5348:
9512:
53:
7679:
8575:" was stamped in their identity cards. Numerous restrictions and prohibitions targeting Jews were introduced and brutally enforced. For example, Jews were forbidden to walk on the sidewalks, use public transport, or enter places of leisure, sports arenas, theaters, museums and libraries. On the street, Jews had to lift their hat to passing Germans. By the end of 1941 all Jews in German-occupied Poland, except the children, had to wear an identifying badge with a blue Star of David. Rabbis were humiliated in "spectacles organised by the German soldiers and police" who used their rifle butts "to make these men dance in their praying shawls." The Germans "disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate", made little attempts to set up a collaborationist government in Poland, nevertheless, German
8890:
4543:
8811:
9025:
8103:. This religious-based antisemitism was sometimes joined with an ultra-nationalistic stereotype of Jews as disloyal to the Polish nation. On the eve of World War II, many typical Polish Christians believed that there were far too many Jews in the country, and the Polish government became increasingly concerned with the "Jewish question". According to the British Embassy in Warsaw, in 1936 emigration was the only solution to the Jewish question that found wide support in all Polish political parties. The Polish government condemned wanton violence against the Jewish minority, fearing international repercussions, but shared the view that the Jewish minority hindered Poland's development; in January 1937 Foreign Minister
7948:
8561:
7940:, meant that the situation of Jewish Poles was never very satisfactory, and it deteriorated again after Piłsudski's death in May 1935, which many Jews regarded as a tragedy. The Jewish industries were negatively affected by the development of mass production and the advent of department stores offering ready-made products. The traditional sources of livelihood for the estimated 300,000 Jewish family-run businesses in the country began to vanish, contributing to a growing trend toward isolationism and internal self-sufficiency. The difficult situation in the private sector led to enrolment growth in higher education. In 1923 the Jewish students constituted 62.9% of all students of
9190:
8583:
5916:
9666:
confiscated by the Nazis, suggest "abandoned property" was equivalent to "Jewish property". According to Łukasz Krzyżanowski, the state actively sought to gain control over a large number of "abandoned" properties. According to Krzyżanowski, this declaration of "abandoned" property can be seen as the last stage of the expropriation process that began during the German wartime occupation; by approving the status-quo shaped by the German occupation authorities, the Polish authorities became "the beneficiary of the murder of millions of its Jewish citizens, who were deprived of all their property before death". A 1945 memorandum by the
4150:
4669:
4989:
that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle-workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, culminating in a series of false "Messianic" movements, most famously as
3913:
8831:
14511:. On 5 October 1935, the Polish delegate in the economic committee of the League of Nations presented the Jewish issue as 'requiring quick preventive measures.' In 1937, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs viewed the League of Nations as the right place for manifesting its support for the cause of developing a Jewish state in Palestine. This had been declared at the League by Foreign Minister Józef Beck.11 He also supported the idea of an international conference and campaign for organizing and facilitating Jewish emigration.12 Talks were held with British Foreign Secretary
8827:
the death penalty. Another law implemented by the
Germans was that Poles were forbidden from buying from Jewish shops, and if they did they were subject to execution. Many Jews tried to escape from the ghettos in the hope of finding a place to hide outside of it, or of joining the partisan units. When this proved difficult escapees often returned to the ghetto on their own. If caught, Germans would murder the escapees and leave their bodies in plain view as a warning to others. Despite these terror tactics, attempts at escape from ghettos continued until their liquidation.
5204:
10107:
10011:. The leaders of the Communist party tried to stifle the ongoing protests and unrest by scapegoating the Jews. At the same time there was an ongoing power struggle within the party itself and the antisemitic campaign was used by one faction against another. The so-called "Partisan" faction blamed the Jews who had held office during the Stalinist period for the excesses that had occurred, but the result was that most of the remaining Polish Jews, regardless of their background or political affiliation, were targeted by the communist authorities.
7546:
4848:
8383:
10349:
10195:
8734:
4366:, which, among other things, abolished the ancient privileges of the Jews "as contrary to divine right and the law of the land." Nevertheless, the king continued to offer his protection to the Jews. Two years later Casimir issued another document announcing that he could not deprive the Jews of his benevolence on the basis of "the principle of tolerance which in conformity with God's laws obliged him to protect them". The policy of the government toward the Jews of Poland oscillated under Casimir's sons and successors,
4392:
10287:
8314:
8933:
7429:
8360:
military, suffered equally at the hands of the Soviet occupiers. Whatever initial enthusiasm for the Soviet occupation Jews might have felt was soon dissipated upon feeling the impact of the suppression of Jewish societal modes of life by the occupiers. The tensions between ethnic Poles and Jews as a result of this period has, according to some historians, taken a toll on relations between Poles and Jews throughout the war, creating until this day, an impasse to Polish–Jewish rapprochement.
9129:
5972:
9308:
7843:
8279:. Jews under German occupation were immediately maltreated, beaten, publicly executed, and even burnt alive in the synagogue. As a result 350,000 Polish Jews fled from the German-occupied area to the Soviet area. Upon annexing the region, the Soviet government recognized as Soviet citizens Jews (and other non-Poles) who were permanent residents of the area, while offering refugees the choice of either taking on Soviet citizenship or returning to their former homes.
5980:
9154:– the Jews and the Polish bandits succeeded in repelling the participating units, including tanks and armored cars, by a well-prepared concentration of fire. (...) The main Jewish battle group, mixed with Polish bandits, had already retired during the first and second day to the so-called Muranowski Square. There, it was reinforced by a considerable number of Polish bandits. Its plan was to hold the Ghetto by every means in order to prevent us from invading it.
5734:
8083:, declared an "economic war against Jews", while introducing the term "Christian shop". As a result a boycott of Jewish businesses grew intensively. A national movement to prevent the Jews from kosher slaughter of animals, with animal rights as the stated motivation, was also organized. Violence was also frequently aimed at Jewish stores, and many of them were looted. At the same time, persistent economic boycotts and harassment, including property-destroying
9039:
8484:
5128:, along with others, demanded that the inviolability of their persons and property should be guaranteed and that religious toleration should be to a certain extent granted them; but he insisted that Jews living in the cities should be separated from the Christians, that those of them having no definite occupation should be banished from the kingdom, and that even those engaged in agriculture should not be allowed to possess land. On the other hand, some
4329:
7487:
8185:
9703:
both Jewish and Polish population and massive destruction caused by Nazi
Germany, as well as the expansion of Soviet Union and communism into Polish territories after the war, which dictated the property laws for the next 50 years. Poland remains "the only EU country and the only former Eastern European communist state not to have enacted law," but rather "a patchwork of laws and court decisions promulgated from 1945-present." As stated by
4018:
4638:. In part it was also caused due to mass migration of the Jews to Ruthenia and their role perceived by local population and in turn led to multiple Cossack uprisings. The largest one of them started in 1648 and was followed by several conflicts, in which the country lost over a third of its population (over three million people). The Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these large-scale atrocities was the
171:
5621:
5287:
5539:
8628:) were tortured and beaten to death by members of the local population. The full extent of Polish participation in the massacres of the Polish Jewish community remains a controversial subject, in part due to Jewish leaders' refusal to allow the remains of the Jewish victims to be exhumed and their cause of death to be properly established. The Polish Institute for National Remembrance identified twenty-two other towns that had
179:
5898:
10325:. The synagogue, the sole synagogue in Oświęcim to survive World War II and an adjacent Jewish cultural and educational center, provide visitors a place to pray and to learn about the active pre–World War II Jewish community that existed in Oświęcim. The synagogue was the first communal property in the country to be returned to the Jewish community under the 1997 law allowing for restitution of Jewish communal property.
10096:
1253:
4571:– witnessed the appearance of "a virtual galaxy of sparkling intellectual figures." Jewish academies were established in Lublin, Kraków, Brześć (Brisk), Lwów, Ostróg and other towns. Poland-Lithuania was the only country in Europe where the Jews cultivated their own farmer's fields. The central autonomous body that regulated Jewish life in Poland from the middle of the 16th to mid-18th century was known as the
8140:(the military branch of the Revisionist Zionist movement) in the form of military training and weapons. According to Irgun activists, the Polish state supplied the organisation with 25,000 rifles, additional material and weapons, and by summer 1939 Irgun's Warsaw warehouses held 5,000 rifles and 1,000 machine guns. The training and support by Poland would allow the organisation to mobilise 30,000-40,000 men.
18111:
1264:
10085:
9850:, functioned between 1945 and 1948 until it was absorbed by the CKŻP. Eleven independent political Jewish parties, of which eight were legal, existed until their dissolution during 1949–50. Hospitals and schools were opened in Poland by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and ORT to provide service to Jewish communities. Some Jewish cultural institutions were established including the
8306:
communities tended to rely more on commerce and small-scale businesses, the confiscations of property affected them to a greater degree than the general populace. The Soviet rule resulted in near collapse of the local economy, characterized by insufficient wages and general shortage of goods and materials. The Jews, like other inhabitants of the region, saw a fall in their living standards.
9221:
5069:
18471:
9675:
properties; and completing the restitution process, given that most properties were already occupied, required additional, lengthy processes. The majority of Jewish claimants could not afford the restitution process without financial help, due to the filing costs, legal fees, and inheritance tax. While it is hard to determine the total number of successful reclamations,
9567:
Jewish schools were created in the few towns containing a relatively large Jewish population, many Jewish children were enrolled in Polish state schools. Some state schools, as in the town of Otwock, forbade Jewish children to enroll. In the state schools that did allow Jewish children, there were numerous accounts of beatings and persecution targeting these children.
9213:
Jews who continued living in the ruined ghetto. Many of them survived thanks to the contacts they managed to establish with Poles outside the ghetto. The
Uprising inspired Jews throughout Poland. Many Jewish leaders who survived the liquidation continued underground work outside the ghetto. They hid other Jews, forged necessary documents and were active in the
9466:
Soviet war dead. For decades to come, the Soviet authorities refused to accept the fact that thousands of Jews who remained in the USSR opted consciously and unambiguously for Polish nationality. At the end of 1944, the number of Polish Jews in the Soviet and the Soviet-controlled territories has been estimated at 250,000–300,000 people. Jews who escaped to
8371:. As a result of these factors they found it easy after 1939 to participate in the Soviet occupation administration in Eastern Poland, and briefly occupied prominent positions in industry, schools, local government, police and other Soviet-installed institutions. The concept of "Judeo-communism" was reinforced during the period of the Soviet occupation (see
7521:
Yiddish as their first language, and only 12% listed Polish, with the remaining 9% being Hebrew. In contrast, the overwhelming majority of German-born Jews of this period spoke German as their first language. During the school year of 1937–1938 there were 226 elementary schools and twelve high schools as well as fourteen vocational schools with either
8003:) introduced in 1937 in some universities, halved the number of Jews in Polish universities between independence (1918) and the late 1930s. The restrictions were so inclusive that – while the Jews made up 20.4% of the student body in 1928 – by 1937 their share was down to only 7.5%, out of the total population of 9.75% Jews in the country according to
7893:. Economic instability was mirrored by anti-Jewish sentiment in the press; discrimination, exclusion, and violence at the universities; and the appearance of "anti-Jewish squads" associated with some of the right-wing political parties. These developments contributed to a greater support among the Jewish community for Zionist and socialist ideas.
9817:(PPS) and gained its first and only parliamentary seat in its Polish history, plus several seats in municipal councils. Under pressure from Soviet-installed communist authorities, the Bund's leaders 'voluntarily' disbanded the party in 1948–1949 against the opposition of many activists. Stalinist Poland was basically governed by the Soviet
9661:, the 1945 and 1946 laws governing restitution were enacted with the intention of restricting Jewish restitution claims as one of their main goals. The 1946 law carried a deadline of 31 December 1947 (later extended to 31 December 1948), after which unclaimed property devolved to the Polish state; many survivors residing in the USSR or in
10020:. The campaign damaged Poland's reputation abroad, particularly in the U.S. Many Polish intellectuals, however, were disgusted at the promotion of official antisemitism and opposed the campaign. Some of the people who emigrated to the West at this time founded organizations that encouraged anti-Communist opposition inside Poland.
4146:
Christians would be subordinated to them, and forbade them from building more than one prayer house in each town. However, those church decrees required the cooperation of the Polish princes for enforcement, which was generally not forthcoming, due to the profits which the Jews' economic activity yielded to the princes.
15653:. Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005): 711–746. "Because of a lack of interest on the part of the Nazi leadership, there was no basis for state collaboration. On the contrary, overtures even by Polish fascists and other staunch anti-Semites were rebuffed by the occupiers." For the follow-up see: abstract of John Connelly
4090:(or Magdeburg Law), a charter given to Jews, among others, that specifically outlined the rights and privileges that Jews had in Poland. For example, they could maintain communal autonomy, and live according to their own laws. This made it very attractive for Jewish communities to pick up and move to Poland.
8659:' views of Polish behavior during the War span a wide range, depending on their personal experiences. Some are very negative, based on the view of Christian Poles as passive witnesses who failed to act and aid the Jews as they were being persecuted or liquidated by the Nazis. Poles, who were also victims of
15661:, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005). Quote: John Connelly "suggests that even those cases that Friedrich documents do not make Poland into a collaborationist country. In fact, the Nazis were disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate." The American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, 2005.
9586:. The exact number of Jewish victims is a subject of debate with 327 documented cases, and range, estimated by different writers, from 400 to 2,000. Jews constituted between 2% and 3% of the total number of victims of postwar violence in the country, including the Polish Jews who managed to escape the
4443:, or autonomous Jewish community. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". According to some sources, about three-quarters of all Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. In the 16h and 17th centuries, Poland welcomed Jewish immigrants from
16917:
The most intense battles took place in the east but the fighting was not limited to this region; all over the country, partisans clashed with communist security forces. Repressions increased in the winter of 1945/46 and spring of 1946, when entire villages were burnt. The fighting lasted with varying
11550:
There were people everywhere who were prepared, for whatever motives, to do the Nazis' work for them. And if there was more anti-Semitism in Poland than in many other countries, there was also less collaboration.... The Nazis generally preferred not to count on outbursts of 'emotional anti-Semitism',
10160:
although not many of them are still active in their original religious role. Stara
Synagoga ("Old Synagogue") in Kraków, which hosts a Jewish museum, was built in the early 15th century and is the oldest synagogue in Poland. Before the war, the Yeshiva Chachmei in Lublin was Europe's largest. In 2007
9674:
Many of the properties that were previously owned or by Jews were taken over by others during the war. Attempting to reclaim an occupied property often put the claimant at a risk of physical harm and even death. Many who proceeded with the process were only granted possession, not ownership, of their
9212:
A group of fighters escaped from the ghetto through the sewers and reached the
Lomianki forest. About 50 ghetto fighters were saved by the Polish "People's Guard" and later formed their own partisan group, named after Anielewicz. Even after the end of the uprising there were still several hundreds of
8122:
and other international venues, proposing increased emigration quotas and opposing the
Partition Plan of Palestine on behalf of Zionist activists. As Jabotinsky envisioned in his "Evacuation Plan" the settlement of 1.5 million East European Jews within 10 years in Palestine, including 750,000 Polish
8055:
enjoyed considerable prominence also, with 90% of small businesses in the city owned and operated by the Jews including tinsmiths, locksmiths, jewellers, tailors, hat makers, hairdressers, carpenters, house painters and wallpaper installers, shoemakers, as well as most of the artisan bakers and clock
8014:
Although many Jews were educated, they were almost completely excluded from government jobs; as a result, the proportion of unemployed Jewish salary earners was approximately four times as great in 1929 as the proportion of unemployed non-Jewish salary earners, a situation compounded by the fact that
7446:
began, Poland had the largest concentration of Jews in Europe although many Polish Jews had a separate culture and ethnic identity from
Catholic Poles. Some authors have stated that only about 10% of Polish Jews during the interwar period could be considered "assimilated" while more than 80% could be
6084:
and late 1938, the Jewish population of the
Republic had grown by over 464,000. According to the 1931 census one city had over 350,000 Jewish inhabitants (Warsaw), one city had over 200,000 Jewish inhabitants (Lodz), one city had around 100,000 Jewish inhabitants (Lvov) and two cities had over 50,000
6079:
increased sevenfold between 1816 and 1921, from around 213,000 to roughly 1,500,000. According to the Polish national census of 1921, there were 2,845,364 Jews living in the Second Polish
Republic. According to the national census of 1931, there were 3,113,933 Jews living in Poland. By late 1938 that
6015:
that allegations of pogroms were exaggerated. It identified eight incidents in the years 1918–1919 out of 37 mostly empty claims for damages, and estimated the number of victims at 280. Four of these were attributed to the actions of deserters and undisciplined individual soldiers; none was blamed on
4735:
The environment of the Polish
Commonwealth, according to Hundert, profoundly affected Jews due to genuinely positive encounter with the Christian culture across the many cities and towns owned by the Polish aristocracy. There was no isolation. The Jewish dress resembled that of their Polish neighbor.
