550:) for this reaction is 102 kilocalories per mole. Since the energy of light at 700 nm is about 40 kilocalories per mole of photons, approximately 320 kilocalories of light energy are available for the reaction. Therefore, approximately one-third of the available light energy is captured as NADPH during photolysis and electron transfer. An equal amount of ATP is generated by the resulting proton gradient. Oxygen as a byproduct is of no further use to the reaction and thus released into the atmosphere.
1226:
1647:
within the Milky Way within the past billion years. No such metallicity biases are known for short gamma-ray bursts. Thus, depending on their local rate and beaming properties, the possibility for a nearby event to have had a large impact on Earth at some point in geological time may still be significant.
569:
According to
Fleming there is direct evidence that remarkably long-lived wavelike electronic quantum coherence plays an important part in energy transfer processes during photosynthesis, which can explain the extreme efficiency of the energy transfer because it enables the system to sample all the
1646:
There are strong indications that long gamma-ray bursts preferentially or exclusively occur in regions of low metallicity. Because the Milky Way has been metal-rich since before the Earth formed, this effect may diminish or even eliminate the possibility that a long gamma-ray burst has occurred
332:
and thus exits photosystem II. In order to repeat the reaction, the electron in the reaction center needs to be replenished. This occurs by oxidation of water in the case of oxygenic photosynthesis. The electron-deficient reaction center of photosystem II (P680*) is the strongest
1301:, the expected rate (for long GRBs) is about one burst every 100,000 to 1,000,000 years. Only a few percent of these would be beamed toward Earth. Estimates of rates of short GRBs are even more uncertain because of the unknown beaming fraction, but are probably comparable.
1659:
spectral range usually are not energetic enough for direct photodissociation of molecules. However, after absorption of multiple infrared photons a molecule may gain internal energy to overcome its barrier for dissociation. Multiple-photon dissociation (MPD;
815:
518:
363:
ions as cofactors. Two water molecules are complexed by the manganese cluster, which then undergoes a series of four electron removals (oxidations) to replenish the reaction center of photosystem II. At the end of this cycle, free oxygen
209:
2156:
D. M. Monahan; L. Whaley-Mayda; A. Ishizaki; G. R. Fleming (2015). "Influence of weak vibrational-electronic couplings on 2D electronic spectra and inter-site coherence in weakly coupled photosynthetic complexes".
2261:
Elisabetta
Collini; Cathy Y. Wong; Krystyna E. Wilk; Paul M. G. Curmi; Paul Brumer; Gregory D. Scholes (4 February 2010), "Coherently wired light-harvesting in photosynthetic marine algae at ambient temperature",
281:
describes the photosynthetic energy transfer process as one in which excitation energy hops from light-capturing pigment molecules to reaction center molecules step-by-step down the molecular energy ladder.
979:
903:
665:
In these reactions the dissociation occurs in the electronically excited state. After proton transfer and relaxation to the electronic ground state, the proton and acid recombine to form the
1583:
1635:; the direct UV irradiation from the burst combined with additional solar UV radiation passing through the diminished ozone layer could then have potentially significant impacts on the
660:
301:
of red algae absorb blue-green light which penetrates deeper into water than red light, enabling them to photosynthesize in deep waters. Each absorbed photon causes the formation of an
1672:, or by long interaction times of the molecule with the radiation field without the possibility for rapid cooling, e.g. by collisions. The latter method allows even for MPD induced by
1210:
1510:
1458:
1143:
1409:
1366:
1060:
can exist for a long time. Photodissociation is the main path by which molecules are broken down. Photodissociation rates are important in the study of the composition of
722:
546:
411:
1974:
R. Tempelaar; T. L. C. Jansen; J. Knoester (2014). "Vibrational
Beatings Conceal Evidence of Electronic Coherence in the FMO Light-Harvesting Complex".
562:
and his co-workers which includes the possibility that photosynthetic energy transfer might involve quantum oscillations, explaining its unusually high
371:) is generated and the hydrogen of the water molecules has been converted to four protons released into the thylakoid lumen (Dolai's S-state diagrams).
126:
570:
potential energy pathways, with low loss, and choose the most efficient one. This claim has, however, since been proven wrong in several publications.
