153:, police officers were in an apartment investigating a shooting and suspected that a record player in the apartment was stolen. The officers could not see the serial number, which was on the bottom of the record player, so they lifted the player and confirmed that its serial number matched that of one that had been reported stolen. However, the Supreme Court ruled that lifting the record player constituted an additional search (although a relatively nonintrusive one) because the serial number was not in plain view. This meant that the plain view doctrine did not apply, and the officers needed a warrant. The evidence of the stolen record player could not be used against the defendant because of the
945:
103:
the court eliminated the requirement that the discovery of evidence in plain view be inadvertent, which had caused ambiguity. The case involved the plain view seizure of weapons related to a robbery, even though the warrant was signed by a judge who had specifically denied permission to seize weapons
108:
ruling also clarified that the officer must have a "lawful right of access" to the objects to seize them under the plain view doctrine. For example, an officer who sees contraband in plain view in someone's home through the window but is not authorized to enter the home cannot rely on the plain view
148:
The doctrine only authorizes the seizure of contraband or evidence; it does not authorize a further search or additional investigation. Therefore, if investigators do not have enough evidence to meet the probable cause requirement, they may not even conduct a relatively nonintrusive search to
160:
The officer must be lawfully present where he or she sees the item. For example, an officer may not enter a suspect's home without a warrant and rely on the plain view doctrine. However, if an officer is inside a suspect's home under an unrelated warrant, he or she may rely on the plain view
193:. The Supreme Court held that this additional inspection was not covered by the plain view doctrine, and as such, the contraband could not be used against the defendant. However, the court's reasoning extended the plain view doctrine to other senses, such as the sense of touch.
177:
The plain view doctrine has also been expanded to include the subdoctrines of plain feel, plain smell and plain hearing. These doctrines are also limited to seizing an item when its nature as contraband or evidence of a crime is "immediately apparent." In
221:, a detective was searching a computer for evidence of drug trafficking. When he opened an image file that depicted child pornography, he proceeded to search for more images and found a total of 244 images of child pornography on the computer. The
144:
to meet the probable cause requirement. When using the plain view doctrine, investigators must possess the evidence needed to meet the probable cause requirement, as they are only exempt from the step of obtaining a warrant from a judge.
125:
to believe that the item is evidence of a crime or is contraband. The police may not move objects in order to obtain a better view, and the officer may not be in a location unlawfully. These limitations were detailed in the case of
139:
The plain view doctrine only eliminates the warrant requirement, not the probable cause requirement. Investigators must normally obtain a court-issued warrant before seizing property, by presenting enough evidence to a
207:, police were searching the defendant's computer for evidence related to a murder when they discovered images of child pornography on the computer. Although the warrant was specific to evidence of the murder, the
476:
Horton v. California at 130-31; Cretacci, at 183; John N. Ferdico, Henry
Fradella, & Christopher Totten, Criminal Procedure for the Criminal Justice Professional 437 (2015); George, 35 N.Y.L. Sch. L. Rev. at
214:
However, as with the application of this doctrine elsewhere, the plain view doctrine only justifies a seizure of evidence or contraband that is in plain view, and it does not justify a further search. In
188:
search. He did not immediately have probable cause to believe that it was contraband, but he proceeded to inspect it further by squeezing it, and then had probable cause to believe that it was a piece of
89:. The original formulation included three factors. First, the officer must be lawfully present when viewing the evidence or contraband. Second, the officer must immediately (without further search) have
169:. This qualified as a lawful entry, and the plain view doctrine applied to items that the officers could see in the apartment and readily identify as contraband or evidence without further search.
211:
held that the plain view exception allowed them to seize the child pornography, as searching graphics files was valid under the warrant and the files were immediately identifiable as contraband.
282:
28:
93:
to believe that the item is either contraband or evidence of a crime. Third, the observation must have been "inadvertent," not anticipated or intended by the officer before the sighting.
823:
770:
217:
203:
797:
403:
32:
798:
RayMing Chang, Why the Plain View
Doctrine Should Not Apply to Digital Evidence, 12 Suffolk Journal of Trial and Appellate Advocacy 31 (Spring 2007)
225:
held that only the first image was covered by the plain view doctrine, and the rest of the images could not be used against the defendant in court.