4731:
As soon as the disturbances had ceased, the Jews began to return and to rebuild their destroyed homes; and while it is true that the Jewish population of Poland had decreased, it still was more numerous than that of the Jewish colonies in Western Europe. Poland continued to be the spiritual center of
4104:
on the one hand, and by the neighboring German states on the other. There were, however, among the reigning princes some determined protectors of the Jewish inhabitants, who considered the presence of the latter most desirable as far as the economic development of the country was concerned. Prominent
9121:, rose up in a first Warsaw uprising. Both organizations resisted, with arms, German attempts for additional deportations to Auschwitz and Treblinka. The final destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto came four months later after the crushing of one of the most heroic and tragic battles of the war, the 1943
8881:
Since the Nazi terror reigned throughout the Aryan districts, the chances of remaining successfully hidden depended on a fluent knowledge of the language and on having close ties with the community. Many Poles were not willing to hide Jews who might have escaped the ghettos or who might have been in
8826:
During the occupation of Poland, the Germans used various laws to separate ethnic Poles from Jewish ones. In the ghettos, the population was separated by putting the Poles into the "Aryan Side" and the Polish Jews into the "Jewish Side". Any Pole found giving any help to a Jewish Pole was subject to
8350:
estimated that 30% of them identified with the communists whilst engaging in provocations; they prepared lists of Polish "class enemies". Other historians have indicated that the level of Jewish collaboration could well have been less than suggested. Historian Martin Dean has written that "few local
8333:
While most eastern Poles consolidated themselves around the anti-Soviet sentiments, a portion of the Jewish population, along with the ethnic Belarusian and Ukrainian activists had welcomed invading Soviet forces as their protectors. The general feeling among the Polish Jews was a sense of temporary
8305:
Synagogues and churches were not yet closed but heavily taxed. The Soviet ruble of little value was immediately equalized to the much higher Polish zloty and by the end of 1939, zloty was abolished. Most economic activity became subject to central planning and the NKVD restrictions. Since the Jewish
8297:
Jewish refugees under the Soviet occupation had little knowledge about what was going on under the Germans since the Soviet media did not report on the goings-on in territories occupied by their Nazi ally. Many people from Western Poland registered for repatriation back to the German zone, including
8095:
of Poles and Polish Jews alike to the extent that by the end of the 1930s, a substantial portion of Polish Jews lived in grinding poverty. As a result, on the eve of the Second World War, the Jewish community in Poland was large and vibrant internally, yet (with the exception of a few professionals)
5162:
the following year, when the Poles tried to again achieve independence, but were brutally put down. Following the revolt, the third and final partition of Poland took place in 1795. The territories which included the great bulk of the Jewish population was transferred to Russia, and thus they became
4271:
including freedom of religion and commerce on equal terms with the Christians. Under the rule of Władysław II, Polish Jews had increased in numbers and attained prosperity. However, religious persecution gradually increased, as the dogmatic clergy pushed for less official tolerance, pressured by the
9725:
For a variety of reasons, the vast majority of returning Jewish survivors left Poland soon after the war ended. Many left for the West because they did not want to live under a Communist regime. Some left because of the persecution they faced in postwar Poland, and because they did not want to live
9182:). The German forces, which included 2,842 Nazi soldiers and 7,000 security personnel, were not capable of crushing the Jewish resistance in open street combat and after several days, decided to switch strategy by setting buildings on fire in which the Jewish fighters hid. The commander of the ŻOB,
9095:
The population of the ghetto reached 380,000 people by the end of 1940, about 30% of the population of Warsaw. However, the size of the Ghetto was only about 2.4% of the size of the city. The Germans closed off the Ghetto from the outside world, building a wall around it by 16 November 1940. During
8643:
Some Jewish historians have written of the negative attitudes of some Poles towards persecuted Jews during the Holocaust. While members of Catholic clergy risked their lives to assist Jews, their efforts were sometimes made in the face of antisemitic attitudes from the church hierarchy. Anti-Jewish
8354:
The issue of Jewish collaboration with the Soviet occupation remains controversial. Some scholars note that while not pro-Communist, many Jews saw the Soviets as the lesser threat compared to the German Nazis. They stress that stories of Jews welcoming the Soviets on the streets, vividly remembered
8158:
wrote, "The fact that our relations with the Reich are worsening does not in the least deactivate our program in the Jewish question—there is not and cannot be any common ground between our internal Jewish problem and Poland's relations with the Hitlerite Reich." Escalating hostility towards Polish
7454:
there were 3,130,581 Polish Jews measured by the declaration of their religion. Estimating the population increase and the emigration from Poland between 1931 and 1939, there were probably 3,474,000 Jews in Poland as of 1 September 1939 (approximately 10% of the total population) primarily centered
5170:
Under foreign rule many Jews inhabiting formerly Polish lands were indifferent to Polish aspirations for independence. However, most Polonized Jews supported the revolutionary activities of Polish patriots and participated in national uprisings. Polish Jews took part in the November Insurrection of
4988:
The decade from the Khmelnytsky Uprising until after the Deluge (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish–Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to
11259:
Although traditional narrative holds that as a consequence, the predicament of the Commonwealth’s Jewry worsened, declining to the level of other European countries by the end of the eighteenth century, recent scholarship by Gershon Hundert, Moshe Rosman, Edward Fram, and Magda Teter, suggest that
9470:
from areas occupied by Germany in 1939 were numbering at around 198,000. Over 150,000 of them were repatriated or expelled back to new communist Poland along with the Jewish men conscripted to the Red Army from Kresy in 1940–1941. Their families were murdered in the Holocaust. Some of the soldiers
8885:
While the German policy towards Jews was ruthless and criminal, their policy towards Christian Poles who helped Jews was very much the same. The Germans would often murder non-Jewish Poles for small misdemeanors. Execution for help rendered to Jews, even the most basic kinds, was automatic. In any
7520:
were entering the mainstream of Polish society, though many thought of themselves as a separate nationality within Poland. Most children were enrolled in Jewish religious schools, which used to limit their ability to speak Polish. As a result, according to the 1931 census, 79% of the Jews declared
4324:
and Szania of Belz in the 15th century. For example, Wolczko of Drohobycz, King Ladislaus Jagiełło's broker, was the owner of several villages in the Ruthenian voivodship and the soltys (administrator) of the village of Werbiz. Also, Jews from Grodno were in this period owners of villages, manors,
10581:
give a larger number of Jews living in contemporary Poland. In the 2011 Polish census, 7,353 Polish citizens declared their nationality as "Jewish," a big increase from just 1,055 during the previous 2002 census. In the 2021 Polish census in total 17,156 people declared their ethnicity as Jewish,
9702:
Decades later, reclaiming pre-war property would lead to a number of controversies, and the matter is still debated by media and scholars as of late 2010s. Dariusz Stola notes that the issues of property in Poland are incredibly complex, and need to take into consideration unprecedented losses of
9621:
In a number of other instances, returning Jews still met with threats, violence, and murder from their Polish neighbors, occasionally in a deliberate and organized manner. People of the community frequently had knowledge of these murders and turned a blind eye or held no sympathy for the victims.
9370:
In August 1943, the Germans mounted an operation to destroy the Białystok ghetto. German forces and local police auxiliaries surrounded the ghetto and began to round up Jews systematically for deportation to the Treblinka extermination camp. Approximately 7,600 Jews were held in a central transit
8897:
Hiding in a Christian society to which the Jews were only partially assimilated was a daunting task. They needed to quickly acquire not only a new identity, but a new body of knowledge. Many Jews spoke Polish with a distinct Yiddish or Hebrew accent, used a different nonverbal language, different
8151:
By the time of the German invasion in 1939, antisemitism was escalating, and hostility towards Jews was a mainstay of the right-wing political forces post-Piłsudski regime and also the Catholic Church. Discrimination and violence against Jews had rendered the Polish Jewish population increasingly
8010:
While the average per capita income of Polish Jews in 1929 was 40% above the national average – which was very low compared to England or Germany – they were a very heterogeneous community, some poor, some wealthy. Many Jews worked as shoemakers and tailors, as well as in the liberal professions;
5234:
issued a "Statute Concerning Jews", meant to accelerate the process of assimilation of the Empire's new Jewish population. The Polish Jews were allowed to establish schools with Russian, German or Polish curricula. However, they were also restricted from leasing property, teaching in Yiddish, and
4654:
massacred tens of thousands of Jews as well as Catholic and Uniate population in the eastern and southern areas of Polish-occupied Ukraine. The precise number of dead is not known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during this period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes
4300:. Traders and artisans jealous of Jewish prosperity, and fearing their rivalry, supported the harassment. In 1423, the statute of Warka forbade Jews the granting of loans against letters of credit or mortgage and limited their operations exclusively to loans made on security of moveable property.
3743:
of the Jews"). Poland became a shelter for Jews persecuted and expelled from various European countries and the home to the world's largest Jewish community of the time. According to some sources, about three-quarters of the world's Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. With the
10068:
With the fall of communism in Poland, Jewish cultural, social, and religious life has been undergoing a revival. Many historical issues, especially related to World War II and the 1944–89 period, suppressed by Communist censorship, have been re-evaluated and publicly discussed (like the Jedwabne
9983:
The vast majority of the 40,000 Jews in Poland by the late 1960s were completely assimilated into the broader society. However, this did not prevent them from becoming victims of a campaign, centrally organized by the Polish Communist Party, with Soviet backing, which equated Jewish origins with
9979:
states, Poland's Communist government, following the Soviet lead, broke off diplomatic relations with Israel and launched an antisemitic campaign under the guise of "anti-Zionism". However, the campaign did not resonate well with the Polish public, as most Poles saw similarities between Israel's
9566:
Some returning Jews were met with antisemitic bias in Polish employment and education administrations. Post-war labor certificates contained markings distinguishing Jews from non-Jews. The Jewish community in Szczecin reported a lengthy report of complaints regarding job discrimination. Although
9465:
Following the Soviet annexation of over half of Poland at the onset of World War II, all Polish nationals including Jews were declared by Moscow to have become Soviet nationals regardless of birth. Also, all Polish Jews who perished in the Holocaust east of the Curzon Line were included with the
9461:
The number of Polish Jews who survived the Holocaust is difficult to ascertain. The majority of Polish Jewish survivors were individuals who were able to find refuge in the territories of Soviet Union that were not overrun by Germans and thus safe from the Holocaust. It is estimated that between
8951:
for anybody found sheltering and helping Jews. The penalty applied not only to the person who did the helping, but also extended to his or her family, neighbors and sometimes to entire villages. In this way Germans applied the principle of collective responsibility whose purpose was to encourage
8359:
are impressionistic and not reliable indicators of the level of Jewish support for the Soviets. Additionally, it has been noted that some ethnic Poles were as prominent as Jews in filling civil and police positions in the occupation administration, and that Jews, both civilians and in the Polish
5258:
the Second", hundreds of new anti-Jewish measures were enacted. The 1827 decree by Nicolas – while lifting the traditional double taxation on Jews in lieu of army service – made Jews subject to general military recruitment laws that required Jewish communities to provide 7 recruits per each 1000
5112:
The permanent council established at the instance of the Russian government (1773–1788) served as the highest administrative tribunal, and occupied itself with the elaboration of a plan that would make practicable the reorganization of Poland on a more rational basis. The progressive elements in
4893:
in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. The
4471:
the first official Rabbi of Poland. By 1551, Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials. Some power was shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in
4382:
and banished Jews from Lithuania. For several years they took shelter in Poland until he reversed his decision eight years later in 1503 after becoming King of Poland and allowed them back to Lithuania. The next year he issued a proclamation in which he stated that a policy of tolerance befitted
9084:
Judenrat. Sometimes the Judenrat refused to collaborate in which case its members were consequently executed and replaced by the new group of people. Adam Czerniakow who was the head of the Warsaw Judenrat committed suicide when he was forced to collect daily lists of Jews to be deported to the
8263:
on 23 August 1939 containing a protocol about partition of Poland. The German army attacked Poland on 1 September 1939. The Soviet Union followed suit by invading eastern Poland on 17 September 1939. The days between the retreat of the Polish army and the entry of the Red Army, September 18–21,
7830:
an increasing percentage of Jews were pushed to live a life separate from the non-Jewish majority. The antisemitic rejection of Jews, whether for religious or racial reasons, caused estrangement and growing tensions between Jews and Poles. It is significant in this regard that in 1921, 74.2% of
5140:
10379:
and other Polish sources, however, this may represent an undercount of the actual number of Jews living in Poland, since many are not religious. There are also people with Jewish roots who do not possess adequate documentation to confirm it, due to various historical and family complications.
10205:
Former extermination camps of Auschwitz-Birkenau, Majdanek and Treblinka are open to visitors. At Auschwitz the Oświęcim State Museum currently houses exhibitions on Nazi crimes with a special section (Block Number 27) specifically focused on Jewish victims and martyrs. At Treblinka there is a
9331:
began in 1942, with the opening of the extermination camps of Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, followed by Auschwitz-Birkenau where people were killed in gas chambers and mass executions (death wall). Many died from hunger, starvation, disease, torture or by pseudo-medical experiments. The mass
10002:
and from teaching positions in schools and universities. In 1967–1971 under economic, political and secret police pressure, over 14,000 Polish Jews chose to leave Poland and relinquish their Polish citizenship. Officially, it was said that they chose to go to Israel. However, only about 4,000
9083:
which would be responsible for maintaining order within the Ghetto walls. A number of Jewish policemen were corrupt and immoral. Soon the Nazis demanded even more from the Judenrat and the demands were much crueler. Death was the punishment for the slightest indication of noncompliance by the
8309:
Under the Soviet policy, ethnic Poles were dismissed and denied access to positions in the civil service. Former senior officials and notable members of the Polish community were arrested and exiled together with their families. At the same time the Soviet authorities encouraged young Jewish
8131:
his support for the creation of a Jewish state and for an international conference to enable Jewish emigration. The common goals of the Polish state and of the Zionist movement, of increased Jewish population flow to Palestine, resulted in their overt and covert cooperation. Poland helped by
6054:
The historians Anna Cichopek-Gajraj and Glenn Dynner state that 130 pogroms of Jews occurred on Polish territories from 1918 to 1921, resulting in as many as 300 deaths, with many attacks conceived as reprisals against supposed Jewish economic power and their supposed “Judeo-Bolshevism” The
6020:
a commander of Polish infantry regiment accused a group of Jewish men of plotting against the Poles and ordered the execution of thirty-five Jewish men and youth. The Morgenthau Report found the charge to be "devoid of foundation" even though their meeting was illegal to the extent of being
4145:
During the next hundred years, the Church pushed for the persecution of Jews while the rulers of Poland usually protected them. The Councils of Wrocław (1267), Buda (1279), and Łęczyca (1285) each segregated Jews, ordered them to wear a special emblem, banned them from holding offices where
9665:
were repatriated only after the deadline had passed. All other properties that had been confiscated by the Nazi regime were deemed "abandoned"; however, as Yechiel Weizman notes, the fact most of Poland's Jewry had died, in conjunction with the fact that only Jewish property was officially
9685:"Movable" property such as housewares, that was either given by Jews for safekeeping or taken during the war, was rarely returned willfully; oftentimes the only resort for a returnee looking for reappropriation was the courts. Most such property was probably never returned. According to
9629:(11 August 1945) and in Kielce followed accusations of ritual murder. Another cause was the gentile Polish hostility to the Communist takeover. Even though very few Jews lived in postwar Poland, many Poles believed they dominated the Communist authorities, a belief expressed in the term
4325:
meadows, fish ponds and mills. However, until the end of the 15th century, agriculture as a source of income played only a minor role among Jewish families. More important were crafts for the needs of both their fellow Jews and the Christian population (fur making, tanning, tailoring).
4665:). The Jewish community suffered greatly during the 1648 Ukrainian Cossack uprising which had been directed primarily against the wealthy nobility and landlords. The Jews, perceived as allies of the Poles, were also victims of the revolt, during which about 20% of them were killed.
9178:) was the better supplied in arms. The ŻOB had more than 750 fighters, but lacked weapons; they had only 9 rifles, 59 pistols and several grenades. A developed network of bunkers and fortifications were formed. The Jewish fighters also received support from the Polish Underground (
7500:
Jewish youth and religious groups, diverse political parties and Zionist organizations, newspapers and theatre flourished. Jews owned land and real estate, participated in retail and manufacturing and in the export industry. Their religious beliefs spanned the range from Orthodox
4972:
8552:
were blown up or burned by the Germans, who sometimes forced the Jews to do it themselves. In many cases, the Germans turned the synagogues into factories, places of entertainment, swimming pools, or prisons. By war's end, almost all the synagogues in Poland had been destroyed.
9980:
fight for survival and Poland's past struggles for independence. Many Poles also felt pride in the success of the Israeli military, which was dominated by Polish Jews. The slogan "our Jews beat the Soviet Arabs" (Nasi Żydzi pobili sowieckich Arabów) became popular in Poland.
9670:
states that "the new economic tendency of the Polish government... is against, or at least makes difficulties in, getting back the Jewish property robbed by the German authorities." Later laws, while more generous, remained mainly on paper, with an "uneven" implementation.
7993:) party growing, antisemitism gathered new momentum in Poland and was most felt in smaller towns and in spheres in which Jews came into direct contact with Poles, such as in Polish schools or on the sports field. Further academic harassment, such as the introduction of
5968:) founded by German Jewish activists, which promoted the idea of Jews in the east becoming "spearhead of German expansionism" serving as "Germany's reliable vassals" against other ethnic groups in the region and serving as "living wall against Poles separatists aims".
10582:
once again a big increase from the previous census. The voivodeships with the largest number of Jews are Masovian, Lesser Poland and Silesian. There are likely more people of Jewish ancestry living in Poland but who do not actively identify as Jewish. According to the
9617:
commander was found guilty of inaction. Nine alleged participants of the pogrom were sentenced to death; three were given lengthy prison sentences. The debate in Poland continues about the involvement of regular troops in the killings, and possible Soviet influences.
6067:), protecting the rights of minorities in new Poland including Jews and Germans. This in turn resulted in Poland's 1921 March Constitution granting Jews the same legal rights as other citizens and guaranteed them religious tolerance and freedom of religious holidays.
9547:). Jewish survivors returning to their homes in Poland found it practically impossible to reconstruct their pre-war lives. Due to the border shifts, some Polish Jews found that their homes were now in the Soviet Union; in other cases, the returning survivors were
5697:, pushed for assimilation and integration into Russian culture. At the same time, there was another school of Jewish thought that emphasized traditional study and a Jewish response to the ethical problems of antisemitism and persecution, one form of which was the
18146:
10125:. There are two rabbis serving the Polish Jewish community, several Jewish schools and associated summer camps as well as several periodical and book series sponsored by the above foundations. Jewish studies programs are offered at major universities, such as
8721:(Oświęcim) – were located near the rail network so that the victims could be easily transported. The system of the camps was expanded over the course of the German occupation of Poland and their purposes were diversified; some served as transit camps, some as
5454:) in a series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers between 1791 and 1835, and lasted until the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917. It comprised about 20% of the territory of European Russia and mostly corresponded to historical borders of the former
7931:
with the 'state assimilation' policy: citizens were judged by their loyalty to the state, not by their nationality. The years 1926–1935 were favourably viewed by many Polish Jews, whose situation improved especially under the cabinet of Pilsudski's appointee
4945:(1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed a wide reputation among his co-religionists; and the authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. At the same time, the
3731:
5239:. The harshest measures designed to compel Jews to merge into society at large called for their expulsion from small villages, forcing them to move into towns. Once the resettlement began, thousands of Jews lost their only source of income and turned to
4303:
In the 14th and 15th centuries, rich Jewish merchants and moneylenders leased the royal mint, salt mines and the collecting of customs and tolls. The most famous of them were Jordan and his son Lewko of Kraków in the 14th century and Jakub Slomkowicz of
13223:, (original document, 1,522 KB), including "Rozporządzenie Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej z dnia 9 marca 1927 r. w sprawie utworzenia gmin wyznaniowych żydowskich na obszarze powiatów: białostockiego, bielskiego i sokólskiego województwa białostockiego."
8227:, putting their differences aside. Polish Jews later served in almost all Polish formations during the entire World War II, many were killed or wounded and very many were decorated for their combat skills and exceptional service. Jews fought with the
4141:
against the Jews, by stating: "Accusing Jews of drinking Christian blood is expressly prohibited. If despite this a Jew should be accused of murdering a Christian child, such charge must be sustained by testimony of three Christians and three Jews."
6080:
number had grown to approximately 3,310,000. The average rate of permanent settlement was about 30,000 per annum. At the same time, every year around 100,000 Jews were passing through Poland in unofficial emigration overseas Between the end of the
8043:. Between 1935 and 1937 seventy-nine Jews were killed and 500 injured in anti-Jewish incidents. National policy was such that the Jews who largely worked at home and in small shops were excluded from welfare benefits. In the provincial capital of
3822:). One-fifth of the Polish population perished during World War II; the 3,000,000 Polish Jews murdered in the Holocaust, who constituted 90% of Polish Jewry, made up half of all Poles killed during the war. While the Holocaust occurred largely in
8143:
In 1938, the Polish government revoked Polish citizenship from tens-of-thousands Polish Jews who had lived outside the country for an extended period of time. It was feared that many Polish Jews living in Germany and Austria would want to return
8959:
prices of necessary goods were high, factors which made it difficult to hide people and almost impossible to hide entire families, especially in the cities. Despite these draconian measures imposed by the Nazis, Poland has the highest number of
5749:
and the debates it caused created a growing number of political movements within the Jewish community itself, covering a wide range of views and vying for votes in local and regional elections. Zionism became very popular with the advent of the
9375:
camp. In Majdanek, after another screening for ability to work, they were transported to the Poniatowa, Blizyn, or Auschwitz camps. Those deemed too weak to work were murdered at Majdanek. More than 1,000 Jewish children were sent first to the
9112:
train station. They were spared from the deportations until September 1942 in return for their cooperation, but afterwards shared their fate with families and relatives. On 18 January 1943, a group of Ghetto militants led by the right-leaning
6085:
Jewish inhabitants each (Cracow and Vilno). In total these five cities had 766,272 Jews which was almost 25% of the total Jewish population of Poland. In cities and towns larger than 25,000 inhabitants there lived nearly 44% of Poland's Jews.