1048:, photodissociation is one of the major processes through which molecules are broken down (but new molecules are being formed). Because of the
2409:
1639:
and potentially trigger a mass extinction. The authors estimate that one such burst is expected per billion years, and hypothesize that the
2208:
1750:"Virtual Issue on Photodissociation: From Fundamental Dynamics and Spectroscopy to Photochemistry in Planetary Atmospheres and in Space"
88:
energies corresponding to visible, UV, or VUV light are typically required, whereas IR photons may be sufficiently energetic to detach
1677:
929:
374:
These protons, as well as additional protons pumped across the thylakoid membrane coupled with the electron transport chain, form a
1294:, a volume encompassing many billions of galaxies, this suggests that gamma-ray bursts must be exceedingly rare events per galaxy.
2235:
394:
where they are energized again by light. They are passed down another electron transport chain and finally combine with the
1640:
2621:
2498:
1304:
A gamma-ray burst in the Milky Way, if close enough to Earth and beamed toward it, could have significant effects on the
830:
57:. It is defined as the interaction of one or more photons with one target molecule that dissociates into two fragments.
2455:
1247:
305:(an electron excited to a higher energy state) in the pigment molecule. The energy of the exciton is transferred to a
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2762:
2402:
1873:
1840:
1661:
1273:
1255:
2233:
Gregory D. Scholes (7 January 2010), "Quantum-coherent electronic energy transfer: Did Nature think of it first?",
1297:
Measuring the exact rate of gamma-ray bursts is difficult, but for a galaxy of approximately the same size as the
328:
events. The energized electron (exciton) of P680 is captured by a primary electron acceptor of the photosynthetic
2069:
1516:
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2475:
1724:
1251:
605:
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1010:), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen). The atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken
2835:
2830:
1956:
1464:
1415:
1089:
2876:
2395:
676:
1889:
Engel, Gregory S.; Calhoun, Tessa R.; Read, Elizabeth L.; Ahn, Tae-Kyu; ManÄal, TomĂĄĹĄ; Cheng, Yuan-Chung;
313:, where P stands for pigment and 680 for its absorption maximum at 680 nm) in the reaction center of
2861:
1372:
1329:
2800:
2490:
581:
2527:
2427:
1828:
563:
318:
253:). This is the process which returns oxygen to Earth's atmosphere. Photolysis of water occurs in the
105:
810:{\displaystyle {\ce {O3}}+h\nu \longrightarrow {\ce {O2 + O(^1D)}}\quad \lambda <320{\text{ nm}}}
2757:
1236:
329:
77:
577:, which in early 2010 published research results that indicate that some marine algae make use of
2871:
2866:
2805:
2606:
2117:"The role of the environment time scale in light-harvesting efficiency and coherent oscillations"
1240:
513:{\displaystyle {\ce {2H2O + 2NADP+}}+8{\text{ photons}}\longrightarrow {\ce {2NADPH + 2H+ + O2}}}
345:
2560:
2260:
1865:
383:
286:
285:
The effectiveness of photons of different wavelengths depends on the absorption spectra of the
219:
2212:
528:
2790:
2722:
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1890:
909:
574:
2785:
2513:
2273:
2166:
2128:
1906:
1895:"Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems"
1761:
1725:"Photochemical reaction - Photosensitization, Light Activation, Photoproducts | Britannica"
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93:
8:
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700:
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20:
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2419:
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2010:
1938:
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1029:
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61:
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1803:
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Photolysis occurs in the atmosphere as part of a series of reactions by which primary
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42:
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per day. Because gamma-ray bursts are visible to distances encompassing most of the
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2301:
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2136:
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2040:
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1983:
1914:
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821:
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This approach has been further investigated by
Gregory Scholes and his team at the
223:
204:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2A}}+2{\text{ photons}}\longrightarrow {\ce {2e- + 2H+ + A}}}
69:
2008:
2825:
2737:
2686:
1308:. The absorption of radiation in the atmosphere would cause photodissociation of
1287:
596:
375:
2085:
999:
is created by ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen
2532:
2521:
1699:
1694:
1664:
with infrared radiation) can be achieved by applying high-power lasers, e.g. a
696:
559:
314:
258:
113:
1894:
1835:(7th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson â Benjamin Cummings. pp. 186â191.
