542:
478:. Collenchyma cells are typically quite elongated, and may divide transversely to give a septate appearance. The role of this cell type is to support the plant in axes still growing in length, and to confer flexibility and tensile strength on tissues. The primary wall lacks lignin that would make it tough and rigid, so this cell type provides what could be called plastic support – support that can hold a young stem or petiole into the air, but in cells that can be stretched as the cells around them elongate. Stretchable support (without elastic snap-back) is a good way to describe what collenchyma does. Parts of the strings in celery are collenchyma.
684:
484:
29:
2813:
140:. Cell walls perform many essential functions. They provide shape to form the tissue and organs of the plant, and play an important role in intercellular communication and plant-microbe interactions. The cell wall is flexible during growth and has small pores called plasmodesmata that allow the exchange of nutrients and
456:
are alive at maturity and have thickened cellulose cell walls. These cells mature from meristem derivatives that initially resemble parenchyma, but differences quickly become apparent. Plastids do not develop, and the secretory apparatus (ER and Golgi) proliferates to secrete additional primary wall.
408:, capable of dividing to produce new populations of undifferentiated cells, throughout their lives. Parenchyma cells have thin, permeable primary walls enabling the transport of small molecules between them, and their cytoplasm is responsible for a wide range of biochemical functions such as
525:) are hard, tough cells that give leaves or fruits a gritty texture. They may discourage herbivory by damaging digestive passages in small insect larval stages. Sclereids form the hard pit wall of peaches and many other fruits, providing physical protection to the developing kernel.
587:
or
Tracheophytes. Tracheids are pointed, elongated xylem cells, the simplest of which have continuous primary cell walls and lignified secondary wall thickenings in the form of rings, hoops, or reticulate networks. More complex tracheids with valve-like perforations called
529:
are elongated cells with lignified secondary walls that provide load-bearing support and tensile strength to the leaves and stems of herbaceous plants. Sclerenchyma fibres are not involved in conduction, either of water and nutrients (as in the
1074:
Anderson, S; Bankier, AT; Barrell, BG; de Bruijn, MH; Coulson, AR; Drouin, J; Eperon, IC; Nierlich, DP; Roe, BA; Sanger, F; Schreier, PH; Smith, AJ; Staden, R; Young, IG (1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".
700:
is specialised tissue, composed of parenchyma cells, that covers the external surfaces of leaves, stems and roots. Several cell types may be present in the epidermis. Notable among these are the stomatal guard cells that control the rate of
573:, together with fibres and parenchyma cells. Tracheids are elongated cells with lignified secondary thickening of the cell walls, specialised for conduction of water, and first appeared in plants during their transition to land in the
400:). Apart from the xylem and phloem in their vascular bundles, leaves are composed mainly of parenchyma cells. Some parenchyma cells, as in the epidermis, are specialized for light penetration and focusing or regulation of
517:. The secondary walls harden the cells and make them impermeable to water. Consequently, sclereids and fibres are typically dead at functional maturity, and the cytoplasm is missing, leaving an empty central cavity.
457:
The wall is most commonly thickest at the corners, where three or more cells come in contact, and thinnest where only two cells come in contact, though other arrangements of the wall thickening are possible.
51:. Their distinctive features include primary cell walls containing cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin, the presence of plastids with the capability to perform photosynthesis and store starch, a large
717:
have chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll which is needed for photosynthesis. The epidermal cells of aerial organs arise from the superficial layer of cells known as the
2643:
136:
is secreted outside the primary cell wall and into the outer layers of the secondary cell wall of the epidermal cells of leaves, stems and other above-ground organs to form the
729:(L3 layer). The epidermis of roots originates from the layer of cells immediately beneath the root cap. The epidermis of all aerial organs, but not roots, is covered with a
616:. Vessel elements are hollow xylem cells without end walls that are aligned end-to-end so as to form long continuous tubes. The bryophytes lack true xylem tissue, but their
2648:
217:
that converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy that the plant uses to make its own food from water and carbon dioxide in the process known as
2781:
661:, and their metabolism and functions are regulated by the adjacent nucleate companion cells. The companion cells, connected to the sieve tubes via
1489:
647:, together with parenchyma cells, phloem fibres and sclereids. Sieve tubes are joined end-to-end with perforated end-plates between known as
2699:
427:
cells. Chlorenchyma cells are parenchyma cells involved in photosynthesis. Others, such as the majority of the parenchyma cells in
748:. The epidermal cells of the primary shoot are thought to be the only plant cells with the biochemical capacity to synthesize cutin.