5227:, restricting Jews to the western parts of the empire, which would eventually include much of Poland, although it excluded some areas in which Jews had previously lived. By the late 19th century, over four million Jews would live in the Pale.
4566:
in 1573 and signed a document in which representatives of all major religions pledged mutual support and tolerance. The following eight or nine decades of material prosperity and relative security experienced by Polish Jews – wrote Professor
13814:, and uniformed and armed Betar members marched and performed at Polish public ceremonies alongside Polish scouts and Polish soldiers, with their weapons training organised by Polish state institutions and provided by Polish army officers.
4736:"Reports of romances, of drinking together in taverns, and of intellectual conversations are quite abundant." Wealthy Jews had Polish noblemen at their table, and served meals on silver plates. By 1764, there were about 750,000 Jews in the
7455:
in large and smaller cities: 77% lived in cities and 23% in the villages. They made up about 50%, and in some cases even 70% of the population of smaller towns, especially in Eastern Poland. Prior to World War II, the Jewish population of
10240:
was unveiled on 19 April 1948—the fifth anniversary of the outbreak of the Warsaw ghetto Uprising. It was constructed out of bronze and granite that the Nazis used for a monument honoring German victory over Poland and it was designed by
9622:
Jewish communities responded to this violence by reporting the violence to the Ministry of Public Administration, but were granted little assistance. As many as 1500 Jewish heirs were often murdered when attempting to reclaim property.
5823:. Many Jewish political parties were active, representing a wide ideological spectrum, from the Zionists, to the socialists to the anti-Zionists. One of the largest of these parties was the Bund, which was strongest in Warsaw and Lodz.
9471:
married women with the Soviet citizenship, others agreed to paper marriages. Those who survived the Holocaust in Poland included Jews who were saved by the Poles (most families with children), and those who joined the Polish or Soviet
10586:, there are 100,000 Jews living in Poland who don't actively practice Judaism and do not list "Jewish" as their nationality. The Jewish Renewal in Poland organization estimates that there are 200,000 "potential Jews" in Poland. The
10206:
monument built out of many shards of broken stone, as well as a mausoleum dedicated to those who perished there. A small mound of human ashes commemorates the 350,000 victims of the Majdanek camp who were killed there by the Nazis.
8725:
and the majority as death camps. While in the death camps, the victims were usually killed shortly after arrival, in the other camps able-bodied Jews were worked and beaten to death. The operation of concentration camps depended on
9656:
enacted legislation on "abandoned property", placing severe limitations on inheritance that were not present in prewar inheritance law, for example limiting restitution to the original owners or their immediate heirs. According to
5600:
of Russian Poland, in which at least 75 Jews were murdered by marauding soldiers and many more Jews were wounded. According to Jewish survivors, ethnic Poles did not participate in the pogrom and instead sheltered Jewish families.
4894:
learned rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of
4732:
Judaism. Through 1698, the Polish kings generally remained supportive of the Jews. Although Jewish losses in those events were high, the Commonwealth lost one-third of its population – approximately three million of its citizens.
10252:
A memorial to the victims of the Kielce Pogrom of 1946, where a mob murdered more than 40 Jews who returned to the city after the Holocaust, was unveiled in 2006. The funds for the memorial came from the city itself and from the
4355:, who accused Jews of profaning the Christian religion. As a result, Jews were banished from Lower Silesia. Zbigniew Olesnicki then invited John to conduct a similar campaign in Kraków and several other cities, to lesser effect.
18125:
9360:. Most Jews in the Białystok ghetto worked in forced-labor projects, primarily in large textile factories located within the ghetto boundaries. The Germans also sometimes used Jews in forced-labor projects outside the ghetto.
9689:, "there was no social norm mandating the return of Jewish property, no detectable social pressure defining such behavior as the right thing to do, no informal social control mechanism imposing censure for doing otherwise."
5567:, blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on Jewish movements. Pogroms continued until 1884, with at least tacit government approval. They proved a turning point in the history of the Jews in
9821:
which was against the renewal of Jewish religious and cultural life. In the years 1948–49, all remaining Jewish schools were nationalized by the communists and Yiddish was replaced with Polish as a language of teaching.
8676:
is concerned, the number of Poles aiding Jews far outnumbered those who sold out their Jewish neighbors to the Nazis. During the Nazi occupation of Warsaw 70,000–90,000 Polish gentiles aided Jews, while 3,000–4,000 were
8118:, and pursued a policy of supporting the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. The Polish government hoped Palestine would provide an outlet for its Jewish population and lobbied for creation of a Jewish state in the
9551:
whose homes were now under Polish jurisdiction. Jewish communities and Jewish life as it had existed was gone, and Jews who somehow survived the Holocaust often discovered that their homes had been looted or destroyed.
9100:) and starvation kept the inhabitants at about the same number. Average food rations in 1941 for Jews in Warsaw were limited to 253 kcal, and 669 kcal for Poles, as opposed to 2,613 kcal for Germans. On 22 July 1942,
7944:, 34% of medical sciences, 29.2% of philosophy, 24.9% of chemistry and 22.1% of law (26% by 1929) at all Polish universities. It is speculated that such disproportionate numbers were the probable cause of a backlash.
9998:, used the situation as a pretext to launch an antisemitic press campaign (although the expression "Zionist" was officially used). The state-sponsored "anti-Zionist" campaign resulted in the removal of Jews from the
9699:, "unlike the restitution of Church property, the idea of returning property to former Jewish owners has been met with a decided lack of enthusiasm from both the general Polish population as well as the government".
8987:
who was the only person to volunteer for imprisonment in Auschwitz and who organized a resistance movement inside the camp itself. One of the Jewish members of the National Council of the Polish government in exile,
4472:
power, to use it for tax collection purposes. Only 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate served Jewish causes, the rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for
10383:
Poland is currently easing the way for Jews who left Poland during the Communist organized massive expulsion of 1968 to re-obtain their citizenship. Some 15,000 Polish Jews were deprived of their citizenship in the
5214:
Official Russian policy would eventually prove to be substantially harsher to the Jews than that under independent Polish rule. The lands that had once been Poland were to remain the home of many Jews, as, in 1772,
5096:
against Russian influence and the pro-Russian king, the outlying provinces of Poland were overrun from all sides by different military forces and divided for the first time by the three neighboring empires, Russia,
8648:
wrote a dramatic letter to Pope Pius XII, begging him for a public defense of both murdered Poles and Jews. In spite of the introduction of death penalty extending to the entire families of rescuers, the number of
10186:
in Kraków has sponsored a wide range of cultural and educational programs on Jewish themes for a predominantly Polish audience. With funds from the city of Warsaw and the Polish government ($ 26 million total) a
9070:
on 16 October 1940. Initially, almost 140,000 Jews were moved into the ghetto from all parts of Warsaw. At the same time, approximately 110,000 Poles had been forcibly evicted from the area. The Germans selected
13760:. Wrocław: Wydział Prawa, Administracji i Ekonomii. Instytut Historii Państwa i Prawa (Faculty of Law, Administration and Economy). pp. 65–66 (20/38 in PDF) – via direct download from BibliotekaCyfrowa.pl.
8023:
Poles. In a similar manner, the Jewish trade unions excluded non-Jewish professionals from their ranks after 1918. The bulk of Jewish workers were organized in the Jewish trade unions under the influence of the
5963:
from the Jews of Lwów and the 1,500 cans of food donated by the Blumenfeld factory among similar others. A Jewish organization during the war that was opposed to Polish aspirations was the Komitee für den Osten
10228:
was excavated after testimony by a Holocaust survivor suggested that many Jewish relics and ritual objects had been buried there, just before Nazis took over the town. Candelabras, chandeliers, a menorah and a
9651:
After the war ended, Poland's Communist government enacted a broad program of nationalization and land reform, taking over large numbers of properties, both Polish- and Jewish-owned. As part of the reform the
8060:, 53.6% of the town's population were Jewish also along with most of its economy. In a town of Luboml, 3,807 Jews lived among its 4,169 inhabitants, constituting the essence of its social and political life.
11125:"By the end of the war, 3 million Polish Jews—90 percent of the prewar population—had been murdered by the Germans and their collaborators of various nationalities, one of the highest percentages in Europe."
5119:("Commission of National Education"), the first ministry of education in the world, was established in 1773 and founded numerous new schools and remodeled the old ones. One of the members of the commission,
9246:
when the Poles themselves rose up against the Germans. Some of the survivors of 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, still held in camps at or near Warsaw, were freed during 1944 Warsaw Uprising, led by the Polish
9462:
250,000 and 800,000 Polish Jews survived the war, out of which between 50,000 and 100,000 were survivors from occupied Poland, and the remainder, survivors who made it abroad (mostly to the Soviet Union).
8671:
stated that Polish citizens of Warsaw managed to support and hide the same percentage of Jews as did the citizens of cities in Western European countries. Paulsson's research shows that at least as far as
8152:
destitute. Despite the impending threat to the Polish Republic from Nazi Germany, there was little effort seen in the way of reconciliation with Poland's Jewish population. In July 1939 the pro-government
14322:
Personal Narratives, Peripheral Theatres: Essays on the Great War (1914–18), Anthony Barker / Maria Eugénia Pereira / Maria Teresa Cortez / Paulo Alexandre Pereira / Otília Martins (Eds.), Cham: Springer
9806:, in which the Soviet Union supported the Arab side, the Polish communist party adopted an anti-Jewish course of action which in the years 1968–1969 provoked the last mass migration of Jews from Poland.
5559:;) throughout 1881–1884. In the 1881 outbreak, pogroms were primarily limited to Russia, although in a riot in Warsaw two Jews were killed, 24 others were wounded, women were raped and over two million
4616:
4073:. Jews enjoyed undisturbed peace and prosperity in the many principalities into which the country was then divided; they formed the middle class in a country where the general population consisted of
3838:
by non-Jewish Polish citizens in the Holocaust was sporadic, but incidents of hostility against Jews are well documented and have been a subject of renewed scholarly interest during the 21st century.
19334:
9332:
deportation of Jews from ghettos to these camps, such as happened at the Warsaw Ghetto, soon followed, and more than 1.7 million Jews were killed at the Aktion Reinhard camps by October 1943 alone.
9711:, "the question of restitution is in many ways connected to the question of Polish–Jewish relations, their history and remembrance, but particularly to the attitude of the Poles to the Holocaust."
17608:
16446:
6003:. Just after the end of World War I, the West became alarmed by reports about alleged massive pogroms in Poland against Jews. Pressure for government action reached the point where U.S. President
17040:
16278:
16134:
15620:
15407:
13433:
13411:
11442:
9104:
of the Warsaw Ghetto inhabitants began. During the next fifty-two days (until 12 September 1942) about 300,000 people were transported by freight train to the Treblinka extermination camp. The
8952:
neighbors to inform on each other in order to avoid punishment. The nature of these policies was widely known and visibly publicized by the Nazis who sought to terrorize the Polish population.
4612:
17632:
14417:"The Polish government was committed to the Zionist option in its own Jewish policy and maintained good relations with Jabotinsky's Revisionist Zionist, rather than with the Majority Zionists.
8123:
Jews, he and Beck shared a common goal. Ultimately this proved impossible and illusory, as it lacked both general Jewish and international support. In 1937 Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs
6041:
assaulted Jews in the streets, but were punished by military authorities. Many other events in Poland were later found to have been exaggerated, especially by contemporary newspapers such as
4775:
The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as
8047:
Jews constituted 48.5% of the diverse multiethnic population of 35,550 Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and others. Łuck had the largest Jewish community in the voivodeship. In the capital of
4426:, Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from Western Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of Polish Jewry made it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish people.
5485:
From 1791 to 1835, and until 1917, there were differing reconfigurations of the boundaries of the Pale, such that certain areas were variously open or shut to Jewish residency, such as the
13505:
8011:
doctors (56% of all doctors in Poland), teachers (43%), journalists (22%) and lawyers (33%). In 1929, about a third of artisans and home workers and a majority of shopkeepers were Jewish.
7757:(Jidiszer Wissenszaftlecher Institute) Scientific Institute was based in Wilno before transferring to New York during the war. In Warsaw, important centers of Judaic scholarship, such the
4708:
of the Ruthenian and Jewish population. He defeated the Swedes in 1660 and was equally successful in his battles against the Russians. Meanwhile, the horrors of the war were aggravated by
13228:
13094:
10254:
8909:
provided a standard prize to those who informed on Jews hidden on the 'Aryan' side, consisting of cash, liquor, sugar, and cigarettes. Jews were robbed and handed over to the Germans by "
17411:
10182:
and "Sztendlach" for young children. Active institutions include the Jewish Historical Institute, the E.R. Kaminska State Yiddish Theater in Warsaw, and the Jewish Cultural Center. The
8943:
To discourage Poles from giving shelter to Jews, the Germans often searched houses and introduced ruthless penalties. Poland was the only occupied country during World War II where the
8667:, a Polish–Jewish historian of the Warsaw Ghetto, wrote critically of the indifferent and sometimes joyful responses in Warsaw to the destruction of Polish Jews in the Ghetto. However,
9955:, a former Stalinist prosecutor who emigrated to England in the late 1960s, fought being extradited to Poland on charges related to the execution of a Second World War resistance hero
7912:
interests; however, the Galician Zionists had little to show for their compromise because the Polish government later refused to honor many aspects of the agreement. During the 1930s,
7761:
and the Institute of Judaic Studies were located, along with numerous Talmudic Schools (Jeszybots), religious centers and synagogues, many of which were of high architectural quality.
18123:
7560:
The Jewish cultural scene was particularly vibrant in pre–World War II Poland, with numerous Jewish publications and more than one hundred periodicals. Yiddish authors, most notably
5136:
of tolerance and broadmindedness in dealing with the Jewish question. But all these reforms were too late: a Russian army soon invaded Poland, and soon after a Prussian one followed.
8886:
apartment block or area where Jews were found to be harboured, everybody in the house would be immediately shot by the Germans. For this thousands of non-Jewish Poles were executed.
19359:
4619:
were introduced to limit Jews living in the Christian cities, which intensified their migration to the Eastern parts of the country where they were invited by the magnates to their
4611:
alone mass attacks of Jews started in 1572 and then repeated in 1592, 1613, 1618, and from 1638 every year with Jesuit students being responsible for many of them. At the same time
19329:
14931:
11260:
the reality was much more complex. See for example, the following works, which discuss Jewish life and culture, as well as Jewish-Christian relations during that period: M. Rosman
5259:"souls" every 4 years. Unlike the general population that had to provide recruits between the ages of 18 and 35, Jews had to provide recruits between the ages of 12 and 25, at the
4587:
agreement, it did not last for long due to beginning of Counter-Reformation in the Commonwealth and growing influence of the Jesuits. By 1590s there were anti-Semitic outbreaks in
13021:
Controversial Reports on the Situation of Jews in Poland in the Aftermath of World War I: The Conflict between the US Ambassador in Warsaw Hugh Gibson and American Jewish Leaders.
8616:, which massacred Jews, especially in 1941. Some of these German-inspired massacres were carried out with help from, or active participation of Poles themselves: for example, the
7978:
marched and performed at Polish public ceremonies alongside Polish scouts and military, with their weapons training provided by Polish institutions and Polish military officers;
3881:. The contemporary Polish Jewish community is estimated to have between 10,000 and 20,000 members. The number of people with Jewish heritage of any sort is several times larger.
8663:, were often afraid for their own and their family's lives and this fear prevented many of them from giving aid and assistance, even if some of them felt sympathy for the Jews.
7900:
capitalized on governmental support for Zionism by negotiating an agreement with the government known as the Ugoda. The Ugoda was an agreement between the Polish prime minister
18922:
15714:
11551:
when what was needed to realize their plans was 'rational antisemitism', as Hitler himself put it. For that, they neither received or requested significant help from the Poles.
18762:
A Marriage of Convenience: The New Zionist Organization and the Polish Government 1936-1939 Laurence Weinbaum, East European Monographs; dist. Columbia University Press, 1993
17423:
15926:
11328:.11 He also supported the idea of an international conference and campaign for organising and facilitating Jewish emigration.12 Talks were held with British Foreign Secretary
8064:
15363:
13849:
17347:(Lublin: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, 2005), 203; Adam Kopciowski, "Anti-Jewish Incidents in the Lublin Region in the Early Years after World War II,"
6059:
had a profound impact on the foreign perception of the re-emerging Polish state. Concerns over the fate of Poland's Jews led the Western powers to pressure Polish President
9637:(Judeo-Communist), a popular anti-Jewish stereotype. Yet another reason for Polish violence towards Jews stemmed from the fear that survivors would recover their property.
4217:. Nevertheless, while the Jews of Poland enjoyed tranquility for the greater part of Casimir's reign, toward its close they were subjected to persecution on account of the
12506:
9595:
9544:
9209:
had the Great Synagogue on Tłomackie Square (outside the ghetto) destroyed as a celebration of German victory and a symbol that the Jewish Ghetto in Warsaw was no longer.
4529:
15423:
8921:, Yiddish and Polish for 'grease'). In extreme cases, the Jews informed on other Jews to alleviate hunger with the awarded prize. The extortionists were condemned by the
4898:. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue.
4374:(1501–1506). In 1495, Jews were ordered out of the center of Kraków and allowed to settle in the "Jewish town" of Kazimierz. In the same year, Alexander, when he was the
11635:
10283:. Recent scholarship has primarily focused on three topics: post-war anti-Semitism; emigration and the creation of the State of Israel, and the restitution of property.
2310:
12426:
12016:
8975:
was the first (in November 1942) to reveal the existence of Nazi-run concentration camps and the systematic extermination of the Jews by the Nazis, through its courier
15875:
11073:
10048:(KOR). By the time of the fall of Communism in Poland in 1989, only 5,000–10,000 Jews remained in the country, many of them preferring to conceal their Jewish origin.
9419:
and bottles filled with acid. The fighting in isolated pockets of resistance lasted for several days, but the defence was broken almost instantly. As with the earlier
8857:....According to this decree, those knowingly helping these Jews by providing shelter, supplying food, or selling them foodstuffs are also subject to the death penalty
8797:
among others. Ghettos were also established in hundreds of smaller settlements and villages around the country. The overcrowding, dirt, lice, lethal epidemics such as
5769:
5738:
17398:
Alina Skibińska, "Problemy rewindykacji żydowskich nieruchomości w latach 1944–1950: Zagadnienia ogólne i szczegółowe (na przykładzie Szczebrzeszyna)," p. 493-573 in
9475:. Some 20,000–40,000 Jews were repatriated from Germany and other countries. At its postwar peak, up to 240,000 returning Jews might have resided in Poland mostly in
8499:. Some six million Polish citizens perished in the war – half of those (three million Polish Jews, all but some 300,000 of the Jewish population) being killed at the
13532:
7916:
viewed the Polish government as an ally and promoted cooperation between Polish Zionists and Polish nationalists, despite the antisemitism of the Polish government.
