 2688: 2687: 2677: 2667: 2643: 2637: 2636:, pp. 13–16 2631: 2625: 2619: 2613: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2575:. Archived from 2536: 2527: 2526: 2516: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2418: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2406:"Ilya Mechnikov" 2402: 2396: 2395: 2377: 2353: 2347: 2346: 2336: 2326: 2302: 2291: 2285: 2276: 2275: 2239: 2230: 2224: 2213: 2212: 2168: 2159: 2153: 2144: 2134: 2125: 2119: 2110: 2103: 2094: 2093: 2057: 2048: 2027: 2021: 2015: 2002: 1996: 1990: 1984: 1975: 1969: 1944: 1943: 1935: 1888:are unicellular 1868:(orange) during 1783:products (e.g., 1538:Escherichia coli 1492:Avoiding contact 1435:Epithelial cells 1387: 1381: 1357:epithelial cells 1342:Langerhans cells 1306:microglial cells 1229:sinusoidal cells 1202: 1196: 1173:Mast cells have 1138:A dendritic cell 1110:primary granules 1001:from bacteria. T 948:microglial cells 795:interferon gamma 523:Interferon-gamma 356:immunoglobulin G 222: 214: 64: 7556: 7555: 7551: 7550: 7549: 7547: 7546: 7545: 7521: 7520: 7517: 7512: 7486: 7440: 7386: 7365:Clonal deletion 7293: 7287: 7217: 7118: 7106: 7076: 7071: 7034: 6998: 6977:Immune response 6972: 6950:Red blood cells 6944: 6907: 6884:Langerhans cell 6879:Dendritic cells 6864: 6790: 6713: 6689: 6673:Proerythroblast 6659: 6621: 6605:Monocytopoiesis 6596: 6540: 6523: 6517: 6470: 6469: 6468: 6448: 6447: 6443: 6436: 6431: 6425: 6406: 6383: 6364: 6342: 6323: 6306: 6301: 6270: 6266: 6258: 6254: 6201: 6197: 6174: 6148: 6144: 6113: 6106: 6098: 6094: 6031: 6027: 5980: 5976: 5937: 5933: 5894: 5887: 5848: 5844: 5813: 5809: 5804: 5800: 5761: 5757: 5726: 5719: 5688: 5684: 5644: 5640: 5593: 5586: 5541: 5537: 5494: 5490: 5469:(10): 392–401. 5455: 5451: 5402: 5398: 5367: 5363: 5332: 5328: 5289: 5282: 5233: 5229: 5192: 5188: 5139: 5135: 5104: 5100: 5069: 5065: 5055: 5053: 5023: 5019: 5009: 5007: 5000: 4987: 4940: 4936: 4889: 4885: 4854: 4850: 4819: 4815: 4784:(12): 6939–45. 4766: 4762: 4725: 4721: 4713: 4706: 4673:(4): e1002619. 4659: 4655: 4624: 4620: 4610: 4608: 4570: 4566: 4525:(18): 9827–32. 4507: 4503: 4464: 4457: 4426:(11): 1215–23. 4412: 4408: 4398: 4396: 4364: 4360: 4352: 4348: 4301: 4297: 4289: 4285: 4254: 4250: 4240: 4238: 4227: 4220: 4175: 4171: 4132: 4128: 4091:J. Clin. Invest 4083: 4079: 4034: 4030: 4022: 4018: 3981: 3977: 3969: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3940: 3938: 3931: 3913: 3909: 3901: 3897: 3889: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3865: 3852: 3819:10.2307/3433544 3799: 3795: 3756: 3752: 3744: 3740: 3732: 3728: 3720: 3716: 3708: 3704: 3673: 3669: 3661: 3657: 3649: 3645: 3637: 3633: 3594: 3590: 3580: 3578: 3567: 3563: 3524: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3500: 3496: 3488: 3484: 3474: 3472: 3457: 3453: 3445: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3409: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3348: 3344: 3295: 3291: 3237:Wang X (2003). 3235: 3231: 3194: 3190: 3150: 3146: 3136: 3134: 3126: 3125: 3121: 3113: 3109: 3101: 3097: 3060: 3056: 3048: 3044: 3005: 3001: 2982:J Pak Med Assoc 2978: 2974: 2966: 2959: 2951: 2947: 2912:J. Leukoc. Biol 2908: 2904: 2900:, pp. 6–10 2896: 2892: 2884: 2880: 2849: 2845: 2814: 2810: 2789:(11): 1191–95. 2779: 2775: 2744: 2740: 2695: 2691: 2644: 2640: 2632: 2628: 2620: 2616: 2608: 2604: 2596: 2592: 2582: 2580: 2545:J. Leukoc. Biol 2537: 2530: 2485: 2481: 2473: 2469: 2461: 2457: 2449: 2445: 2437: 2433: 2425: 2421: 2411: 2409: 2404: 2403: 2399: 2362:J. Leukoc. Biol 2354: 2350: 2303: 2294: 2286: 2279: 2240: 2233: 2225: 2216: 2169: 2162: 2154: 2147: 2143:, pp. 7–10 2135: 2128: 2120: 2113: 2104: 2097: 2058: 2051: 2046:Wayback Machine 2028: 2024: 2016: 2005: 1997: 1993: 1985: 1978: 1974:, pp. 2–10 1970: 1947: 1936: 1929: 1925: 1852: 1757: 1712: 1684: 1649:M. tuberculosis 1644:phospholipase C 1640:listeriolysin O 1593: 1525: 1494: 1473: 1353: 1302:Nervous tissue 1293:Lymphoid tissue 1251:Peyer's patches 1171: 1165: 1132: 1126: 1124:Dendritic cells 1045: 1039: 1019:differentiation 1016: 1004: 988: 984: 934:oozing from an 909: 903: 874: 868: 816: 790: 774:dendritic cells 745: 721: 715: 682: 676: 639: 596: 590: 574: 520: 470: 438:myeloperoxidase 404: 380: 309:dead host cells 292: 286: 258:that he