483:
2515:
1465:
899:
1191:
2705:
1419:
936:
1600:
1126:
Cui, L; Veeraraghavan, N; Richter, A; Wall, K; Jansen, RK; Leebens-Mack, J; Makalowska, I; dePamphilis, CW (2006).
687:
This is an electron micrograph of the epidermal cells of a
Brassica chinensis leaf. The stomates are also visible.
2039:
620:
have a water-conducting tissue known as the hydrome that is composed of elongated cells of simpler construction.
1559:
MT Tyree; MH Zimmermann (2003) Xylem structure and the ascent of sap, 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, New York USA
2520:
1521:
541:
1970:
423:. Parenchyma cells that contain many chloroplasts and are concerned primarily with photosynthesis are called
2689:
2276:
1791:
538:), but it is likely that they evolved as modifications of xylem and phloem initials in early land plants.
2771:
2525:
63:, except in the gametes, and a unique method of cell division involving the formation of a cell plate or
2505:
2847:
2655:
725:, whereas the cortex and vascular tissues arise from innermost layer of the shoot apex known as the
2793:
2638:
1688:
653:, which allow transport of photosynthate between the sieve elements. The sieve tube elements lack
1014:
Hepler, PK (1982). "Endoplasmic reticulum in the formation of the cell plate and plasmodesmata".
361:
cells (analogous to the stem cells of animals) to form the major classes of cells and tissues of
2842:
2623:
2547:
1569:
813:
2352:
1572:. In: Plant Cuticles. Ed. by G. Kerstiens, BIOS Scientific publishers Ltd., Oxford, pp 83–108
2788:
889:
199:
2837:
2510:
2407:
2362:
2034:
1593:
1084:
547:
416:
2010:
1568:
Kolattukudy, PE (1996) Biosynthetic pathways of cutin and waxes, and their sensitivity to
498:
8:
2680:
2225:
453:
117:
1088:
385:
2618:
2483:
2261:
1953:
1739:
1635:
1483:
1388:
1313:
1284:
1180:
1152:
1127:
1108:
1031:
965:
865:
840:
697:
640:
551:
1408:
928:
2776:
1625:
1620:
1542:
1517:
1471:
1461:
1415:
1318:
1265:
1224:
1187:
1157:
1100:
996:
932:
895:
870:
579:
514:
1050:
377:, and reproductive structures, each of which may be composed of several cell types.
2562:
2468:
2463:
2417:
2310:
2295:
2256:
2181:
2022:
1946:
1843:
1785:
1380:
1349:
1308:
1300:
1255:
1216:
1147:
1139:
1112:
1092:
1035:
1023:
988:
961:
924:
860:
852:
783:
745:
404:, but others are among the least specialized cells in plant tissue, and may remain
2357:
1336:
Manton, I; Clarke, B (1952). "An electron microscope study of the spermatozoid of
702:
2816:
2798:
2660:
2489:
2439:
2427:
2389:
2325:
2152:
2120:
2081:
2054:
1883:
1878:
1769:
1705:
1586:
793:
741:
683:
631:
is a specialised tissue for food transport in higher plants, mainly transporting
584:
570:
341:
333:
288:
2710:
2675:
2628:
2610:
2574:
2330:
2157:
2135:
2101:
2076:
2059:
2049:
2044:
1926:
1744:
1729:
1683:
1678:
644:
613:
397:
389:
218:
20:
1475:
2831:
2746:
2494:
2412:
2384:
2347:
2315:
2251:
2220:
2171:
2071:
1873:
1856:
1779:
1759:
1700:
1695:
1643:
1175:
808:
730:
662:
462:
315:
191:
141:
137:
109:
93:
85:
40:
1207:
Lewis, LA; McCourt, RM (2004). "Green algae and the origin of land plants".