5163:
subjects of that empire, although in the first half of the 19th century some semblance of a vastly smaller Polish state was preserved, especially in the form of the
4437:(1548–1572), mainly followed his father's tolerant policy and also granted communal-administration autonomy to the Jews and laid the foundation for the power of the
1102:
14444:, and the Polish government hoped it would provide an outlet for Jewish population moving out of Poland. Poland supported creation of a Jewish national home in the
4195:
was especially friendly to the Jews, and his reign is regarded as an era of great prosperity for Polish Jewry, and was nicknamed by his contemporaries "King of the
15818:
Klaus-Peter Friedrich. Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II.
11388:
9726:
where their family members had been murdered, and instead have arranged to live with relatives or friends in different western democracies. Others wanted to go to
9695:
Following the fall of the Soviet Union, a law was passed that allowed the Catholic Church to reclaim its properties, which it did with great success. According to
8591:
5965:
5501:, excluded from residency at a number of cities within the Pale. Settlers from outside the pale were forced to move to small towns, thus fostering the rise of the
5347:
5132:
and intellectuals proposed a national system of government, of the civil and political equality of the Jews. This was the only example in modern Europe before the
20669:
20711:
14135:
13719:
12787:
12667:
11324:
as the right place for manifesting its support for the cause of developing a Jewish state in Palestine. This had been declared at the League by Foreign Minister
9356:
in Białystok. About 50,000 Jews from the city and the surrounding region were confined in a small area of Białystok. The ghetto had two sections, divided by the
8541:
Poland was where the German program of extermination of Jews, the "Final Solution", was implemented, since this was where most of Europe's Jews (excluding the
7997:, which forced Jewish students to sit in sections of the lecture halls reserved exclusively for them, anti-Jewish riots, and semi-official or unofficial quotas (
15094:"Revolution from abroad : the Soviet conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia" Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 1988
11774:
4927:
which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. Shachna's son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna's pupil
15083:
2888:
15047:
8286:
was accompanied by the widespread arrests of government officials, police, military personnel, border guards, teachers, priests, judges etc., followed by the
5586:
An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, at least some of them believed to have been organized by the Tsarist Russian secret police, the
17239:
Weizman, Yechiel (2 January 2017). "Unsettled possession: the question of ownership of Jewish sites in Poland after the Holocaust from a local perspective".
10903:
7671:
3975:
and then to the Slavic countries. The first actual mention of Jews in Polish chronicles occurs in the 11th century, where it appears that Jews then lived in
3896:
2543:
2238:
206:
12525:, "Divre ̄ David Ture ̄ Zahav" (1689) in Hebrew. Published in: Bi-defus Y. Goldman, Warsaw: 1882. Quoted by the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe.
9242:
in many smaller towns and cities across German-occupied Poland. Many Jews were found alive in the ruins of the former Warsaw Ghetto during the 1944 general
5230:
Tsarist policy towards the Jews of Poland alternated between harsh rules, and inducements meant to break the resistance to large-scale conversion. In 1804,
20109:
18986:
13589:, "Psychological Distance Between Poles and Jews in Nazi-Occupied Warsaw", in Joshue Zimmerman, ed., "Contested memories", Rutgers University Press, 2003,
11615:
11149:
11143:
14245:
12630:
7765:
also flourished; Poland had fifteen Yiddish theatres and theatrical groups. Warsaw was home to the most important Yiddish theater troupe of the time, the
2430:
14532:
11704:
11509:
11353:
8110:
As the Polish government sought to lower the numbers of the Jewish population in Poland through mass emigration, it embraced close and good contact with
6075:
The number of Jews immigrating to Poland from Ukraine and Soviet Russia during the interwar period grew rapidly. Jewish population in the area of former
967:
15624:
13818:, one of its leaders, called upon members of the organisation to defend Poland in case of war, and both Polish and Zionist flags were raised by Betar."
11979:
11655:
8199:
The number of Jews in Poland on 1 September 1939, amounted to about 3,474,000 people. One hundred thirty thousand soldiers of Jewish descent, including
7516:, was increasingly used by the young Warsaw Jews who did not have a problem in identifying themselves fully as Jews, Varsovians and Poles. Jews such as
5987:
In the aftermath of the Great War localized conflicts engulfed Eastern Europe between 1917 and 1919. Many attacks were launched against Jews during the
5084:. Further disorder and anarchy reigned supreme in Poland during the second half of the 18th century, from the accession to the throne of its last king,
20736:
14401:
that Poland had room for 500,000 Jews. The other 3 million had to go. He later spoke of 80,000 to 100,000 leaving per year for the next thirty years."
13770:
11248:
In accordance with its tradition of religious tolerance, Poland refrained from participating in the excesses of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation
5267:
schools, where they were pressured to convert. "Many children were smuggled to Poland, where the conscription of Jews did not take effect until 1844."
3638:
783:
15479:
15090:. "Białoruskie Zeszyty Historyczne" (НА СТАРОНКАХ КАМУНІКАТУ, Biełaruski histaryczny zbornik) 20 (2003), p. 186–188. Retrieved 16 July 2007. see also
11394:
9583:
20514:
19392:
17928:
17629:
17604:
16442:
14563:
9696:
9692:
Facing violence and a difficult and expensive legal process, many returnees eventually decided to leave the country rather than attempt reclamation.
9591:
9579:
9528:
8403:
8272:
4242:
1402:
18802:
18791:
17770:
Kunicki, Mikolaj (1 May 2015). "The Red and the Brown: Bolesław Piasecki, the Polish Communists, and the Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland, 1967-68".
17036:
15404:
13850:"Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, drugi powszechny spis ludności z dn. 9.XII 1931 r. – Mieszkania i gospodarstwa domowe ludność"
13407:
11438:
4881:
existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530 a
4700:, at the head of his victorious army, overran the cities of Kraków and Warsaw. The amount of destruction, pillage and methodical plunder during the
20691:
16597:
14528:
14478:
11349:
9878:
9278:. Some 166,000 people lost their lives in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, including perhaps as many as 17,000 Polish Jews who had either fought with the
4624:
4117:. With the consent of the class representatives and higher officials, in 1264 he issued a General Charter of Jewish Liberties (commonly called the
2425:
852:
12346:
12316:
18147:"Tablice z ostatecznymi danymi w zakresie przynależności narodowo-etnicznej, języka używanego w domu oraz przynależności do wyznania religijnego"
14449:
11288:
10134:
7866:
4634:
in 1595-1596, Orthodox church was outlawed in Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth and that caused massive religious, social and political tensions in
4467:
also migrated to Poland during this time. Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi
2673:
1291:
788:
16672:
Same liczby były całkowicie wiarygodne, ale pozbawione komentarza, sprytnie ukrywały fakt, że ofiary w przeważającej liczbie nie były Rosjanami.
15649:
Klaus-Peter Friedrich, "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II.
9293:). Warsaw was razed to the ground by the Germans and more than 150,000 Poles were sent to labor or concentration camps. On 17 January 1945, the
8929:(the Underground State's military arm), with the death sentence being meted out on a scale unknown in the occupied countries of Western Europe.
8051:
in 1936 Jews constituted 41.3% of general population and some 80.3% of private enterprises were owned by Jews. The 32% of Jewish inhabitants of
5931:
While most Polish Jews were neutral to the idea of a Polish state, many played a significant role in the fight for Poland's independence during
4121:), which granted all Jews the freedom to worship, trade, and travel. Similar privileges were granted to the Silesian Jews by the local princes,
19114:
17754:
16510:
14287:
10594:
estimate that there are between 25,000 and 100,000 Jews living in Poland, a similar number to that estimated by Jonathan Ornstein, head of the
10274:
9676:
7608:, born of a Jewish mother and Polish father, was one of the most popular artists of that era, and pre-war songs of Jewish composers, including
5642:
5308:
5194:
3835:
18813:
18780:
14824:
9682:
In general, restitution was easier for larger organizations or well connected individuals, and the process was also abused by criminal gangs.
8453:. General Anders decided not to prosecute the deserters and emphasized that the Jewish soldiers who remained in the Force fought bravely. The
8215:
by the Germans; the majority did not survive. The soldiers and non-commissioned officers who were released ultimately found themselves in the
19044:
10122:
9802:
A second wave of Jewish emigration (50,000) took place during the liberalization of the Communist regime between 1957 and 1959. After 1967's
9561:
5092:
for 2.5 million rubles, with the Russian army stationing only 5 kilometres (3 mi) away from Warsaw. Eight years later, triggered by the
3858:
2927:
18937:
17528:
15012:
13224:
13090:
9838:, CKŻP) which provided legal, educational, social care, cultural, and propaganda services. A countrywide Jewish Religious Community, led by
9258:, described them as some of the best fighters, always at the front line. It is estimated that over 2,000 Polish Jews, some as well known as
8847:....There is a need for a reminder, that in accordance with paragraph 3 of the decree of 15 October 1941, on the Limitation of Residence in
4688:. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth which had already suffered from the Khmelnytsky Uprising and from the recurring invasions of the Russians,
3877:
in 1989, the situation of Polish Jews became normalized and those who were Polish citizens before World War II were allowed to renew Polish
20640:
17681:
13216:
11568:
10587:
9799:, Poland. The camp trained 7,000 soldiers who then traveled to Palestine to fight for Israel. The boot-camp existed until the end of 1948.
9667:
9137:
8902:
8898:
gestures and facial expressions. People with physical characteristics such as dark curly hair and brown eyes were particularly vulnerable.
8099:
The main strain of antisemitism in Poland during this time was motivated by Catholic religious beliefs and centuries-old myths such as the
5846:
5792:
Many Jews took part in the Polish insurrections, particularly against Russia (since the Tsars discriminated heavily against the Jews). The
4280:
by the priests, and new riots against the Jews in Poznań in 1399. Accusations of blood libel by another fanatic priest led to the riots in
3827:
1228:
793:
226:
15144:
4963:
devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the [Khmelnytsky Uprising and The Deluge.
3830:, and passive refusal to inform on them, to indifference, blackmail, and in extreme cases, committing premeditated murders such as in the
20834:
20592:
18852:
18830:
14935:
10269:
9407:) started an armed struggle against the German troops who were carrying out the planned liquidation and deportation of the ghetto to the
8722:
7982:, one of its leaders, called for its members to defend Poland in case of war, and the organisation raised both Polish and Zionist flags.
7600:, were less well known internationally, but made important contributions to Polish literature. Some Polish writers had Jewish roots e.g.
3890:
3787:
was a growing problem throughout Europe in those years, from both the political establishment and the general population. Throughout the
1912:
1875:
1167:
20531:
17954:
9994:) gave Gomułka's government an excuse to try and channel public anti-government sentiment into another avenue. Thus his security chief,
18529:
14587:"'From Nazi Inferno to Soviet Hell': Polish–Jewish children and youth and their trajectories of survival during and after World War II"
13969:
13942:
13875:
13489:
Rozenbaum, Włodzimierz (1989). "The Status of the Jews in Poland between the Wars: 1918-1939: An Overview". In Timothy J. Wiles (ed.).
10918:
10913:
10908:
10396:
8236:
5887:
5190:
5109:, and even more of its peoples. Jews were most numerous in the territories that fell under the military control of Austria and Russia.
4533:
3907:
221:
216:
211:
61:
10392:
in Warsaw launched a bilingual Polish-English website called "The Virtual Shtetl", providing information about Jewish life in Poland.
10137:
was founded in 1993. Its purpose is the promotion and organization of Jewish religious and cultural activities in Polish communities.
3861:, and the hostility of the Communist Party to both religion and private enterprise, but also because in 1946–1947 Poland was the only
20276:
19998:
19251:
19064:
18500:
18095:
16530:
9063:
represents what is likely the most known episode of the wartime history of the Polish Jews. The ghetto was established by the German
5171:
1830–1831, the January Insurrection of 1863, as well as in the revolutionary movement of 1905. Many Polish Jews were enlisted in the
3764:
2851:
13284:
Nechama Tec, "When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland", Oxford University Press US, 1987,
12289:
11486:
11209:
9746:
to Israel, without visas or exit permits. Britain demanded Poland to halt the exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful.
8579:
printed in Polish routinely ran antisemitic articles that urged local people to adopt an attitude of indifference towards the Jews.
8107:
declared that Poland could house 500,000 Jews, and hoped that over the next 30 years 80,000-100,000 Jews a year would leave Poland.
6088:
The table below shows the Jewish population of Poland's cities and towns with over 25,000 inhabitants according to the 1931 census:
4014:
was commerce and trade, including the export and import of goods such as cloth, linen, furs, hides, wax, metal objects, and slaves.
1001:
667:
19089:
18979:
15743:
13857:
13377:
13115:
10057:
9862:, an academic institution specializing in the research of the history and culture of the Jews in Poland, and the Yiddish newspaper
8805:
8730:, the collaborator-prisoners. Some of them were Jewish themselves, and their prosecution after the war created an ethical dilemma.
8276:
7889:
had also become increasingly hostile to the Jews, who in the 1920s and 1930s were increasingly seen as agents of evil, that is, of
2874:
18385:
17085:
8394:
There were also Jews who assisted Poles during the Soviet occupation. Among the thousands of Polish officers killed by the Soviet
19261:
18919:
17067:
15490:
15359:
14162:
13727:
12930:
11108:
9830:
For those Polish Jews who remained, the rebuilding of Jewish life in Poland was carried out between October 1944 and 1950 by the
9431:. Several dozen guerrillas managed to break through to the forests surrounding Białystok where they joined the partisan units of
8419:
8223:. In 1939, Jews constituted 30% of Warsaw's population. With the coming of the war, Jewish and Polish citizens of Warsaw jointly
2224:
1062:
18862:
16469:
16121:
12503:
11408:
9511:
9297:
entered a destroyed and nearly uninhabited Warsaw. Some 300 Jews were found hiding in the ruins in the Polish part of the city (
9096:
the next year and a half, Jews from smaller cities and villages were brought into the Warsaw Ghetto, while diseases (especially
8207:
at the outbreak of the Second World War, thus being among the first to launch armed resistance against Nazi Germany. During the
7974:
paramilitary movement, whose members admired the Polish nationalist camp and imitated some of its aspects. Uniformed members of
7536:(The Bund), as well as parties of the Zionist right and left wing and religious conservative movements, were represented in the
4175:. Under his reign, streams of Jewish immigrants headed east to Poland and Jewish settlements are first mentioned as existing in
52:
19349:
19301:
19176:
19171:
15333:
13628:
12387:
10210:
is one of the largest Jewish burial grounds in Europe, and preserved historic sites include those located in Góra Kalwaria and
10161:
it was renovated, dedicated and reopened thanks to the efforts and endowments by Polish Jewry. Warsaw has an active synagogue,
8889:
8318:
7678:
3631:
2801:
2736:
2618:
454:
17850:"The Jews in Poland after the Second World War. Most Recent Contributions of Polish Historiography :: Quest CDEC journal"
13089:"Traktat między Głównemi Mocarstwami sprzymierzonemi i stowarzyszonemi a Polską, podpisany w Wersalu dnia 28 czerwca 1919 r."
11736:
10027:
countries to restore diplomatic relations with Israel after these have been broken off right after the Six-Day's War. In 1986
9205:
in his report stated that his troops had killed 6,065 Jewish fighters during the battle. After the uprising was already over,
4869:
were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as
3783:, it was still the center of the European Jewish world, with one of the world's largest Jewish communities of over 3 million.
622:
20094:
19385:
18745:
18729:
18698:
18682:
18666:
18525:
18032:
17822:
17480:
17450:
17302:
17213:
17136:
16998:
16831:
16696:
16607:
16296:
16013:
15697:
15427:
14215:
14201:
13979:
13952:
13912:
13885:
13852:[Central Statistical Office the Polish Republic, the second census dated 9.XII 1931 – Abodes and household populace]
13571:
13515:
13044:
12595:
12448:
12410:
11883:
11743:
The American Jewish Committee research grant. See: D. Stola, Fighting against the Shadows (reprint), in Robert Blobaum, ed.;
11594:
11141:, University of Chicago Press 1992, page 51. Quote: "Poland, at that time, was the most tolerant country in Europe." Also in
10933:
10034:
During the late 1970s some Jewish activists were engaged in the anti-Communist opposition groups. Most prominent among them,
9944:
9319:
The fate of the Warsaw Ghetto was similar to that of the other ghettos in which Jews were concentrated. With the decision of
7636:, are still widely known in Poland today. Painters became known as well for their depictions of Jewish life. Among them were
1922:
18873:
18114:
North American Jewish Data Bank. (See Table 1: Jewish Population by Country, 1920s–1930s; PDF file, direct download 52.4 KB)
17970:
16050:
13148:
11899:
11085:
8905:, and took advantage of their desperation by collecting money, or worse, turning them over to the Germans for a reward. The
8636:, resentment over alleged cooperation with the Soviet invaders in the Polish–Soviet War and during the 1939 invasion of the
7869:
of 1934, the antisemitic tropes of Nazi propaganda had become more common in Polish politics, where they were echoed by the
5175:, which fought for the Polish independence, achieved in 1918 when the occupying forces disintegrated following World War I.
4137:
of Legnica and Wrocław in 1295. Article 31 of the Statute of Kalisz tried to rein in the Catholic Church from disseminating
4037:(1102–1139), Jews, encouraged by the tolerant regime of this ruler, settled throughout Poland, including over the border in
20492:
19306:
19136:
17838:
16668:
The Soviet methods were particularly misleading. The numbers were correct, but the victims were overwhelmingly not Russian.
15883:
14143:
13297:
12357:
10389:
10298:
10188:
10063:
9927:, were prosecuted and sentenced to prison terms for "power abuses" including the torture of Polish anti-fascists including
8810:
8745:
was the largest in all of World War II, with 380,000 people crammed into an area of 1.3 sq mi (3.4 km). The
8644:
attitudes also existed in the London-based Polish Government in Exile, although on 18 December 1942 the President in exile
8025:
7533:
7479:'s Jewish population numbered over 60,000, or about 25% of the city's total population. In 1939 there were 375,000 Jews in
4542:
3712:
2360:
413:
373:
18867:
18318:, "Before the 'Final Solution': Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland",
17555:
14737:
14721:
14690:
10357:
10333:
is an annual event in April held since 1988 to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust. It takes place from Auschwitz to
8955:
Food rations for the Poles were small (669 kcal per day in 1941) compared to other occupied nations throughout Europe and
4233:, however, Polish Jews did not fare badly; and Jewish refugees from Germany fled to the more hospitable cities in Poland.
4083:, the unique Polish nobility) and peasants, and they were instrumental in promoting the commercial interests of the land.
778:
20599:
19311:
18972:
18947:
16245:
15865:
The project which describes the Poles killed along with their families for helping Jews. Retrieved from Internet Archive.
15044:
14131:
13180:
Kapiszewski, Andrzej (2004). "Controversial Reports on the situation of Jews in Poland in the aftermath of World War I".
12919:
In: Ideology, Politics and Diplomacy in East Central Europe, ed. M. B. B. Biskupski. University of Rochester Press, 2003.
11162:
Engel, David. "On Reconciling the Histories of Two Chosen Peoples." The American Historical Review 114.4 (2009): 914-929.
11081:
10769:
10290:
8204:
4704:
was so enormous that parts the city never again recovered. Which was later followed by the massacres of the Crown hetman
2628:
2445:
2435:
1675:
1284:
249:
14300:
11307:, Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland,
8159:
Jews and an official Polish government desire to remove Jews from Poland continued until the German invasion of Poland.
