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micro-projectile bombardment, which wounds the tissue. Wounding of the target tissue causes the release of phenolic compounds by the plant, which induces invasion of the tissue by
Agrobacterium. Because of this, microprojectile bombardment often increases the efficiency of infection with Agrobacterium. The marker is used to find the organism which has successfully taken up the desired gene. Tissues of the organism are then transferred to a medium containing an
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this is less of a problem. Polyploid individuals are created frequently by a variety of processes; however, once created, they usually cannot cross back to the parental type. Polyploid individuals that are capable of self-fertilizing can give rise to a new, genetically distinct lineage, which can be the start of a new species. This is often called "instant
498:, use this sequence of DNA to their advantage to better find and understand the role of different genes within a given genome. Through research and plant breeding, manipulation of different plant genes and loci encoded by the DNA sequence of the plant chromosomes by various methods can be done to produce different or desired
193:. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (most famously pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a
600:, and some are nearly exclusively self-fertilizers. This means that a plant can be both mother and father to its offspring, a rare occurrence in animals. Scientists and hobbyists attempting to make crosses between different plants must take special measures to prevent the plants from self-fertilizing. In
967:
that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.
399:
had invented a method that led to the first hybrid maize seed that were available commercially. The large demand for hybrid seed in the U.S. Corn Belt by the mid 1930s led to a rapid growth in the seed production industry and ultimately seed research. The strict requirements for producing hybrid seed
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approximately two micrometers in diameter. The particles are placed in a vacuum chamber and the plant tissue to be engineered is placed below the chamber. The particles are propelled at high velocity using a short pulse of high pressure helium gas, and hit a fine mesh baffle placed above the tissue
628:
on the other hand, while having only 7 distinct chromosomes, is considered a hexaploid and has 6 copies of each chromosome, for a total of 42. In animals, inheritable germline polyploidy is less common, and spontaneous chromosome increases may not even survive past fertilization. In plants however
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Genetically modifying plants is an important economic activity: in 2017, 89% of corn, 94% of soybeans, and 91% of cotton produced in the US were from genetically modified strains. Since the introduction of GM crops, yields have increased by 22%, and profits have increased to farmers, especially in
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present is also killed by the antibiotic. Only tissues expressing the marker will survive and possess the gene of interest. Thus, subsequent steps in the process will only use these surviving plants. In order to obtain whole plants from these tissues, they are grown under controlled environmental
359:
In the early 1900s, botanists and statisticians began to examine the segregation ratios put forth by Mendel. W.E. Castle discovered that while individual traits may segregate and change over time with selection, that when selection is stopped and environmental effects are taken into account, the
285:
found has been dated to 11,000 years before present in ancestral wheat. While initially selection may have happened unintentionally, it is very likely that by 5,000 years ago farmers had a basic understanding of heredity and inheritance. This selection over time gave rise to new crop species and
479:
that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, or a code, since it contains the
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inducing (Ti) region is removed from the T-DNA (transfer DNA) and replaced with the desired gene and a marker, which is then inserted into the organism. This may involve direct inoculation of the tissue with a culture of transformed
Agrobacterium, or inoculation following treatment with
400:
led to the development of careful population and inbred line maintenance, keeping plants isolated and unable to out-cross, which produced plants that better allowed researchers to tease out different genetic concepts. The structure of these populations allowed scientist such a
336:, recognized its importance and re-published an English translation. Mendel died in 1884. The significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century. Its rediscovery prompted the foundation of modern genetics. His discoveries, deduction of
448:. Identifying traits and their underlying genetics allowed for transferring useful genes and the traits they controlled from either wild or mutant plants to crop plants. Understanding and manipulating of plant genetics was in its heyday during the
439:
and seek out wild species that had given rise to domesticated species after selection. Determining how crops changed over time with selection was initially based on morphological features. It developed over time to chromosomal analysis, then
332:, which were later named after him. His seminal work on genetics, “Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden” (Experiments on Plant Hybrids), was published in 1866, but went almost entirely unnoticed until 1900 when prominent botanists in the UK, like
624:. Polyploid organisms have more than two sets of homologous chromosomes. For example, humans have two sets of homologous chromosomes, meaning that a typical human will have 2 copies each of 23 different chromosomes, for a total of 46.
200:
Plants, like all known organisms, use DNA to pass on their traits. Animal genetics often focuses on parentage and lineage, but this can sometimes be difficult in plant genetics due to the fact that plants can, unlike most animals, be
612:
has increased nearly five-fold in the past century due in part to the discovery and proliferation of hybrid corn varieties. Plant genetics can be used to predict which combination of plants may produce a plant with
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to the understanding of plant genetics. It was the first plant to ever have its genome sequenced in the year 2000. It has a small genome, making the initial sequencing more attainable. It has a genome size of 125
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The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. There are still ongoing
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1779:
Banjara, Manoj; Zhu, Longfu; Shen, Guoxin; Payton, Paxton; Zhang, Hong (2012-01-01). "Expression of an
Arabidopsis sodium/proton antiporter gene (AtNHX1) in peanut to improve salt tolerance - Springer".
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begins. This process entails selection of the seeds with the desired traits and then retesting and growing to make sure that the entire process has been completed successfully with the desired results.
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National
Academies Of Sciences, Engineering; Division on Earth Life Studies; Board on Agriculture Natural Resources; Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience Future Prospects (2016).