2741:
2731:
2633:
2342:
1851:
1818:
1455:
1322:
1269:
1228:
1220:
1161:
992:
874:
798:
778:
654:
597:
589:
424:
401:
292:
261:
246:
64:
1353:
1260:
1243:
1104:
1000:
856:
388:
are living cells that have functions ranging from storage and support to
28:
2557:
2542:
2537:
2473:
2335:
2115:
2086:
1985:
1980:
1828:
1668:
1663:
1648:
1367:
Paolillo, DJ Jr. (1967). "On the structure of the axoneme in flagella of
1143:
979:
Oparka, KJ (1993). "Signalling via plasmodesmata-the neglected pathway".
773:
758:
649:
609:
466:
300:
284:
269:
238:
214:
210:
195:
636:
194:, occur in the form of pores in the primary cell wall through which the
2586:
2579:
2569:
2552:
2235:
2230:
2166:
1958:
1764:
1658:
1546:
1435:
G., Haberlandt (1902). "Kulturversuche mit isolierten
Pflanzenzellen".
1392:
1027:
818:
788:
677:
617:
601:
469:
438:
405:
366:
296:
280:
258:
230:
222:
172:
129:
1304:
1285:"Assembly and motility of eukaryotic cilia and flagella. Lessons from
705:
between the plant and the atmosphere, glandular and clothing hairs or
2694:
2591:
2320:
2125:
2106:
2017:
1941:
1861:
1813:
1754:
1734:
1673:
1096:
803:
768:
763:
734:
710:
670:
639:. Phloem is a complex tissue, consisting of two main cell types, the
474:
420:
412:
393:
345:
311:
265:
184:
168:
160:
152:
81:
77:
60:
56:
44:
1384:
680:
have a simpler tissue with analogous function known as the leptome.
279:
Cell division in land plants and a few groups of algae, notably the
2736:
2726:
2670:
2665:
2432:
2305:
2281:
2198:
1868:
1653:
722:
713:
of primary roots. In the shoot epidermis of most plants, only the
706:
658:
605:
574:
566:
518:
502:
358:
337:
329:
176:
105:
1921:
1916:
1833:
1823:
1443:(1). Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien Sitzungsberichte: 69–92.
1248:
International
Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
714:
632:
442:
249:, which have a genome encoding 37 genes, plastids have their own
242:
206:
180:
164:
148:
125:
113:
52:
635:
along pressure gradients generated by osmosis, a process called
2374:
2266:
2186:
2140:
2130:
2091:
2029:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1609:
1073:
628:
535:
510:
506:
458:
431:
428:
409:
374:
324:
250:
226:
156:
121:
101:
97:
89:
1244:"Phragmoplastin, green algae and the evolution of cytokinesis"
2598:
2532:
2454:
2422:
2379:
2271:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2191:
2176:
2145:
2066:
1724:
1715:
737:
666:
562:
531:
526:
319:
307:
273:
133:
48:
151:, a water-filled volume enclosed by a membrane known as the
2449:
2444:
2096:
1936:
1911:
1906:
1890:
1749:
1241:
1125:
674:
593:
465:
are the dominant constituents of collenchyma cell walls of
435:
370:
362:
254:
915:
Raven, JA (1997). "The vacuole: a cost-benefit analysis".
565:
is a complex vascular tissue composed of water-conducting
2369:
1931:
1578:
488:
Cross section of a leaf showing various plant cell types
234:
190:
Specialized cell-to-cell communication pathways known as
132:
as secondary wall layers inside the primary cell wall.
1051:"Photosynthesis: importance, process, & reactions"
472:, which may contain as little as 20% of cellulose in
96:. Their composition contrasts with the cell walls of
1242:
López-Bautista, JM; Waters, DA; Chapman, RL (2003).
344:
do not have motile sperm and lack both flagella and
352:
1407:
1405:
1373:Transactions of the American Microscopical Society
1179:
147:Many types of plant cells contain a large central
1049:Bassham, James Alan; Lambers, Hans, eds. (2018).
