Plains Indians - Knowledge

1296:"—touching a live enemy. Battles between Indians often consisted of opposing warriors demonstrating their bravery rather than attempting to achieve concrete military objectives. The emphasis was on ambush and hit and run actions rather than closing with an enemy. Success was often counted by the number of horses or property obtained in the raid. Casualties were usually light. "Indians consider it foolhardiness to make an attack where it is certain some of them will be killed." Given their smaller numbers, the loss of even a few men in battle could be catastrophic for a band, and notably at the battles of Adobe Walls in Texas in 1874 and Rosebud in Montana in 1876, the Indians broke off battle despite the fact that they were winning as the casualties were not considered worth a victory. The most famous victory ever won by the Plains Indians over the United States, the Battle of Little Bighorn, in 1876, was won by the Lakota (Sioux) and Cheyenne fighting on the defensive. Decisions whether to fight or not were based on a cost-benefit ratio; even the loss of one warrior was not considered to be worth taking a few scalps, but if a herd of horses could be obtained, the loss of a warrior or two was considered acceptable. Generally speaking, given the small sizes of the bands and the vast population of the United States, the Plains Indians sought to avoid casualties in battle, and would avoid fighting if it meant losses. 607: 1157: 755:. These gatherings afforded leaders to meet to make political decisions, plan movements, arbitrate disputes, and organize and launch raiding expeditions or war parties. In the fall, people would split up into smaller bands to facilitate hunting to procure meat for the long winter. Between the fall hunt and the onset of winter was a time when Lakota warriors could undertake raiding and warfare. With the coming of winter snows, the Lakota settled into winter camps, where activities of the season ceremonies and dances as well as trying to ensure adequate winter feed for their horses. On the southern plains, with their milder winters, the fall and winter was often the raiding season. Beginning in the 1830s, the Comanche and their allies often raided for horses and other goods deep into Mexico, sometimes venturing 1,000 miles (1,600 km) south from their homes near the 707: 181: 1076:. The use of horses by the Plains Indians made hunting (and warfare) much easier. With horses, the Plains Indians had the means and speed to stampede or overtake the bison. The Plains Indians reduced the length of their bows to three feet to accommodate their use on horseback. They continued to use bows and arrows after the introduction of firearms because guns took too long to reload and were too heavy. In the summer, many tribes gathered for hunting in one place. The main hunting seasons were fall, summer, and spring. In winter, adverse weather such as snow and blizzards made it more difficult to locate and hunt bison. 719:. The success of the Comanche encouraged other Indian tribes to adopt a similar lifestyle. The southern Plains Indians acquired vast numbers of horses. By the 19th century, Comanche and Kiowa families owned an average of 35 horses and mules each – and only six or seven were necessary for transport and war. The horses extracted a toll on the environment as well as required labor to care for the herd. Formerly egalitarian societies became more divided by wealth with a negative impact on the role of women. The richest men would have several wives and captives who would help manage their possessions, especially horses. 1300: 579: 432: 739: 493:. According to the Spaniards, the Querechos lived "in tents made of the tanned skins of the cows (bison). They dry the flesh in the sun, cutting it thin like a leaf, and when dry they grind it like meal to keep it and make a sort of sea soup of it to eat. ... They season it with fat, which they always try to secure when they kill a cow. They empty a large gut and fill it with blood, and carry this around the neck to drink when they are thirsty." Coronado described many common features of Plains Indians culture: skin tepees, 1043: 929: 1257: 212: 3229: 1276:

rivalry among Indian tribes to control trade and trade routes. Third, was the acquisition of the horse and the greater mobility it afforded the Plains Indians. What evolved among the Plains Indians from the 17th to the late 19th century was warfare as both a means of livelihood and a sport. Young men gained both prestige and plunder by fighting as warriors, and this individualistic style of warfare ensured that success in individual combat and capturing trophies of war were highly esteemed

1142: 1061:, buffalo was the primary game food source. Before horses were introduced, hunting was a more complicated process. Hunters would surround the bison, and then try to herd them off cliffs or into confined places where they could be more easily killed. The Plains Indians constructed a v-shaped funnel, about a mile long, made of fallen trees or rocks. Sometimes bison could be lured into a trap by a person covering himself with a bison skin and imitating the call of the animals. 1089: 770: 3739: 201: 84: 1324:, designed for use on horseback and deadly, but only at short range. Guns were usually in short supply and ammunition scarce for Native warriors. The U.S. government through the Indian Agency would sell the Plains Indians guns for hunting, but unlicensed traders would exchange guns for buffalo hides. The shortages of ammunition together with the lack of training to handle firearms meant the preferred weapon was the bow and arrow. 730:, enjoyed the happy medium between North and South and became a dominant Plains tribe by the mid-19th century. They had relatively small horse herds, thus having less impact on their ecosystem. At the same time, they occupied the heart of prime bison range which was also an excellent region for furs, which could be sold to French and American traders for goods such as guns. The Lakota became a highly powerful Plains tribe. 420: 828: 1320:

lengthy campaigns. Indian armies could only be assembled for brief periods of time as warriors also had to hunt for food for their families. The exception to that was raids into Mexico by the Comanche and their allies in which the raiders often subsisted for months off the riches of Mexican haciendas and settlements. The basic weapon of the Indian warrior was the short, stout

1279:

The Plains Indians raided each other, the Spanish colonies, and, increasingly, the encroaching frontier of the Anglos for horses, and other property. They acquired guns and other European goods primarily by trade. Their principal trading products were buffalo hides and beaver pelts. The most renowned

722:

The milder winters of the southern Plains favored a pastoral economy by the Indians. On the northeastern Plains of Canada, the Indians were less favored, with families owning fewer horses, remaining more dependent upon dogs for transporting goods, and hunting bison on foot. The scarcity of horses in

2625:

Brown, 1996: pp. 34-5; 1994 Mandelbaum, 1975, pp. 14-15; & Pettipas, 1994 p. 210. "A Description and Analysis of Sacrificial Stall Dancing: As Practiced by the Plains Cree and Saulteaux of the Pasqua Reserve, Saskatchewan, in their Contemporary Rain Dance Ceremonies" by Randall J. Brown, Master

1123:

tended to be constructed with soft braintanned hide on the vamps and tough rawhide for the soles. Men's moccasins tended to have flaps around the ankles, while women's had high tops, which could be pulled up in the winter and rolled down in the summer. Honored warriors and leaders earn the right to

1008:

The farming tribes also hunted buffalo, deer, elk, and other game. Typically, on the southern Plains, they planted crops in the spring, left their permanent villages to hunt buffalo in the summer, returned to harvest crops in the fall, and left again to hunt bison in the winter. The farming Indians

714:

It was the Comanche, coming to the attention of the Spanish in New Mexico in 1706, who first realized the potential of the horse. As nomads, hunters, and pastoralists, well supplied with horses, they swept most of the mixed-economy Apaches from the plains and by the 1730s were dominant in the Great

594:

The first Spanish conqueror to bring horses to the new world was Hernán Cortés in 1519. However, Cortés only brought about sixteen horses with his expedition. Coronado brought 558 horses with him on his 1539–1542 expedition. At the time, the Indians of these regions had never seen a horse. Only two

586:

The Plains Indians found by Coronado had not yet obtained horses; it was the introduction of the horse that revolutionized Plains culture. When horses were obtained, the Plains tribes rapidly integrated them into their daily lives. People in the southwest began to acquire horses in the 16th century

781:

The slaughter of the bison had substantial adverse impacts on the Native American people who relied on them. These impacts were both immediate and persistent. By the early 20th century, bison nations had greater child mortality and unemployment compared to Indian nations that were never reliant on

1226:

Historically, Plains Indian women had distinctly defined gender roles that were different from, but complementary to, men's roles. They typically owned the family's home and the majority of its contents. In traditional culture, women tanned hides, tended crops, gathered wild foods, prepared food,

762:

The U.S. federal government and local governments promoted bison hunting for various reasons: to allow ranchers to range their cattle without competition from other bovines and to starve and weaken the Plains Indian population to pressure them to remain on reservations. The bison herds formed the

590:

The horse enabled the Plains Indians to gain their subsistence with relative ease from the seemingly limitless bison herds. Riders were able to travel faster and farther in search of bison herds and to transport more goods, thus making it possible to enjoy a richer material environment than their

908:

that told of the return of the Messiah to relieve the suffering of Native Americans and promised that if they would live righteous lives and perform the Ghost Dance properly, the European American colonists would vanish, the bison would return, and the living and the dead would be reunited in an

266:

that flourished from the 17th century through the late 19th century. Their historic nomadism and armed resistance to domination by the government and military forces of Canada and the United States have made the Plains Indian culture groups an archetype in literature and art for Native Americans

1319:

Due to their mobility, endurance, horsemanship, and knowledge of the vast plains that were their domain, the Plains Indians were often victors in their battles against the U.S. army in the American era from 1803 to about 1890. However, although Indians won many battles, they could not undertake

1275:

Three factors led to a growing importance of warfare in Plains Indian culture. First, was the Spanish colonization of New Mexico which stimulated raids and counter-raids by Spaniards and Indians for goods and slaves. Second, was the contact of the Indians with French fur traders which increased

625:

learned about horses by working for Spanish colonists. The Spanish attempted to keep knowledge of riding away from Native people, but nonetheless, they learned and some fled their servitude to their Spanish employers—and took horses with them. Some horses were obtained through trade in spite of

1237:

Plains women in general have historically had the right to divorce and keep custody of their children. Because women own the home, an unkind husband can find himself homeless. A historical example of a Plains woman divorcing is Making Out Road, a Cheyenne woman, who in 1841 married non-Native

750:

By the 19th century, the typical year of the Lakota and other northern nomads was a communal buffalo hunt as early in spring as their horses had recovered from the rigors of the winter. In June and July the scattered bands of the tribes gathered together into large encampments, which included

639:

in New Mexico and the capture of thousands of horses and other livestock. They traded many horses north to the Plains Indians. In 1683 a Spanish expedition into Texas found horses among Native people. In 1690, a few horses were found by the Spanish among the Indians living at the mouth of the

777:

The railroad industry also wanted bison herds culled or eliminated. Herds of bison on tracks could damage locomotives when the trains failed to stop in time. Herds often took shelter in the artificial cuts formed by the grade of the track winding through hills and mountains in harsh winter

587:

by trading or stealing them from Spanish colonists in New Mexico. As horse culture moved northward, the Comanche were among the first to commit to a fully mounted nomadic lifestyle. This occurred by the 1730s, when they had acquired enough horses to put all their people on horseback.