2945:
Bidney, D; Scelonge, C; Martich, J; Burrus, M; Sims, L; Huffman, G (January 1992). "Microprojectile bombardment of plant tissues increases transformation frequency by
Agrobacterium tumefaciens".
1660:
Emmenecker, CĂ´me; MĂ©zard, Christine; Kumar, Rajeev (March 2023). "Repair of DNA double-strand breaks in plant meiosis: role of eukaryotic RecA recombinases and their modulators".
741:(TAIR) has been established as a repository for multiple data sets and information on the species. Information housed in TAIR include the complete genome sequence along with
225:, possess their own DNA. Chloroplasts thus provide an additional reservoir for genes and genetic diversity, and an extra layer of genetic complexity not found in animals.
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456:. During this time, the molecule of heredity, DNA, was also discovered, which allowed scientists to actually examine and manipulate genetic information directly.
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1965:
383:, recognized that by crossing plants and forming hybrids, they were not only able to combine traits from two desirable parents, but the crop also experienced
328:
traits of pea plants, such as their height, flower color, and seed characteristics. Mendel showed that the inheritance of these traits follows two particular
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with ease, since flowers develop at the ends of branches composed of somatic cells. People have known of this for centuries, and mutant branches are called "
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Panchin, Alexander Y.; Tuzhikov, Alexander I. (January 14, 2016). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons".
2528:
2503:
2435:
2163:"State of Food and Agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor. Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops"
1903:
Alonso-Blanco, Carlos; Koornneef, Maarten (2000-01-01). "Naturally occurring variation in
Arabidopsis: an underexploited resource for plant genetics".
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1955:, Prepared by the UK GM Science Review panel (July 2003). Chairman Professor Sir David King, Chief Scientific Advisor to the UK Government, P 9
893:. Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits than previous methods such as
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is a popular model organism for both plant-pathogen and transgenic studies. Because its broad leaves are easily transiently transformed with
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and rice. This approach literally shoots genes into plant cells and plant cell chloroplasts. DNA is coated onto small particles of gold or
1989:
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species, brachypodium is diploid with a relatively small genome (~355 Mbp) with a short life-cycle, making genomic studies on it simpler.
484:
molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, and their location within the genome are referred to as
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714:
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is an experimental model grass that has many attributes that make it an excellent model for temperate cereals. Unlike wheat, a tetra or
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1066:, for many years. Recently it has been adapted and is now effective in monocots like grasses, including corn and rice. In general, the
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related to food safety, regulation, labeling, environmental impact, research methods, and the fact that some GM seeds are subject to
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to increase yields, confer pest and disease resistance, provide resistance to herbicides, or to increase their nutritional value.
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over time and the statistics underlying plant genetics. Their work laid the foundations for future genetic discoveries such as
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2583:
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2467:. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Biotechnologies, Agriculture, Food. European Commission, European Union.
545:, double-strand break formation and homologous recombinational repair. These processes appear to be optimized for repairing
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3738:
1625:
Dudley, J. W. (1993-07-08). "Molecular
Markers in Plant Improvement: Manipulation of Genes Affecting Quantitative Traits".
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76:
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Castle, W. E. (1903). "The Laws of
Heredity of Galton and Mendel, and Some Laws Governing Race Improvement by Selection".
660:
Arabidopsis thaliana, growing from between a crack in a sidewalk; it is considered a key model organism in plant genetics.
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737:
that encodes about 25,000 genes. Because an incredible amount of research has been done on the plant, a database called
633:". Polyploids generally have larger fruit, an economically desirable trait, and many human food crops, including wheat,
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3689:
2074:"Genetically modified Golden Rice falls short on lifesaving promises | The Source | Washington University in St. Louis"
1948:
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488:, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.
445:
83:
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have not only been used in research to gain a better understanding of plant genetics, but also play a large role in
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2894:"The Regulation of GMOs in Europe and the United States: A Case-Study of Contemporary European Regulatory Politics"
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species of modern crop plants. Botanists between the 1920s and 1960s often would travel to regions of high plant
364:. This was independently discovered by G. H. Hardy and W. Weinberg, which ultimately gave rise to the concept of
57:
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Genetic modification has been the cause for much research into modern plant genetics, and has also led to the
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Haslberger, Alexander G. (2003). "Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects".
1507:
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Griffiths, Anthony J. F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, eds. (2000).
765:") are available and have been useful in genetic research. This natural variation has been used to identify
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Lewontin, R. C.; Kojima, Ken-ichi (December 1960). "The
Evolutionary Dynamics of Complex Polymorphisms".
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the developing world, by 68%. An important side effect of GM crops has been decreased land requirements,
617:, or conversely many discoveries in Plant genetics have come from studying the effects of hybridization.
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2436:"AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers""
2014:
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of single-site insertions of the foreign DNA, which allows for easier monitoring. In this method, the
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1990:"GMO crops have been increasing yield for 20 years, with more progress ahead - Alliance for Science"
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and scientist born on 20 July 1822 in
Austria-Hungary. He worked at the Abbey of St. Thomas in
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Ministry for the Environment NZ – Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification, 2001
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2543:"Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: United States. Public and Scholarly Opinion"
2509:. American Medical Association. January 2001. Archived from the original on September 7, 2012
2015:"Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995"
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724:, also known as thale cress, has been the model organism for the study of plant genetics. As
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can be easier in many plants due to unique genetic abilities, such as being well adapted to
179:. Plant genetics is similar in many ways to animal genetics but differs in a few key areas.