583:). The possession of xylem tracheids defines the
70:
2829:
1562:
1128:"ChloroplastDB: the chloroplast genome database"
357:Plant cells differentiate from undifferentiated
1282:
1067:
55:that regulates turgor pressure, the absence of
16:Type of eukaryotic cell present in green plants
1457:Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology
1048:
887:
665:, are responsible for loading the phloem with
1594:
1235:
888:Lew, Kristi; Fitzpatrick, Brad (2021-08-01).
2700:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
1335:
1206:
952:Raven, J.A. (1987). "The role of vacuoles".
577:period more than 425 million years ago (see
501:is a tissue composed of two types of cells,
1406:Raven, PH; Evert, RF; Eichhorm, SE (1999).
1601:
1587:
1488:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1428:
482:
328:are the only cells of land plants to have
213:, which contain the green-colored pigment
1536:
1530:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1312:
1259:
1200:
1151:
864:
721:(L1 and L2 layers) that covers the plant
521:or stone cells, (from the Greek skleros,
241:specialized for synthesis and storage of
2644:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
1414:(6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman.
1366:
1360:
1174:
1168:
838:
682:
540:
513:secondary walls laid down inside of the
257:and are interpreted as having arisen as
27:
1514:Plant Anatomy Part 1. Cells and Tissues
1453:
1276:
832:
744:(or both), with a superficial layer of
67:that separates the new daughter cells.
2830:
1511:
1496:
1329:
1013:
978:
1582:
1553:
1399:
1007:
972:
951:
914:
908:
1186:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
534:) or of carbon compounds (as in the
1460:(Second ed.). Burlington, MA.
1437:Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche
291:, takes place by construction of a
13:
1434:
1283:Silflow, CD; Lefebvre, PA (2001).
1119:
966:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1987.tb00149.x
592:characterise the gymnosperms. The
221:. Other types of plastids are the
14:
2859:
2649:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
202:of adjacent cells are continuous.
171:, stores useful material such as
2812:
2811:
1541:. Berlin: Gebrüder Borntraeger.
353:Types of plant cells and tissues
264:living in the cells of an early
19:For the scientific journal, see
1447:
493:
1342:Journal of Experimental Botany
1042:
945:
917:Advances in Botanical Research
881:
643:and the intimately associated
448:
71:Characteristics of plant cells
1:
929:10.1016/S0065-2296(08)60148-2
825:
380:
295:as a template for building a
2690:History of plant systematics
2277:Thorns, spines, and prickles
691:
92:and constructed outside the
7:
751:
445:, have a storage function.
396:cells) and phloem loading (
10:
2864:
2506:Alternation of generations
1608:
1454:Mauseth, James D. (2021).
1209:American Journal of Botany
1182:Origin of eukaryotic cells
894:. Infobase Holdings, Inc.
891:Plant Cells, Third Edition
306:The motile, free-swimming
155:that maintains the cell's
18:
2807:
2755:
2719:
2656:Cultivated plant taxonomy
2619:Biological classification
2609:
2482:
2398:
2294:
2244:
1969:
1899:
1842:
1804:
1778:
1714:
1634:
1616:
1516:. London: Edward Arnold.
1287:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
623:
209:, the most notable being
39:are the cells present in
32:Structure of a plant cell
2516:Evolutionary development
981:Seminars in Cell Biology
557:
415:, or the manufacture of
253:of about 100–120 unique
2167:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
1369:Polytrichum juniperinum
1055:Encyclopedia Britannica
159:, controls movement of
2782:by author abbreviation
2706:Plant taxonomy systems
2624:Botanical nomenclature
1570:environmental stresses
1537:Roelofsen, PA (1959).
1221:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1535
1132:Nucleic Acids Research
993:10.1006/scel.1993.1016
814:Wall-associated kinase
688:
554:
33:
2789:Botanical expeditions
1261:10.1099/ijs.0.02561-0
857:10.1104/pp.110.161240
686:
544:
509:that have thickened,
200:endoplasmic reticulum
31:
2521:Evolutionary history
2511:Double fertilization
2363:Cellular respiration
839:Keegstra, K (2010).
548:Arabidopsis thaliana
332:similar to those in
205:Plant cells contain
128:are secreted by the
116:, which are made of
108:, which are made of
100:, which are made of
1740:Non-vascular plants
1539:The plant cell wall
1512:Cutter, EG (1977).