1204:
816:
809:
348:
1158:
285:
48:
782:
741:
149:
establish probable cause. The requirement is that the incriminating character of the object must be immediately apparent. In
1077:
432:
455:
80:
1135:
1104:
456:"Comment, The Plain View Doctrine After Horton v. California: Fourth Amendment Concerns and the Problem of Pretext"
742:"Computers as Castles: Preventing the Plain View Doctrine from Becoming a Vehicle for Overbroad Digital Searches"
141:
1173:
234:
1178:
541:
322:
1153:
566:
85:
1036:
47:
that are found in plain view during a lawful observation. The doctrine is also regularly used by
165:, the police officers were in the apartment under another exception to the warrant requirement,
157:, which is the remedy available when evidence is obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment.
1046:
841:
410:
180:
1168:
359:
984:
732:
407:
239:
166:
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989:
901:
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244:
98:
55:
8:
1041:
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911:
881:
871:
832:
720:
40:
1120:
994:
979:
916:
801:
728:
154:
64:
The officer is lawfully present at the place where the evidence can be plainly viewed
906:
753:
528:
516:
504:
128:
693:
LaFave, Wayne (4 April 2005). "§ 7.5.Plain view, subterfuge and related matters".
1089:
1083:
891:
886:
283:
Why We Do What We Do: When
Security Officers Find Illegal Items at the Checkpoint
254:
486:
Horton, 496 U.S. at 137; Ferdico, at 177; George, 35 N.Y.L. Sch. L. Rev. at 494.
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1030:
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133:
122:
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222:
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36:
20:
1125:
1099:
118:
1163:
1140:
1067:
1062:
1002:
771:"The plain feel doctrine of Minnesota v. Dickerson: Creating an Illusion"
702:
Berkman, Bernard; Gold, Gerard (February 2019). "5 Am. Jur. Trials 331".
631:
1072:
1019:
1007:
950:
931:
724:
711:
Kerr, Orin (4 April 2005). "Searches and
Seizures in a Digital World".
44:
433:"Horton v. California: The Plain View Doctrine Loses its Inadvertency"
54:
For the plain view doctrine to apply for discoveries, the three-prong
184:, a police officer felt a lump in a suspect's pocket during a lawful
944:
185:
51:
officers while screening people and property at
American airports.
926:
850:
70:
The incriminating character of the object is immediately apparent
856:
655:
United States v. Carey, 172 F.3d 1268, 1273 (10th Cir. 1999)
1094:
974:
161:
doctrine, subject to the doctrine's other requirements. In
695:
3 Search and
Seizure: A Treatise on the Fourth Amendment
16:
Legal doctrine for police searches in the United States
831:
67:
The officer has a lawful right of access to the object
109:
doctrine to enter the home and seize the contraband.
79:
The plain view doctrine was first articulated in the
940:
417:, 18 F.3d 240, 242 (4th Cir. 1994) (restating the
1196:
312:Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443 (1971)
817:
609:Minnesota v. Dickerson, 508 U.S. 366 (1993).
600:Minnesota v. Dickerson, 508 U.S. 366 (1993).
591:Minnesota v. Dickerson, 508 U.S. 366 (1993).
196:
701:
824:
810:
117:For a law-enforcement officer to legally
559:
1205:United States Fourth Amendment case law
1197:
739:
692:
286:Transportation Security Administration
49:Transportation Security Administration
39:requirement that allows an officer to
805:
768:
346:
710:
453:
430:
621:, 334 F.3d 831, 838 (9th Cir. 2003)
571:Annotations to the Fourth Amendment
567:"Fourth Amendment: Annotation Four"
13:
687:
276:
14:
1216:
1136:Evidence law in the United States
740:Saylor, James (7 November 2011).
347:Davis, Joseph R. (October 1979).
943:
775:Case Western Reserve Law Review
658:
649:
624:
612:
603:
594:
585:
534:
522:
510:
498:
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480:
470:
447:
172:
121:an item, the officer must have
990:Deferred prosecution agreement
424:
393:
377:
340:
315:
306:
290:
267:
112:
74:
1:
260:
356:FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin
235:Aerial surveillance doctrine
7:
228:
104:as part of the search. The
10:
1221:
1149:
1113:
1105:Presentence investigation
1055:
960:
938:
840:
752:(6): 2809. Archived from
349:"The Plain View Doctrine"
197:Application to technology
86:Coolidge v. New Hampshire
666:"United States v. Carey"
437:John Marshall Law Review
358:: 27–31. Archived from
1047:Statute of limitations
842:Criminal investigation
769:Agati, Andrew (1995).
704:American Jurisprudence
495:U. S. Const. amend. IV
431:Mack, John A. (1991).