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2776:"Evidence for Absolute Moral Opposition to Genetically Modified Food in the United States"
2372:
Yang, Y.T.; Chen, B. (2016). "Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health".
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Wright, Sewall (May 1940). "Breeding Structure of Populations in Relation to Speciation".
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and for better nutrient profiles. Other such crops include the economically important GM
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197:. Much of Mendel's work with plants still forms the basis for modern plant genetics.
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2417:"Statement by the AAAS Board of Directors On Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods"
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between plant species for economic and aesthetic reasons. For example, the yield of
213:. Plants are unique in that they are able to produce energy-dense carbohydrates via
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2570:. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (US). p. 149.
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565:. Plants however are unique from other living organisms in the fact that they have
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728:, a species of fruit fly, was to the understanding of early genetics, so has been
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2100:"An overview of the last 10 years of genetically engineered crop safety research"
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Nicolia, Alessandro; Manzo, Alberto; Veronesi, Fabio; Rosellini, Daniele (2013).
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instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and
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The study of plant genetics has major economic impacts: many staple crops are
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2237:"A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants"
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2020:. The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications
1945:
1102:. Once the plants are grown and produce seed, the process of evaluating the
1022:(within a living organism) transformation and has been especially useful in
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Allard, Robert W. (December 1999). "History of Plant Population Genetics".
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delayed-ripening tomato. Most food modifications have primarily focused on
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Plants are generally more capable of surviving, and indeed flourishing, as
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began. Maize that has been self-pollinated experiences a phenomenon called
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genetic ratio stops changing and reach a sort of stasis, the foundation of
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varieties that are the basis of the crops we grow, eat and research today.
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Plants, like all other known living organisms, pass on their traits using
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1098:. This is a process of a series of media, each containing nutrients and
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2422:. American Association for the Advancement of Science. October 20, 2012
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While breeding experiments were taking place, other scientists such as
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206:
64: in this article. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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2926:. Congressional Research Service (Library of Congress). pp. 33–38
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method is considered preferable to the gene gun, because of a greater
356:
on selection provided the basis for much of genetics as a discipline.
312:(now Brno, Czech Republic), where his organism of choice for studying
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2504:"AMA Report on Genetically Modified Crops and Foods (online summary)"
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of many plant genomes. Today there are two predominant procedures of
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2186:"Plant Genetics, Sustainable Agriculture and Global Food Security"
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Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when
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generally. Central elements of eukaryotic meiosis are pairing of
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Around this same time, genetic and plant breeding experiments in
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168:
2753:"Public Perceptions of Agricultural Biotechnologies in Europe"
2458:
European Commission. Directorate-General for Research (2010).
821:
of pathogen genes introduced into a plant or test new genetic
653:, are either accidentally or deliberately created polyploids.
589:". If the fruit on the sport is economically desirable, a new
2097:
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391:. This was the beginning of identifying gene interactions or
372:
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2751:
Final Report of the PABE research project (December 2001).
1690:
Mirzaghaderi, Ghader; Hörandl, Elvira (14 September 2016).
979:
609:
534:
194:
148:
2921:"Agricultural Biotechnology: Background and Recent Issues"
2615:"Frequently asked questions on genetically modified foods"
1756:"Why is the Wheat Genome So Complicated? | Colorado Wheat"
301:, who is often called the "father of genetics". He was an
3916:
3911:
2607:
2165:. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
1018:
using biological components). This technique is used for
886:
749:, DNA and seed stocks, genome maps, genetic and physical
562:
519:
481:
321:
1817:"Analysis of the genome sequence of the flowering plant
1307:
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1035:
while the DNA coating continues into any target cell or
2629:
2567:
Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects
1696:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
140:
An image of multiple chromosomes, taken from many cells
1902:
757:
research community. Many natural inbred accessions of
2681:"Public and Scientists' Views on Science and Society"
2438:. American Association for the Advancement of Science
1659:
581:
regularly, but these mutations can contribute to the
3087:
List of varieties of genetically modified maize/corn
2875:"Over Half of E.U. Countries Are Opting Out of GMOs"
2281:"An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment"
1834:(6814). The Arabidopsis Genome Initiative: 796–815.
1778:
2774:Scott, Sydney E.; Inbar, Yoel; Rozin, Paul (2016).
2695:
2672:
2535:
1815:The Arabidopsis Genome Initiative (December 2000).
1692:"The evolution of meiotic sex and its alternatives"
1689:
1685:
1683:
1282:"1. Gregor Mendel: Versuche ĂĽber Pflanzen-Hybriden"
297:The field of plant genetics began with the work of
1190:
881:Genetically modified (GM) foods are produced from
4209:
2825:"Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms"
2704:"Public views on GMOs: deconstructing the myths"
2527:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
2235:Domingo, José L.; Bordonaba, Jordi Giné (2011).
2234:
1680:
537:that are homologous to recombinases employed by
2892:Lynch, Diahanna; Vogel, David (April 5, 2001).
2773:
2331:
518:, double-strand breaks are introduced into the
221:. Chloroplasts, like the superficially similar
2912:
2896:. Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from
2461:A decade of EU-funded GMO research (2001–2010)
2374:Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture
1532:
1219:
1005:
952:which are resistant to the highly destructive
3839:
3018:
1352:"Mendelian Proportions in a Mixed Population"
870:
2679:Funk, Cary; Rainie, Lee (January 29, 2015).