5959:
Samuel Herschthal, Dr. Zygmunt Leser, Henryk Orlean, Wiktor Chajes and others. The donations poured in including 50,000
498:
473:
19236:
18356:
17008:
16910:
16655:
15154:
14805:
14654:. Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Antisemitism in Interwar Germany and Poland.
13131:
12797:
9396:
8650:
5455:
5198:
4737:
3823:
3723:
3024:
2974:
2939:
2633:
2498:
2365:
1233:
1182:
493:
16846:
13731:
13181:
13020:
10260:
Polish authors and scholars have published many works about the history of Jews in Poland. Notable among them are the
8749:
was the second largest, holding about 160,000 prisoners. Other large Jewish ghettos in leading Polish cities included
8640:
regions, greed for the possessions of the Jews, and of course coercion by the Nazis to participate in such massacres.
4919:(c. 1500–1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. He lived and died in
4823:(" dwell"). The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of
20044:
19206:
19166:
19146:
19126:
19029:
18647:
18617:
18545:
18457:
18443:
18429:
18407:
18381:
18337:
18308:
18289:
17879:
17689:
17585:
17097:
16968:
16875:
16760:
16543:
16371:
16350:
16183:
16159:
16037:
15913:
15592:
15563:
15517:
15475:
15355:
15268:
15261:
Poland's holocaust: ethnic strife, collaboration with occupying forces and genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947
15216:
15099:
15022:
14995:
14968:
14792:
14765:
14757:
Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947
14537:
14378:
14077:
13668:
13638:
13542:
13476:
13454:
13071:
12713:
12679:
12640:
12549:
12171:
12026:
11714:
11665:
11543:
11358:
10923:
10412:
10318:
10306:
10280:
9899:, Berman and Minc formed a triumvirate of the Stalinist leaders in postwar Poland. After 1956, during the process of
9810:
9444:
9377:
9024:
8815:
8621:
8454:
5881:
5872:, soon proved unpopular with both German officials and Bodenheimer's colleagues, and was dead by the following year.
5835:
5668:
5334:
5184:
3980:
3719:
3624:
2716:
2678:
2653:
2573:
2558:
2405:
2345:
2300:
552:
503:
186:
17712:
15078:
11041:
9625:
Several causes led to the anti-Jewish violence of 1944–1947. One cause was traditional Christian anti-semitism; the
5650:
5316:
3869:
to Israel, without visas or exit permits. Most of the remaining Jews left Poland in late 1968 as the result of the
20633:
20114:
19378:
19339:
19141:
15198:
15115:
13333:
10801:
9873:
Some Polish Communists of Jewish descent actively participated in the establishment of the communist regime in the
9831:
9357:
9201:
It took the Germans twenty-seven days to put down the uprising, after some very heavy fighting. The German general
8080:
4835:
that Poland was a place where "most of the time the gentiles do no harm; on the contrary they do right by Israel" (
4070:
3842:
3009:
2991:
2897:
2791:
2643:
2638:
2563:
2528:
2395:
1194:
768:
239:
17983:
16357:
Note: Chariton and Lazar were never co-authors of Wdowiński's memoir. Wdowiński is considered the "single author."
5450:
With its large Catholic and Jewish populations, the Pale was acquired by the Russian Empire (which was a majority
508:
488:
478:
463:
20578:
20230:
19344:
19291:
19266:
19221:
19216:
19191:
19049:
16602:. Pitt Series in Russian and East European Studies. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 124, 165, 172, 255.
14234:
Encyclopedia of Jewish Communities in Poland, Volume VII. Translation of "Radom" chapter published by Yad Vashem.
12049:
10849:
9999:
8228:
8216:
8168:
7947:
4248:
3527:
3426:
2981:
2964:
2917:
2816:
2726:
2663:
2613:
2593:
2588:
2508:
2482:
2457:
2335:
2325:
2315:
2295:
2290:
395:
18070:
17499:
Denburg, Stephen A. (1998). "Reclaiming Their Past: A Survey of Jewish Efforts to Restitute European Property".
17412:
Searching for Justice After the Holocaust: Fulfilling the Terezin Declaration and Immovable Property Restitution
17370:"Restitution of Private Property in Postwar Poland: The Unfinished Legacy of the Second World War and Communism"
16718:
16686:
16086:
14854:
11933:
9254:, and immediately joined Polish fighters. Only a few of them survived. The Polish commander of one Jewish unit,
8819:
5415:
was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent residency was generally prohibited. It extended from the eastern
5085:
20829:
19256:
19246:
19196:
19156:
19109:
19104:
19094:
19079:
19074:
19069:
19054:
19039:
19034:
19024:
19019:
19014:
19009:
18901:
18879:
16944:
16801:
16748:
Sovietization of educational system in the eastern part of Lesser Poland under the Soviet occupation, 1939-1941
16627:
16580:
16096:
15806:
15127:
14257:
14032:
14008:
13164:
12940:
12854:
10943:
10938:
9874:
9613:
of 4 July 1946, in which thirty-seven Jews and two Poles were murdered. Following the investigation, the local
9114:
5869:
5646:
5312:
4126:
3000:
2986:
2954:
2934:
2902:
2846:
2821:
2796:
2776:
2766:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2721:
2711:
2706:
2683:
2598:
2583:
2503:
2462:
2415:
2410:
2330:
2275:
1277:
989:
152:
15281:
13446:
10990:
This number essentially entails the amount of Israelis with at least one Polish great-grandparent, as of 2007.
10419:
Historical core Jewish population (using current borders) with Jews as a % of the total Polish population
9738:
signed a decree allowing Jews to leave Poland without visas or exit permits. In 1946–1947 Poland was the only
9118:
1189:
927:
697:
567:
20808:
20696:
19991:
19923:
19675:
19354:
19296:
19241:
19231:
19211:
19201:
19181:
19161:
19131:
19099:
19084:
19059:
18995:
18422:
The Lord's Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth During the Eighteenth Century
18320:
17402:, ed. by Jan Grabowski & Dariusz Libionka (Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów, Warszawa 2014)
17400:
Klucze i kasa: O mieniu żydowskim w Polsce pod okupacją niemiecką i we wczesnych latach powojennych 1939–1950
17331:
Klucze i kasa: O mieniu żydowskim w Polsce pod okupacją niemiecką i we wczesnych latach powojennych 1939–1950
17122:
16661:
14169:
Historia-Polski.com. Wykaz miast RP z populacją żydowską powyżej 12 tysięcy. Łuck: 17.366 czyli 48% ludności.
13807:
11983:
11308:
11172:
10948:
10045:
9575:
9495:(where there was a significant Jewish community initially consisting of local concentration camp survivors),
9109:
9028:
8557:
were forced to dance and sing in public with their beards shorn off. Some rabbis were set on fire or hanged.
8334:
relief in having escaped the Nazi occupation in the first weeks of war. The Polish poet and former communist
8154:
7807:
5937:
5527:
5172:
4656:
3421:
2959:
2944:
2907:
2869:
2841:
2831:
2826:
2806:
2786:
2771:
2756:
2731:
2697:
2668:
2568:
2553:
2477:
2467:
2385:
2355:
2280:
2266:
523:
483:
57:
17:
16918:
intensity until 1948 and ended with thousands killed, wounded, arrested, or transported to the Soviet Union.
15731:(Politics of the Third Reich in Occupied Poland, Part Two), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1970, pp. 169–170
14523:
in Poland took pains to thank Beck for furthering the cause of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine.13"
13395:
Religion and Native Language (total). Section Jewish: 3,113,933 with Yiddish: 2,489,034 and Hebrew: 243,539.
10207:
8893:
Announcement of death penalty for Jews captured outside the Ghetto and for Poles helping Jews, November 1941
8527:
8523:
4422:, thus stimulating Jewish immigration to the much more accessible Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the
1067:
20741:
20731:
19271:
19226:
19151:
19121:
17443:
The post-socialist city: urban form and space transformations in Central and Eastern Europe after socialism
10385:
9990:
9791:, and Poland, totaling 250,000 survivors. In 1947, a military training camp for young Jewish volunteers to
9408:
9385:
9364:
9085:
8560:
8511:
8507:
8346:
claimed that among the informers and collaborators, the percentage of Jews was striking; likewise, General
7326:
5722:
5045:
4423:
4379:
3870:
3846:
3029:
2949:
2912:
2836:
2781:
2648:
2623:
2548:
2523:
2513:
2452:
2375:
2370:
2350:
2340:
2320:
2305:
2198:
1902:
1666:
1661:
1087:
1011:
977:
597:
331:
276:
17925:
17656:
16746:
14958:
11997:
11344:
in Poland took pains to thank Beck for furthering the cause of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine."
9392:
9367:. During the deportations, hundreds of Jews, mainly those deemed too weak or sick to travel, were killed.
9347:
9286:
4901:
In the first half of the 16th century the seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from
4134:
3826:, it was orchestrated and perpetrated by the Nazis. Polish attitudes to the Holocaust varied widely, from
1177:
20626:
20585:
20301:
19965:
19797:
19401:
18810:
18799:
18788:
18777:
16934:
16688:
Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, Analysis
16596:
Marina Sorokina; Tarik Cyril Amar (2014). Michael David-Fox; Peter Holquist; Alexander M. Martin (eds.).
15862:
14631:
Edward D. Wynot, Jr., 'A Necessary Cruelty': The Emergence of Official Anti-Semitism in Poland, 1936–39.
14535:, "Linking the Vistula and the Jordan: The Genesis of Relations between Poland and the State of Israel",
12268:
11356:, "Linking the Vistula and the Jordan: The Genesis of Relations between Poland and the State of Israel",
11262:
Lords' Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Eighteenth Century
10953:
10753:
10028:
9904:
9859:
9653:
9524:
9423:
of April 1943, the Białystok uprising had no chances for military success, but it was the second-largest
9189:
8961:
8363:
A number of younger Jews, often through the pro-Marxist Bund or some Zionist groups, were sympathetic to
8256:
8076:
7990:
7908:. The agreement granted certain cultural and religious rights to Jews in exchange for Jewish support for
7870:
6064:
5687:, began to take hold in Poland during the 19th century, stressing secular ideas and values. Champions of
5511:
4260:
3874:
3819:
3700:
3692:
3019:
3014:
2969:
2922:
2608:
2578:
2538:
2533:
2390:
1696:
1092:
1072:
1036:
1026:
1016:
982:
803:
16818:
14347:
Ezra Mendelsohn. The Jews of East Central Europe Between the World Wars. Indiana University Press, 1983.
13602:
12220:
12129:
5975:
Percentage of Jewish (by religion) population in each voivodeship of Poland according to the 1931 census
652:
627:
537:
20194:
20033:
19717:
16392:
14207:
13315:
12608:
10689:
10673:
10261:
10246:
10245:. The Memorial is located where the Warsaw Ghetto used to be, at the site of one command bunker of the
10023:
First attempts to improve Polish–Israeli relations began in the mid-1970s. Poland was the first of the
8972:
8706:
8698:
8645:
8586:
8576:
5950:
5805:
5115:
5113:
Polish society recognized the urgency of popular education as the first step toward reform. The famous
5057:
3493:
3338:
3046:
2440:
1636:
1626:
1362:
1211:
1142:
1082:
1031:
547:
348:
18589:
Weaponizing the Past: Collective Memory and Jews, Poles, and Communists in Twenty-First Century Poland
17475:. A Random House trade paperback (Random House trade paperback ed.). New York, NY: Random House.
16613:
15967:
11285:
10313:
In September 2000, dignitaries from Poland, Israel, the United States, and other countries (including
9749:
Between 1945 and 1948, 100,000–120,000 Jews left Poland. Their departure was largely organized by the
9454:
The estimates of Polish Jews before the war vary from slightly under 3 million to almost 3.5 million (
8402:
there were 500–600 Jews. From 1939 to 1941 between 100,000 and 300,000 Polish Jews were deported from
7552:(Polish: Izaak Zynger), achieved international acclaim as a classic Jewish writer and was awarded the
5927:(1933), reading roll call of the fallen, organized by Union of Jewish Fighters for Polish Independence
5915:
5793:
5032:. The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of
907:
587:
572:
20721:
20664:
20497:
20487:
20143:
20049:
19782:
19461:
17987:
17024:
16228:
15375:
14906:
14707:
12768:
10785:
10641:
10363:
In 2006, Poland's Jewish population was estimated to be approximately 20,000; most living in Warsaw,
10338:
9887:
9646:
9101:
9089:
8727:
8702:
8519:
8326:
8283:
8029:
7886:
7565:
7553:
5834:
party became the most prominent Jewish party in the interwar period and in the 1919 elections to the
5783:(People's Party) advocated, for its part, cultural autonomy and resistance to assimilation. In 1912,
5106:
5037:
4983:
4429:
The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of
3607:
3300:
3151:
3092:
1983:
1077:
1041:
1021:
286:
271:
19792:
19578:
17752:
15979:
12328:
12188:
12099:
11688:
Suggested reading: Arieh J. Kochavi, "Britain and the Jewish Exodus...," Polin 7 (1992): pp. 161–175
9908:
9847:
8741:
Between October 1939 and July 1942 a system of ghettos was imposed for the confinement of Jews. The
8582:
4701:
647:
20674:
20482:
20378:
20296:
19984:
19770:
19765:
16773:
16745:(1998) . Włodzimierz Bonusiak; Stanisław Jan Ciesielski; Zygmunt Mańkowski; Mikołaj Iwanow (eds.).
16199:
15334:
The Soviet Occupation of Poland, 1939–41, and the Stereotype of the Anti-Polish and Pro-Soviet Jew.
13156:
10591:
10118:
8922:
8433:
7750:
7432:
6026:
5992:
5924:
5631:
5297:
4668:
4222:
4130:
3927:
The first Jews to visit Polish territory were traders, while permanent settlement began during the
3780:
3310:
3290:
2400:
1880:
1421:
1127:
717:
557:
468:
17519:
17166:
16963:(Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 2003), 212-213.
16731:. Vol. VII. Polska 1944/45–1989. Studia i Materiały. pp. 25–26 (pp. 2–3 in current document).
14832:
10721:
9578:. It occurred amid a period of violence and anarchy across the country, caused by lawlessness and
9519:
after the war; created by a local Jewish Committee in 1945. Most remained for only a brief period.
9000:
in Poland. The Polish government in exile was also the only government to set up an organization (
8428:. Small numbers of Polish Jews (about 6,000) were able to leave the Soviet Union in 1942 with the
8075:
The national boycott of Jewish businesses and advocacy for their confiscation was promoted by the
6047:, although serious abuses against the Jews, including pogroms, continued elsewhere, especially in
4149:
3912:
20803:
20716:
19938:
19825:
19583:
18934:
18576:
18538:
After the Holocaust: Polish–Jewish Conflict in the Wake of World War II, East European Monographs
18496:
18485:
16900:
16461:
15760:
15354:(Jews in the authorities of the Polish Secret Security. Stereotype or Reality?), Bulletin of the
14022:
12916:
12369:
12206:
10958:
10595:
10342:
10322:
10314:
10162:
10130:
10111:
9301:
8786:
8488:
8478:
8458:
8347:
8287:
8232:
7861:, the strengthening of antisemitism in Polish society was also a consequence of the influence of
5635:
5564:
5451:
5301:
5049:
4885:
was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the century the Jewish printing houses of that city and
4375:
4034:
3704:
3451:
3441:
3406:
3285:
3275:
3058:
2229:
2171:
2005:
1684:
1641:
1356:
1132:
947:
842:
813:
657:
336:
291:
281:
19866:
18952:
18634:
17814:
17697:
16742:
15671:
14985:
14318:"The Pogrom of Jews During and After World War I: The Destruction of the Jewish Idea of Galicia"
14231:
13856:(in Polish). Central Statistical office of the Polish Republic. 1938. p. 15. Archived from
13213:
11565:
9952:
8851:(page 595 of the GG Register) Jews leaving the Jewish Quarter without permission will incur the
8830:
7709:
contributed to the world of science. Other Polish Jews who gained international recognition are
7483:
or one-third of the city's population. Only New York City had more Jewish residents than Warsaw.
6626:
4721:
3763:, Polish Jews became subject to the laws of the partitioning powers, including the increasingly
1112:
577:
20772:
20706:
20701:
19861:
19753:
18847:
18391:
18295:
18277:
17837:
AP Online, "Some Jewish exiles to have Polish citizenship restored this week", 3 October 1998,
16429:
15308:
Who Will Write Our History: Emmanuel Ringelblum, the Warsaw Ghetto and the Oyneg Shabes Archive
13999:
12986:
11250:"Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends" by Lonnie R. Johnson Oxford University Press 1996
11235:
10964:
10705:
10360:, which is one of the biggest festivals of Jewish culture in the world, takes place in Kraków.
10237:
10191:
is being built in Warsaw. The building was designed by the Finnish architect Rainer Mahlamäki.
9814:
9428:
9420:
9312:
9122:
9060:
9019:
8993:
8694:
8368:
8224:
7901:
7439:
5812:
5515:
5068:
3745:
3570:
3305:
3219:
2285:
1837:
1456:
1426:
1206:
1199:
707:
672:
617:
562:
18597:
18172:
18022:
17154:
16981:
16187:
16163:
16005:
15998:
15791:
15509:
15503:
15320:
15307:
15295:
Collaboration in the Holocaust: Crimes of the Local Police in Belorussia and Ukraine, 1941–44.
14356:
14335:
14069:
13671:
13004:
12836:
12823:
12737:
12163:
11836:
11757:
11535:
11529:
10375:, though there are no census figures that would give an exact number. According to the Polish
10168:
There are also several Jewish publications although most of them are in Polish. These include
9920:
7877:
was obsessed with an international conspiracy of freemasons and Jews, and in his works linked
7625:
6851:
5489:. At times, Jews were forbidden to live in agricultural communities, or certain cities, as in
5159:
4066:
677:
106:
1,250,000 (ancestry, passport eligible); 202,300 (born in Poland or with a Polish-born father)
20557:
20526:
20411:
20131:
19690:
19418:
18503:
in this source. The encyclopedia was published when sovereign Poland did not exist following
16570:
16072:
15687:
15580:
15545:
15294:
15260:
15247:
15232:
15208:
15202:
15170:
14784:
14139:
14097:
13466:
13285:
12897:
Elusive Alliance: The German Occupation of Poland in World War I page 176 Jesse Kauffman 2015
12539:
12074:
11471:
11333:
11023:
10970:
10817:
10317:) gathered in the city of Oświęcim (Auschwitz) to commemorate the opening of the refurbished
10215:
9532:
9455:
8429:
8294:
where, as a result of the inhuman conditions, about half of them died before the end of war.