1242:. The marriage was turbulent and formally ended when Making Out Road threw Carson and his belongings out of her tepee (in the traditional manner of announcing a divorce). She later went on to marry, and divorce, several additional men, both European-American and Indian. 782:

the bison. By the late 20th century, income per capita was 25% lower for bison nations. Whereas people in bison-hunting communities were once among the tallest people in the world, generations born after the slaughter of the bison had lost all their height advantage.

932:

The Wichita were an agrarian Southern Plains tribe, who historically lived in beehive-shaped houses thatched with grass surrounded by extensive maize fields. They were skilled farmers who traded agricultural products with the nomadic tribes in exchange for meat and

1015:

By the 1870s bison herds were depleted and beef, cereal grains, fats and starchy vegetables became more important in the diet of Plains Indians. Fruits and nuts were, especially plums and grapes were dried as winter store. Flour was made from the

1284:

noted in 2010: "They could loose a flock of arrows while hanging off the side of a galloping horse, using the animal as protection against return fire. The sight amazed and terrified their white (and Indian) adversaries." The American historian

937:

The semi-sedentary, village-dwelling Plains Indians depended upon agriculture for a large share of their livelihood, particularly those who lived in the eastern parts of the Great Plains which had more precipitation than the western side.

634:

from northwestern New Mexico were raiding the Spanish colonies to steal horses. By 1664, the Apache were trading captives from other tribes to the Spanish for horses. The real beginning of the horse culture of the plains began with the

2321: 839:

Armed conflicts intensified in the late 19th century between Native American nations on the plains and the U.S. government, through what were called generally the Indian Wars. Notable conflicts in this period include the

462:(or buffalo) to make items used in everyday life, such as food, cups, decorations, crafting tools, knives, and clothing. The tribes followed the seasonal grazing and migration of the bison. The Plains Indians lived in 1187:. Prayer is a regular part of daily life, for regular individuals as well as spiritual leaders, alone and as part of group ceremonies. One of the most important gatherings for many of the Plains tribes is the yearly 270:

The Plains tribes are usually divided into two broad classifications which overlap to some degree. The first group became a fully nomadic horse culture during the 18th and 19th centuries, following the vast herds of

2630:

Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center. Pettipas, Katherine. (1994). "Serving the ties that bind: Government repression of Indigenous religious ceremonies on the prairies." Winnipeg: University of Manitoba

4261: 1231:. Historically, Plains women were not as engaged in public political life as were the women in the coastal tribes. However, they still participated in an advisory role and through the women's societies. 766:

Bison were slaughtered for their skins, with the rest of the animal left behind to decay on the ground. After the animals rotted, their bones were collected and shipped back east in large quantities.

3574: 835:

ritual, which the Lakota believed would reunite the living with spirits of the dead, cause the white invaders to vanish, and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to Indian peoples throughout the region

1119:

Hides, with or without fur, provided material for much clothing. Most of the clothing consisted of the hides of buffalo and deer, as well as numerous species of birds and other small game. Plains

1210:, entrusted with spiritual leadership roles in the community. The buffalo and eagle are particularly sacred to many of the Plains peoples, and may be represented in iconography, or parts used in 558:

European explorers and hunters (and later, settlers) brought diseases against which the Indians had no resistance. Between a half and two-thirds of the Plains Indians are thought to have died of

3120: 793:

was too great. But these were discouraged since it was recognized that the Plains Indians, often at war with the United States, depended on bison for their way of life. In 1874, President

595:

of Coronado's horses were mares, so he was highly unlikely to have been the source of the horses that Plains Indians later adopted as the cornerstone of their culture. In 1592, however,

343:. The second group were sedentary and semi-sedentary, and, in addition to hunting bison, they lived in villages, raised crops, and actively traded with other tribes. These include the 3559: 591:

pedestrian ancestors. For the Plains peoples, the horse became an item of prestige as well as utility. They were extravagantly fond of their horses and the lifestyle they permitted.

880:

I don't go so far as to think that the only good Indians are dead Indians, but I believe nine out of ten are, and I shouldn't like to inquire too closely into the case of the tenth.

566:

spread across the Great Plains, killing many thousands between 1837 and 1840. In the end, it is estimated that two-thirds of the Blackfoot population died, along with half of the

1292:

Although they could be tenacious in defense, Plains Indians warriors took the offensive mostly for material gain and individual prestige. The highest military honors were for "

1191:, an elaborate spiritual ceremony that involves personal sacrifice, multiple days of fasting and prayer for the good of loved ones and the benefit of the entire community. 4450: 3058: 1227:

made clothing, and took down and erected the family's tepees. In the present day, these customs are still observed when lodges are set up for ceremonial use, such as at

547:

into the Great Plains. After 1750, warfare and pressure from the Blackfoot, Crow, Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho pushed Eastern Shoshone south and westward. Some of them

3113: 1332:

The people of the Great Plains have been found to be the tallest people in the world during the late 19th century, based on 21st century analysis of data collected by

1397: 4308: 3129: 2671: 3106: 3751: 1361: 1030:) is still sometimes consumed by Plains Indians who have retained these cultural traditions. Plums were one of the most important wild plant foods on the 3728: 3196: 2870: 1171:

While there are some similarities among linguistic and regional groups, different tribes have their own cosmologies and world views. Some of these are

1234:

In contemporary Plains cultures, traditionalists work to preserve the knowledge of these traditions of everyday life and the values attached to them.

3154: 3297: 3189: 3184: 1379: 1886: 3317: 2433:"Corn, Beans and Bison: Cultivated Plants and Changing Economies of the Late Prehistoric Villagers on the Plains of Oklahoma and Northwest Texas" 2102: 962:

and other plants were also cultivated or gathered in the wild. Among the wild crops gathered the most important were probably berries to flavor

909:

Edenic world. On December 29 at Wounded Knee, gunfire erupted, and U.S. soldiers killed up to 300 Indians, mostly old men, women, and children.

1156: 1012:

With the arrival of the horse, some tribes, such as the Lakota and Cheyenne, gave up agriculture to become full-time, buffalo-hunting nomads.

989:

of today. Plains farmers developed short-season and drought resistant varieties of food plants. They did not use irrigation but were adept at

606: 2270: 1268:

in Kansas and Oklahoma lived in dispersed settlements with few defensive works. The Spanish initially had friendly contacts with the Apache (

4602: 3260: 3179: 3159: 1218:

which are only entrusted to prominent religious figures of a tribe, and passed down from keeper to keeper in each succeeding generation.

923: 440: 259: 1289:

called the Comanche "the greatest light cavalry on the earth" in the 19th century whose raids in Texas terrified the American settlers.

630:

existence and were captured by Native people. In all cases, the horse was adopted into their culture and herds multiplied. By 1659, the

4176: 723:

the north encouraged raiding and warfare in competition for the relatively small number of horses that survived the severe winters.

664: 1865: 3364: 3082: 4622: 3721: 3387: 2893: 1918:

The Journey of Coronado, 1540–1542, from the City of Mexico to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado and the Buffalo Plains of Texas

809:

to slaughter the herds, to deprive the Plains Indians of their source of food. This meant that the bison were hunted almost to

4026: 3169: 2841: 2384: 2305: 2031: 1952: 233: 148: 3767: 3382: 2593: 439:

The earliest people of the Great Plains mixed hunting and gathering wild plants. The cultures developed horticulture, then

120: 2098: 2019: 3759: 3201: 3149: 563: 2395:

Cary Michael Carney (1999). "Native American Higher Education in the United States". pp. 65-66. Transaction Publications

2340: 710:

This painting by Alfred Jacob Miller portrays Plains Indians chasing buffalo over a small cliff. The Walters Art Museum.

4627: 4566: 3506: 3133: 1896: 1850: 127: 4612: 4607: 3714: 3501: 3460: 3044: 3020: 3000: 2980: 2960: 2923: 2905: 2603: 2548: 2003: 675:. While the distribution of horses proceeded slowly northward on the Great Plains, it moved more rapidly through the 167: 3092: 3037:

The Plains Indians: A Cultural and Historical View of the North American Plains Tribes of the Pre-Reservation Period

973:

The first indisputable evidence of maize cultivation on the Great Plains is about 900 AD. The earliest farmers, the

703:. Soon afterward, pressure from Europeans and Euro-Americans on all sides and European diseases caused its decline. 4408: 4046: 3961: 3440: 3164: 3010: 2990: 2970: 2950: 2930: 2679: 876:

believed the Indians were destined to vanish under the pressure of white civilization, stating in an 1886 lecture:

763:

basis of the economies of the Plains tribes. Without bison, they were forced to move onto reservations or starve.