2177:
1578:"Studies on the Origin of Cultivated Plants"
1014:method is also referred to as "biolistics" (
885:that have had changes introduced into their
171:, but intersects frequently with many other
3660:Detection of genetically modified organisms
715:History of research on Arabidopsis thaliana
468:The structure of part of a DNA double helix
3846:
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3011:
2891:
2850:. American Bar Association. Archived from
2678:
2635:
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2006:
1505:
1087:, depending on which marker was used. The
780:
753:, publications, and information about the
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1966:"USDA ERS - Recent Trends in GE Adoption"
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1639:10.2135/cropsci1993.0011183X003300040003x
1601:
1391:
1326:
1205:(7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman.
1199:"Genetics and the Organism: Introduction"
348:. Mendel's works along with the works of
175:and is strongly linked with the study of
124:Learn how and when to remove this message
2873:Sifferlin, Alexandra (October 3, 2015).
2845:
2839:
2371:
980:Modern ways to genetically modify plants
799:
655:
463:
288:
217:, a process which is achieved by use of
163:. It is generally considered a field of
135:
52:Relevant discussion may be found on the
4179:List of genetics research organizations
3032:
2817:
2557:
2434:Pinholster, Ginger (October 25, 2012).
2288:Science, Technology, & Human Values
2278:
1575:
1042:
940:have been engineered for resistance to
706:
293:Gregor Mendel, the "Father of genetics"
14:
4210:
2701:
2183:
1624:
1462:
1304:
1237:
960:(it is however still in development).
525:and these breaks can be repaired by a
3827:
3006:
2918:
2783:Perspectives on Psychological Science
2012:
1349:
828:
27:Study of genes and heredity in plants
2755:. Commission of European Communities
2032:
1509:Genetics of the Evolutionary Process
1233:
1231:
739:The Arabidopsis Information Resource
670:
502:that result in different or desired
245:
186:, a late 19th-century scientist and
62:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
2827:. Library of Congress. June 9, 2015
2545:. Library of Congress. June 9, 2015
1203:An Introduction to Genetic Analysis
1054:has been successfully practiced in
24:
3690:Genetic use restriction technology
2846:Bashshur, Ramona (February 2013).
1732:"Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary"
1547:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1960.tb03113.x
1420:USDA Agricultural Research Service
920:in high demand by farmers such as
664:
596:Some plant species are capable of
577:. Like animals, plants experience
25:
4229:
2984:
2334:Critical Reviews in Biotechnology
2107:Critical Reviews in Biotechnology
1228:
1058:, i.e. broadleaf plants, such as
956:, and the nutritionally improved
4192:
4191:
912:first marketed its unsuccessful
674:
529:process employing gene products
249:
34:
3708:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
2938:
2767:
2496:
2451:
2409:
2226:
2155:
2091:
2066:
2045:
1982:
1958:
1939:
1896:
1872:
1808:
1772:
1748:
1724:
1653:
1618:
1569:
1526:
1506:Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1970).
1499:
817:, it is used to study both the
281:The earliest evidence of plant
182:The discoverer of genetics was
45:needs additional citations for
2919:Cowan, Tadlock (18 Jun 2011).
2184:Ronald, Pamela (May 5, 2011).
1946:GM Science Review First Report
1456:
1432:
1408:
1343:
1298:
1274:
1163:Genetically modified organisms
976:rights owned by corporations.
833:Other models include the alga
573:, chloroplasts have their own
13:
1:
3470:Somatic cell nuclear transfer
2346:10.3109/07388551.2015.1130684
1917:10.1016/S1360-1385(99)01510-1
1512:. Columbia University Press.
1184:
324:. Mendel's work tracked many
4138:Missing heritability problem
3853:
2848:"FDA and Regulation of GMOs"
2264:10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.003
2119:10.3109/07388551.2013.823595
1252:10.1146/annurev.genet.33.1.1
745:, gene product information,
416:concepts as well as explore
7:
2720:10.1093/embo-reports/kve142
2617:. World Health Organization
2202:10.1534/genetics.111.128553
1782:Plant Biotechnology Reports
1350:Hardy, G. H. (1908-07-10).
1110:
857:(snapdragon), the C4 grass
10:
4234:
1674:10.1007/s00497-022-00443-6
938:Genetically modified crops
874:
871:Genetically modified crops
712:
509:
366:Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium
239:
235:
4187:
4166:
4065:
4016:
3960:
3899:
3861:
3793:
3762:
3716:
3698:
3645:
3615:
3583:
3528:Genetically modified food
3520:
3513:
3483:
3430:
3421:
3384:
3337:
3287:
3278:
3208:
3190:
3172:
3154:
3131:
3113:
3095:
3062:
3053:
3040:
2279:Krimsky, Sheldon (2015).
2244:Environment International
1951:October 16, 2013, at the
1794:10.1007/s11816-011-0200-5
1376:10.1126/science.28.706.49
1240:Annual Review of Genetics
992:genes in organisms: the "
877:Genetically modified food
836:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
814:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
2795:10.1177/1745691615621275
2300:10.1177/0162243915598381
431:were interested in wild
2702:Marris, Claire (2001).
1905:Trends in Plant Science
1576:Vavilov, N. I. (1926).