413: (1990). See also
273:U. S. Const. amend. IV
255:Arizona v. Gant (2009)
218:United States v. Carey
181:Minnesota v. Dickerson
985:Criminal jurisdiction
781:: 927. Archived from
619:United States v. Wong
531:, 480 U.S. 321 (1987)
519:, 480 U.S. 321 (1987)
507:, 480 U.S. 321 (1987)
240:Exigent circumstances
204:United States v. Wong
167:exigent circumstances
1025:Inquisitorial system
962:Criminal prosecution
902:Reasonable suspicion
877:Exigent circumstance
460:Dickinson Law Review
454:Eyer, Robin (1992).
400:Horton v. California
384:Horton v. California
297:Horton v. California
245:Open-fields doctrine
99:Horton v. California
60:test requires that:
1042:Preliminary hearing
365:on February 3, 2017
25:plain view doctrine
970:Adversarial system
912:Search and seizure
882:Knock-and-announce
833:Criminal procedure
746:Fordham Law Review
713:Harvard Law Review
1192:
1191:
1174:Wikimedia Commons
1121:Criminal defenses
1056:Charges and pleas
980:Bill of attainder
917:Search of persons
785:on March 14, 2022
756:on March 30, 2023
466:(3): 467, 482–83.
155:exclusionary rule
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953:
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947:
907:Right to silence
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812:
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529:Arizona v. Hicks
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517:Arizona v. Hicks
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505:Arizona v. Hicks
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163:Arizona v. Hicks
151:Arizona v. Hicks
142:magistrate judge
129:Arizona v. Hicks
33:Fourth Amendment
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1090:Peremptory plea
1084:Nolo contendere
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956:
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892:Pretextual stop
887:Miranda warning
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835:(investigation)
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201:In the case of
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922:Search warrant
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899:
897:Probable cause
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867:Consent search
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862:Arrest warrant
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829:
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806:
689:
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682:
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648:
632:"U.S. v. Wong"
623:
611:
602:
593:
584:
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533:
521:
509:
497:
488:
479:
469:
446:
443:: 891, 893–98.
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250:Consent search
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123:probable cause
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91:probable cause
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15:
9:
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1114:Related areas
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1014:Habeas corpus
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996:Ex post facto
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546:Justia US Law
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223:Tenth Circuit
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209:Ninth Circuit
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191:crack cocaine
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43:evidence and
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30:
26:
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21:United States
1126:Criminal law
1100:Plea bargain
1082:
1037:Precognition
1029:
1012:
995:
849:
796:
787:. Retrieved
783:the original
778:
774:
767:
758:. Retrieved
754:the original
749:
745:
738:
716:
712:
709:
703:
700:
694:
691:
673:. Retrieved
669:
660:
651:
639:. Retrieved
635:
626:
618:
614:
605:
596:
587:
575:. Retrieved
570:
561:
549:. Retrieved
545:
542:"Plain View"
536:
524:
512:
500:
491:
482:
472:
463:
459:
449:
440:
436:
426:
418:
415:U.S. v. Legg
414:
411:128, 136–137
399:
395:
388:496 U.S. 128
383:
379:
367:. Retrieved
360:the original
355:
342:
330:. Retrieved
326:
323:"Plain View"
317:
308:
301:496 U.S. 128
296:
292:
278:
269:
216:
213:
202:
200:
179:
176:
173:Subdoctrines
162:
159:
150:
147:
138:
134:480 U.S. 321
127:
116:
105:
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95:
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53:
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1184:Wikiversity
1141:Legal abuse
1078:Information
1068:Arraignment
1063:Alford plea
1003:Extradition
789:13 February
760:13 February
675:12 February
641:12 February
551:11 February
369:11 February
332:11 February
113:Limitations
75:Development
1169:WikiSource
1154:Wiktionary
1073:Indictment
1020:Indictment
1008:Grand jury
951:Law portal
932:Terry stop
261:References
45:contraband
1164:Wikiquote
1159:Wikibooks
872:Detention
697:. 5th ed.
573:. FindLaw
29:exception
1199:Category
1179:Wikinews
1131:Evidence
636:Casetext
577:29 April
229:See also
136:(1987).
83:case of
927:Suspect
851:Arguido
725:4093493
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303:(1990).
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733:697541
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419:Horton
390:(1990)
106:Horton
57:Horton
27:is an
23:, the
721:JSTOR
406:
363:(PDF)
352:(PDF)
186:frisk
119:seize
41:seize
1095:Plea
975:Bail
791:2019
762:2019
729:SSRN
677:2019
643:2019
579:2013
553:2019
477:492.
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