1354:10.1093/jxb/3.3.265
1138:(90001): D692-696.
1089:1981Natur.290..457A
118:pseudopeptidoglycan
2245:Surface structures
2040:Flower development
1144:10.1093/nar/gkj055
1028:10.1007/BF01282070
841:"Plant cell walls"
746:epicuticular waxes
689:
555:
417:secondary products
225:, specialized for
179:and digests waste
34:
2825:
2824:
2464:Herbaceous plants
2290:
2289:
1467:978-1-284-15737-6
1410:Biology of Plants
1305:10.1104/pp.010807
1215:(10): 1535–1556.
901:978-1-64693-728-8
673:lack phloem, but
515:primary cell wall
454:Collenchyma cells
76:Plant cells have
43:, photosynthetic
2855:
2848:Eukaryotic cells
2815:
2814:
2794:Individual trees
2469:Secondary growth
2440:Succulent plants
2428:Prostrate shrubs
2311:Apical dominance
2296:Plant physiology
2257:Epicuticular wax
1802:
1801:
1795:
1786:Plant morphology
1603:
1596:
1589:
1580:
1579:
1573:
1566:
1560:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1509:
1494:
1493:
1487:
1479:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1413:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1316:
1299:(4): 1500–1507.
1293:Plant Physiology
1280:
1274:
1273:
1263:
1254:(6): 1715–1718.
1239:
1233:
1232:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1185:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1155:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1097:10.1038/290457a0
1071:
1065:
1064:
1062:
1061:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1011:
1005:
1004:
976:
970:
969:
949:
943:
942:
912:
906:
905:
885:
879:
878:
868:
845:Plant Physiology
836:
784:Nuclear membrane
610:flowering plants
604:have only xylem
486:
419:that discourage
386:Parenchyma cells
342:flowering plants
268:ancestor of the
233:specialized for
120:. In many cases
2863:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2852:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2803:
2772:Botanical terms
2765:
2751:
2715:
2661:Citrus taxonomy
2639:Author citation
2605:
2499:
2478:
2400:
2394:
2390:Turgor pressure
2298:
2286:
2240:
2055:Floral symmetry
1973:
1965:
1895:
1884:Vascular bundle
1879:Vascular tissue
1838:
1798:
1789:
1788:
1774:
1745:Vascular plants
1710:
1706:Plant pathology
1630:
1612:
1607:
1577:
1576:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1535:
1531:
1524:
1510:
1497:
1481:
1480:
1468:
1452:
1448:
1433:
1429:
1422:
1404:
1400:
1385:10.2307/3224266
1365:
1361:
1334:
1330:
1281:
1277:
1240:
1236:
1205:
1201:
1194:
1173:
1169:
1124:
1120:
1072:
1068:
1059:
1057:
1047:
1043:
1012:
1008:
977:
973:
954:New Phytologist
950:
946:
939:
913:
909:
902:
886:
882:
837:
833:
828:
823:
754:
698:plant epidermis
694:
645:companion cells
626:
585:vascular plants
571:vessel elements
560:
496:
491:
490:
489:
451:
383:
355:
289:Trentepohliales
73:
47:of the kingdom
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2861:
2851:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2774:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2763:
2762:Related topics
2760:
2756:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2713:
2711:Taxonomic rank
2708:
2703:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2663:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2629:Botanical name
2621:
2615:
2613:
2611:Plant taxonomy
2607:
2606:
2604:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2587:Megasporangium
2584:
2583:
2582:
2575:Microsporangia
2567:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2420:
2415:
2413:Cushion plants
2404:
2402:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2360:
2350:
2348:Plant hormones
2345:
2340:
2339:
2338:
2331:Photosynthesis
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2302:
2300:
2292:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2217:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2169:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2104:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2064:
2063:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2050:Floral formula
2047:
2045:Floral diagram
2042:
2037:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2008:
1998:
1988:
1983:
1977:
1975:
1974:(incl. Flower)
1967:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1950:
1949:
1944:
1934:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1876:
1874:Storage organs
1871:
1866:
1865:
1864:
1854:
1848:
1846:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1810:
1808:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1760:Spermatophytes
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1730:Archaeplastida
1727:
1721:
1719:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1684:Phytogeography
1681:
1679:Phytochemistry
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1640:
1638:
1636:Subdisciplines
1632:
1631:
1629:
1628:
1623:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1606:
1605:
1598:
1591:
1583:
1575:
1574:
1561:
1552:
1529:
1522:
1495:
1466:
1446:
1427:
1420:
1398:
1379:(4): 428–433.