called 170: 126:dendritic cells 34:anthrax bacilli 17: 12: 11: 5: 7554: 7544: 7543: 7538: 7533: 7514: 7513: 7511: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7494: 7492: 7488: 7487: 7485: 7484: 7479: 7478: 7477: 7467: 7466: 7465: 7454: 7452: 7446: 7445: 7442: 7441: 7439: 7438: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7413: 7412: 7407: 7396: 7394: 7392:Immunogenetics 7388: 7387: 7385: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7373: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7340: 7339: 7337:Co-stimulation 7334: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7297: 7295: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7285: 7280: 7278:Immune complex 7274: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7252: 7251: 7246: 7241: 7236: 7225: 7223: 7219: 7218: 7216: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7198:Dendritic cell 7186: 7185: 7180: 7179: 7178: 7176:Conformational 7173: 7162: 7161: 7156: 7155: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7133: 7131: 7124: 7120: 7119: 7105: 7104: 7097: 7090: 7082: 7073: 7072: 7070: 7069: 7068: 7067: 7057: 7052: 7046: 7044: 7040: 7039: 7036: 7035: 7033: 7032: 7027: 7026: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7006: 7004: 7000: 6999: 6997: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6980: 6978: 6974: 6973: 6971: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6954: 6952: 6946: 6945: 6943: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6930:Megakaryoblast 6927: 6921: 6919: 6913: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6905: 6904: 6903: 6893: 6892: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6872: 6870: 6866: 6865: 6863: 6862: 6861: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6809: 6807: 6798: 6792: 6791: 6789: 6788: 6787: 6786: 6776: 6775: 6774: 6764: 6763: 6762: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6736: 6734: 6725: 6723:Myeloid tissue 6719: 6718: 6715: 6714: 6712: 6711: 6705: 6703: 6699: 6698: 6695: 6694: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6687: 6686: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6668:Erythropoiesis 6664: 6661: 6660: 6658: 6657: 6656: 6655: 6650: 6648:Megakaryoblast 6643:Thrombopoiesis 6639: 6633: 6627: 6626: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6619: 6618: 6617: 6612: 6601: 6598: 6597: 6595: 6594: 6593: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6565:Granulopoiesis 6561: 6555: 6546: 6531: 6525: 6524: 6516: 6515: 6508: 6501: 6493: 6487: 6486: 6481: 6467: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6450: 6449: 6438: 6437: 6435: 6434:External links 6432: 6430: 6429: 6423: 6410: 6404: 6387: 6381: 6368: 6362: 6349: 6340: 6327: 6321: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6299: 6264: 6252: 6195: 6172: 6142: 6104: 6100:Sompayrac 2019 6092: 6069:1854/LU-369324 6025: 5974: 5941:Crit. Care Med 5931: 5885: 5842: 5807: 5798: 5755: 5717: 5682: 5649:Mol. Microbiol 5638: 5584: 5535: 5488: 5449: 5396: 5371:Semin. Immunol 5361: 5342:(6–7): 501–9. 5326: 5299:(12): 948–58. 5280: 5227: 5186: 5157:(8): 3757–62. 5147:O75:K5 strain" 5133: 5098: 5063: 5017: 4985: 4934: 4883: 4848: 4813: 4760: 4719: 4704: 4667:PLOS Pathogens 4653: 4618: 4584:(4): 1490–96. 4564: 4501: 4455: 4406: 4358: 4354:Sompayrac 2019 4346: 4295: 4283: 4248: 4218: 4189:(5): 1142–62. 4169: 4142:(2): 134–147. 4126: 4077: 4028: 4016: 3975: 3971:Sompayrac 2019 3960: 3948: 3929: 3907: 3895: 3883: 3871: 3850: 3793: 3750: 3746:Sompayrac 2019 3738: 3736:, pp. 1–6 3726: 3714: 3710:Sompayrac 2019 3702: 3667: 3655: 3651:Sompayrac 2019 3643: 3639:Sompayrac 2019 3631: 3588: 3561: 3518: 3506: 3502:Sompayrac 2019 3494: 3482: 3451: 3449:, pp. 456 3439: 3427: 3423:Sompayrac 2019 3415: 3411:Sompayrac 2019 3403: 3399:Sompayrac 2019 3391: 3362:(10): 474–85. 3342: 3289: 3229: 3188: 3144: 3119: 3115:Sompayrac 2019 3107: 3103:Sompayrac 2019 3095: 3054: 3050:Sompayrac 2019 3042: 2999: 2972: 2968:Sompayrac 2019 2957: 2945: 2902: 2890: 2878: 2843: 2808: 2773: 2738: 2689: 2638: 2634:Sompayrac 2019 2626: 2622:Sompayrac 2019 2614: 2610:Sompayrac 2019 2602: 2600:, pp. 6–7 2590: 2528: 2479: 2467: 2455: 2443: 2431: 2419: 2397: 2348: 2292: 2277: 2250:(10): 820–32. 