820:
which generates an excited oxygen atom which can react with water to give the
2850:
2780:
2752:
2660:
2611:
2585:
1926:
1781:
1773:
1704:
391:
337:
yet discovered, which allows it to break apart molecules as stable as water.
116:. The general reaction of photosynthetic photolysis can be given in terms of
109:
81:
2387:
2070:"Exciton Structure and Energy Transfer in the FennaâMatthewsâ Olson Complex"
2732:
2538:
2445:
2435:
2293:
2194:
2093:
2054:
1995:
1934:
1789:
1313:
1057:
1045:
1033:
996:
1032:
are broken down in the upper atmosphere to form ozone-destroying chlorine
405:. Thus, the net oxidation reaction of water photolysis can be written as:
19:
This article is about the chemical process. For the nuclear reaction, see
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2626:
1632:
992:
713:
692:
306:
290:
266:
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65:
2285:
1918:
1864:(7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers. pp.
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298:
2248:
2186:
2178:
2036:
1987:
1973:
348:
of photosystem II. This protein-bound inorganic complex contains four
242:) serves as a substrate for photolysis resulting in the generation of
2742:
1305:
1298:
917:
913:
688:
672:
666:
592:
349:
341:
293:
absorb light in the violet-blue and red parts of the spectrum, while
254:
46:
1225:
1172:
1115:
618:
324:
Photolysis during photosynthesis occurs in a series of light-driven
2067:
1656:
1309:
395:
360:
321:. P680 can also directly absorb a photon at a suitable wavelength.
243:
215:
73:
2027:
1855:
1804:"Photolysis - Definition and Examples - Biology Online Dictionary"
2009:
N. Christenson; H. F. Kauffmann; T. Pullerits; T. Mancal (2012).
356:
302:
2068:
E. Thyrhaug; K. Zidek; J. Dostal; D. Bina; D. Zigmantas (2016).
2011:"Origin of Long-Lived Coherences in Light-Harvesting Complexes"
1628:
1076:
1049:
974:{\displaystyle {\ce {NO2}}+h\nu \longrightarrow {\ce {NO + O}}}
117:
89:
85:
54:
1071:
Examples of photodissociation in the interstellar medium are (
2645:
1597:
1317:
1286:
Currently orbiting satellites detect an average of about one
1018:
402:
325:
16:
Chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down by light
584:(EET) to enhance the efficiency of their energy harnessing.
1065:
1000:
387:
310:
60:
Here, âlightâ is broadly defined as radiation spanning the
1627:
According to a 2004 study, a GRB at a distance of about a
995:
is also caused by photodissociation. Ozone in the Earth's
712:
The two most important photodissociation reactions in the
382:
and thus the generation of chemical energy in the form of
2465:
2114:
1856:
Raven, Peter H.; Ray F. Evert; Susan E. Eichhorn (2005).
1571:
1555:
1535:
1479:
1430:
1387:
1344:
1192:
1164:
1104:
944:
869:
764:
737:
506:
430:
352:
141:
1827:
1748:
Vallance, Claire; Orr-Ewing, Andrew J. (2023-07-20).
1519:
1467:
1418:
1375:
1332:
1152:
1092:
932:
833:
725:
608:
531:
414:
129:
234:) to sulfur (S). In oxygenic photosynthesis, water (
1888:
1808:
Biology
Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online
916:of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere and so acts as a
898:{\displaystyle {\ce {O(^1D) + H2O -> 2 ^{*}OH}}}
595:are molecules that upon light absorption undergo a
2232:
1857:
1577:
1504:
1452:
1403:
1360:
1204:
1137:
1028:. In addition, photolysis is the process by which
973:
897:
809:
654:
540:
512:
214:The chemical nature of "A" depends on the type of
203:
1747:
2848:
1650:
1215:
682:
587:
99:
675:are a convenient source to induce pH jumps in
2417:
2403:
1957:"Quantum secrets of photosynthesis revealed"
1643:could have been the result of such a burst.