474: 4507: 3526: 3455: 3253: 900:, led to the U.S. Army's attempt to subdue the Lakota. The dance was part of a religious movement founded by the 101: 2248:(3). Western Historical Quarterly, Utah State University on behalf of The Western History Association: 112–338. 134: 4617: 4206: 4131: 3966: 3511: 3425: 3074: 2940: 105: 3491: 1834: 1755: 543:

and spread north and east into present-day Idaho and Wyoming. By 1500, some Eastern Shoshone had crossed the

17: 2865: 706: 42: 4483: 4246: 3496: 3430: 3206: 116: 4353: 4156: 3706: 1260:

This painting depicts the speed and violence of an encounter between the U.S. cavalry and Plains Indians.

498: 477:

was the first European to describe the Plains Indian culture. He encountered villages and cities of the

4471: 4455: 4276: 4251: 4221: 4166: 3976: 3541: 3246: 1337: 548: 184: 180: 2130: 4388: 4378: 4241: 4196: 3981: 3397: 3392: 3368: 2350: 1860: 1100: 974: 63: 38: 1264:

The earliest 16th-century Spanish explorers did not find the Plains Indians especially warlike. The

262:

have lived on the Great Plains for centuries prior to European contact, the region is known for the

4413: 4368: 4101: 3946: 3742: 3638: 3584: 3486: 3481: 3476: 3445: 3435: 3402: 3327: 857: 2628:

The Plains Cree: An ethnographic, historical and comparative study. Canadian Plains Studies No. 9.

2486: 1560: 4373: 4338: 4328: 4323: 4313: 4211: 4111: 4081: 4076: 4056: 4051: 3971: 2362:

For the sake of lasting peace, let them kill, skin and sell until the buffaloes are exterminated.

2267: 1388:(Nakawē), Manitoba, Minnesota and Ontario; later Alberta, British Columbia, Montana, Saskatchewan 845: 756: 743: 652: 240: 236: 94: 4592: 4495: 4403: 4333: 4191: 4071: 4066: 4041: 3516: 3450: 3343: 3322: 3098: 2646: 2410: 2297: 2084: 1299: 806: 789:, among others, spoke in favor of protecting the bison because he saw that the pressure on the 691:, the most northerly of the large Plains tribes, acquired horses in the 1730s. By 1770, Plains 641: 478: 2754: 1965: 4597: 4512: 4476: 4418: 4281: 4201: 4121: 3991: 3883: 3658: 2569: 2538: 1981: 1922: 1457: 1251: 885: 861: 578: 284: 70: 141: 4434: 4286: 4096: 3795: 3564: 3348: 2432: 2240:

Smits, David D. (1994). "The Frontier Army and the Destruction of the Buffalo: 1865-1883".

2160:

Osborn, Alan J. "Ecological Aspects of Equestrian Adaptation in Aboriginal North America."

1839: 1829: 1749: 822: 332: 3738: 1672:(Thítȟuŋwaŋ, Dwellers on the Prairies), Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Saskatchewan 431: 8: 4393: 4358: 4343: 4298: 4291: 4266: 4236: 4226: 4181: 4086: 3849: 3628: 3589: 3307: 3302: 3144: 2564: 1403: 1160: 312: 4571: 3675: 4116: 3780: 3623: 2460: 2452: 2374: 2257: 2122: 1729: 1524: 1512: 1349: 1150: 873: 841: 280: 3079: 466:

because they were easily disassembled and allowed the nomadic life of following game.

4161: 4151: 4136: 4061: 3996: 3898: 3269: 3040: 3016: 2996: 2976: 2956: 2936: 2919: 2901: 2599: 2544: 2494: 2464: 2380: 2301: 2287: 2027: 1999: 1948: 1892: 869: 599:

brought 7,000 head of livestock with him when he came north to establish a colony in

516: 255: 3070: 4488: 4091: 3888: 3857: 3690: 3663: 3619: 3614: 3569: 3377: 3353: 2444: 2293: 2249: 2114: 1643:, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Manitoba, Saskatchewan 1474: 1042: 1017: 990: 928: 794: 688: 512: 2896:

Native paths: American Indian art from the collection of Charles and Valerie Diker

2838: 1256: 888:

in 1890. In the years leading up to it the U.S. government had continued to seize

695:

was established, consisting of mounted bison-hunting nomads from Saskatchewan and

596: 4146: 3937: 3862: 3776: 3554: 3521: 3312: 3279: 3086: 2874: 2845: 2274: 1775: 1719: 1478: 1468: 1215: 1199: 901: 802: 785:

As the great herds began to wane, proposals to protect the bison were discussed.

738: 676: 660: 656: 544: 336: 247: 243: 211: 993:

and siting their fields to receive the maximum benefit of limited rainfall. The

4538: 4031: 4016: 4011: 3549: 1805: 1759: 1566: 1484: 1355: 1265: 1214:. In Plains cosmology, certain items may possess spiritual power, particularly 1207: 994: 986: 978: 967: 943: 716: 622: 535:(Teton Sioux) west onto the Great Plains in the mid- to late 17th century. The 520: 470: 459: 408: 396: 272: 813:

during the 19th century and were reduced to a few hundred by the early 1900s.

275:, although some tribes occasionally engaged in agriculture. These include the 4586: 4006: 3951: 3842: 3802: 3695: 3028:

Sturtevant, William C., general editor, and Bruce G. Trigger, volume editor.

2626:

thesis, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1996. Mandelbaum, David G. (1979).

2070:, 1542–1706. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2007 (reprint) pp. 296, 315 1765: 1681: 1669: 1640: 1590: 1462: 1438: 1409: 1341: 1321: 1312: 1304: 1293: 1164: 1073: 998: 982: 889: 692: 636: 631: 532: 424: 400: 384: 372: 360: 316: 308: 263: 219: 193: 188: 1982:

Emerging Infections: Microbial Threats to Health in the United States (1992)

1141: 69:"Buffalo culture" redirects here. For the culture of Buffalo, New York, see 4500: 3283: 3211: 3032:. Volume 15. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ASIN B000NOYRRA. 2345: 2053:

Haines, Francis. "The Northward Spread of Horses among the Plains Indians.

1855: 1608: 1578: 1572: 1451: 1413: 1367: 1308: 1286: 1203: 1069: 1002: 897: 853: 786: 567: 502: 452: 376: 320: 251: 215: 62:"Indigenous peoples of the Plains" redirects here. Not to be confused with 59:

Native Americans/First Nations peoples of the Great Plains of North America

3736: 2783: 1916: 582:

Spread of the horse. The black line defines the distribution of the bison.

4546: 3216: 2448: 2322:"The Slaughter of the Bison and Reversal of Fortunes on the Great Plains" 2080: 1791: 1711: 1646: 1536: 1518: 1375: 1345: 1184: 1146: 1125: 893: 832: 798: 680: 668: 540: 528: 448: 352: 300: 296: 2456: 1998:(3rd ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. pp. 290–370 (p.297). 1088: 801:" a federal bill to protect the dwindling bison herds. In 1875, General 769: 435:

Early Native American tribal territories color-coded by linguistic group

4530: 3818: 3633: 3579: 3545: 3536: 3531: 2523:

Schneider, Fred "Prehistoric Horticulture in the Northeastern Plains."

2376:

American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492

2126: 1699: 1602: 1584: 1542: 1433: 1333: 1239: 1180: 1176: 810: 700: 600: 380: 356: 2261: 2195:

Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1937, p. 160; Price, Catherine,

200: 4106: 3835: 3811: 3785: 1844: 1419: 1385: 1269: 1188: 1120: 1058: 1047: 1026: 955: 849: 752: 486: 404: 368: 328: 204: 3238: 2598:. Tucson: Southwest Parks and Monuments Association. pp. 9–11. 2118: 455:, became widespread in the south of the Great Plains around 700 CE. 83: 3922: 3914: 3906: 3875: 3828: 2253: 2212:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008, pp. 116, 317-319, 327 1809: 1785: 1779: 1705: 1693: 1687: 1506: 1492: 1031: 963: 778:

conditions. As a result, bison herds could delay a train for days.

611: 559: 552: 536: 506: 489:

in the Texas panhandle. The Querechos were the people later called

292: 288: 3670: 671:

in 1724, indicating that horses were still scarce among tribes in

570:

and Arikaras, a third of the Crows, and a quarter of the Pawnees.

1813: 1743: 1675: 1530: 1445: 1427: 1228: 1211: 1172: 951: 865: 790: 696: 684: 615: 519:

region. They were agriculturalists and may have been part of the

494: 482: 419: 348: 344: 340: 276: 3128: 2839:"Standing Tall: Plains Indians Enjoyed Height, Health Advantage" 1799: 1795: 1725: 1628: 1554: 1498: 1393: 1009:

also traded corn to the nomadic tribes for dried buffalo meat.

905: 672: 663:

in 1719, but they were still not plentiful. Another Frenchman,

524: 490: 392: 364: 2672:"Traditional Vs Progressive « Speak Without Interruption" 1945:

A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples.

1888:

Agricultural Prairies: Natural Resources and Crop Productivity

1430:(Arapahoe), formerly Colorado, currently Oklahoma and Wyoming 1370:

are often separated into Northern and Southern Plains tribes.