2231: 2214: 2160: 2145: 2126: 2111: 2095: 2049: 2034:Nobel Lectures 2030:Ilya Mechnikov 2022: 2003: 1991: 1976: 1945: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1851: 1848: 1789:kidney failure 1756: 1753: 1727:cell signaling 1711: 1708: 1683: 1680: 1592: 1589: 1524: 1521: 1493: 1490: 1472: 1469: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1451:Blood vessels 1448: 1447: 1442: 1438: 1437: 1432: 1428: 1427: 1418: 1414: 1413: 1407: 1403: 1402: 1399: 1395: 1394: 1391: 1390:Main location 1352: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1338: 1334: 1333: 1330: 1324: 1323: 1320: 1314: 1313: 1303: 1299: 1298: 1295: 1289: 1288: 1285: 1281: 1280: 1274: 1270: 1269: 1263: 1257: 1256: 1253: 1246: 1245: 1240: 1236: 1235: 1225: 1221: 1220: 1217: 1213: 1212: 1206: 1205:Main location 1167:Main article: 1164: 1161: 1153:T helper cells 1130:Dendritic cell 1128:Main article: 1125: 1122: 1104:are released. 1094:metamyelocytes 1061:Giemsa stained 1041:Main article: 1038: 1035: 1014: 1002: 986: 982: 979:T helper cells 905:Main article: 902: 899: 870:Main article: 867: 864: 815: 812: 789: 786: 744: 741: 717:Main article: 714: 711: 693:proteins (the 678:Main article: 675: 672: 670:presentation. 638: 635: 592:Main article: 589: 586: 573: 570: 519: 516: 476:Micrograph of 469: 466: 423:singlet oxygen 403: 400: 379: 376: 288:Main article: 285: 282: 252:Almroth Wright 169: 166: 51:, and dead or 32:phagocytosing 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7553: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7536:Immune system 7534: 7532: 7529: 7528: 7526: 7519: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7495: 7493: 7489: 7483: 7480: 7476: 7473: 7472: 7471: 7468: 7464: 7461: 7460: 7459: 7456: 7455: 7453: 7451: 7447: 7437: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7402: 7401: 7398: 7397: 7395: 7393: 7389: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7360:Clonal anergy 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7347: 7346: 7342: 7341: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7299: 7298: 7296: 7290: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7275: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7250: 7249:Microantibody 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7231: 7230: 7227: 7226: 7224: 7220: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7195: 7191: 7188: 7187: 7184: 7181: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7168: 7167: 7164: 7163: 7160: 7157: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7138: 7135: 7134: 7132: 7128: 7125: 7121: 7117: 7113: 7110: 7103: 7098: 7096: 7091: 7089: 7084: 7083: 7080: 7066: 7063: 7062: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7047: 7045: 7041: 7031: 7030:Myelomonocyte 7028: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7010: 7008: 7007: 7005: 7001: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6981: 6979: 6975: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6955: 6953: 6951: 6947: 6941: 6940:Megakaryocyte 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6922: 6920: 6918: 6914: 6902: 6899: 6898: 6897: 6894: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6876: 6874: 6873: 6871: 6867: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6845: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6818:Kupffer cells 6816: 6814: 6811: 6810: 6808: 6806: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6793: 6785: 6782: 6781: 6780: 6777: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6768: 6765: 6761: 6758: 6757: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6737: 6735: 6733: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6720: 6710: 6707: 6706: 6704: 6700: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6666: 6665: 6662: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6645: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6628: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6607: 6606: 6603: 6602: 6599: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6585:Metamyelocyte 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6567: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6550: 6547: 6544: 6539: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6529:Hematopoiesis 6526: 6522: 6514: 6509: 6507: 6502: 6500: 6495: 6494: 6491: 6485: 6482: 6479: 6475: 6472: 6471: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6426: 6420: 6416: 6411: 6407: 6401: 6396: 6395: 6388: 6384: 6378: 6374: 6369: 6365: 6359: 6355: 6350: 6348: 6343: 6337: 6333: 6328: 6324: 6318: 6314: 6309: 6308: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6280:(4): 411–29. 