1578:{\displaystyle {\ce {2NH3 -> 3H2 + N2}}}
1254:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
699:react to form secondary pollutants such as
401:and protons outside the thylakoids to form
2410:
2396:
2340:
655:{\displaystyle {\ce {AH -> A^- + H^+}}}
53:are broken down by absorption of light or
2140:
2044:
2026:
1678:blackbody infrared radiative dissociation
1544:
1524:
1491:
1445:
1396:
1353:
1274:Learn how and when to remove this message
1205:{\displaystyle {\ce {CH4 -> CH3 + H}}}
881:
482:
472:
442:
419:
272:
183:
166:
108:or light phase or photochemical phase or
96:or to fragment supramolecular complexes.
1505:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O -> 2H + O}}}
1453:{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2 -> C + 2O}}}
1316:that would act as a catalyst to destroy
1138:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O -> H + OH}}}
558:In 2007 a quantum model was proposed by
2351:
1821:
297:capture other wavelengths as well. The
2849:
2436:Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution
2362:
984:is a key reaction in the formation of
2446:Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution
2391:
2307:
2236:Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters
2115:A. G. Dijkstra; Y. Tanimura (2012).
1849:
1641:Ordovician-Silurian extinction event
1631:could destroy up to half of Earth's
1252:adding citations to reliable sources
1219:
2499:Electrophilic aromatic substitution
1893:; Fleming, Graham R. (2007-04-12).
1754:The Journal of Physical Chemistry A
1404:{\displaystyle {\ce {O2 -> 2O}}}
1361:{\displaystyle {\ce {N2 -> 2N}}}
908:The hydroxyl radical is central to
13:
2466:Nucleophilic internal substitution
2456:Nucleophilic aromatic substitution
2313:
1949:
1323:The atmospheric photodissociation
532:
14:
2888:
1882:
553:
1224:
378:across the membrane that drives
340:The water-splitting reaction is
2622:LindemannâHinshelwood mechanism
2373:
2329:
2318:
2254:
2226:
2201:
2149:
2108:
2061:
1039:
792:
386:(ATP). The electrons reach the
2671:Outer sphere electron transfer
2666:Inner sphere electron transfer
2476:Nucleophilic acyl substitution
2002:
1967:
1796:
1741:
1717:
1538:
1485:
1433:
1390:
1347:
957:
875:
852:
840:
787:
775:
750:
465:
159:
1:
2836:Diffusion-controlled reaction
2335:
2142:10.1088/1367-2630/14/7/073027
1710:
1651:Multiple-photon dissociation
1216:Atmospheric gamma-ray bursts
683:Photolysis in the atmosphere
677:ultrafast laser spectroscopy
588:Photoinduced proton transfer
100:Photolysis in photosynthesis
7:
2491:Electrophilic substitutions
2368:
2357:
2346:
2324:
2086:10.1021/acs.jpclett.6b00534
1683:
10:
2893:
2801:Energy profile (chemistry)
2763:More O'FerrallâJencks plot
2428:Nucleophilic substitutions
2379:
1075:is the energy of a single
582:electronic energy transfer
335:biological oxidizing agent
104:Photolysis is part of the
18:
2831:MichaelisâMenten kinetics
2771:
2705:
2679:
2635:
2599:
2551:
2512:
2489:
2426:
1831:; Reece, Jane B. (2005).
893:
319:resonance energy transfer
2857:Concepts in astrophysics
2758:Potential energy surface
2637:Electron/Proton transfer
2522:Unimolecular elimination
2209:"Scholes Group Research"
1774:10.1021/acs.jpca.3c03975
888:
882:
541:{\displaystyle \Delta G}
523:The free energy change (
330:electron transport chain
106:light-dependent reaction
78:electromagnetic spectrum
62:vacuum ultraviolet (VUV)
2806:Transition state theory
2607:Intramolecular reaction
2533:Bimolecular elimination
923:Secondly the reaction:
599:to form the photobase.
346:oxygen-evolving complex
287:photosynthetic pigments
2600:Unimolecular reactions
2561:Electrophilic addition
1891:Blankenship, Robert E.