1064:

Before their adoption of guns, the Plains Indians hunted with

827: 626:

prohibitions against it. Other horses escaped captivity for a

207:

capturing wild horses with lassos, approximately July 16, 1834

1769: 1737: 1634: 1622: 1614: 1596: 1548: 1280:

of all the Plains Indians as warriors were the Comanche whom

1128:, headdresses with feathers, often of golden or bald eagles. 1065: 947: 939: 727: 645: 627: 444: 388: 304: 1914: 1356:

Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies

1053:

Although people of the Plains hunted other animals, such as

230:

Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies

3822: 3790: 3059:

Great Plains Indian Trading Networks before Lewis and Clark

1202:: "holy"), and go through many years of training to become 959: 896:

ritual on the Northern Lakota reservation at Wounded Knee,

742:

This map of the extermination of bison to 1889 is based on

463: 324: 3080:"American Indian Contributions To Science and Technology" 2289:

Cherokee Outlet Cowboy: Recollections of Laban S. Records

1054: 856:. Comanche power peaked in the 1840s when they conducted 2948: 1996:

First Peoples: A Documentary History of American History

3012:

The feathered sun: plains Indians in art and philosophy

2778: 2776: 1378:(Anishinape, Anicinape, Neshnabé, Nishnaabe) (see also 2891: 884:

Among the most notable events during the wars was the

603:. His horse herd included mares as well as stallions. 481:. While searching for a reputedly wealthy land called 3095:, South Dakota State Historical Society Education Kit 2928: 1005:

cultivated maize at the northern limit of its range.

977:

were probably Caddoan speakers, the ancestors of the

2773: 1362:

Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas

3575:

Riding Mountain Park East Gate Registration Complex

2918:. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. 2717:

Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975, p. 154

443:, as they settled in sedentary villages and towns. 108:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2103:"The Rise and Fall of Plains Indian Horse Culture" 1925:. New York: A.S. Barnes & Company. p. 112 2949:Lowie, Robert Harry; Raymond J. DeMallie (1982), 872:. Expressing the frontier anti-Indian sentiment, 860:hundreds of miles into Mexico proper, while also 4584: 3089:, Chris R. Landon, Portland Public Schools, 1993 2735: 2733: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2725: 2723: 2227:Wildlife issues in a changing world, 2nd edition 2199:Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 13-16 2193:Red Cloud's Folks: A History of the Oglala Sioux 1380:Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands 667:, could only buy seven at a high price from the 2702:Blood and Thunder: An Epic of the American West 2405: 2403: 2401: 1563:, North Dakota, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta 2867:Constitution of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma. 917: 3722: 3254: 3114: 3030:Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast 2720: 2565:"Bison Bellows: Indigenous Hunting Practices" 2049: 2047: 2045: 2043: 1348:of populations with their overall health and 523:during the 9th–12th centuries. Wars with the 2988: 2900:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2892:Berlo, Janet Catherine; et al. (1998). 2543:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 73. 2398: 2279: 2220: 2218: 1652:Sisíthuŋwaŋ (Swamp/lake/fish Scale Village) 1046:"Assiniboine hunting buffalo", painting by 924:Agriculture on the prehistoric Great Plains 562:by the time of the Louisiana Purchase. The 23: 3729: 3715: 3261: 3247: 3121: 3107: 3073:on the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, 2411:"Plains Humanities: Wounded Knee Massacre" 2097: 2040: 2018: 1910: 1908: 1515:, Montana, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba 515:speakers may have originated in the lower 24: 4177:Lesser Slave Lake Indian Regional Council 2929:Keyser, James D; Michael Klassen (2001), 2641: 2639: 2637: 2026:. Yale University Press. pp. 37–38. 733: 168:Learn how and when to remove this message 4262:Stoney Nakoda - Tsuut'ina Tribal Council 3071:Great Plains Indians Musical Instruments 2215: 1993: 1866:Spanish peace treaties with the Comanche 1298: 1255: 1155: 1140: 1041: 927: 826: 768: 737: 705: 648:of eastern Texas had a sizeable number. 605: 577: 430: 418: 210: 199: 179: 32:This is an accepted version of this page 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2591: 2557: 2491:Fire Effects Information System, Online 2379:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 48. 2338: 2332: 2285: 2233: 2224: 1947:Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. 1905: 1884: 1762:), Oklahoma, formerly Texas and Kansas 1637:(Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, Seven Council Fires) 1581:, Oklahoma, formerly Arkansas, Missouri 551:as far south as Texas, emerging as the 14: 4585: 3388:Montana valley and foothill grasslands 3008: 2968: 2811:(New York: Anchor Books, 1975), p. 12. 2634: 2595:A Guide to Contemporary Plains Indians 2536: 2389: 1782:), Oklahoma, formerly Texas and Kansas 1772:), Oklahoma, formerly Texas and Kansas 1448:(Arikaree, Arikari, Ree), North Dakota 1131: 4027:Confederacy of Treaty 6 First Nations 3710: 3268: 3242: 3102: 2537:Jordan, Julia A. (October 22, 2014). 2484: 2430: 2341:"Bison Back from Brink of Extinction" 2239: 1915:Pedro de Castañeda de Nájera (1904). 1816:, Oklahoma, formerly Texas and Kansas 1788:, Oklahoma, formerly Texas and Kansas 1752:, (Sarcee, Sarsi, Tsuut'ina), Alberta 1340:. This information is significant to 423:Bison hunt under the wolf-skin mask, 3383:Canadian aspen forests and parklands 2992:Dress Clothing of the Plains Indians 2851: 2339:Bergman, Brian (February 16, 2004). 2068:Spanish Exploration in the Southwest 1891:. Apple Academic Press. p. 50. 1307:Lawrence Hart, Darryl Flyingman and 1194:Certain people are considered to be 1083: 773:A pile of bison skulls in the 1870s. 746:'s late-nineteenth-century research. 106:adding citations to reliable sources 77: 4603:Indigenous peoples of North America 2715:Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds 1732:(Assiniboin), Montana, Saskatchewan 1664:Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna (Little End Village) 1539:(Ioway), Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma 1344:historians, who usually equate the 942:was the dominant crop, followed by 912: 564:1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic 458:Numerous Plains peoples hunted the 246:who have historically lived on the 56: 4567:List of Indian reserves in Alberta 2935:, University of Washington Press, 2884: 2752: 1851:Native American tribes in Nebraska 1587:(Oto), Oklahoma, formerly Missouri 485:in 1541, Coronado came across the 57: 4639: 3064: 2650:Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. 2164:, Nol. 85, No. 3 (Sept 1983), 566 1179:, while others tend more towards 687:had horses by about 1700 and the 3737: 3227: 3093:"Buffalo and the Plains Indians" 2995:, University of Oklahoma Press, 2955:, University of Nebraska Press, 2761:. University of Nebraska Lincoln 2759:Encyclopedia of the Great Plains 2704:New York: Doubleday, 2006, p. 34 2242:The Western Historical Quarterly 1969:Encyclopedia of the Great Plains 1545:(Kansa, Kanza), Kansas, Oklahoma 1087: 864:against the Anglo-Americans and 614:and his family with a horse and 82: 71:Buffalo, New York § Culture 2832: 2823: 2814: 2801: 2746: 2707: 2694: 2664: 2655: 2647:"Native American Gender Roles." 2619: 2585: 2530: 2517: 2508: 2478: 2424: 2367: 2314: 2202: 2185: 2176: 2167: 2154: 2145: 2091: 2073: 1984:". Institute of Medicine (IOM). 1521:(Absaroka, Apsáalooke), Montana 1221: 1149:at Pine Ridge. Illustration by 868:who had settled in independent 93:needs additional citations for 4132:Kee Tas Kee Now Tribal Council 3075:The Metropolitan Museum of Art 2431:Drass, Richard R. (Feb 2008). 2326:The Review of Economic Studies 2060: 2012: 1987: 1974: 1958: 1937: 1878: 816: 805:pleaded to a joint session of 726:The Lakota, also called Teton 13: 1: 4623:First Nations in Saskatchewan 3441:Writing-on-Stone / Áísínai'pi 3052: 2286:Records, Laban (March 1995). 2210:The War of a Thousand Deserts 1871: 1835:Plains Standard Sign Language 1756:Wichita and Affiliated Tribes 1631:, formerly Arkansas, Oklahoma 475:Francisco Vásquez de Coronado 4465:Not headquartered in Alberta 2848:, Jeff Grabmeier, Ohio State 2676:speakwithoutinterruption.com 2298:University of Oklahoma Press 2197:The Oglala People, 1841-1879 7: 4354:Western Cree Tribal Council 2989:Ronald Peter, Koch (1988), 2527:, 47 (180), 2002, pp. 33-50 2107:Journal of American History 1994:Calloway, Colin G. (2008). 1823: 1802:), Oklahoma, formerly Texas 1658:Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ (Leaf Village) 1481:(Aamsskáápipikani), Montana 1327: 1175:in nature, with aspects of 1136: 1079: 918:Agriculture and plant foods 655:found 300 horses among the 501:, and staple foods such as 499:Plains Indian Sign Language 10: 4644: 4456:Lubicon Lake Indian Nation 4222:North Peace Tribal Council 3134:Indigenous North Americans 2373:Thornton, Russell (1990). 1661:Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ (End Village) 1471:(Aapátohsipikáni), Alberta 1366:Indigenous peoples of the 1359: 1338:World Columbian Exposition 1272:) in the Texas Panhandle. 1249: 1245: 1037: 921: 820: 539:originated in the western 521:Mound Builder civilization 451:and spread north from the 414: 258:) of North America. While 68: 61: 4628:First Nations in Manitoba 4562: 4523: 4464: 4443: 4427: 4389:Yellowhead Tribal Council 4387: 4352: 4307: 4260: 4220: 4175: 4162:Whitefish Lake (Atikameg) 4130: 4077:Whitefish Lake (Goodfish) 4025: 3990: 3945: 3934: 3897: 3873: 3766: 3749: 3686: 3646: 3608: 3469: 3446:UNESCO Biosphere Reserves 3419:International recognition 3418: 3412:Parks and protected areas 3411: 3398:Northern short grasslands 3393:Northern mixed grasslands 3362: 3336: 3291:Physiographic sub-regions 3290: 3276: 3225: 3140: 3009:Schuon, Frithjof (1990), 2741:The Plains Wars 1757-1900 2540:Plains Apache Ethnobotany 2351:The Canadian Encyclopedia 1861:Southern Plains villagers 1655:Waȟpékhute (Leaf Archers) 975:Southern Plains villagers 573: 64:Plains Indigenous peoples 4613:Midwestern United States 4608:First Nations in Alberta 4444:Not federally recognized 3947:Athabasca Tribal Council 3743:First Nations in Alberta 3639:District of Saskatchewan 3403:Northern tall grasslands 3328:Rocky Mountain Foothills 3035:Taylor, Colin E. (1994) 2914:Carlson, Paul H. (1998) 2592:Strutin, Michal (1999). 2485:Fryer, Janet L. (2010). 2182:Hämäläinen (2008), 20–21 2173:Hämäläinen (2008), 10–15 2066:Bolton, Herbert Eugene. 1847:, Plains men's adornment 1465:(Káínaa, Blood), Alberta 699:southward nearly to the 260:hunting-farming cultures 39:latest accepted revision 2969:Marker, Sherry (2003), 2162:American Anthropologist 2055:American Anthropologist 1885:Krishna, K. R. (2015). 1072:, and various forms of 759:in Texas and Oklahoma. 751:ceremonies such as the 744:William Temple Hornaday 653:Claude Charles Du Tisne 479:Plains village cultures 4309:Tribal Chiefs Ventures 3768:Ethnolinguistic groups 3634:District of Assiniboia 3517:Cypress Hills Massacre 3015:, World Wisdom Books, 2932:Plains Indian Rock Art 2809:Crazy Horse and Custer 2784:"The Battle for Texas" 2743:, London: Osprey, 2003 2713:John, Elizabeth A. H. 2652:Retrieved 15 Oct 2013. 2151:Hämäläinen (2008), 7–8 2085:The Walters Art Museum 2057:, Vol 40, No. 3 (1988) 1964:Loether, Christopher. 