1465:The American Naturalist
1328:2027/hvd.32044106445109
1225:Hartl D, Jones E (2005)
789:Brachypodium distachyon
782:Brachypodium distachyon
761:(often referred to as "
557:Plant Specific Genetics
444:analysis, and eventual
2038:Weasel, Lisa H. 2009.
1708:10.1098/rspb.2016.1221
1138:Experimental evolution
1123:Biological engineering
661:
543:homologous chromosomes
469:
459:
422:linkage disequilibrium
395:. By the early 1920s,
294:
141:
4174:List of genetic codes
3141:Roundup ready soybean
2900:on September 29, 2016
2683:. Pew Research Center
2055:. Fda.gov. 2009-03-06
2013:James, Clive (1996).
974:intellectual property
954:Papaya ringspot virus
889:using the methods of
842:Physcomitrella patens
808:Nicotiana benthamiana
801:Nicotiana benthamiana
659:
473:Deoxyribonucleic acid
467:
381:Nils Heribert-Nilsson
377:inbreeding depression
292:
139:
4073:Behavioural genetics
3680:Reverse transfection
3455:Genetic transduction
2638:Nature Biotechnology
1994:Alliance for Science
1819:Arabidopsis thaliana
965:scientific consensus
721:Arabidopsis thaliana
708:Arabidopsis thaliana
414:evolutionary biology
379:. Researchers, like
299:Gregor Johann Mendel
230:genetically modified
58:improve this article
4153:Population genomics
4143:Molecular evolution
4103:Genetic engineering
3670:Genetics in fiction
3602:Genetic enhancement
3404:Hepatitis B vaccine
3034:Genetic engineering
2650:10.1038/nbt0703-739
2386:2016JSFA...96.1851Y
2256:2011EnInt..37..734D
1884:www.arabidopsis.org
1840:2000Natur.408..796T
1594:1926Natur.118..392T
1368:1908Sci....28...49H
1050:Transformation via
891:genetic engineering
848:Medicago truncatula
397:Donald Forsha Jones
368:published in 1908.
362:Population Genetics
242:History of genetics
177:information systems
4113:Genetic monitoring
3780:Stem cell research
3399:Ice-minus bacteria
2996:2010-06-02 at the
2959:10.1007/bf00034957
2053:"Consumer Q&A"
1880:"TAIR - Home Page"
1702:(1838): 20161221.
1662:Plant Reproduction
1168:Ice-minus bacteria
895:selective breeding
829:Other model plants
769:important in both
686:. You can help by
662:
598:self-fertilization
470:
338:segregation ratios
295:
261:. You can help by
142:
4205:
4204:
4128:He Jiankui affair
4118:Genetic genealogy
4108:Genetic diversity
4037:the British Isles
3942:Genetic variation
3821:
3820:
3785:Synthetic biology
3675:Human enhancement
3665:Genetic pollution
3641:
3640:
3509:
3508:
3417:
3416:
3380:
3379:
3274:
3273:
2585:978-0-309-43738-7
2482:978-92-79-16344-9
2394:10.1002/jsfa.7523
2042:Amacom Publishing
1760:coloradowheat.org
1588:(2967): 392–393.
1444:www.cabdirect.org
1212:978-0-7167-3520-5
1158:Genetic pollution
1006:"Gene gun" method
996:" method and the
899:mutation breeding
854:Antirrhinum majus
704:
703:
593:may be obtained.
579:somatic mutations
496:plant geneticists
452:brought about by
340:, and subsequent
334:Sir Gavin de Beer
279:
278:
153:genetic variation
134:
133:
126:
108:
16:(Redirected from
4225:
4195:
4194:
4158:Reverse genetics
4133:Medical genetics
3848:
3841:
3834:
3825:
3824:
3558:Dow AgroSciences
3518:
3517:
3428:
3427:
3285:
3284:
3060:
3059:
3051:
3050:
3027:
3020:
3013:
3004:
3003:
2979:
2978:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2931:
2925:
2916:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2905:
2889:
2883:
2882:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2854:on June 21, 2018
2843:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2821:
2815:
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2780:
2771:
2765:
2764:
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2508:
2500:
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2455:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2431:
2429:
2427:
2421:
2413:
2407:
2405:
2380:(6): 1851–1855.
2365:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2316:
2310:. Archived from
2285:
2275:
2241:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2213:
2181:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2143:
2137:. Archived from
2104:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2085:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2049:
2043:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2019:
2010:
2004:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1970:www.ers.usda.gov
1962:
1956:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1851:
1849:10.1038/35048692
1825:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1687:
1678:
1677:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1605:
1603:10.1038/118392a0
1573:
1567:
1566:
1530:
1524:
1523:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1471:(752): 232–248.