1359:
1348:(3): 265–275.
1328:
1275:
1234:
1199:
1193:978-0300013535
1192:
1167:
1118:
1083:(5806): 4–65.
1066:
1041:
1022:(2): 121–133.
1006:
987:(2): 131–138.
971:
960:(3): 357–422.
944:
937:
907:
900:
880:
851:(2): 483–486.
830:
829:
827:
824:
822:
821:
816:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
755:
753:
750:
693:
690:
625:
622:
559:
556:
495:
492:
487:
481:
480:
450:
447:
398:transfer cells
390:photosynthesis
382:
379:
354:
351:
350:
349:
304:
277:
219:photosynthesis
203:
188:
145:
144:between cells.
86:hemicelluloses
72:
69:
21:The Plant Cell
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2860:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2843:Plant anatomy
2841:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2818:
2810:
2809:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2754:
2748:
2747:Phytochemical
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2600:
2597:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2588:
2585:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2571:
2568:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2409:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2397:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2385:Transpiration
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2173:
2172:Inflorescence
2170:
2168:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2065:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1929:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1858:
1857:Ground tissue
1855:
1853:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1841:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1800:
1793:
1787:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1780:Plant anatomy
1777:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1701:Plant ecology
1699:
1697:
1696:Plant anatomy
1694:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1644:Archaeobotany
1642:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1633:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1618:
1615:
1611:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1592:
1590:
1585:
1584:
1581:
1571:
1565:
1556:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1525:
1519:
1515:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1491:
1485:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1463:
1459:
1458:
1450:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1423:
1421:9780716762843
1417:
1412:
1411:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1288:
1279:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1195:
1189:
1184:
1183:
1177:
1171:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1122:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1070:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
975:
967:
963:
959:
955:
948:
940:
938:9780120059256
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
911:
903:
897:
893:
892:
884:
876:
872:
867:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
835:
831:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
809:Mitochondrion
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
756:
749:
747:
743:
739:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
699:
685:
681:
679:
676:
672:
668:
664:
663:plasmodesmata
660:
656:
652:
651:
646:
642:
638:
637:translocation
634:
630:
621:
619:
615:
614:xylem vessels
611:
607:
603:
599:
598:pteridophytes
595:
591:
590:bordered pits
586:
582:
581:
576:
572:
568:
564:
553:
550:
549:
543:
539:
537:
533:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
485:
479:
477:
476:
471:
468:
464:
463:hemicellulose
460:
455:
446:
444:
440:
437:
433:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
378:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
326:
321:
317:
316:pteridophytes
313:
309:
305:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