1923:Winship, George Parker 1678:(Brulé, Burned Thighs) 1454:(Gros Ventre), Montana 1316: 1261: 1168: 1153: 1050: 934: 882: 836: 774: 747: 734:Slaughter of the bison 711: 619: 583: 436: 428: 222: 208: 197: 4618:Western United States 4247:Little Red River Cree 3992:Blackfoot Confederacy 3884:Blackfoot Confederacy 3659:Blackfoot Confederacy 2952:Indians of the Plains 2877:Retrieved 5 Dec 2012. 2570:National Park Service 2525:Plains Anthropologist 2437:Plains Anthropologist 1768:(also related to the 1649:(Spirit Lake Village) 1569:(Missouria), Oklahoma 1561:Métis people (Canada) 1360:Further information: 1302: 1259: 1252:Plains Indian warfare 1163:among the Mandan, by 1159: 1144: 1045: 1022:Pediomelum esculentum 931: 922:Further information: 886:Wounded Knee Massacre 878: 830: 772: 741: 709: 637:Pueblo Revolt of 1680 609: 581: 434: 422: 214: 203: 183: 3770:(by language family) 3654:Plains First Nations 3585:Rocky Mountain House 3426:World Heritage Sites 2682:on 22 September 2015 2449:10.1179/pan.2008.003 1840:Plains hide painting 1830:Comanche-Mexico Wars 1684:(Scatters Their Own) 1625:, Nebraska, Oklahoma 1495:, Montana, Oklahoma 1487:(Siksikáwa), Alberta 823:American Indian Wars 715:Plains south of the 651:The French explorer 102:improve this article 3962:Athabasca Chipewyan 3935:Tribal councils and 3629:District of Alberta 3303:Manitoba Escarpment 2225:Moulton, M (1995). 2133:on 28 February 2009 2024:The Comanche Empire 1943:Pritzker, Barry M. 1690:(Sans Arc, No Bows) 1501:, Montana, Oklahoma 1406:, New Mexico, Texas 1132:Society and culture 29:Page version status 4451:Aseniwuche Winewak 3647:Indigenous peoples 3624:Selkirk Concession 3367:) and ecoregions ( 3308:Saskatchewan Plain 3085:2008-10-29 at the 2972:Plains Indian Wars 2916:The Plains Indians 2873:2013-10-07 at the 2844:2007-03-03 at the 2807:Ambrose, Stephen, 2739:Robinson, Charles 2645:Wishart, David J. 2487:"Prunus americana" 2273:2020-07-06 at the 1350:standard of living 1317: 1303:Southern Cheyenne 1262: 1169: 1154: 1151:Frederic Remington 1099:. You can help by 1051: 935: 874:Theodore Roosevelt 837: 775: 748: 712: 683:. The Shoshone in 620: 610:Stump Horn of the 584: 447:, originally from 437: 429: 223: 209: 198: 35: 4580: 4579: 4558: 4557: 4551: 4543: 4535: 4516: 4504: 4492: 4480: 4397: 4362: 4317: 4270: 4230: 4185: 4152:Lubicon Lake Band 4140: 4035: 4000: 3967:Chipewyan Prairie 3955: 3927: 3919: 3911: 3899:Numbered Treaties 3704: 3703: 3598: 3597: 3349:Qu'Appelle Valley 3337:Physical features 3282:, shared with US 3270:Canadian Prairies 3236: 3235: 3180:Eastern Woodlands 2975:, Facts On File, 2573:. 6 November 2016 2495:US Forest Service 2385:978-0-8061-2220-5 2307:978-0-8061-2694-4 2099:Hämäläinen, Pekka 2081:"Hunting Buffalo" 2033:978-0-300-12654-9 2020:Hämäläinen, Pekka 1953:978-0-19-513877-1 1722:(Stoney), Alberta 1708:(Blackfoot Sioux) 1509:, Oklahoma, Texas 1145:An Oglala Lakota 1117: 1116: 904:spiritual leader 858:large-scale raids 787:Buffalo Bill Cody 644:of Texas and the 517:Mississippi River 256:Canadian Prairies 178: 177: 170: 152: 26: 16:(Redirected from 4635: 4572:Métis in Alberta 4549: 4541: 4533: 4510: 4498: 4486: 4474: 4391: 4356: 4324:Beaver Lake Cree 4314:Beaver Lake Cree 4311: 4264: 4224: 4179: 4134: 4052:Beaver Lake Cree 4029: 3994: 3949: 3943: 3942: 3938:band governments 3925: 3917: 3909: 3889:Iron Confederacy 3741: 3731: 3724: 3717: 3708: 3707: 3691:Geography portal 3676:Métis in Alberta 3664:Iron Confederacy 3620:Red River Colony 3609:Historic regions 3570:Lower Fort Garry 3527:Fort Livingstone 3416: 3415: 3378:Prairies Ecozone 3354:Red River Valley 3263: 3256: 3249: 3240: 3239: 3231: 3230: 3123: 3116: 3109: 3100: 3099: 3025: 3005: 2985: 2965: 2945: 2911: 2878: 2862: 2849: 2836: 2830: 2827: 2821: 2818: 2812: 2805: 2799: 2798: 2796: 2795: 2780: 2771: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2750: 2744: 2737: 2718: 2711: 2705: 2700:Sides, Hampton. 2698: 2692: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2678:. Archived from 2668: 2662: 2659: 2653: 2643: 2632: 2623: 2617: 2616: 2614: 2612: 2589: 2583: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2561: 2555: 2554: 2534: 2528: 2521: 2515: 2512: 2506: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2482: 2476: 2475: 2473: 2471: 2428: 2422: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2407: 2396: 2393: 2387: 2371: 2365: 2364: 2359: 2357: 2336: 2330: 2329: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2294:Norman, Oklahoma 2283: 2277: 2265: 2237: 2231: 2230: 2222: 2213: 2206: 2200: 2191:Hyde, George E. 2189: 2183: 2180: 2174: 2171: 2165: 2158: 2152: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2129:. Archived from 2095: 2089: 2088: 2077: 2071: 2064: 2058: 2051: 2038: 2037: 2016: 2010: 2009: 1991: 1985: 1978: 1972: 1962: 1956: 1941: 1935: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1921:. Translated by 1912: 1903: 1902: 1882: 1647:Bdewékhaŋthuŋwaŋ 1216:medicine bundles 1112: 1109: 1091: 1084: 1018:Indian breadroot 991:water harvesting 913:Material culture 795:Ulysses S. Grant 689:Blackfoot people 497:pulled by dogs, 244:band governments 173: 166: 162: 159: 153: 151: 117:"Plains Indians" 110: 86: 78: 47:1 September 2024 21: 4643: 4642: 4638: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4633: 4632: 4583: 4582: 4581: 4576: 4554: 4519: 4508:Smith's Landing 4460: 4439: 4423: 4383: 4348: 4303: 4256: 4216: 4171: 4147:Loon River Cree 4126: 4067:Ermineskin Cree 4021: 3986: 3936: 3930: 3893: 3869: 3762: 3745: 3735: 3705: 3700: 3682: 3642: 3604: 3594: 3555:Frenchman Butte 3522:Fort Battleford 3492:Riding Mountain 3465: 3461:Riding Mountain 3431:Head-Smashed-In 3407: 3358: 3332: 3313:Missouri Coteau 3286: 3280:Interior plains 3272: 3267: 3237: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3155:Northwest Coast 3136: 3127: 3087:Wayback Machine 3067: 3055: 3050: 3023: 3003: 2983: 2963: 2943: 2908: 2887: 2885:Further reading 2882: 2881: 2875:Wayback Machine 2863: 2852: 2846:Wayback Machine 2837: 2833: 2829:Ambrose, p. 243 2828: 2824: 2819: 2815: 2806: 2802: 2793: 2791: 2782: 2781: 2774: 2764: 2762: 2751: 2747: 2738: 2721: 2712: 2708: 2699: 2695: 2685: 2683: 2670: 2669: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2644: 2635: 2624: 2620: 2610: 2608: 2606: 2590: 2586: 2576: 2574: 2563: 2562: 2558: 2551: 2535: 2531: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2509: 2499: 2497: 2483: 2479: 2469: 2467: 2429: 2425: 2415: 2413: 2409: 2408: 2399: 2394: 2390: 2372: 2368: 2355: 2353: 2337: 2333: 2320: 2319: 2315: 2308: 2284: 2280: 2275:Wayback Machine 2268:history.msu.edu 2238: 2234: 2223: 2216: 2207: 2203: 2190: 2186: 2181: 2177: 2172: 2168: 2159: 2155: 2150: 2146: 2136: 2134: 2119:10.2307/3660878 2096: 2092: 2079: 2078: 2074: 2065: 2061: 2052: 2041: 2034: 2017: 2013: 2006: 1992: 1988: 1979: 1975: 1963: 1959: 1942: 1938: 1928: 1926: 1913: 1906: 1899: 1883: 1879: 1874: 1826: 1821: 1479:Southern Piegan 1469:Northern Peigan 1420:Querecho Apache 1364: 1358: 1330: 1254: 1248: 1224: 1139: 1134: 1113: 1107: 1104: 1097:needs expansion 1082: 1040: 1024:). Indian tea ( 926: 920: 915: 902:Northern Paiute 846:Great Sioux War 825: 819: 803:Philip Sheridan 736: 677:Rocky Mountains 661:Verdigris River 576: 545:Rocky Mountains 513:Siouan language 417: 337:Nakoda (Stoney) 248:Interior Plains 234:Native American 192: 174: 163: 157: 154: 111: 109: 99: 87: 74: 67: 60: 55: 54: 53: 52: 51: 50: 34: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4641: 4631: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4578: 4577: 4575: 4574: 4569: 4563: 4560: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4552: 4544: 4536: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4517: 4505: 4493: 4481: 4468: 4466: 4462: 4461: 4459: 4458: 4453: 4447: 4445: 4441: 4440: 4438: 4437: 4431: 4429: 4425: 4424: 4422: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4400: 4398: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4365: 4363: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4320: 4318: 4305: 4304: 4302: 4301: 4296: 4295: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4273: 4271: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4233: 4231: 4218: 4217: 4215: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4188: 4186: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4157:Peerless Trout 4154: 4149: 4143: 4141: 4128: 4127: 4125: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4038: 4036: 4023: 4022: 4020: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4003: 4001: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3958: 3956: 3940: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3928: 3920: 3912: 3903: 3901: 3895: 3894: 3892: 3891: 3886: 3880: 3878: 3871: 3870: 3868: 3867: 3866: 3865: 3855: 3854: 3853: 3846: 3839: 3832: 3816: 3815: 3814: 3809: 3808: 3807: 3800: 3788: 3773: 3771: 3764: 3763: 3752:Cultural areas 3750: 3747: 3746: 3734: 3733: 3726: 3719: 3711: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3698: 3693: 3687: 3684: 3683: 3681: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3668: 3667: 3666: 3661: 3650: 3648: 3644: 3643: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3617: 3612: 3610: 3606: 3605: 3603: 3602: 3599: 3596: 3595: 3593: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3550:Fort Gibraltar 3539: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3519: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3502:Historic Sites 3499: 3497:Waterton Lakes 3494: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3473: 3471: 3467: 3466: 3464: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3422: 3420: 3413: 3409: 3408: 3406: 3405: 3400: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3374: 3372: 3360: 3359: 3357: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3340: 3338: 3334: 3333: 3331: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3300: 3298:Manitoba Plain 3294: 3292: 3288: 3287: 3278:Sub-region of 3277: 3274: 3273: 3266: 3265: 3258: 3251: 3243: 3234: 3233: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3221: 3220: 3219: 3214: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3193: 3192: 3187: 3177: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3141: 3138: 3137: 3130:Cultural areas 3126: 3125: 3118: 3111: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3090: 3077: 3066: 3065:External links 3063: 3062: 3061: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3048: 3033: 3026: 3021: 3006: 3001: 2986: 2981: 2966: 2961: 2946: 2941: 2926: 2912: 2906: 2888: 2886: 2883: 2880: 2879: 2850: 2831: 2822: 2820:Ambrose, p. 66 2813: 2800: 2790:. 