1655:Single photons in the
1579:
1506:
1454:
1405:
1362:
1206:
1139:
975:
899:
811:
656:
542:
514:
384:adenosine triphosphate
273:Energy transfer models
220:Purple sulfur bacteria
205:
94:coordination complexes
2791:Rate-determining step
2723:Reactive intermediate
2581:Free-radical addition
2571:Nucleophilic addition
2514:Elimination reactions
1676:, a technique called
1580:
1507:
1455:
1406:
1363:
1207:
1140:
991:The formation of the
976:
910:atmospheric chemistry
900:
812:
657:
575:University of Toronto
543:
515:
206:
2786:Equilibrium constant
1674:black-body radiation
1666:carbon dioxide laser
1596:(consumes up to 400
1517:
1465:
1416:
1373:
1330:
1248:improve this section
1150:
1090:
930:
912:as it initiates the
831:
723:
606:
529:
412:
380:photophosphorylation
279:semi-classical model
127:
2877:Reaction mechanisms
2796:Reaction coordinate
2728:Radical (chemistry)
2713:Elementary reaction
2656:Grotthuss mechanism
2420:reaction mechanisms
2286:10.1038/nature08811
2278:2010Natur.463..644C
2171:2015JChPh.143f5101M
2133:2012NJPh...14g3027D
2074:J. Phys. Chem. Lett
1982:(45): 12865â12872.
1919:10.1038/nature05678
1911:2007Natur.446..782E
1766:2023JPCA..127.5767V
1670:free-electron laser
1573:
1557:
1537:
1481:
1432:
1389:
1346:
1292:observable universe
1194:
1179:
1166:
1122:
1106:
1062:interstellar clouds
1054:interstellar medium
946:
871:
766:
739:
701:peroxyacyl nitrates
625:
508:
432:
390:reaction center of
143:
21:Photodisintegration
2862:Chemical reactions
2821:Arrhenius equation
2591:Oxidative addition
2553:Addition reactions
2314:Podsiadlowski 2004
1729:www.britannica.com
1575:
1561:
1545:
1525:
1502:
1469:
1450:
1420:
1401:
1377:
1358:
1334:
1202:
1182:
1154:
1135:
1094:
986:tropospheric ozone
971:
934:
895:
859:
807:
754:
727:
706:Photochemical smog
652:
538:
510:
496:
420:
295:accessory pigments
201:
131:
39:photofragmentation
35:photodecomposition
2844:
2843:
2816:Activated complex
2811:Activation energy
2773:Chemical kinetics
2718:Reaction dynamics
2617:Photodissociation
2249:10.1021/jz900062f
2179:10.1063/1.4928068
2037:10.1021/jp304649c
2021:(25): 7449â7454.
1988:10.1021/jp510074q
1905:(7137): 782â786.
1860:Biology of Plants
1829:Campbell, Neil A.
1760:(28): 5767â5771.
1564:
1548:
1528:
1500:
1494:
1484:
1472:
1448:
1438:
1423:
1399:
1380:
1356:
1337:
1284:
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1200:
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1133:
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1123:
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1097:
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889:
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757:
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631:
626:
612:
499:
486:
475:
463:
446:
435:
423:
289:in the organism.
277:The conventional
199:
187:
170:
157:
146:
134:
51:chemical compound
43:chemical reaction
27:Photodissociation
2884:
2748:Collision theory
2697:Matrix isolation
2651:Harpoon reaction
2528:E1cB-elimination
2412:
2405:
2398:
2389:
2388:
2382:
2377:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2355:
2349:
2344:
2338:
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2327:
2322:
2316:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2211:. Archived from
2205:
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2198:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2080:(9): 1653â1660.