275:
271:
267:
263:
262:endosymbionts
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
237:storage, and
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
201:
197:
193:
192:plasmodesmata
189:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
143:
139:
138:plant cuticle
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
110:peptidoglycan
107:
103:
99:
95:
94:cell membrane
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
74:
68:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
30:
26:
22:
2742:Horticulture
2732:Floriculture
2634:Correct name
2484:Reproduction
2474:Woody plants
2399:Plant growth
2358:Gas Exchange
2343:Phytomelanin
2221:Plant embryo
1971:Reproductive
1819:Phragmoplast
1805:
1564:
1555:
1538:
1532:
1513:
1456:
1449:
1440:
1436:
1430:
1409:
1401:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1362:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1331:
1296:
1292:
1286:
1278:
1251:
1247:
1237:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1181:
1170:
1135:
1131:
1121:
1080:
1076:
1069:
1058:. Retrieved
1054:
1044:
1019:
1015:
1009:
984:
980:
974:
957:
953:
947:
920:
916:
910:
890:
883:
848:
844:
834:
794:Golgi Bodies
779:Cytoskeleton
726:
718:
703:gas exchange
695:
650:sieve plates
648:
627:
608:, while the
578:
561:
546:
522:
499:Sclerenchyma
497:
494:Sclerenchyma
473:
452:
425:chlorenchyma
402:gas exchange
384:
359:meristematic
356:
334:animal cells
323:
293:phragmoplast
247:mitochondria
239:chromoplasts
211:chloroplasts
163:between the
80:composed of
65:phragmoplast
41:green plants
36:
35:
25:
2838:Plant cells
2558:Pollen tube
2553:Pollinators
2543:Pollination
2538:Germination
2353:Respiration
2336:Chlorophyll
2182:Pedicellate
2116:Gametophyte
2035:Aestivation
1986:Antheridium
1981:Archegonium
1829:Plasmodesma
1806:Plant cells
1669:Paleobotany
1664:Ethnobotany
1649:Astrobotany
1176:Margulis, L
1016:Protoplasma
774:Chloroplast
759:Animal cell
740:or polymer
715:guard cells
678:sporophytes
641:sieve tubes
618:sporophytes
602:gymnosperms
470:angiosperms
467:dicotyledon
449:Collenchyma
301:cytokinesis
285:Chlorophyte
281:Charophytes
270:land plants
259:prokaryotic
231:elaioplasts
223:amyloplasts
215:chlorophyll
196:plasmalemma
37:Plant cells
2832:Categories
2580:Microspore
2570:Sporangium
2548:Artificial
2236:Sporophyte
2231:Sporophyll
2226:Receptacle
2121:Gynandrium
1991:Androecium
1900:Vegetative
1770:Angiosperm
1765:Gymnosperm
1659:Dendrology
1547:B0007J57W0
1523:0713126388
1476:1122454203
1060:2018-04-15
826:References
819:Paul Nurse
789:Leucoplast
723:shoot apex
711:root hairs
709:, and the
671:bryophytes
612:also have
596:and other
439:cotyledons
406:totipotent
381:Parenchyma
346:centrioles
312:bryophytes
297:cell plate
266:eukaryotic
185:organelles
173:phosphorus
130:protoplast
78:cell walls
61:centrioles
45:eukaryotes
2777:Botanists
2695:Herbarium
2592:Megaspore
2490:Evolution
2433:Subshrubs
2401:and habit
2326:Nutrition
2321:Cellulose
2316:Bulk flow
2299:Materials
2262:Epidermis
2126:Gynoecium
2107:Endosperm
2102:Dispersal
2018:Staminode
1954:Sessility
1942:Cataphyll
1862:Mesophyll
1814:Cell wall
1755:Lycophyte
1735:Bryophyte
1689:Geobotany
1674:Phycology
1484:cite book
923:: 59–86.
804:Nucleolus
769:Cytoplasm
764:Chromatin
735:polyester
707:trichomes
692:Epidermis
659:ribosomes
606:tracheids
580:Cooksonia
567:tracheids
552:epidermis
545:cells of
519:Sclereids
511:lignified
503:sclereids
475:Petasites
421:herbivory
413:secretion
394:mesophyll
229:storage,
161:molecules
153:tonoplast
82:cellulose
2817:Category
2737:Forestry
2727:Agronomy
2720:Practice
2671:Cultivar
2666:Cultigen
2526:timeline
2418:Rosettes
2306:Aleurone
2282:Trichome
2199:Perianth
2011:Filament
1869:Meristem
1792:glossary
1654:Bryology
1338:Sphagnum
1323:11743094
1270:14657098
1229:21652308
1178:(1970).