8240:
8211:
some 20,000 Jewish civilians and 32,216 Jewish soldiers were killed, while 61,000 were taken
8004:
7821:
7656:
7589:
7561:
7549:
6876:
6081:
6056:
6008:
5996:
5826:
In addition to the socialists, Zionist parties were also popular, in particular, the Marxist
5797:
5231:
5053:
4855:
4572:
4551:
4434:
4395:
4168:
4101:
4050:
3841:
In the post-war period, many of the approximately 200,000 Jewish survivors registered at the
3749:
3461:
3456:
3401:
3189:
2104:
1832:
1819:
1714:
1431:
1216:
773:
737:
732:
722:
607:
296:
18049:
17735:
14876:
14552:
The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II
14496:
The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II
14467:
The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II
10305:
There have been a number of Holocaust remembrance activities in Poland in recent years. The
9932:
9371:
camp in the city before deportation to Treblinka. Those deemed fit to work were sent to the
8758:
6022:
5263:'s discretion. Thus between 1827 and 1857 over 30,000 children were placed in the so-called
4106:
877:
20798:
20686:
20153:
19891:
19737:
19453:
18504:
18492:
15555:
15549:
11683:
11055:
10657:
10625:
10400:
10337:
and is attended by many people from Israel, Poland and other countries. The marchers honor
9274:
concentration camp in Warsaw, men and women, took part in combat against Nazis during 1944
9194:
9183:
9105:
9080:
8603:
8033:
7920:
7776:
7569:
6033:– the report concluded – 64 Jews had been killed (other accounts put the number at 72). In
5942:
5909:
5854:
5801:
5251:
5151:
5093:
4764:
4639:
4584:
4537:
4359:
4332:
4225:
accusation against Jews in Poland was recorded, and in 1367 the first pogrom took place in
3756:
3676:
3532:
3484:
3224:
3082:
1895:
1760:
1749:
1707:
1147:
20426:
20416:
19509:
17875:
16549:
16311:
16216:
11383:. Weapons were provided for 10,000 men, and Polish officers trained Irgun fighters in the
9995:
9290:
8632:
similar to Jedwabne. The reasons for these massacres are still debated, but they included
8447:, 67% (2,972) of the Jewish soldiers deserted to settle in Palestine, and many joined the
8148:
to Poland to escape anti-Jewish measures. Their property was claimed by the Polish state.
7814:, won several medals in the table-tennis tournaments. Many of these clubs belonged to the
7564:, went on to achieve international acclaim as classic Jewish writers; Singer won the 1978
4935:) (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the co-author of the
4061:. Jews worked on commission for the mints of other contemporary Polish princes, including
1137:
727:
592:
8:
20606:
20536:
20509:
20477:
20472:
20447:
20406:
20291:
19881:
19876:
19856:
17693:
16930:
16641:
15792:"Antisemitism, Anti-Judaism, and the Polish Catholic Clergy during the Second World War."
15468:
Resplendent Synagogue: Architecture and Worship in an Eighteenth-century Polish Community
15348:
14441:
14183:
12374:
12333:
12272:
11874:
Friedman, Jonathan C (2012) . "Jewish Communities of Europe on the Eve of World War II".
11380:
11213:
10583:
10376:
10330:
10199:
9727:
9614:
9472:
9248:
9064:
8656:
8444:
8291:
8220:
8115:
8111:
7913:
7815:
7758:
7686:
6092:
Jewish population in cities and towns of Poland with at least 25,000 inhabitants in 1931
5576:
5216:
5203:
5089:
4824:
4759:, led to ferocious murders of Polish noblemen, Catholic priests and thousands of Jews by
4697:
4430:
4399:
4371:
4363:
3967:. In the summer of 965 or 966, Jacob made a trade and diplomatic journey from his native
3964:
3752:
3585:
3280:
1958:
1825:
1728:
1721:
1651:
1539:
1414:
542:
196:
20421:
19976:
18223:
17120:
16382:"The Stroop Report – The Jewish Quarter of Warsaw is No More", Secker & Warburg 1980
15740:
13749:
11938:
Beit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project, The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot
11274:
Jews and Heretics in Pre-modern Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era
10399:
opened. It is one of the world's largest Jewish museums. As of 2019 another museum, the
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8268:, in which 25 Jews were killed (the Soviets later put some of the pogromists on trial).
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Jews and Heretics in Premodern Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era
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also substantially poorer and less integrated than the Jews in most of Western Europe.
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movement. The pogroms prompted a great wave of Jewish emigration to the United States.
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5018:
and Poland in particular. His disciples taught and encouraged the new fervent brand of
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dates from 1237, in Kalisz from 1287 and a Żydowska (Jewish) street in Kraków in 1304.
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3791:, Poland supported Jewish emigration from Poland and the creation of a Jewish state in
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1968:
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Under these limitations, restitution seemed to proceed well, at least for a time (see
17064:
15449:
15204:
Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide...
14907:"YIVO | Poland: Poland since 1939, in the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe"
14159:
12738:
When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland
12317:
Categorically Jewish, Distinctly Polish. Polish Jewish History Reflected and Refracted
12085:
9896:
9877:
between 1944 and 1956. Hand-picked by Joseph Stalin, prominent Jews held posts in the
9186:, died fighting on 8 May 1943 at the organization's command centre on 18 Mila Street.
7645:
7467:) had the third-largest Jewish population in Poland, numbering 110,000 in 1939 (42%).
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issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The growth of
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3707:, new study programs at Polish secondary schools and universities, and the opening of
642:
170:
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Barricades and Banners: The Revolution of 1905 and the Transformation of Warsaw Jewry
18694:
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16755:]. Kielce: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna im. Jana Kochanowskiego. pp. 43, 294.
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12917:'This Troublesome Question': The United States and the 'Polish Pogroms' of 1918–1919.
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Krwawa zemsta Stefana Czarnieckiego na Kozakach. Nie oszczędzał nawet kobiet i dzieci
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17713:"Helena Wolinska-Brus: 1919–2008. Controversial communist prosecutor dies in the UK"
17576:
Post-Holocaust Politics: Britain, the United States & Jewish Refugees, 1945–1948
17473:
Fear: anti-semitism in Poland after Auschwitz; an essay in historical interpretation
16630:
was the result of conscious and purposeful falsification by Stalinist propagandists.
16317:
15388:""JEWISH MILITARY CASUALTIES IN THE POLISH ARMIES IN WORLD WAR II" - VOL. V: Photos"
15146:
Shared History, Divided Memory: Jews and Others in Soviet-occupied Poland, 1939–1941
13248:, Vol. 2. Yivo Institute for Jewish Research Yale University Press. 2008. p. 1393.
13033:
Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna; Dynner, Glenn (2021). "Pogroms in Modern Poland, 1918-1946".
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and labor camps and suffered the same fate as other Jewish civilians in the ensuing
7698:
7475:) had a Jewish community of nearly 100,000, about 45% of the city's total. In 1938,
5945:, more than all other minorities combined. Prominent Jews were among the members of
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period, there were several prominent Jewish politicians in the Polish Sejm, such as
3987:. Among the first Jews to arrive in Poland in 1097 or 1098 were those banished from
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Beit Kraków » Wstęp do Judaizmu (Introduction to Judaism): "Korzenie" (Roots).
17849:
17779:
17248:
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14651:
14636:
14598:
13493:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Polish Studies Center. pp. 161–169.
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University Press of Kentucky 1989 – 201 pages. Page 13; also in Richard C. Lukas,
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were restored, and full relations were restored in 1990 as soon as communism fell.
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testifies to the fact that Poles were willing to take risks in order to save Jews.
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Yiddish election notice for Soviet local government to the People's council of the
8290:
and massive deportation of 320,000 Polish nationals to the Soviet interior and the
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Anti-Jewish sentiment in Poland had reached its zenith in the years leading to the
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that would free Jews in the region from Russian oppression. The plan, known as the
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and overly formal Rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the
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In the Shadow of Auschwitz: The Polish Government-In-Exile and the Jews, 1939–1942
15526:
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10372:
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atrocities committed by the young Polish army and its allies in 1919 during their
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13904:
Poland, 1918-1945: An Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic
13902:
13811:
13786:
13590:
13534:
In the shadow of Hitler: personalities of the right in Central and Eastern Europe
13232:
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has stated that Jews were more inclined to cooperate with the Soviets. Following
8299:
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Demonstration of Polish students demanding implementation of "ghetto benches" at
7999:
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4831:, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life. Many agreed with Rabbi
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4689:
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4284:
in 1407, although the royal guard hastened to the rescue. Hysteria caused by the
4276:. In 1349 pogroms took place in many towns in Silesia. There were accusations of
4268:
4160:
4058:
4011:
3992:
3850:
3831:
3788:
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3760:
3755:), Poland's traditional tolerance began to wane from the 17th century. After the
3729:, Poland was the most tolerant country in Europe. Historians have used the label
3726:
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2219:
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612:
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301:
128:
120:
116:
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18610:
Economic Origins of Antisemitism: Poland and Its Jews in the Early Modern Period
18248:
17333:(in Polish). Warsaw: Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą. pp. 605–607.
13301:
12358:
The Jews in a Polish Private Town – The Case of Opatów in the Eighteenth Century
9895:
responsible for establishing a Communist-style economy. Together with hardliner
9855:
9079:
made up of 24 Jewish men ordered to organize Jewish labor battalions as well as
7742:
7459:
numbered about 233,000, roughly one-third of the city's population. The city of
4187:
near Kraków (1386). Casimir, who according to a legend had a Jewish lover named
3991:. The first permanent Jewish community is mentioned in 1085 by a Jewish scholar
20467:
20452:
20260:
20250:
20245:
19906:
19656:
19563:
18556:
Agency and Displacement of Ethnic Polish and Jewish Families after World War II
18480:
17868:
17552:
16791:
15062:
14718:
14687:
14253:
14197:
14093:
14049:
The Emergence of Modern Jewish Politics: Bundism and Zionism in Eastern Europe.
13819:
13815:
13656:
12819:
12124:
Kayserling, Meyer; Gotthard Deutsch; M. Seligsohn; Peter Wiernik; N.T. London;
11266:
The Jews in a Polish Private Town: The Case of Opatów in the Eighteenth Century
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264:
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Jewish Communities in Poland and Lithuania under the Council of the Four Lands
14602:
13271:
End note 20: 44–29, memo 1/30/39 , The Jewish Publication Society of America,
9939:
the interrogation methods used the UB which led to its restructuring in 1954.
9570:
The anti-Jewish violence in Poland refers to a series of violent incidents in
8932:
8778:
8313:
7803:
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6326:
6007:
sent an official commission to investigate the matter. The commission, led by
4203:, he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced
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18957:
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17783:
17260:
17168:
Polish nationalists protest at law on restitution of Jewish property 12.05.19
16885:
16753:
Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschodniej pod radziecką okupacją 1939-1941
16637:
15946:
15658:
15051:
14831:. Chatham House, The Royal Institute of International Affairs. Archived from
14610:
14515:, and in the US, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Jewish members of the
14273:
14178:
13661:
The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999
12962:
11729:
11706:
The Unwanted: European Refugees from the First World War Through the Cold War
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that had been very severe on agricultural countries like Poland, reduced the
8084:
7874:
7846:
7702:
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5785:
5705:, rather focusing on a strong continuation of their religious lives based on
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5255:
5006:
4990:
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4791:
into Hebrew, these names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because
4744:
4740:. The worldwide Jewish population at that time was estimated at 1.2 million.
4677:
4473:
4448:
4367:
4335:
confirmed and extended Jewish charters in the second half of the 15th century
4030:
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818:
20519:
19605:
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18627:
18347:
Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2014) . Rohde, Aleksandra Miesak (ed.).
18330:
Jews in Poland–Lithuania in the Eighteenth Century: A Genealogy of Modernity
15387:
14809:
14640:
14394:
13351:
12906:
A Deadly Legacy: German Jews and the Great War Timothy L. Grady page 82 2017
11325:
9632:
8374:
8132:
organizing passports and facilitating illegal immigration, and supplied the
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7126:
5808:
all saw significant Jewish involvement in the cause of Polish independence.
5442:
4770:
4321:
20306:
19918:
19807:
18374:
The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland
16566:
16266:
15928:
The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland
15091:
14741:
14520:
14512:
13385:(in Polish). ]Warszawa: Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej
13272:
13264:
13190:
13149:"Lwów, 1918: The Transmutation of a Symbol and its Legacy in the Holocaust"
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12012:
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11341:
11329:
10334:
10218:
10035:
10024:
9882:
9839:
9754:
9739:
9708:
9363:
In February 1943, approximately 10,000 Białystok Jews were deported to the
9320:
8956:
8794:
8681:, or blackmailers who collaborated with the Nazis in persecuting the Jews.
8633:
8625:
8542:
8415:
8407:
8310:
communists to fill in the newly emptied government and civil service jobs.
8260:
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7928:
7862:
7766:
7710:
7682:
7601:
7581:
7577:
7573:
7517:
7443:
5861:
5580:
5549:
The assassination prompted a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots, called
4906:
4620:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4204:
4114:
3862:
3815:
3811:
3784:
3703:, there has been a renewed interest in Jewish culture, featuring an annual
3688:
3680:
3590:
3416:
3257:
3252:
3210:
3163:
2257:
2124:
2109:
2068:
2033:
1646:
1488:
994:
932:
363:
259:
19494:
19370:
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16412:
in World War II is believed to have occurred in 1942 in the small town of
15837:
Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-in-Exile and the Jews, 1943–1945
15233:
Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath.
15171:
Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath.
14117:
14056:
13510:. Liverpool University Press, Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–49.
13253:
13212:"Ustawa z dnia 17 marca 1921 r. – Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej."
12974:
12399:
Nagielski, Mirosław (1995). "Stefan Czarniecki (1604–1655) hetman polny".
11657:
Immigrants in turmoil: mass immigration to Israel and its repercussions...
9480:
9307:
8754:
8322:
7822:
Between antisemitism and support for Zionism and Jewish state in Palestine
7456:
7176:
6576:
6426:
6151:
5905:
4053:
employed Jews in his mint as engravers and technical supervisors, and the
3857:. Their departure was hastened by the destruction of Jewish institutions,
418:
20368:
19948:
19775:
19638:
19519:
18948:
The Catholic Zionist Who Helped Steer Israeli Independence through the UN
17720:
17297:. New studies in European history. New York: Cambridge University Press.
16572:
From peace to war: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the world, 1939–1941
15942:
14785:
Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath
14402:
14196:
13752:[The legal status of the Jewish minority in the Second Republic]
13696:
13153:
Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath
13059:
13006:
Poland's Threatening Other: The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present
11620:
Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath
10352:"Shalom in Szeroka Street", the final concert of the 15th Jewish Festival
10141:
9968:
9892:
9843:
9803:
9548:
9515:
Page from a register of several hundred Jewish survivors who returned to
9412:
9294:
8910:
8678:
8660:
8607:
8100:
8048:
8016:
7941:
7842:
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of re-emerging sovereign Poland including Herman Feldstein, Henryk Eile,
5932:
5897:
5892:
5780:
5772:
4994:
4975:
4960:
4859:
4852:
4288:
led to additional 14th-century outbreaks of violence against the Jews in
4285:
4277:
4218:
4138:
3920:
3878:
3795:. The Polish state also supported Jewish paramilitary groups such as the
3575:
3517:
3182:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2048:
637:
428:
18874:
A Complicated Coexistence: Polish–Jewish relations through the centuries
18474: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
18197:
15142:
14110:
Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39.
14070:
The path of the righteous: gentile rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust
14000:
Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39.
13722:[The Jews in Poland's history of the 19th and the 20th century]
13269:
A History of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 1929–1939.
12988:
Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39.
11464:
The Path of the Righteous: Gentile Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust
9038:
8298:
wealthier Jews, as well as some political and social activists from the
8057:
7790:
There also were several Jewish sports clubs, with some of them, such as
6651:
5733:
4546:
Number of Jews in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth per voivodeship in 1764
4508:, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy. He is considered the "
4045:. Bolesław III recognized the utility of Jews in the development of the
3996:
19695:
19620:
19573:
19558:
19471:
18835:
17121:Łukasz Kamiński; Leszek Bukowski; Andrzej Jankowski; Jan Żaryn (2008).
16961:
After the Holocaust: Polish–Jewish Conflict in the Wake of World War II
16282:
16232:
16138:
15673:
God's Playground: God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes.
14719:
B. Meirtchak: "Jewish Military Casualties In The Polish Armies In Wwii"
13120:
Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870–1933/39
12449:"Zrodla do badan przemian przestrzennych zachodnich przedmiesc Krakowa"
12304:
11044:. Polish-jewish-heritage.org (8 January 2005). Retrieved on 2010-08-22.
9788:
9720:
9067:
8976:
8965:
8860:....This is a categorical warning to the non-Jewish population against:
8531:
8483:
8339:
8020:
7905:
7890:
7775:
in 1920 at the Elyseum Theatre. Some future Israeli leaders studied at
7771:
7617:
7593:
7376:
5827:
5752:
5523:
5494:
5178:
4627:
in the Commonwealth had pressed the king to grant them that privilege.
4509:
4328:
4214:
4180:
4054:
3963:, was the first chronicler to mention the Polish state ruled by Prince
3956:
3940:
3744:
weakening of the Commonwealth and growing religious strife (due to the
3668:
3233:
2247:
2176:
2134:
1963:
1943:
1502:
1409:
1329:
368:
19443:
18853:
Judaism in the Baltic: Vilna as the Spiritual Center of Eastern Europe
18466:, in: Ethnos-Nation: eine europäische Zeitschrift, 1999, pp. 8–25
16796:(in Polish). Warsaw: Żydowski Instytut Historyczny. pp. 107–111.
16779:
16088:
Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces
14336:
On the Edge of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars.
13837:
In the Shadow of the Polish Eagle: The Poles, the Holocaust and Beyond
13379:
Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności z dn. 9.XII.1931 r. Seria C. Zeszyt 94a
10364:
10211:
10149:
9484:
7276:
6401:
5522:
and subject to restrictions on ownership and profession. The existing
5447:, a stake, extended to mean the area enclosed by a fence or boundary.
4344:
4049:
of his country. Jews came to form the backbone of the Polish economy.
3810:
In 1939, at the start of World War II, Poland was partitioned between
20104:
19700:
19648:
19514:
19504:
19486:
19466:
19431:
19426:
18071:"Plans for Warsaw Ghetto Museum unveiled - Diaspora - Jerusalem Post"
17201:
15947:"Gunnar S. Paulsson Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw 1940–1945"
15689:
The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and Its Aftermath
15450:"Avalon Project - Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry - Appendix III"
14738:
Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation
14669:
On the Edge Of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars
14357:
On the Edge of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars
14266:
Dni życia, dni śmierci. Ludność żydowska w Radomiu w latach 1918–1950
14203:
Economic Change and the National Question in Twentieth-century Europe
11941:
11810:
11516:
The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939–1944
10423:(Source: YIVO Encyclopedia & the North American Jewish Data Bank)
10230:
9686:
9587:
9043:
8718:
8710:
8549:
8411:
8364:
8184:
7718:
7706:
7530:
7494:
7486:
7472:
7076:
7051:
6751:
6376:
6301:
5955:
5765:
5459:
5271:
5264:
5001:
4317:
4309:
4229:. Compared with the pitiless destruction of their co-religionists in
4184:
4038:
4017:
3696:
3396:
3381:
2471:
2419:
2181:
2129:
2119:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1701:
1461:
316:
18738:
Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories
18736:
Weiner, Miriam; Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) (1997).
17206:
Robbery and restitution: the conflict over Jewish property in Europe
17202:"The polish debate on the holocaust and the restitution of property"
16124:
from the original on 27 September 2011 – via Internet Archive.
15970:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org (19 April 1943). Retrieved on 2010-08-22.
15654:
15321:
The Fate of the European Jews, 1939–1945: Continuity Or Contingency?
15282:
Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947.
15065:. Polandsholocaust.org (17 September 1939). Retrieved on 2010-08-22.