2065:
2059:
2058:
2048:
2030:
2015:J. Phys. Chem. B
2006:
2000:
1999:
1976:J. Phys. Chem. B
1971:
1965:
1964:
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1947:
1946:
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1800:
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1690:Flash photolysis
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947:
945:
942:
935:
904:
902:
901:
896:
894:
883:
872:
870:
867:
860:
855:
849:
848:
847:
835:
822:hydroxyl radical
816:
814:
813:
808:
806:
803:
791:
790:
784:
783:
782:
770:
765:
762:
755:
740:
738:
735:
728:
661:
659:
658:
653:
651:
650:
649:
642:
637:
636:
629:
627:
614:
610:
579:quantum-coherent
549:
547:
545:
544:
539:
519:
517:
516:
511:
509:
507:
504:
497:
492:
491:
484:
473:
464:
461:
453:
452:
451:
444:
433:
431:
428:
421:
400:
370:
252:
241:
233:
224:hydrogen sulfide
210:
208:
207:
202:
200:
197:
193:
192:
185:
176:
175:
168:
158:
155:
147:
144:
142:
139:
132:
66:ultraviolet (UV)
2892:
2891:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2847:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2826:Eyring equation
2767:
2738:Stereochemistry
2701:
2687:Solvent effects
2675:
2631:
2595:
2576:
2566:
2547:
2542:
2508:
2504:
2485:
2481:
2471:
2461:
2451:
2441:
2422:
2416:
2386:
2385:
2378:
2374:
2367:
2363:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2341:
2334:
2330:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2308:
2272:(7281): 644â7,
2259:
2255:
2231:
2227:
2218:
2216:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2154:
2150:
2113:
2109:
2066:
2062:
2007:
2003:
1972:
1968:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1854:
1850:
1843:
1826:
1822:
1813:
1811:
1802:
1801:
1797:
1746:
1742:
1733:
1731:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1686:
1653:
1620:
1613:
1606:
1595:
1570:
1565:
1554:
1549:
1534:
1529:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1514:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1413:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1327:
1288:gamma-ray burst
1280:
1269:
1263:
1260:
1245:
1229:
1218:
1191:
1186:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1110:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1080:
1072:
1042:
1026:
1022:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1004:
960:
943:
938:
933:
931:
928:
927:
868:
863:
843:
839:
838:
834:
832:
829:
828:
802:
778:
774:
773:
763:
758:
753:
736:
731:
726:
724:
721:
720:
697:nitrogen oxides
685:
645:
641:
632:
628:
613:
609:
607:
604:
603:
597:proton transfer
590:
556:
530:
527:
526:
524:
505:
500:
487:
483:
468:
460:
447:
443:
429:
424:
415:
413:
410:
409:
398:
376:proton gradient
369:
365:
275:
251:
247:
244:diatomic oxygen
239:
235:
231:
227:
188:
184:
171:
167:
162:
154:
140:
135:
130:
128:
125:
124:
102:
76:regions of the
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2890:
2880:
2879:
2874:
2872:Photosynthesis
2869:
2867:Photochemistry
2864:
2859:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2777:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2709:
2707:
2706:Related topics
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2683:
2681:
2680:Medium effects
2677:
2676:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2640:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2601:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2568:
2564:
2557:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2536:
2530:
2525:
2518:
2516:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2495:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2449:
2443:
2439:
2432:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2415:
2414:
2407:
2400:
2392:
2384:
2383:
2372:
2361:
2350:
2339:
2328:
2317:
2306:
2253:
2225:
2200:
2148:
2107:
2060:
2001:
1966:
1948:
1881:
1874:
1848:
1841:
1820:
1795:
1740:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1702:
1700:Photochemistry
1697:
1695:Photocatalysis
1692:
1685:
1682:
1652:
1649:
1622:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1604:
1601:
1593:
1586:
1585:
1568:
1560:
1552:
1543:
1540:
1532:
1523:
1512:
1497:
1490:
1487:
1476:
1460:
1444:
1441:
1435:
1427:
1411:
1395:
1392:
1384:
1368:
1352:
1349:
1341:
1282:
1281:
1232:
1230:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1212:
1197:
1189:
1178:
1175:
1171:
1161:
1145:
1130:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1101:
1041:
1038:
1024:
1013:
1006:
982:
981:
966:
959:
956:
953:
950:
941:
906:
905:
892:
880:
877:
866:
858:
854:
846:
842:
818:
817:
801:
798:
795:
789:
781:
777:
769:
761:
752:
749:
746:
743:
734:
684:
681:
663:
662:
648:
640:
635:
624:
621:
617:
589:
586:
560:Graham Fleming
555:
554:Quantum models
552:
537:
534:
521:
520:
503:
495:
490:
481:
478:
471:
467:
459:
456:
450:
441:
438:
427:
418:
367:
315:photosystem II
274:
271:
249:
237:
229:
212:
211:
196:
191:
182:
179:
174:
165:
161:
153:
150:
138:
114:photosynthesis
101:
98:
82:covalent bonds
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2889:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2781:Rate equation
2779:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2770:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2753:Arrow pushing
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2661:Marcus theory
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2612:Isomerization
2610:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2598:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2586:Cycloaddition
2584:
2582:
2579:
2572:
2569:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2544:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2488:
2477:
2474:
2467:
2464:
2457:
2454:
2447:
2444:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2413:
2408:
2406:
2401:
2399:
2394:
2393:
2390:
2381:
2376:
2370:
2365:
2359:
2354:
2348:
2343:
2337:
2336:Thorsett 1995
2332:
2326:
2321:
2315:
2310:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2257:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2237:
2229:
2215:on 2018-09-30
2214:
2210:
2204:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2165:(6): 065101.