6279: 6275: 6268: 6261: 6256: 6248: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6199: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6152:Dictyostelium 6146: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6123:(3): 271–76. 6122: 6118: 6111: 6109: 6101: 6096: 6088: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6045:(1): 130–36. 6044: 6040: 6036: 6029: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5990:(1): 426–48. 5989: 5985: 5978: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5935: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5892: 5890: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5846: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5823:(2): 384–99. 5822: 5818: 5811: 5802: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5759: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5724: 5722: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5698:(3): 203–14. 5697: 5693: 5686: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5655:(3): 681–95. 5654: 5650: 5642: 5634: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5591: 5589: 5580: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5549:Infect. Immun 5546: 5539: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5508:(7): 340–49. 5507: 5503: 5499: 5492: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5409: 5400: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5377:(6): 381–90. 5376: 5372: 5365: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5330: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5287: 5285: 5276: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5251:(2): 676–84. 5250: 5246: 5245:Infect. Immun 5242: 5240: 5231: 5223: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5200:J. Biol. Chem 5197: 5190: 5182: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5151:Infect. Immun 5148: 5146: 5137: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5102: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5079:(5): 232–37. 5078: 5074: 5067: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5021: 5005: 4998: 4996: 4994: 4992: 4990: 4981: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4938: 4930: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4887: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4852: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4817: 4809: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4778:Infect. Immun 4775: 4773: 4764: 4756: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4723: 4717:, p. 427 4716: 4711: 4709: 4700: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4657: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4634:(3): 115–19. 4633: 4629: 4622: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4568: 4560: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4514: 4505: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4462: 4460: 4451: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4410: 4395: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4362: 4355: 4350: 4342: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4322:10.1186/ar567 4318: 4314: 4310: 4309:Arthritis Res 4306: 4299: 4293:, p. 134 4292: 4287: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4252: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4223: 4214: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4173: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4130: 4122: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4081: 4073: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4048:(1): 139–45. 4047: 4043: 4039: 4032: 4025: 4020: 4012: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3995:(6): 946–50. 3994: 3990: 3986: 3979: 3972: 3967: 3965: 3957: 3952: 3936: 3932: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3905:, p. 187 3904: 3899: 3893:, p. 156 3892: 3887: 3880: 3875: 3868: 3863: 3861: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3846: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3797: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3766:(7): 473–85. 