1162:16381961
875:20921169
752:See also
733:made of
600:and the
575:Silurian
434:and the
338:conifers
330:flagella
299:late in
283:and the
245:. As in
243:pigments
207:plastids
181:proteins
177:nitrogen
142:hormones
106:bacteria
57:flagella
2495:Ecology
2252:Cuticle
2082:Capsule
2072:Anatomy
2023:Tapetum
1947:Petiole
1922:Rhizome
1917:Rhizoid
1844:Tissues
1834:Vacuole
1824:Plastid
1626:Outline
1621:History
1393:3224266
1314:1540183
1153:1347418
1113:4355527
1105:7219534
1085:Bibcode
1036:8650433
1001:8318697
866:2949028
799:Nucleus
731:cuticle
633:sucrose
443:legumes
375:flowers
251:genomes
165:cytosol
149:vacuole
126:suberin
114:archaea
112:and of
53:vacuole
49:Plantae
2799:Plants
2702:(IAPT)
2455:Lianas
2423:Shrubs
2375:Starch
2267:Nectar
2187:Raceme
2153:Stigma
2141:Locule
2131:Carpel
2092:Pyrena
2030:Flower
2006:Anther
2001:Stamen
1996:Pollen
1718:groups
1610:Botany
1545:
1520:
1474:
1464:
1418:
1391:
1321:
1311:
1268:
1227:
1190:
1160:
1150:
1111:
1103:
1077:Nature
1034:
999:
935:
898:
873:
863:
727:corpus
719:tunica
669:. The
667:sugars
655:nuclei
629:Phloem
624:Phloem
536:phloem
527:Fibres
507:fibres
459:Pectin
432:tubers
429:potato
410:nectar
371:leaves
336:. The
325:Ginkgo
320:cycads
287:Order
227:starch
157:turgor
122:lignin
102:chitin
90:pectin
88:, and
2759:Lists
2676:Group
2599:Spore
2533:Flora
2450:Vines
2445:Trees
2408:Habit
2380:Sugar
2272:Stoma
2214:Sepal
2209:Petal
2204:Tepal
2192:Umbel
2177:Bract
2158:Style
2146:Ovule
2136:Ovary
2077:Berry
2067:Fruit
2060:Whorl
1927:Shoot
1725:Algae
1716:Plant
1389:JSTOR
1109:S2CID
1032:S2CID
742:cutan
738:cutin
594:ferns
563:Xylem
558:Xylem
532:xylem
367:stems
363:roots
308:sperm
274:algae
255:genes
134:Cutin
104:, of
98:fungi
2681:Grex
2563:Self
2097:Seed
1959:Stem
1937:Leaf
1912:Root
1907:Bulb
1891:Wood
1852:Cork
1750:Fern
1543:ASIN
1518:ISBN
1490:link
1472:OCLC
1462:ISBN
1416:ISBN
1319:PMID
1266:PMID
1225:PMID
1188:ISBN
1158:PMID
1101:PMID
997:PMID
933:ISBN
896:ISBN
871:PMID
696:The
675:moss
657:and
523:hard
505:and
461:and
436:seed
340:and
322:and
314:and
272:and
198:and
183:and
175:and
167:and
2370:Sap
2087:Nut
1932:Bud
1441:111
1381:doi
1371:".
1350:doi
1340:".
1309:PMC
1301:doi
1297:127
1256:doi
1217:doi
1148:PMC
1140:doi
1093:doi
1081:290
1024:doi
1020:111
989:doi
962:doi
958:106
925:doi
861:PMC
853:doi
849:154
569:or
441:of
310:of
235:fat
169:sap
124:or
59:or
2834::
1498:^
1486:}}
1482:{{
1470:.
1439:.
1387:.
1377:86
1375:.
1344:.
1317:.
1307:.
1295:.
1291:.
1264:.
1252:53
1250:.
1246:.
1223:.
1213:91
1211:.
1156:.
1146:.
1136:34
1134:.
1130:.
1107:.
1099:.
1091:.
1079:.
1053:.
1030:.
1018:.
995:.
983:.
956:.
931:.
921:25
919:.
869:.
859:.
847:.
843:.
373:,
369:,
365:,
318:,
84:,
1794:)
1790:(
1602:e
1595:t
1588:v
1549:.
1526:.
1492:)
1478:.
1424:.
1395:.
1383::
1356:.
1352::
1346:3
1325:.
1303::
1289:"
1272:.
1258::
1231:.
1219::
1196:.
1164:.
1142::
1115:.
1095::
1087::
1063:.
1038:.
1026::
1003:.
991::
985:4
968:.
964::
941:.
927::
904:.
877:.
855::
392:(
348:.
303:.
276:.
187:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