1460:
1454:
1453:
1451:
1450:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1426:
1416:"Improving Corn"
1412:
1406:
1405:
1395:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1330:
1319:10.2307/20021870
1302:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1292:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1235:
1226:
1223:
1217:
1216:
1194:
1178:Paratransgenesis
1173:Monsanto Company
699:
696:
678:
671:
604:, people create
450:Green Revolution
446:genomic analysis
274:
271:
253:
246:
159:specifically in
147:is the study of
129:
122:
118:
115:
109:
107:
73:"Plant genetics"
66:
38:
30:
21:
4233:
4232:
4228:
4227:
4226:
4224:
4223:
4222:
4208:
4207:
4206:
4201:
4183:
4162:
4061:
4052:the Middle East
4018:Archaeogenetics
4012:
3956:
3895:
3857:
3852:
3822:
3817:
3789:
3758:
3712:
3694:
3647:
3637:
3611:
3607:Genetic testing
3589:
3579:
3505:
3491:Recombinant DNA
3479:
3450:Electroporation
3413:
3409:Oncolytic virus
3388:
3376:
3333:
3319:Herman the Bull
3270:
3204:
3186:
3168:
3150:
3127:
3109:
3091:
3045:
3043:
3036:
3031:
2998:Wayback Machine
2987:
2982:
2947:Plant Mol. Biol
2943:
2939:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2917:
2913:
2903:
2901:
2890:
2886:
2871:
2867:
2857:
2855:
2844:
2840:
2830:
2828:
2823:
2822:
2818:
2778:
2772:
2768:
2758:
2756:
2749:
2745:
2700:
2696:
2686:
2684:
2677:
2673:
2634:
2630:
2620:
2618:
2613:
2612:
2608:
2598:
2596:
2586:
2562:
2558:
2548:
2546:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2520:
2519:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2487:
2485:
2483:
2464:
2456:
2452:
2441:
2439:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2414:
2410:
2320:
2318:
2314:
2283:
2239:
2231:
2227:
2182:
2178:
2168:
2166:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2102:
2096:
2092:
2083:
2081:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2058:
2056:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2037:
2033:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2007:
1998:
1996:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1974:
1972:
1964:
1963:
1959:
1953:Wayback Machine
1944:
1940:
1901:
1897:
1888:
1886:
1878:
1877:
1873:
1823:
1813:
1809:
1777:
1773:
1764:
1762:
1754:
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1749:
1740:
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1688:
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1658:
1654:
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1574:
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1520:
1504:
1500:
1461:
1457:
1448:
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1433:
1424:
1422:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1348:
1344:
1303:
1299:
1290:
1288:
1286:www.bshs.org.uk
1280:
1279:
1275:
1236:
1229:
1224:
1220:
1213:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1153:Genetic erosion
1113:
1048:
1008:
982:
970:public concerns
879:
873:
860:Setaria viridis
831:
804:
785:
747:gene expression
717:
711:
700:
694:
691:
684:needs expansion
669:
666:Model organisms
559:
512:
462:
429:Nikolai Vavilov
275:
269:
266:
259:needs expansion
244:
238:
130:
119:
113:
110:
67:
65:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4231:
4221:
4220:
4218:Plant genetics
4203:
4202:
4200:
4199:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4181:
4176:
4170:
4168:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4148:Plant genetics
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4088:Genome editing
4085:
4080:
4075:
4069:
4067:
4066:Related topics
4063:
4062:
4060:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4023:
4021:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3988:Immunogenetics
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3964:
3962:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3903:
3901:
3900:Key components
3897:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3851:
3850:
3843:
3836:
3828:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3794:
3791:
3790:
3788:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3766:
3764:
3763:Similar fields
3760:
3759:
3757:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3720:
3718:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3710:
3704:
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3696:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3651:
3649:
3643:
3642:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3633:Gene targeting
3630:
3628:Gene knockdown
3625:
3619:
3617:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3593:
3591:
3581:
3580:
3578:
3577:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3563:DuPont Pioneer
3560:
3555:
3550:
3542:
3537:
3536:
3535:
3524:
3522:
3521:In agriculture
3515:
3511:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3504:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3487:
3485:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3465:Microinjection
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3436:
3434:
3425:
3419:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3412:
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3401:
3395:
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3382:
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3378:
3377:
3375:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3357:
3347:
3341:
3339:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3302:Knockout mouse
3293:
3291:
3282:
3276:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3212:
3210:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3196:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3184:
3178:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3160:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3137:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3126:
3125:
3119:
3117:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3107:
3101:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3068:
3066:
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3048:
3038:
3037:
3030:
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3022:
3015:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2986:
2985:External links
2983:
2981:
2980:
2937:
2911:
2884:
2865:
2838:
2816:
2789:(3): 315–324.
2766:
2743:
2714:(7): 545–548.
2694:
2671:
2644:(7): 739–741.
2628:
2606:
2584:
2576:10.17226/23395
2556:
2534:
2495:
2481:
2450:
2408:
2340:(2): 213–217.
2294:(6): 883–914.
2250:(4): 734–742.
2225:
2176:
2154:
2090:
2065:
2044:
2031:
2005:
1981:
1957:
1938:
1895:
1871:
1807:
1771:
1747:
1736:passel.unl.edu
1723:
1679:
1652:
1633:(4): 660–668.
1617:
1568:
1541:(4): 458–472.
1525:
1518:
1498:
1477:10.1086/280891
1455:
1431:
1407:
1362:(706): 49–50.
1342:
1313:(8): 223–242.