3765: 3761: 3754: 3748:, p. 136 3747: 3742: 3735: 3730: 3724:, p. 117 3723: 3718: 3711: 3706: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3683:(5): 557–64. 3682: 3678: 3671: 3664: 3659: 3652: 3647: 3640: 3635: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3604:(3): 187–96. 3603: 3599: 3592: 3576: 3572: 3565: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3534:(8): 575–81. 3533: 3529: 3522: 3515: 3510: 3503: 3498: 3492:, p. 161 3491: 3486: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3455: 3448: 3443: 3436: 3431: 3424: 3419: 3412: 3407: 3400: 3395: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3346: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3293: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3242: 3233: 3225: 3221: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3192: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3148: 3133: 3129: 3123: 3116: 3111: 3104: 3099: 3091: 3087: 3082: 3077: 3074:(5): 489–95. 3073: 3069: 3065: 3058: 3051: 3046: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3003: 2995: 2991: 2988:(9): 516–18. 2987: 2983: 2976: 2970:, p. 136 2969: 2964: 2962: 2955:, p. 188 2954: 2949: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2918:(2): 163–89. 2917: 2913: 2906: 2899: 2894: 2888:, p. 118 2887: 2882: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2859:(3): 124–26. 2858: 2854: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2824:(5): 383–89. 2823: 2819: 2812: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2777: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2754:(1–2): 3–14. 2753: 2749: 2742: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2709:(4): 935–45. 2708: 2704: 2700: 2693: 2685: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2642: 2635: 2630: 2623: 2618: 2611: 2606: 2599: 2594: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2551:(2): 147–52. 2550: 2546: 2542: 2535: 2533: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2483: 2476: 2471: 2464: 2459: 2452: 2447: 2441:, p. vii 2440: 2435: 2429:, p. 263 2428: 2423: 2407: 2401: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2371: 2368:(4): 515–17. 2367: 2363: 2359: 2352: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2289: 2284: 2282: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2238: 2236: 2229: 2223: 2221: 2219: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2167: 2165: 2157: 2152: 2150: 2142: 2138: 2133: 2131: 2124:, p. 186 2123: 2118: 2116: 2108: 2102: 2100: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2068:(2): 96–103. 2067: 2063: 2056: 2054: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2026: 2020:, p. 331 2019: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2001:, p. 251 2000: 1995: 1989:, p. 250 1988: 1983: 1981: 1973: 1968: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1952: 1950: 1941: 1934: 1932: 1927: 1920: 1917: 1913: 1912:fruiting body 1909: 1905: 1901: 1900: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1875: 1872:with a human 1871: 1867: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1832: 1827: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1792: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1781:phospholipase 1778: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1763: 1762:phagolysosome 1752: 1750: 1746: 1745: 1740: 1739: 1734: 1733: 1728: 1720: 1716: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1692:streptolysins 1689: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1672:schwann cells 1669: 1665: 1664: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1650: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1636: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1614: 1609: 1601: 1597: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1573: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1555: 1550: 1549: 1544: 1540: 1539: 1534: 1530: 1520: 1518: 1517:wound healing 1514: 1510: 1506: 1505: 1500: 1489: 1482: 1477: 1463: 1460: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1449: 1446: 1443: 1440: 1439: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1426: 