17 June 2010 2772: 2753:Eifler, Mark. 2745: 2719: 2706: 2693: 2663: 2654: 2633: 2618: 2604: 2584: 2556: 2549: 2529: 2516: 2507: 2477: 2423: 2397: 2388: 2366: 2331: 2313: 2306: 2278: 2254:10.2307/971110 2232: 2214: 2208:DeLay, Brian, 2201: 2184: 2175: 2166: 2153: 2144: 2113:(3): 833–862. 2090: 2072: 2059: 2039: 2032: 2011: 2004: 1986: 1973: 1957: 1936: 1904: 1898:978-1771880503 1897: 1876: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1869: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1819: 1818: 1817: 1806:Wichita proper 1803: 1789: 1783: 1773: 1753: 1747: 1741: 1735: 1734: 1733: 1723: 1717: 1716: 1715: 1709: 1703: 1697: 1691: 1685: 1679: 1667: 1666: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1632: 1626: 1620: 1619: 1618: 1612: 1606: 1600: 1588: 1582: 1576: 1570: 1564: 1558: 1557:, North Dakota 1552: 1546: 1540: 1534: 1533:, North Dakota 1528: 1522: 1516: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1490: 1489: 1488: 1482: 1472: 1466: 1455: 1449: 1443: 1442: 1441: 1436: 1425: 1424: 1423: 1417: 1407: 1391: 1390: 1389: 1372: 1357: 1354: 1342:anthropometric 1329: 1326: 1250:Main article: 1247: 1244: 1223: 1220: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1115: 1114: 1094: 1092: 1081: 1078: 1039: 1036: 968:Prairie Turnip 919: 916: 914: 911: 821:Main article: 818: 815: 735: 732: 717:Arkansas River 642:Colorado River 623:Pueblo Indians 618:, c. 1871–1907 575: 572: 460:American bison 416: 413: 409:Yankton Dakota 357:Kaw (or Kansa) 273:American bison 264:horse cultures 226:Plains Indians 176: 175: 90: 88: 81: 58: 36: 30: 27: 25: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4640: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4593:Plains tribes 4591: 4590: 4588: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4564: 4561: 4548: 4545: 4540: 4537: 4532: 4529: 4528: 4526: 4522: 4514: 4509: 4506: 4502: 4497: 4494: 4490: 4485: 4482: 4478: 4473: 4472:Acho Dene Koe 4470: 4469: 4467: 4463: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4448: 4446: 4442: 4436: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4426: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4401: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4380: 4379:Sturgeon Lake 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4366: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4321: 4319: 4315: 4310: 4306: 4300: 4297: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4279: 4278: 4277:Stoney Nakoda 4275: 4274: 4272: 4268: 4263: 4259: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4228: 4223: 4219: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4189: 4187: 4183: 4178: 4174: 4168: 4167:Woodland Cree 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4144: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4039: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4004: 4002: 3998: 3993: 3989: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3977:Fort McMurray 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3959: 3957: 3953: 3952:Fort McMurray 3948: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3933: 3924: 3921: 3916: 3913: 3908: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3896: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3872: 3864: 3861: 3860: 3859: 3856: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3845: 3844: 3840: 3838: 3837: 3833: 3831: 3830: 3826: 3825: 3824: 3820: 3817: 3813: 3810: 3806: 3805: 3801: 3799: 3798: 3794: 3793: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3784: 3783: 3782: 3778: 3775: 3774: 3772: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3732: 3727: 3725: 3720: 3718: 3713: 3712: 3709: 3697: 3696:Canada portal 3694: 3692: 3689: 3688: 3685: 3677: 3674: 3673: 3672: 3669: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3656: 3655: 3652: 3651: 3649: 3645: 3640: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3621: 3618: 3616: 3615:Rupert's Land 3613: 3611: 3607: 3601: 3600: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3565:Linear Mounds 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3523: 3520: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3510: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3500: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3474: 3472: 3468: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3456:Redberry Lake 3454: 3452: 3449: 3447: 3444: 3442: 3439: 3437: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3423: 3421: 3417: 3414: 3410: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3366: 3361: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3323:Cypress Hills 3321: 3319: 3318:Alberta Plain 3316: 3314: 3311: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3295: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3275: 3271: 3264: 3259: 3257: 3252: 3250: 3245: 3244: 3241: 3218: 3215: 3213: 3210: 3209: 3208: 3205: 3203: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3191: 3188: 3186: 3183: 3182: 3181: 3178: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3168: 3166: 3163: 3161: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3151: 3148: 3146: 3143: 3142: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3124: 3119: 3117: 3112: 3110: 3105: 3104: 3101: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3084: 3081: 3078: 3076: 3072: 3069: 3068: 3060: 3057: 3056: 3046: 3045:0-517-14250-3 3042: 3038: 3034: 3031: 3027: 3024: 3022:0-941532-10-0 3018: 3014: 3013: 3007: 3004: 3002:0-8061-2137-8 2998: 2994: 2993: 2987: 2984: 2982:0-8160-4931-9 2978: 2974: 2973: 2967: 2964: 2962:0-8032-2858-9 2958: 2954: 2953: 2947: 2944: 2938: 2934: 2933: 2927: 2925: 2924:0-89096-828-4 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2907:9780870998560 2903: 2899: 2898: 2895: 2890: 2889: 2876: 2872: 2869: 2868: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2847: 2843: 2840: 2835: 2826: 2817: 2810: 2804: 2789: 2788:The Economist 2785: 2779: 2777: 2760: 2756: 2749: 2742: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2724: 2716: 2710: 2703: 2697: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2667: 2658: 2651: 2648: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2629: 2622: 2607: 2605:9781877856808 2601: 2597: 2596: 2588: 2572: 2571: 2566: 2560: 2552: 2550:9780806185811 2546: 2542: 2541: 2533: 2526: 2520: 2511: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2481: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2427: 2412: 2406: 2404: 2402: 2392: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2377: 2370: 2363: 2352: 2348: 2347: 2342: 2335: 2327: 2323: 2317: 2309: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2290: 2282: 2276: 2272: 2269: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2236: 2228: 2221: 2219: 2211: 2205: 2198: 2194: 2188: 2179: 2170: 2163: 2157: 2148: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2094: 2086: 2082: 2076: 2069: 2063: 2056: 2050: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2035: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2015: 2007: 2005:9780312453732 2001: 1997: 1990: 1983: 1977: 1970: 1967: 1961: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1940: 1924: 1920: 1919: 1911: 1909: 1900: 1894: 1890: 1889: 1881: 1877: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1849: 1846: 1843: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1833: 1831: 1828: 1827: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1790: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1777: 1774: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1763: 1761: 1757: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1745: 1742: 1739: 1736: 1731: 1727: 1724: 1721: 1718: 1714:(Two Kettles) 1713: 1710: 1707: 1704: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1673: 1671: 1668: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1644: 1642: 1639: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1616: 1613: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1565: 1562: 1559: 1556: 1553: 1550: 1547: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1500: 1497: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1486: 1483: 1480: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1463:Kainai Nation 1461: 1460: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1447: 1444: 1440: 1439:Nawathinehena 1437: 1435: 1432: 1431: 1429: 1426: 1421: 1418: 1415: 1411: 1410:Plains Apache 1408: 1405: 1402: 1401: 1399: 1395: 1392: 1387: 1384: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1374: 1373: 1371: 1369: 1363: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1325: 1323: 1314: 1313:Oklahoma City 1310: 1306: 1301: 1297: 1295: 1294:counting coup 1290: 1288: 1283: 1282:The Economist 1277: 1273: 1271: 1267: 1258: 1253: 1243: 1241: 1238:frontiersman 1235: 1232: 1230: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1166: 1165:George Catlin 1162: 1158: 1152: 1148: 1143: 1129: 1127: 1122: 1111: 1102: 1098: 1095:This section 1093: 1090: 1086: 1085: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1049: 1044: 1035: 1034:reservation. 