1297:
1273:
1227:
1218:
1211:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
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1155:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1096:tissue culture
1094:conditions in
1047:
1041:
1007:
1004:
981:
978:
875:Main article:
872:
869:
830:
827:
803:
798:
784:
779:
775:abiotic stress
743:gene structure
713:Main article:
710:
705:
702:
701:
681:
679:
668:
663:
602:plant breeding
558:
555:
511:
508:
461:
458:
454:Norman Borlaug
442:genetic marker
354:Alfred Wallace
350:Charles Darwin
346:plant breeding
277:
276:
256:
254:
237:
234:
215:photosynthesis
145:Plant genetics
132:
131:
56:. Please help
42:
40:
33:
26:
18:Plant Genetics
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4230:
4219:
4216:
4215:
4213:
4198:
4190:
4189:
4186:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4165:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4064:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4015:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3959:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3904:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3863:
3860:
3856:
3849:
3844:
3842:
3837:
3835:
3830:
3829:
3826:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3808:Biotechnology
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3795:
3792:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3761:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3749:South America
3747:
3744:
3740:
3739:North America
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3715:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3701:
3697:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3685:Transhumanism
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3650:
3644:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3623:Gene knockout
3621:
3620:
3618:
3614:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3534:
3533:Controversies
3531:
3530:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3433:
3432:Inserting DNA
3429:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3392:
3387:
3383:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3352:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3340:
3338:Other animals
3336:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3213:
3211:
3207:
3201:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3193:
3189:
3183:
3180:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3171:
3165:
3162:
3161:
3159:
3157:
3153:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3039:
3035:
3028:
3023:
3021:
3016:
3014:
3009:
3008:
3005:
2999:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2953:(2): 301–13.
2952:
2948:
2941:
2922:
2915:
2899:
2895:
2888:
2880:
2876:
2869:
2853:
2849:
2842:
2826:
2820:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2777:
2770:
2754:
2747:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2698:
2682:
2675:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2616:
2610:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2568:
2560:
2544:
2538:
2530:
2524:
2505:
2499:
2484:
2478:
2474:
2473:10.2777/97784
2470:
2463:
2462:
2454:
2448:
2437:
2418:
2412:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2329:
2328:And contrast:
2326:
2317:on 2016-02-07
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2232:But see also:
2229:
2221:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2180:
2164:
2158:
2144:on 2016-09-17
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2094:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2054:
2048:
2041:
2035:
2016:
2009:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1954:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1899:
1885:
1881:
1875:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1822:
1820:
1811:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1775:
1761:
1757:
1751:
1737:
1733:
1727:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1684:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1572:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1529:
1521:
1519:9780231083065
1515:
1511:
1510:
1502:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1459:
1445:
1441:
1435:
1421:
1417:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1301:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1234:
1232:
1222:
1214:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1189:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1091:
1090:Agrobacterium
1086:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1068:Agrobacterium
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1052:Agrobacterium
1045:
1044:Agrobacterium
1040:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1026:species like
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1003:
1001:
1000:
999:Agrobacterium
995:
991:
987:
977:
975:
971:
966:
961:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
906:
902:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
878:
868:
866:
862:
861:
856:
855:
850:
849:
845:, the clover
844:
843:
838:
837:
826:
824:
820:
816:
815:
810:
809:
802:
797:
795:
791:
790:
783:
778:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
731:
727:
723:
722:
716:
709:
698:
689:
685:
682:This section
680:
677:
673:
672:
667:
658:
654:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
627:
623:
618:
616:
611:
607:
603:
599:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
554:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
527:recombination
524:
521:
517:
514:During plant
507:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
487:
483:
478:
474:
466:
457:
455:
451:
447:
443:
438:
434:
430:
425:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
402:T. Dobzhansky
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
369:
367:
363:
357:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
304:
300:
291:
287:
284:
283:domestication
273:
264:
260:
257:This section
255:
252:
248:
247:
243:
233:
231:
226:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
198:
196:
192:
189:
185:
184:Gregor Mendel
180:
178:
174:
173:life sciences
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
138:
128:
125:
117:
106:
103:
99:
96:
92:
89:
85:
82:
78:
75: –
74:
70:
69:Find sources:
63:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
4147:
4098:Genetic code
4032:the Americas
4008:Quantitative
3978:Cytogenetics
3973:Conservation
3866:Introduction
3597:Gene therapy
3496:Transgenesis
3475:Transfection
3440:Agrobacteria
3324:Knockout rat
3146:Vistive Gold
3042:Genetically
2950:
2946:
2940:
2930:27 September
2928:. Retrieved
2914:
2904:February 24,
2902:. Retrieved
2898:the original
2887:
2878:
2868:
2858:February 24,
2856:. Retrieved
2852:the original
2841:
2831:February 24,
2829:. Retrieved
2819:
2786:
2782:
2769:
2759:February 24,
2757:. Retrieved
2746:
2711:
2708:EMBO Reports
2707:
2697:
2687:February 24,
2685:. Retrieved
2674:
2641:
2637:
2631:
2619:. Retrieved
2609:
2597:. Retrieved
2566:
2559:
2547:. Retrieved
2537:
2511:. Retrieved
2498:
2486:. Retrieved
2460:
2453:
2440:. Retrieved
2432:
2424:. Retrieved
2411:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2337:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2319:. Retrieved
2312:the original
2291:
2287:
2277:
2247:
2243:
2233:
2228:
2196:(1): 11–20.
2193:
2189:
2179:
2167:. Retrieved
2157:
2146:. Retrieved
2139:the original
2113:(1): 77–88.
2110:
2106:
2093:
2082:. Retrieved
2080:. 2016-06-02
2077:
2068:
2057:. Retrieved
2047:
2039:
2034:
2022:. Retrieved
2008:
1997:. Retrieved
1993:
1984:
1973:. Retrieved
1969:
1960:
1941:
1911:(1): 22–29.