1422: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1411: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1400: 1397: 1396: 1392: 1389: 1388: 1385: 1380: 1378: 1373: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1343: 1339: 1336: 1335: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1304: 1301: 1300: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1290: 1286: 1283: 1282: 1278: 1277:Kupffer cells 1275: 1272: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1258: 1254: 1252: 1248: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1237: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1223: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1195: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1170: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1136: 1131: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1105: 1103: 1102:promyelocytes 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1012: 1008: 1000: 996: 992: 980: 975: 973: 969: 968:interleukin-6 965: 964:interleukin-1 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 937: 933: 929: 925: 924:in diameter. 923: 919: 918:cell division 915: 908: 898: 895: 891: 883: 878: 873: 863: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 839: 837: 833: 829: 820: 811: 807: 805: 800: 796: 785: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 758:myeloid cells 749: 740: 738: 734: 730: 726: 720: 710: 708: 704: 700: 696: 686: 681: 671: 669: 665: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 634: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 611: 609: 605: 601: 600:cell division 595: 585: 583: 578: 569: 567: 563: 558: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 518:Extracellular 515: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 488: 487: 482: 479: 474: 465: 463: 460:and infected 459: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 434: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 411: 409: 399: 397: 396:extracellular 393: 392:intracellular 384: 375: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 336: 332: 330: 326: 325:phagolysosome 322: 318: 314: 310: 307:, parasites, 306: 296: 291: 281: 277: 275: 271: 267: 266: 261: 257: 253: 248: 246: 242: 241: 236: 235: 230: 225: 223: 221: 215: 213: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 174: 165: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 137: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 98: 96: 92: 88: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 63: 58: 54: 50: 46: 42: 35: 31: 27: 23: 19: 7518: 7327:Inflammation 7312:Alloimmunity 7307:Autoimmunity 7292:Immunity vs. 7244:Autoantibody 7142:Superantigen 7049: 6989:Phagocytosis 6958:Reticulocyte 6732:Granulocytes 6683:Reticulocyte 6575:Promyelocyte 6538:Myelopoiesis 6454:Online books 6444: 6414: 6393: 6372: 6353: 6331: 6312: 6304:Bibliography 6277: 6273: 6267: 6255: 6212: 6208: 6198: 6155: 6151: 6145: 6120: 6116: 6095: 6042: 6038: 6028: 5987: 5983: 5977: 5944: 5940: 5934: 5904:(1): 21–27. 5901: 5897: 5855: 5851: 5845: 5820: 5816: 5810: 5801: 5769:Parasitology 5768: 5764: 5758: 5736:(1): 35–41. 5733: 5729: 5695: 5691: 5685: 5652: 5648: 5641: 5604: 5600: 5552: 5548: 5538: 5505: 5502:Inflamm. Res 5501: 5497: 5491: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5452: 5417: 5413: 5407: 5399: 5374: 5370: 5364: 5339: 5335: 5329: 5296: 5292: 5248: 5244: 5238: 5230: 5203: 5199: 5189: 5154: 5150: 5144: 5136: 5114:(1): 48–55. 5111: 5107: 5101: 5076: 5072: 5066: 5056:December 19, 5054:. Retrieved 5034: 5030: 5020: 5010:December 19, 5008:. Retrieved 4951: 4947: 4937: 4900: 4896: 4886: 4864:(3): 85–87. 4861: 4857: 4851: 4826: 4822: 4816: 4781: 4777: 4771: 4763: 4736: 4732: 4722: 4670: 4666: 4656: 4631: 4627: 4621: 4611:December 19, 4609:. Retrieved 4581: 4577: 4567: 4522: 4518: 4512: 4504: 4471: 4468:Immunol. Rev 4467: 4423: 4419: 4409: 4399:December 19, 4397:. Retrieved 4375: 4371: 4361: 4349: 4312: 4308: 4298: 4286: 4261: 4257: 4251: 4241:December 19, 4239:. Retrieved 4235:the original 4186: 4182: 4172: 4139: 4135: 4129: 4094: 4090: 4080: 4045: 4041: 4031: 4026:, p. 62 4019: 3992: 3989:Pediatr. Res 3988: 3978: 3973:, p. 18 3951: 3941:December 19, 3939:. 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