14586:
14317:
12588:
Narodowa demokracja wobec problematyki żydowskiej w latach 1918–1929
10599:
10368:
9796:
9001:
8770:
7476:
6776:
6726:
6226:
6201:
5620:
5286:
4717:
4596:
4588:
4497:
4293:
4281:
4226:
2149:
20026:
19928:
19758:
18902:
Chronicles of the Vilna Ghetto: wartime photographs & documents
18868:
Polish–Jewish Relations section of the Polish Embassy in Washington
18415:
A People Apart: A Political History of the Jews in Europe 1789–1939
18300:
Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947
17682:"Jakub Berman's Papers Received at the Hoover Institution Archives"
16120:. London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association.
15585:
From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939–1941
14437:
13750:"Sytuacja prawna mniejszosci żydowskiej w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej"
12290:
Cossack Rebellions. Social Turmoil in the Sixteenth-century Ukraine
12021:. Translated by Israel Friedlaender. Avotaynu Inc. pp. 22–24.
11376:
9870:'s death, in this 1958–59 period, 50,000 Jews emigrated to Israel.
9372:
9271:
9076:
8882:
hiding due to fear for their own lives and that of their families.
8714:
8515:
7964:
7738:
6976:
6926:
6801:
6276:
5693:
5683:
5610:
5538:
5486:
5270:
Further information on the Garrison schools for male children:
5139:
5121:
5024:
4947:
4760:
4756:
4643:
4635:
4559:
4505:
4171:(1303–1370) amplified and expanded Bolesław's old charter with the
4079:
4074:
4046:
3928:
3854:
3740:
3684:
3565:
3175:
3107:
1938:
1446:
1397:
380:
18858:
The Jews in Poland. Saving from oblivion – Teaching for the future
18346:
17950:
16599:
The Holocaust in the East: Local Perpetrators and Soviet Responses
16470:"Auschwitz-Birkenau Concentration Camp – Advice from a Tour Guide"
16323:
15991:
15637:
15607:
15532:
14708:
The Fate of Jewish Prisoners of War in the September 1939 Campaign
13686:, Binghamton Journal of History, Fall 2002. Retrieved 2 June 2006.
13566:. Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. pp. 80–84.
12388:
Lekcje tolerancji Pakiet edukacyjny dla nauczycielek i nauczycieli
11811:"The Polish Jews Heritage – Genealogy Research Photos Translation"
9531:
annexed to the Union, and its western borders expanded to include
9266:, and several dozen Greek, Hungarian or even German Jews freed by
7959:, with rectangular "ghetto benches" ("odd-numbered-benches") stamp
7529:
as the instructional language. Jewish political parties, both the
7226:
7026:
6601:
4094:
19727:
19633:
19553:
18050:"The POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw—Part 1"
17295:
Beyond violence: Jewish survivors in Poland and Slovakia, 1944-48
17131:]. Vol. 2. Foreword by Jan Żaryn. IPN. pp. 166–71.
16902:
Beyond Violence: Jewish Survivors in Poland and Slovakia, 1944–48
15581:"Poland Under German Occupation, 1939–1941: A Comparative Survey"
10255:
U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad
10170:
10145:
10140:
A large number of cities with synagogues include Warsaw, Kraków,
10095:
9780:
9776:
9763:
9750:
9500:
9496:
9381:
9097:
8906:
8798:
8535:
8466:
8133:
8063:
7968:
7924:
7882:
7878:
7832:
7522:
7513:
7464:
7201:
6901:
6251:
6048:
5706:
5588:
5572:
5475:
5471:
5463:
5102:
5098:
5081:
5036:
all over the world, with a continuous influence through its many
5019:
4941:, (the "Code of Jewish Law"). His contemporary and correspondent
4902:
4895:
4866:
4752:
4600:
4501:
4493:
4478:
4348:
4340:
4297:
4207:
4192:
4188:
3976:
3952:
3944:
3936:
3845:
or CKŻP (of whom 136,000 arrived from the Soviet Union) left the
3796:
3541:
3507:
3376:
3170:
2159:
2154:
2026:
1917:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1553:
1548:
1525:
1507:
1382:
1377:
1367:
1345:
1320:
321:
140:
124:
18889:
18579:(1998). "Patterns of Anti-Jewish Violence in Poland 1944–1946".
18436:
Ideals Face Reality: Jewish Life and Culture in Poland 1550–1655
15014:
Soviet Foreign Policy 1917-1991: Classic and Contemporary Issues
14440:
had always been supportive towards the national aims of Jews in
14246:"Radomski rynek rzemiosła i usług według danych z lat 1926–1929"
12862:
11587:
Hunt for the Jews: betrayal and murder in German-occupied Poland
11484:"I know this Jew!" Blackmailing of the Jews in Warsaw 1939–1945.
8606:, many Jews in what was then Eastern Poland fell victim to Nazi
8044:
8015:
almost no Jews were on government support. In 1937 the Catholic
7839:
as their native language; by 1931, the number had risen to 87%.
7460:
4608:
4523:
19710:
19705:
19685:
19597:
19499:
18913:
18884:
16595:
16413:
15876:"Holocaust Survivors: Encyclopedia - "Polish–Jewish Relations""
15116:"The Situation of the Jews on Territories Occupied by the USSR"
14688:
Extermination of the Polish Jews in the Years 1939–1945. Part I
13111:
10233:
were found and can now be seen at the Auschwitz Jewish Center.
10153:
10084:
10004:
9972:
9792:
9772:
9743:
9731:
9603:
9571:
9540:
9476:
9353:
8944:
8673:
8629:
8571:
The Germans ordered that all Jews be registered, and the word "
8500:
8265:
8235:
as well as in several underground organizations and as part of
7826:
In contrast to the prevailing trends in Europe at the time, in
7572:
was also a writer. Other Jewish authors of the period, such as
7480:
7301:
7001:
6676:
6551:
6501:
6351:
6126:
6034:
5551:
5503:
5479:
5467:
5208:
5041:
4920:
4911:
4890:
4886:
4725:
4713:
4592:
4563:
4489:
4289:
4211:
4110:
3988:
3866:
3708:
3656:
3201:
3196:
3156:
3141:
2252:
2144:
1564:
1530:
1516:
1451:
390:
101:
91:
65:
18020:
17374:
Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review
16497:
Ruch oporu w getcie białostockim. Samoobrona-zagłada-powstanie
16176:'My Brother's Keeper?': Recent Polish Debates on the Holocaust
12786:
Sara Bender (2008). "Introduction: "Bialystock-upon-Tiktin"".
11393:
Between Hitler and Stalin: The Quick Life and Secret Death of
8246:
8019:
of Polish doctors and lawyers restricted their new members to
5510:
Although the Jews were accorded slightly more rights with the
5419:, or demarcation line, to the western Russian border with the
4971:
19732:
19667:
19628:
18706:
Jewish Intellectuals, National Suffering, Contemporary Poland
18009:"The Virtual Shtetl", information about Jewish life in Poland
17553:
The Chief Rabbi's View on Jews and Poland – Michael Schudrich
17328:
15080:
Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką (1939–1941)
14456:, Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam, Mouton Publishers, p. 395.
13803:
13504:
Latawski, Paul (2008). "The Dmowski-Namier Feud, 1915-1918".
11372:
11270:
Ideals Face Reality: Jewish Law and Life in Poland, 1550–1655
10165:, affiliated with the Liberal-Progressive stream of Judaism.
9467:
8637:
8554:
8449:
8424:
8356:
8137:
8052:
7975:
7971:
7849:, the founder and chief ideologue of the National Democracy (
7542:(the Polish Parliament) as well as in the regional councils.
7468:
7251:
7151:
7101:
6951:
6826:
6451:
6029:
of independence a day after the Poles captured Lviv from the
5946:
5498:
5436:
5260:
5240:
4882:
4444:
4439:
4358:
The decline in the status of the Jews was briefly checked by
4305:
3948:
3804:
3800:
3736:
3672:
2164:
1593:
1497:
1466:
358:
311:
306:
18885:
Foundation for the Preservation of Jewish Heritage in Poland
18126:
Charakterystyka mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych w Polsce
17809:
The Crooked Mirror: A Memoir of Polish–Jewish Reconciliation
17204:. In Martin Dean; Constantin Goschler; Philipp Ther (eds.).
16792:
Grzegorz Berendt; August Grabski; Albert Stankowski (2000).
15424:"Death tolls in the Holocaust, from the US Holocaust Museum"
15185:
Yizkor Book Project, JewishGen: The Home of Jewish Genealogy
13971:
Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919-1939
13944:
Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919-1939
13877:
Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919-1939
12865:, 1939, digitized at Forum Żydów Polskich. Internet Archive.
12057:
11320:"In 1937, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs viewed the
11037:
11035:
11033:
10117:
Jewish religious life has been revived with the help of the
9962:
9545:
Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II
8136:
with weapons. Poland also provided extensive support to the
6016:
official government policy. Among the incidents, during the
5154:
was made on 17 July 1793. Jews, in a Jewish regiment led by
18890:
Foundation for Documentation of Jewish Cemeteries in Poland
16684:
16135:
Poland, Execution of Poles by a German Police Firing Squad.
14516:
14398:
13606:
13207:
13084:
12789:
The Jews of Białystok During World War II and the Holocaust
12705:
Jews in the Russian Army, 1827–1917: Drafted Into Modernity
12475:
12473:
12446:
11337:
10578:
9976:
9818:
9536:
9352:
In August 1941, the Germans ordered the establishment of a
9220:
8782:
8737:
Jewish Ghettos in German-occupied Poland and Eastern Europe
8395:
7936:. However, a combination of various factors, including the
7897:
7853:) in Poland, often ostentatiously demonstrated antisemitism
7754:
7538:
6176:
5490:
4604:
4433:(1506–1548), who protected the Jews in his realm. His son,
4362:(1447–1492), but soon the nobility forced him to issue the
4313:
4196:
4176:
4042:
3932:
3691:
and its collaborators of various nationalities, during the
1316:
326:
18880:
Jewish organisations in Poland before the Second World War
18740:. Secaucus, NJ: Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation.
18570:
Men of Silk: The Hasidic Conquest of Polish Jewish Society
17901:
17520:"Poland's reclaimed properties create scars across Warsaw"
14960:
The Devils' Alliance: Hitler's Pact with Stalin, 1939-1941
14248:[The Radom business environment in late 1926–29].
13684:
Poles and Jews: The Quest For Self-Determination 1919–1934
12701:
11775:
Kalina Gawlas, kuratorka galerii Pierwsze Spotkania w MHŻP
9555:
9506:
9395:
began, and several hundred Polish Jews and members of the
9315:
of 1943 saw the destruction of what remained of the Ghetto
8163:
World War II and the destruction of Polish Jewry (1939–45)
7395:
Total in 51 cities and towns with over 25,000 inhabitants
5014:, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of
4680:
since 1587, the embattled Commonwealth was invaded by the
4086:
Another factor for the Jews to emigrate to Poland was the
20072:
20006:
18190:
16905:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 26, 47, 114, 143.
16725:
Emigracja ludnosci zydowskiej z Polski w latach 1945–1967
16569:, ed. (1997). "The period of Soviet-German partnership".
16423:
15835:. University of North Carolina Press. 1987; David Engel.
15686:
Deák, István; Gross, Jan T.; Judt, Tony (16 April 2000).
14454:
Social and Political History of Jews in Poland, 1919-1939
14407:
The Holocaust: Europe, the World, and the Jews, 1918–1945
14243:
13101:(original document, 1,369 KB). Retrieved 16 October 2011.
11702:
11030:
10606:
Jewish population of Poland according to the 2021 census
10403:, is under construction and is intended to open in 2023.
8367:
and Soviet Russia, both of which had been enemies of the
8212:
4808:
4771:
The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth
4402:'s tolerant policy and also granted autonomy to the Jews.
3663:
community in the world. Poland was a principal center of
18910:
from the US Holocaust Museum. From the same source see:
18842:
16432:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
15982:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
15248:
Poland's holocaust: ethnic strife ... – Internet Archive
12932:
Ideology, Politics, and Diplomacy in East Central Europe
12485:
12470:
12128:; Henry Malter; Herman Rosenthal; Joseph Jacobs (1906).
11616:"Jewish Responses to Antisemitism in Poland, 1944–1947."
11238:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
9951:, fled Poland for Israel in 1992 to escape prosecution.
9335:
9234:
fighters after the liberation of the camp in August 1944
8592:
The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland
8465:. A number of Jewish soldiers died also when liberating
7685:, born in Poland as Szymon Perski, served as the ninth
5853:) within the Jewish Pale of Settlement, composed of the
4530:
History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)
4386:
3884:
18602:
Poland and the Jews: Reflections of a Polish Polish Jew
18024:
The Routledge Companion to Intangible Cultural Heritage
17580:. The University of North Carolina Press. pp. xi.
16253:
14373:. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press. p. 133.
12158:
Finding Italian Roots: The Complete Guide for Americans
11900:"Origins of Polish Jewry (This Week in Jewish History)"
10406:
9149:
8992:, committed suicide to protest the indifference of the
4210:. He inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of
18820:(All maps from Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice)
17592:
Britain exerted pressure on the governments of Poland.
17000:
Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-Creation of World War II
16820:
Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939-1950)
15352:Żydzi w kierownictwie UB. Stereotyp czy rzeczywistość?
14874:
13802:"The largest right Zionist paramilitary organisation,
13235:(original document, 67 KB). Retrieved 16 October 2011.
12929:
Mieczysław B. Biskupski; Piotr Stefan Wandycz (2003).
12670:
The Cantonists: the Jewish children's army of the Tsar
12632:
The Cantonists: the Jewish children's army of the Tsar
12050:"Homework Help and Textbook Solutions | bartleby"
11660:
Syracuse University Press, 2003 – 325 pages. Page 70.
9935:, after escaping to the West in 1953, exposed through
5893:
Polish Jews and the struggle for Poland's independence
4623:. By the end of the XVIIIth century two-thirds of the
17324:
17322:
17320:
17318:
17316:
17314:
17025:
Patterns Of Anti-Jewish Violence In Poland, 1944–1946
16051:"Jewish History in Poland during the years 1939–1945"
15143:
Elazar Barkan; Elizabeth A. Cole; Kai Struve (2007).
14566:, "The Irgun and the Destruction of European Jewry",
13717:
13507:
Jews and the Emerging Polish State (Polin Volume Two)
13032:
12967:
White Eagle, Red Star: the Polish–Soviet War, 1919–20
12565:
12250:
12238:
11264:(Harvard University Press, new ed. 1993), G. Hundert
10904:
History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century
9714:
9108:
were ordered to escort the ghetto inhabitants to the
9007:
8351:
Jews obtained positions of power under Soviet rule."
7442:
had a large and vibrant Jewish minority. By the time
5838:
since the partitions, gained 50% of the Jewish vote.
5388:
5374:
4236:
3897:
History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century
18491:
New York: Funk and Wagnalls. Considerable amount of
18021:
Michelle L. Stefano; Peter Davis (8 December 2016).
17084:
Jankowski, Andrzej; Bukowski, Leszek (4 July 2008).
16720:
Emigration of Jewish people from Poland in 1945–1967
15761:"Poland's Jewish Secret Unearthed - DW - 05.11.2002"
15337:
Jewish Social Studies: History, Culture, and Society
15193:
15191:
14136:
Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności. Woj.wołyńskie, 1931.
12221:"Remuh Synagogue. A relic of Kazimierz's Golden Age"
12207:"Jewish Virtual Library - Moses ben Israel Isserles"
11703:
Marrus, Michael Robert; Aristide R. Zolberg (2002).
9987:
In March 1968 student-led demonstrations in Warsaw (
9004:) specifically aimed at helping the Jews in Poland.
8271:
Within weeks, 61.2% of Polish Jews found themselves
8203:, Chief Rabbi of the Polish Military, served in the
7967:
Polish government provided military training to the
5983:
Jewish population of Poland's largest cities in 1931
5402:
5179:
Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire (1795–1918)
4100:
The tolerant situation was gradually altered by the
4021:
Early-medieval Polish coins with Hebrew inscriptions
3828:
actively risking death in order to save Jewish lives
3180:
3161:
1584:
18464:
The De-Assimilation of the Jewish Remnant in Poland
18098:
at the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe.
17155:
The Plunder of Jewish Property during the Holocaust
16868:
Fear : Anti-Semitism in Poland After Auschwitz
16075:. Holocaust Survivors. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
15779:
Unequal Victims: Poles and Jews During World War II
12999:
12997:
12537:
11734:"The Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland of 1967–1968."
11196:(2nd ed.) Oxford: The Scarecrow Press, 2003. p. 79.
10081:, and Polish-Jewish wartime relations in general).
9866:("People's Voice"). Following liberalization after
9543:rivers. This forced millions to relocate (see also
9217:in other parts of Warsaw and the surrounding area.
8925:. The fight against informers was organized by the
7737:, just to name a few from the long list. The term "
5105:. The Commonwealth lost 30% of its land during the
20737:Baptist Christian Church of the Republic of Poland
18690:The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 3: 1914-2008
18674:The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 2: 1881–1914
18658:The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 1: 1350–1881
17806:
17676:
17573:
17518:
17311:
17065:Poland's Century: War, Communism and Anti-Semitism
16084:
15997:
15925:Antony Polonsky & Joanna B. Michlic, editors.
15243:
15241:
15197:
15113:
14550:Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry,
14494:Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry,
14483:In the Shadow of Zion Promised Lands before Israel
14465:Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry,
14371:No Way Out, The Politics of Polish Jewry 1935-1939
14190:
12155:
12018:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland, Volume 1
11805:
11803:
11589:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
9602:. The incidents ranged from individual attacks to
7873:movement. One of its founders and chief ideologue
7655:Many Jews were film producers and directors, e.g.
20648:
18994:
18895:
18612:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
18014:
17083:
16953:
16870:. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 60–68.
15188:
14683:
14681:
14679:
14677:
14303:The Taube Foundation for Jewish Life and Culture.
14301:Lubartow during the Holocaust in occupied Poland.
13842:
13824:Black Earth: The Holocaust as History and Warning
13791:Living with Antisemitism: Modern Jewish Responses
11801:
11799:
11797:
11795:
11793:
11791:
11789:
11787:
11785:
11783:
11622:. Rutgers University Press, 2003. Pages 249; 256.
11531:Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw, 1940–1945
11042:The Canadian Foundation of Polish–Jewish Heritage
10178:(which is bilingual), as well as a youth journal
9592:territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union
8877:Dr. Franke – Town Commander – Częstochowa 9/24/42
8418:), moved voluntarily; however, most of them were
4243:History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty
20821:
20692:Polish-Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland
18778:The Cossack Uprising and its Aftermath in Poland
18692:(Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2011)
18637:, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliūnas (editors).
17876:"Poland, International Religious Freedom Report"
17494:
17492:
17367:
16716:
16345:. New York: Philosophical Library. p. 222.
15587:. Providence, R.I.: Berghahn Books. p. 51.
15405:Estimated Casualties During WWII -Including Jews
15376:Jews in General Anders’ Army In the Soviet Union
15250:. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
14507:"Poland made many appeals on this matter in the
13434:The Bund Council in August 1937, Warsaw, Poland.
13334:"Vilnius (Vilna), Lithuania Jewish History Tour"
13023:Studia Judaica 7: 2004 nr 2(14) s. 257–304 (pdf)
12994:
12874:
11518:, University Press of Kentucky 1986 – 300 pages.