1908:
1904:
1898:
1887:. Retrieved
1883:
1874:
1831:
1827:
1818:
1810:
1785:
1781:
1774:
1763:. Retrieved
1759:
1750:
1739:. Retrieved
1735:
1726:
1699:
1695:
1668:(1): 17–41.
1665:
1661:
1655:
1630:
1627:Crop Science
1626:
1620:
1585:
1581:
1571:
1538:
1534:
1528:
1508:
1501:
1468:
1464:
1458:
1447:. Retrieved
1443:
1440:"CAB Direct"
1434:
1423:. Retrieved
1419:
1410:
1359:
1355:
1345:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1289:. Retrieved
1285:
1276:
1243:
1239:
1221:
1202:
1192:
1088:
1067:
1049:
1043:
1009:
997:
990:transforming
983:
962:
907:
903:
880:
858:
852:
846:
840:
834:
832:
812:
806:
805:
800:
787:
786:
781:
777:resistance.
758:
754:
729:
719:
718:
707:
692:
688:adding to it
683:
665:
647:strawberries
619:
615:Hybrid vigor
595:
571:mitochondria
567:chloroplasts
560:
513:
494:, including
490:
486:genetic loci
477:nucleic acid
471:
426:
389:hybrid vigor
370:
358:
296:
280:
267:
263:adding to it
258:
227:
223:mitochondria
219:chloroplasts
203:self-fertile
199:
181:
144:
143:
120:
111:
101:
94:
87:
80:
68:
47:verification
44:
4078:Epigenetics
3616:In research
3590:diagnostics
3460:Lipofection
3221:Arabidopsis
3123:Golden rice
2621:February 8,
2549:February 8,
2488:February 8,
2442:February 8,
2426:February 8,
2169:February 8,
1246:(1): 1–27.
963:There is a
958:golden rice
839:, the moss
759:A. thaliana
755:A. thaliana
730:A. thaliana
492:Geneticists
475:(DNA) is a
412:to develop
410:R.A. Fisher
314:inheritance
303:Augustinian
188:Augustinian
4083:Geneticist
4057:South Asia
4003:Population
3983:Ecological
3952:Amino acid
3932:Nucleotide
3907:Chromosome
3700:Regulation
3544:Companies
3501:Cisgenesis
3445:Biolistics
3251:Sugar beet
3164:Flavr Savr
3064:Maize/corn
2321:2017-03-29
2148:2017-03-29
2084:2018-06-21
2078:The Source
2059:2012-12-29
2040:Food Fray.
1999:2018-06-21
1975:2018-06-20
1889:2018-07-11
1765:2018-06-20
1741:2018-06-20
1449:2018-07-11
1425:2018-07-11
1291:2018-07-11
1185:References
1081:antibiotic
1016:ballistics
986:sequencing
946:herbicides
918:cash crops
914:Flavr Savr
819:expression
726:Drosophila
631:speciation
622:polyploids
547:DNA damage
539:eukaryotes
504:phenotypes
433:progenitor
418:speciation
326:phenotypic
240:See also:
211:polyploidy
207:Speciation
84:newspapers
3998:Molecular
3993:Microbial
3968:Classical
3813:Bioethics
3717:Geography
3655:Transgene
3423:Processes
3314:Enviropig
3307:Oncomouse
3246:SmartStax
3182:Bt cotton
3046:organisms
2513:March 19,
1925:1360-1385
1858:0028-0836
1788:: 59–67.
1647:0011-183X
1563:221734239
1555:0014-3820
1535:Evolution
1485:0003-0147
1384:0036-8075
1260:0066-4197
1148:Gene pool
1143:Gene flow
1085:herbicide
1072:frequency
942:pathogens
883:organisms
825:effects.
794:hexaploid
695:June 2018
583:germ line
500:genotypes
437:diversity
424:in 1960.
406:S. Wright
393:epistasis
385:heterosis
322:pea plant
270:June 2018
114:June 2018
54:talk page
4212:Category
4197:Category
4123:Heredity
4093:Genomics
3937:Mutation
3927:Heredity
3891:Glossary
3881:Timeline
3855:Genetics
3803:Genetics
3770:Eugenics
3648:articles
3573:Syngenta
3568:Monsanto
3540:Pharming
3386:Bacteria
3082:StarLink
3044:modified
2994:Archived
2975:24995834
2803:27217243
2738:11463731
2658:12833088
2594:28230933
2523:cite web
2402:26536836
2362:11786594
2354:26767435
2308:40855100
2272:21296423
2220:21546547
2190:Genetics
2127:24041244
1949:Archived
1933:10637658
1866:11130711
1802:12025029
1493:84048953
1402:17779291
1337:20021870
1268:10690402
1118:Apomixis
1111:See also
1100:hormones
1064:tomatoes
1060:soybeans
1032:tungsten
1012:gene gun
1002:method.
994:Gene gun
867:(corn).
823:cassette
763:ecotypes
639:potatoes
591:cultivar
551:germline
320:was the
157:heredity
3876:History
3871:Outline
3798:Biology
3775:Cloning
3754:Oceania
3646:Related
3391:viruses
3355:GloFish
3345:Insects
3289:Mammals
3280:Animals
3266:Mustard
3256:Tobacco
3226:Brinjal
3133:Soybean
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