2164:
2160:
2159:J. Chem. Phys
2152:
2143:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2127:(7): 073027.
2126:
2122:
2118:
2111:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2005:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1963:. 2007-04-12.
1962:
1958:
1952:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1885:
1877:
1875:0-7167-1007-2
1871:
1867:
1862:
1861:
1852:
1844:
1842:0-8053-7171-0
1838:
1834:
1830:
1824:
1809:
1805:
1799:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1716:
1706:
1705:Photohydrogen
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1687:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1658:
1648:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1624:(incomplete)
1616:
1609:
1602:
1599:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1566:
1558:
1550:
1541:
1530:
1521:
1513:
1495:
1488:
1474:
1461:
1442:
1439:
1425:
1412:
1393:
1382:
1369:
1350:
1339:
1326:
1325:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1312:, generating
1311:
1307:
1302:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1278:
1275:
1267:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1238:
1233:This section
1231:
1227:
1222:
1221:
1195:
1187:
1176:
1173:
1169:
1159:
1146:
1128:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1099:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1079:of frequency
1078:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1058:free radicals
1055:
1051:
1047:
1037:
1035:
1034:free radicals
1031:
1020:
1002:
998:
994:
989:
987:
964:
954:
951:
948:
939:
926:
925:
924:
921:
919:
915:
911:
890:
878:
864:
856:
844:
827:
826:
825:
823:
799:
796:
793:
779:
767:
759:
747:
744:
741:
732:
719:
718:
717:
716:are firstly:
715:
710:
708:
707:
702:
698:
694:
690:
680:
679:experiments.
678:
674:
670:
668:
646:
638:
633:
622:
619:
615:
602:
601:
600:
598:
594:
585:
583:
580:
576:
571:
567:
565:
561:
551:
535:
501:
493:
488:
479:
476:
469:
462: photons
457:
454:
448:
439:
436:
425:
416:
408:
407:
406:
404:
397:
393:
392:photosystem I
389:
385:
381:
377:
372:
362:
358:
354:
351:
347:
343:
338:
336:
331:
327:
322:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
283:
280:
270:
268:
264:
260:
259:cyanobacteria
256:
245:
225:
221:
217:
194:
189:
180:
177:
172:
163:
156: photons
151:
148:
136:
123:
122:
121:
119:
115:
111:
110:Hill reaction
107:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
74:infrared (IR)
71:
67:
63:
58:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
28:
22:
2733:Molecularity
2616:
2375:
2364:
2353:
2342:
2331:
2320:
2309:
2269:
2263:
2256:
2240:
2234:
2228:
2217:. Retrieved
2213:the original
2203:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2124:
2120:
2110:
2077:
2073:
2063:
2018:
2014:
2004:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1960:
1951:
1902:
1898:
1884:
1859:
1851:
1832:
1823:
1812:. Retrieved
1810:. 2021-11-03
1807:
1798:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1732:. Retrieved
1728:
1719:
1654:
1645:
1626:
1623:
1588:would yield
1587:
1322:
1314:nitric oxide
1303:
1296:
1285:
1270:
1261:
1246:Please help
1234:
1070:
1068:are formed.