1033: 1029: 1028: 1023: 1019: 1013: 1010: 1006: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 976: 971: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 930: 925: 910: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 881: 877: 875: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 834: 829: 824: 814: 812: 808: 804: 800: 799:pocket vetoed 796: 792: 788: 783: 779: 771: 767: 764: 760: 758: 754: 745: 740: 731: 729: 724: 720: 718: 708: 704: 702: 698: 694: 693:horse culture 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 649: 647: 643: 638: 633: 629: 624: 617: 613: 608: 604: 602: 598: 597:Juan de Oñate 592: 588: 580: 571: 569: 565: 561: 556: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 467: 465: 461: 456: 454: 450: 446: 442: 433: 426: 425:George Catlin 421: 412: 410: 406: 402: 401:Santee Dakota 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 329:Plains Ojibwe 326: 322: 318: 317:Plains Apache 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 268: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 242: 238: 235: 231: 227: 221: 217: 213: 206: 202: 195: 194:George Catlin 190: 186: 185:Stumickosúcks 182: 172: 169: 161: 150: 147: 143: 140: 136: 133: 129: 126: 122: 119: – 118: 114: 113:Find sources: 107: 103: 97: 96: 91:This article 89: 85: 80: 79: 76: 72: 65: 48: 44: 40: 33: 28: 19: 18:Plains Tribes 4598:Great Plains 4428:Unaffiliated 4344:Kehewin Cree 4207:Sucker Creek 4087:Kehewin Cree 3982:Mikisew Cree 3848: 3841: 3834: 3827: 3803: 3796: 3755: 3653: 3451:Beaver Hills 3344:Beaver Hills 3284:Great Plains 3212:Aridoamerica 3190:Southeastern 3185:Northeastern 3174: 3039:. Crescent. 3036: 3029: 3011: 2991: 2971: 2951: 2931: 2915: 2897: 2894: 2866: 2864:"Preamble." 2834: 2825: 2816: 2808: 2803: 2792:. Retrieved 2787: 2763:. Retrieved 2758: 2748: 2740: 2714: 2709: 2701: 2696: 2686:10 September 2684:. Retrieved 2680:the original 2675: 2666: 2657: 2649: 2627: 2621: 2609:. Retrieved 2594: 2587: 2575:. Retrieved 2568: 2559: 2539: 2532: 2524: 2519: 2514:Drass, p. 12 2510: 2498:. Retrieved 2490: 2480: 2468:. Retrieved 2440: 2436: 2426: 2414:. Retrieved 2391: 2375: 2369: 2361: 2354:. Retrieved 2344: 2334: 2325: 2316: 2288: 2281: 2245: 2241: 2235: 2229:. CRC Press. 2226: 2209: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2178: 2169: 2161: 2156: 2147: 2135:. Retrieved 2131:the original 2110: 2106: 2093: 2075: 2067: 2062: 2054: 2023: 2014: 1995: 1989: 1976: 1968: 1966:"Shoshones." 1960: 1944: 1939: 1927:. Retrieved 1917: 1887: 1880: 1856:Buffalo jump 1702:(Miniconjou) 1609:Pitahawirata 1414:Kiowa Apache 1404:Lipan Apache 1368:Great Plains 1365: 1331: 1318: 1309:Harvey Pratt 1291: 1287:S. C. Gwynne 1281: 1278: 1274: 1263: 1236: 1233: 1225: 1222:Gender roles 1204:medicine men 1195: 1193: 1170: 1118: 1105: 1101:adding to it 1096: 1063: 1052: 1025: 1021: 1014: 1011: 1007: 1003:North Dakota 972: 936: 898:South Dakota 883: 879: 854:Colorado War 838: 784: 780: 776: 765: 761: 749: 725: 721: 713: 650: 621: 593: 589: 585: 568:Assiniboines 557: 529:Cree peoples 511: 468: 457: 438: 321:Kiowa Apache 269: 267:everywhere. 252:Great Plains 241:First Nation 229: 225: 224: 220:Lakota Sioux 216:Spotted Tail 164: 155: 145: 138: 131: 124: 112: 100:Please help 95:verification 92: 75: 46: 37:This is the 31: 4117:Samson Cree 4112:Saddle Lake 3874:Historical 3836:Dënesųłı̨ne 3542:Forts Rouge 3507:Bar U Ranch 3217:Mesoamerica 3170:Great Basin 2577:8 September 2470:8 September 2443:(205): 12. 2137:8 September 1929:8 September 1760:Kitikiti'sh 1730:Assiniboine 1593:, Oklahoma 1525:Escanjaques 1513:Plains Cree 1416:), Oklahoma 1376:Anishinaabe 1185:panentheism 1147:Ghost Dance 1126:war bonnets 894:Ghost Dance 833:Ghost Dance 817:Indian Wars 681:Great Basin 541:Great Basin 531:pushed the 449:Mesoamerica 441:agriculture 325:Plains Cree 301:Gros Ventre 281:Assiniboine 4587:Categories 4531:Papaschase 4524:Terminated 4496:Onion Lake 4484:Kelly Lake 4394:Morinville 4374:Horse Lake 4359:Valleyview 4339:Heart Lake 4227:High Level 4212:Swan River 4182:Slave Lake 4092:Louis Bull 4082:Heart Lake 4062:Enoch Cree 3972:Fort McKay 3819:Athapascan 3781:Algonquian 3580:Riel House 3546:Fort Garry 3537:Fort Walsh 3532:Fort Pelly 3487:Grasslands 3482:Elk Island 3363:Ecozones ( 3165:California 2942:029598094X 2794:2016-11-30 2356:August 19, 1872:References 1750:Tsuu T'ina 1746:, Oklahoma 1700:Mnikȟówožu 1696:(Hunkpapa) 1617:, Oklahoma 1611:, Oklahoma 1605:, Oklahoma 1603:Kitkehakhi 1599:, Oklahoma 1575:, Nebraska 1551:, Oklahoma 1527:, Oklahoma 1434:Besawunena 1396:(see also 1334:Franz Boas 1240:Kit Carson 1181:monotheism 1177:polytheism 1161:Rainmaking 842:Dakota War 811:extinction 701:Rio Grande 601:New Mexico 555:by 1700. 399:, and the 128:newspapers 66:of Taiwan. 4539:Sharphead 4404:Alexander 4334:Frog Lake 4329:Cold Lake 4299:Tsuut'ina 4267:Tsuut'ina 4242:Dene Tha' 4197:Kapawe'no 4192:Driftpile 4072:Frog Lake 4057:Cold Lake 4042:Alexander 3850:Tsuut'ina 3843:Dene Tha' 3812:Saulteaux 3786:Blackfoot 3760:Subarctic 3590:The Forks 3560:Frog Lake 3202:Caribbean 3197:Southwest 3150:Subarctic 2465:162889821 2416:August 9, 2346:Maclean's 1955:. p. 329. 1845:Hair drop 1712:Oóhenuŋpa 1694:Húŋkpapȟa 1688:Itázipčho 1475:Blackfeet 1458:Blackfoot 1398:Southwest 1386:Saulteaux 1270:Querechos 1189:Sun Dance 1121:moccasins 1108:June 2013 1059:pronghorn 1048:Paul Kane 1027:lespedeza 956:sunflower 892:lands. A 850:Snake War 757:Red River 753:Sun Dance 665:Bourgmont 487:Querechos 473:explorer 453:Southwest 427:, c. 1832 405:Yanktonai 369:Missouria 285:Blackfoot 205:Comanches 4435:Bigstone 4419:Sunchild 4414:O'Chiese 4369:Duncan's 4282:Bearspaw 4252:Tallcree 4202:Sawridge 4137:Atikameg 4122:Sunchild 4102:O'Chiese 3997:Standoff 3923:Treaty 8 3915:Treaty 7 3907:Treaty 6 3876:polities 3804:Woodland 3470:National 3436:Dinosaur 3083:Archived 3053:See also 2871:Archived 2842:Archived 2661:Price 19 2611:27 April 2457:25670974 2271:Archived 2101:(2003). 2022:(2008). 1824:See also 1810:Guichita 1786:Tawakoni 1780:Tawehash 1776:Taovayas 1706:Sihásapa 1676:Sičháŋǧu 1567:Missouri 1507:Comanche 1493:Cheyenne 1336:for the 1328:Research 1229:pow wows 1137:Religion 1080:Clothing 1032:Oklahoma 966:and the 964:pemmican 807:Congress 679:and the 612:Cheyenne 560:smallpox 553:Comanche 549:migrated 537:Shoshone 507:pemmican 293:Comanche 289:Cheyenne 232:are the 158:May 2015 43:reviewed 4287:Chiniki 4097:Montana 4017:Siksika 4012:Piikani 3829:Daneẕaa 3512:Batoche 3160:Plateau 2765:19 June 2755:"Trade" 2328:. 2023. 2127:3660878 1814:Rayados 1744:Tonkawa 1740:, Texas 1531:Hidatsa 1485:Siksika 1446:Arikara 1428:Arapaho 1422:, Texas 1266:Wichita 1246:Warfare 1212:regalia 1173:animist 1167:, 1830s 1038:Hunting 995:Hidatsa 987:Arikara 979:Wichita 952:Tobacco 866:Tejanos 862:warring 791:species 697:Alberta 685:Wyoming 659:on the 657:Wichita 616:travois 495:travois 483:Quivira 471:Spanish 415:History 397:Wichita 349:Hidatsa 345:Arikara 341:Tonkawa 277:Arapaho 218:of the 187:of the 142:scholar 4550:(1958) 4547:Michel 4542:(1897) 4534:(1891) 4409:Alexis 4292:Wesley 4237:Beaver 4047:Alexis 4007:Kainai 3926:(1899) 3918:(1877) 3910:(1876) 3863:Nakoda 3858:Siouan 3797:Plains 3756:Plains 3548:, and 3207:Mexico 3175:Plains 3145:Arctic 3043: 3019: 2999: 2979: 2959: 2939: 2922: 2904: 2631:Press. 2602: 2547: 2500:12 Dec 2463: 2455: 2383: 2304: 2262:971110 2260: 2125: 2030: 2002: 1951: 1895: 1800:Yscani 1796:Iscani 1766:Kichai 1726:Nakota 1720:Nakoda 1682:Oglála 1670:Lakota 1641:Dakota 1629:Quapaw 1591:Pawnee 1555:Mandan 1499:Suhtai 1452:Atsina 1394:Apache 1346:height 1315:, 2008 1305:Chiefs 1200:Lakota 1066:spears 999:Mandan 985:, and 983:Pawnee 944:squash 933:hides. 906:Wovoka 890:Lakota 673:Kansas 632:Navajo 574:Horses 533:Lakota 525:Ojibwe 491:Apache 393:Quapaw 385:Pawnee 365:Mandan 361:Kitsai 339:, and 309:Lakota 237:tribes 196:, 1832 189:Kainai 144: 137: 130: 123: 115: 4032:Enoch 3777:Algic 3671:Métis 3477:Parks 2461:S2CID 2453:JSTOR 2266:PDF: 2258:JSTOR 2123:JSTOR 1770:Caddo 1738:Teyas 1635:Sioux 1623:Ponca 1615:Skidi 1597:Chaui 1579:Osage 1573:Omaha 1549:Kiowa 1208:women 1196:wakan 1124:wear 1074:clubs 960:plums 948:beans 870:Texas 728:Sioux 646:Caddo 628:feral 503:jerky 464:tipis 445:Maize 389:Ponca 377:Osage 373:Omaha 333:Sarsi 313:Lipan 305:Kiowa 250:(the 149:JSTOR 135:books 4107:Paul 3823:Dene 3791:Cree 3041:ISBN 3017:ISBN 2997:ISBN 2977:ISBN 2957:ISBN 2937:ISBN 2920:ISBN 2902:ISBN 2767:2021 2688:2015 2613:2016 2600:ISBN 2579:2020 2545:ISBN 2502:2012 2472:2020 2418:2016 2381:ISBN 2358:2019 2302:ISBN 2139:2020 2028:ISBN 2000:ISBN 1949:ISBN 1931:2020 1893:ISBN 1792:Waco 1585:Otoe 1537:Iowa 1519:Crow 1070:bows 997:and 946:and 940:Corn 852:and 831:The 527:and 505:and 469:The 407:and 381:Otoe 353:Iowa 319:(or 297:Crow 254:and 239:and 121:news 3369:WWF 3365:CEC 3132:of 2445:doi 2250:doi 2115:doi 1543:Kaw 1322:bow 1311:in 1206:or 1183:or 1103:. 1057:or 1055:elk 1001:of 669:Kaw 323:), 228:or 104:by 45:on 4589:: 4513:NT 4501:SK 4489:BC 4477:NT 3821:/ 3779:/ 3758:, 3754:: 3544:, 2853:^ 2786:. 2775:^ 2757:. 2722:^ 2674:. 2636:^ 2567:. 2493:. 2489:. 2459:. 2451:. 2441:53 2439:. 2435:. 2400:^ 2360:. 2349:. 2343:. 2324:. 2300:. 2296:: 2292:. 2256:. 2246:25 2244:. 2217:^ 2121:. 2111:90 2109:. 2105:. 2083:. 2042:^ 1907:^ 1812:, 1808:, 1798:, 1728:, 1477:, 1400:) 1382:) 1352:. 1068:, 981:, 970:. 958:, 954:, 950:. 848:, 844:, 509:. 411:. 403:, 395:, 391:, 387:, 383:, 379:, 375:, 371:, 367:, 363:, 359:, 355:, 351:, 347:, 335:, 331:, 327:, 315:, 311:, 307:, 303:, 299:, 295:, 291:, 287:, 283:, 279:, 191:. 41:, 4515:) 4511:( 4503:) 4499:( 4491:) 4487:( 4479:) 4475:( 4396:) 4392:( 4361:) 4357:( 4316:) 4312:( 4269:) 4265:( 4229:) 4225:( 4184:) 4180:( 4139:) 4135:( 4034:) 4030:( 3999:) 3995:( 3954:) 3950:( 3730:e 3723:t 3716:v 3622:/ 3371:) 3262:e 3255:t 3248:v 3122:e 3115:t 3108:v 3047:. 2910:. 2797:. 2769:. 2690:. 2615:. 2581:. 2553:. 2504:. 2474:. 2447:: 2420:. 2310:. 2264:. 2252:: 2141:. 2117:: 2087:. 2036:. 2008:. 1980:" 1971:. 1933:. 1901:. 1794:( 1778:( 1758:( 1412:( 1198:( 1110:) 1106:( 1020:( 797:" 171:) 165:( 160:) 156:( 146:· 139:· 132:· 125:· 98:. 73:. 49:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index