1046:astrophysics
1043:
1040:Astrophysics
997:stratosphere
990:
983:
922:
907:
819:
711:
704:
693:hydrocarbons
686:
671:
664:
591:
572:
568:
557:
522:
373:
339:
323:
291:Chlorophylls
284:
276:
269:and plants.
263:chloroplasts
213:
103:
59:
38:
34:
30:
26:
25:
2692:Cage effect
2627:RRKM theory
2543:elimination
2369:Stanek 2006
2358:Wanjek 2005
2347:Melott 2004
2325:Guetta 2006
2121:New J. Phys
1633:ozone layer
1264:August 2014
993:ozone layer
714:troposphere
307:chlorophyll
299:phycobilins
267:green algae
80:. To break
2851:Categories
2380:Ejzak 2007
2243:(1): 2â8,
2219:2010-03-23
1814:2024-05-24
1734:2024-05-24
1711:References
1637:food chain
1629:kiloparsec
1600:molecules)
1017:to create
689:pollutants
673:Photoacids
593:Photoacids
564:efficiency
309:molecule (
255:thylakoids
31:photolysis
2743:Catalysis
2639:reactions
2028:1201.6325
1927:0028-0836
1782:1089-5639
1614:(nominal)
1607:(nominal)
1539:⟶
1486:⟶
1434:⟶
1391:⟶
1348:⟶
1306:biosphere
1299:Milky Way
1235:does not
1177:ν
1120:ν
1064:in which
958:⟶
955:ν
918:detergent
914:oxidation
891:⋅
876:⟶
794:λ
751:⟶
748:ν
667:photoacid
634:−
623:ν
533:Δ
466:⟶
350:manganese
342:catalyzed
326:oxidation
173:−
160:⟶
47:molecules
45:in which
2294:20130647
2195:26277167
2102:26355154
2094:27082631
2055:22642682
1996:25321492
1961:phys.org
1943:13865546
1935:17429397
1790:37469270
1684:See also
1680:(BIRD).
1657:infrared
1310:nitrogen
1170:→
1113:→
804: nm
691:such as
616:→
396:coenzyme
361:chloride
261:and the
222:oxidize
216:organism
2302:4369439
2274:Bibcode
2187:1407273
2167:Bibcode
2129:Bibcode
2046:3789255
1907:Bibcode
1866:115â127
1833:Biology
1762:Bibcode
1668:, or a
1256:removed
1241:sources
1052:of the
669:again.
548:
525:
357:calcium
355:, plus
344:by the
303:exciton
118:photons
90:ligands
70:visible
55:photons
2418:Basic
2300:
2292:
2265:Nature
2193:
2185:
2100:
2092:
2053:
2043:
1994:
1941:
1933:
1925:
1899:Nature
1872:
1839:
1788:
1780:
1077:photon
1050:vacuum
703:. See
86:photon
72:, and
2646:Redox
2482:Acyl)
2298:S2CID
2098:S2CID
2023:arXiv
1939:S2CID
1662:IRMPD
1598:ozone
1318:ozone
1066:stars
1019:ozone
1001:atoms
474:NADPH
403:NADPH
92:from
49:of a
41:is a
37:, or
2535:(E2)
2524:(E1)
2290:PMID
2191:PMID
2183:OSTI
2090:PMID
2051:PMID
1992:PMID
1931:PMID
1923:ISSN
1870:ISBN
1837:ISBN
1786:PMID
1778:ISSN
1239:any
1237:cite
1030:CFCs
797:<
695:and
445:NADP
399:NADP
388:P700
359:and
353:ions
317:via
311:P680
120:as:
2505:Ar)
2462:Ar)
2282:doi
2270:463
2245:doi
2175:doi
2163:143
2137:doi
2082:doi
2041:PMC
2033:doi
2019:116
1984:doi
1980:118
1915:doi
1903:446
1770:doi
1758:127
1250:by
1083:):
1044:In
800:320
265:of
257:of
112:of
2853::
2573:(A
2563:(A
2501:(S
2478:(S
2472:i)
2468:(S
2458:(S
2452:2)
2448:(S
2442:1)
2438:(S
2296:,
2288:,
2280:,
2268:,
2239:,
2189:.
2181:.
2173:.
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