11511:Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust
9984:"Zionism" and disloyalty to a Socialist Poland.
9825:
9456:the last nationwide census was conducted in 1931
9449:
9146:When we invaded the Ghetto for the first time –
5849:, with the goal of establishing a buffer state (
5701:. Polish Jews generally were less influenced by
5533:
5235:from entering Russia. They were banned from the
3947:. One of them, a diplomat and merchant from the
3931:. Travelling along trade routes leading east to
3655:dates back at least 1,000 years. For centuries,
18676:(Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2009)
18660:(Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2009)
17804:
17392:
17292:
16898:
16840:
16340:
15799:Antisemitism and Its Opponents in Modern Poland
15729:Polityka III Rzeszy w okupowanej Polsce, Tom II
15238:
13246:The YIVO encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
12285:
12283:
12281:
11745:Antisemitism and Its Opponents in Modern Poland
11268:(Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), E.Fram
11139:From Counter-Reformation to Glorious Revolution
11109:"The Truth About Poland's Role in the Holocaus"
10135:Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland
8495:Poland's Jewish community suffered the most in
5830:and the orthodox religious Polish Mizrahi. The
5728:
5563:worth of property was destroyed. The new czar,
5530:in 1881 – an act falsely blamed upon the Jews.
4767:had begun between Russia, Prussia and Austria.
4500:. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and
18106:
18104:
17946:
17944:
17466:
17464:
17462:
17440:
17195:
17193:
17191:
17189:
17187:
16899:Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna (2014). "Introduction".
16269:. PolishJews.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
16219:. .yadvashem.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
16111:
14934:. AFP / Expatica. 30 July 2009. Archived from
14870:
14868:
14674:
13298:"Jews in Poland – Polish Jews in World War II"
13116:"Ethnic Diversity in Twentieth Century Poland"
12624:
12622:
12533:
12531:
11780:
11677:
11675:
11673:
11638:". In: David S. Wyman, Charles H. Rosenzveig.
11578:
10123:Taube Foundation for Jewish Life & Culture
9435:and other organisations and survived the war.
9238:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, was followed by other
7919:Matters improved for a time under the rule of
5195:History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union
4951:had become entrenched under the protection of
3687:destruction of the Polish Jewish community by
20634:
19992:
19386:
18980:
18088:
17798:
17489:
17086:"The Kielce pogrom as told by the eyewitness"
16794:Studia z historii Żydów w Polsce po 1945 roku
16636:
16336:
16334:
16332:
16314:. Diapozytyw.pl. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
16078:
15685:
15623:. Yad Vashem. 21 January 2008. Archived from
15572:
15339:. Spring/Summer 2007, Vol. 13, No. 3:135–176.
15149:. Leipziger Universitätsverlag. p. 211.
14697:. Ess.uwe.ac.uk. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
14187:(Polish edition), Second volume, pp. 512–513.
14138:PDF file, 21.21 MB. The complete text of the
14020:
13630:History Of Zionism: A Handbook And Dictionary
12922:
12757:, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 2, p. 282.
12661:
12659:
11878:. Abingdon; New York: [Routledge. p. 9.
10003:actually went there; most settled throughout
9879:Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party
9117:, including some members of the left-leaning
8801:and hunger all resulted in countless deaths.
8188:Graves of Jewish–Polish soldiers who died in
7955:) of Jewish medical student Marek Szapiro at
7604:(a favorite poet of Polish children). Singer
5571:and throughout the world. In 1884, 36 Jewish
5542:Caricature of Russian Army assailant in 1906
4524:The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795
3659:was home to the largest and most significant
3632:
1285:
18535:
18332:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
17597:
17548:
17546:
17436:
17434:
17432:
17368:Bazyler, Michael; Gostynski, Szymon (2018).
17060:
17058:
16996:
16565:
16114:"The Polish Underground State and Home Army"
16022:
15578:
14987:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin
14816:
14127:
14125:
13867:
13747:
13400:
12278:
12011:
11969:, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 1, p. 42.
11923:, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 1, p. 44.
11534:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p.
11231:
11229:
11227:
11225:
11223:
10588:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee
9813:on a common ticket with the (non-communist)
9630:
9438:
9138:International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg
9075:to take charge of the Jewish Council called
8372:
8173:
7904:and Zionist leaders of Et Liwnot, including
7745:(1900–1959), a Polish–Jewish legal scholar.
7413:
6063:to sign the Minority Protection Treaty (the
5847:German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews
4795:can be broken down into three Hebrew words:
4696:, became the scene of even more atrocities.
3807:, providing them with weapons and training.
3779:). When Poland regained independence in the
40:
19400:
18483:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Russia".
18479:
18101:
17941:
17704:
17565:
17459:
17445:. GeoJournal Library. Dordrecht: Springer.
17363:
17361:
17359:
17357:
17337:
17288:
17286:
17284:
17282:
17280:
17278:
17234:
17232:
17184:
17088:[Pogrom kielecki – oczami świadka]
16741:
16712:
16710:
16708:
15908:, Hippocrene Books, 2nd revised ed., 2001,
15839:. University of North Carolina Press. 1993.
15784:
15741:Summary of IPN's final findings on Jedwabne
15643:
15508:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.
14865:
14027:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 352.
13676:
13367:
13365:
13179:
12785:
12773:YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
12619:
12590:, Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, page 16.
12528:
12504:"Timeline: Jewish life in Poland from 1098"
12193:YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
12007:
12005:
11670:
11642:. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
11561:
11559:
11431:
11147:by S. Groenveld, Michael J. Wintle; and in
9931:among others. Yet another Jewish official,
9761:, under the umbrella of a semi-clandestine
8247:Territories annexed by the USSR (1939–1941)
5649:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
5440:
5315:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
5063:
4520:(רמ״א) is the Hebrew acronym for his name.
4482:achieved fame from the early 16th century.
3891:History of European Jews in the Middle Ages
3759:in 1795 and the destruction of Poland as a
1876:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire
20641:
20627:
19999:
19985:
19393:
19379:
18987:
18973:
18914:Non-Jewish Polish Victims of the Holocaust
18811:Jewish Revolts against the Nazis in Poland
18530:Bibliography of Poland during World War II
17672:
17670:
17171:
17074:. Fathom.com. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
16929:
16923:
16650:]. Otwarte (publishing). p. 956.
16589:
16559:
16509:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
16329:
16312:Dia-Pozytyw: People, Biographical Profiles
16068:
16066:
16064:
15968:History of the Holocaust – An Introduction
15721:
15692:. Princeton University Press. p. 25.
15484:
15176:
14753:
14424:The Third Reich and the Palestine Question
14315:
14286:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
14263:
13718:Włodzimierz Mędrzecki (25 November 2013).
13652:
13650:
13530:
13376:. Table 10, page 30 in current document".
12656:
12613:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews
12458:. Politechnika Krakowska. pp. 143–145
11279:
11188:
11186:
11177:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews
10919:History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland
10914:History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland
10909:History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland
10397:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews
9584:Soviet-backed communist takeover of Poland
9411:. The guerrillas were armed with only one
8684:
5888:History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland
5789:, a religious party, came into existence.
5191:History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland
4763:. Four years later, in 1772, the military
4534:History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland
4025:The first extensive Jewish migration from
3908:History of Poland during the Piast dynasty
3901:
3667:, because of the long period of statutory
3639:
3625:
1292:
1278:
62:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews
18935:Chronology of German Anti-Jewish Measures
18876:, Central Europe Review, 28 January 2000.
18824:
17543:
17429:
17150:
17148:
17055:
16892:
16816:
16626:Some of the information published by the
16528:
16168:
15706:
15664:
15621:"Photo of Armband from the Warsaw Ghetto"
15613:
15068:
14956:
14883:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
14728:. Zchor.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
14554:, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 57.
14498:, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 53.
14469:, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 79.
14122:
13488:
13200:
12741:, Oxford University Press (2000), p. 162.
12427:Szwedzi w Krakowie (The Swedes in Kraków)
12398:
11972:
11698:
11696:
11584:
11521:
11220:
11106:
10297:, at the groundbreaking ceremony for the
9963:The March 1968 events and their aftermath
9562:Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946
9327:, the destruction of the Jews of Europe,
5855:former Polish provinces annexed by Russia
5756:socialist party as well as the religious
5669:Learn how and when to remove this message
5335:Learn how and when to remove this message
4617:Privilegium de non tolerandis Christianis
17955:pl:Szkoła rabinacka Beit Meir w Krakowie
17733:
17686:Library and Archives Recent Acquisitions
17562:. Jcpa.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
17405:
17354:
17329:Jan Grabowski; Dariusz Libionka (2014).
17275:
17229:
17077:
16705:
16532:Political Migrations in Poland 1939-1948
16467:
16430:The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Warsaw
16144:
15822:. Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005):711–746.
15538:
15495:
14779:
14777:
14237:
14200:; Herbert Matis; Jaroslav Pátek (2000).
13900:
13775:The Road to Power: Herut Party in Israel
13720:"Żydzi w historii Polski XIX i XX wieku"
13626:
13557:
13503:
13362:
13077:
13039:. Oxford University Press. p. 193.
12969:, St. Martin's Press, 1972, Page 47-48.
12956:
12935:. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 65–74.
12839:Transaction Publishers, 1997, p. 233 ff.
12779:
12766:
12755:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland
12665:
12628:
12434:monthly, 8 June 2007, Internet Archive.
12419:
12275:(1906) by Herman Rosenthal, S. M. Dubnow
12153:
12069:
12067:
12002:
11990:
11980:"Official portal of the city of Opoczno"
11967:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland
11956:
11921:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland
11910:
11873:
11837:The Cambridge Economic History of Europe
11709:. Temple University Press. p. 336.
11556:
11527:
11501:
11499:
11236:The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Poland
11156:
10347:
10285:
10193:
10105:
10094:
10083:
10029:partial diplomatic relations with Israel
9959:. Wolińska-Brus died in London in 2008.
9510:
9306:
9219:
9188:
9127:
9037:
9023:
8931:
8888:
8829:
8809:
8806:Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland
8732:
8581:
8559:
8482:
8381:
8312:
8277:Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union
8183:
8062:
7946:
7841:
7769:, which staged the first performance of
7677:
7544:
7485:
7427:
5978:
5970:
5914:
5896:
5875:
5732:
5537:
5346:
5243:for support. Their living conditions in
5202:
5138:
5067:
4970:
4846:
4712:. Many Jews along with the townsfolk of
4667:
4541:
4406:Poland became more tolerant just as the
4390:
4351:cities, inspired by a Franciscan friar,
4327:
4148:
4093:The first mention of Jewish settlers in
4016:
3911:
20593:Polish population transfers (1944–1946)
18351:. Washington, D.C.: Dale Street Books.
18327:
18027:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 359–.
17769:
17667:
17651:
17649:
17647:
17645:
17571:
17498:
17238:
17017:
16735:
16524:
16522:
16520:
16494:
16472:. culture.polishsite.us. Archived from
16385:
16324:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014
16061:
15941:
15777:Yisrael Gutman & Shmuel Krakowski,
15715:Poles and the Jews: How Deep the Guilt?
15679:
15638:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014
15608:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014
15544:
15533:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014
15501:
15342:
15045:Lost Jewish Worlds – Grodno, Yad Vashem
15040:
15038:
15036:
15034:
14875:Holocaust Encyclopedia (20 June 2014).
14584:
14172:
13728:Ministry of National Education (Poland)
13647:
13627:Edelheit, Hershel (19 September 2019).
13537:. London: I.B. Tauris. pp. 97–99.
12571:
12491:
12479:
12402:Hetmani Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów
12256:
12244:
11298:
11241:
11183:
10279:as well as other publications from the
9771:was also responsible for the organized
9679:estimates that it was extremely small.
9556:Anti-Jewish violence and discrimination
9523:Following World War II Poland became a
9507:The Jewish community in post-war Poland
7896:In 1925, Polish Zionist members of the
5604:
4966:
4339:In 1454 anti-Jewish riots flared up in
14:
20822:
18607:
18324:, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun. 1996), 351–381.
18221:
18173:"THE HISTORY FROM THE JEWS POPULATION"
18140:
18138:
17145:
16997:Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007).
16990:
16861:
16859:
16857:
16826:. Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences.
16685:Piotr Eberhardt; Jan Owsinski (2003).
16150:Donald L. Niewyk, Francis R. Nicosia,
15898:
15655:"Why the Poles Collaborated So Little"
15136:
15109:
15107:
15010:
14983:
14900:
14898:
14580:
14578:
14576:
14368:
14311:
14309:
14294:
14224:
14014:
13967:
13940:
13873:
13531:Haynes, Rebecca; Rady, Martyn (2011).
13449:, Northwestern University Press, 1988
13210:RP. Internetowy System Aktow Prawnych.
13110:
13087:RP. Internetowy System Aktow Prawnych.
12859:Żydzi Bojownicy o Niepodleglość Polski
12440:
12186:
12097:
12073:Bernard Dov Weinryb "Jews of Poland",
11758:"THE HISTORY FROM THE JEWS POPULATION"
11693:
11650:
11648:
11630:
11628:
11610:
11608:
11606:
11311:, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun. 1996), 351–381.
11204:
11202:
11053:
11018:
11016:
8319:Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
7857:Besides the persistent effects of the
4672:A Polish Jew in an engraving from 1703
4029:to Poland occurred at the time of the
20622:
19980:
19374:
18968:
18848:Virtual Jewish History Tour of Poland
18639:The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews
18575:
18526:Bibliography of the history of Poland
18396:Jews in Poland. A Documentary History
17984:"Poland reaches out to expelled Jews"
17971:"Poland reaches out to expelled Jews"
17710:
17531:from the original on 10 December 2022
17470:
17199:
16974:
16865:
16678:
16624:– via direct download 13.6 MB.
16200:"Referenced Material - Isurvived.org"
16004:. Columbia University Press. p.
14774:
14671:. Wayne State University Press, 1993.
14519:who protested against the heightened
14359:. Wayne State University Press, 1993.
14316:Wierzejska, Jagoda (1 January 2018).
13931:, Hippocrene Books (1993), pp. 27–28.
13929:Jews in Poland: A Documentary History
13880:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 41–43.
13445:Aleksander Hertz, Lucjan Dobroszycki
13146:
13053:
12875:Marek Gałęzowski (10 November 2012).
12855:Żydzi w Legionach Józefa Piłsudskiego
12849:
12847:
12845:
12582:
12580:
12405:. Wydawn. Bellona. pp. 206–213.
12213:
12064:
11829:
11496:
11340:who protested against the heightened
10934:Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
9945:Ministry of Public Security of Poland
9336:The Białystok Ghetto and its uprising
8903:Jews and non-Jewish Poles hiding them
8342:'s report written in 1940, historian
7806:, scored the first ever goal for the
6057:Kiev operation against the Bolsheviks
5775:which supported assimilation and the
5709:("rabbis's law") following primarily
5355:, showing Jewish population densities
5276:
4655:emigration, deaths from diseases and
4613:Privilegium de non tolerandis Judaeis
4492:of the 16th century, established his
4387:Center of the Jewish world: 1505–1572
3885:Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572
3722:in 1025 until the early years of the
789:Union of Jewish Religious Communities
18831:Museum of the History of Polish Jews
18452:, Cambridge University Press, 2006,
17772:East European Politics and Societies
17657:"Poland Virtual Jewish History Tour"
17642:
17043:from the original on 21 January 2008
16517:
16449:from the original on 21 January 2008
16105:
15919:
15801:. Cornell University Press, p. 277.
15781:, New York: Holocaust Library, 1986.
15056:
15031:
14957:Moorhouse, Roger (14 October 2014).
14924:
14822:
14146:, page 59 (select, drop-down menu).
14090:The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust
13468:National identity and foreign policy
13173:
13140:
13118:. In Strauss, Herbert Arthur (ed.).
12837:Germany, Turkey, Zionism, 1897–1918.
12187:Reiner, Elchanan (11 October 2010).
12162:. Genealogical Publishing. pp.
11681:
11493:Polish Center for Holocaust Research
11477:
11253:
11074:"Jews, by Country of Origin and Age"
10407:Numbers of Jews in Poland since 1920
10390:Museum of the History of Polish Jews
10299:Museum of the History of Polish Jews
10189:Museum of the History of Polish Jews
10058:Jewish Polish history (1989–present)
9947:and commandant of the Stalinist era
9031:in Warsaw built in 1948 by sculptor
6025:, which occurred in 1918 during the
5725:movement later in the 19th century.
5647:adding citations to reliable sources
5614:
5518:, they were still restricted to the
5407:) was the term given to a region of
5313:adding citations to reliable sources
5280:
5088:in 1764. His election was bought by
5080:In 1742 most of Silesia was lost to
4728:fell victim to recurring epidemics.
4267:, broad privileges were extended to
4057:minted during that period even bear
4010:, the principal activity of Jews in
3713:Museum of the History of Polish Jews
86:Regions with significant populations
18723:, Stanford University Press, 2012.
18376:, Princeton University Press, 2003
18135:
18075:The Jerusalem Post | Jpost.com
17805:Louise Steinman (5 November 2013).
17511:
17426:, Harvard University Press, page 52
17414:, Oxford University Press, page 325
16854:
16810:
16366:"The Stroop report", Pantheon 1986
16154:, Columbia University Press, 2000,
16152:The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust
16000:The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust
15863:Zycie za Zycie (A Life For A Life).
15861:Institute of National Remembrance,
15554:. New York: HarperCollins. p.
15505:History of the Jews in Modern Times
15122:. McFarland, 1998. pp. 52–53.
15104:
15063:World War II Timeline – Poland 1940
14895:
14573:
14393:In January 1937, "Foreign Minister
14338:Wayne State University Press, 1993.
14306:
14132:Central Statistical Office (Poland)
13741:
13711:
13371:
13352:"Jewish Krakow: The Jews of Krakow"
13104:
13010:University of Nebraska Press, 2006.
12702:Ĭokhanan Petrovskiĭ-Shtern (2009).
12456:Architektura, Czasopismo techniczne
11645:
11625:
11603:
11276:(Cambridge University Press, 2006).
11210:"European Jewish Congress - Poland"
11199:
11131:
11107:Friedberg, Edna (6 February 2018).
11084:. 26 September 2011. Archived from
11082:Israel Central Bureau of Statistics
11047:
11013:
10291:President of the Republic of Poland
10014:There were several outcomes of the
9885:, head of state security apparatus
9809:The Bund took part in the post-war
9525:satellite state of the Soviet Union
9405:Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa
8624:'s Final Findings) and 1,600 Jews (
8087:, combined with the effects of the
5398:
5384:
24:
20835:History of ethnic groups in Poland
18572:NY: Oxford University Press, 2006.
18519:
18424:, Harvard University Press, 1990,
18284:, East European Monographs, 2003,
17935:Homepage. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
17926:Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków.
16073:Encyclopedia – entry "Hidden Jews"
15207:McFarland & Company. pp.
14984:Snyder, Timothy (2 October 2012).
14591:Journal of Modern European History
14112:Walter de Gruyter, pp. 1081–1083.
13974:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 228.
13968:Marcus, Joseph (18 October 2011).
13941:Marcus, Joseph (18 October 2011).
13874:Marcus, Joseph (18 October 2011).
13491:Poland between the Wars: 1918—1939
13471:, Cambridge University Press 1998
13316:"Lodz, Poland Jewish History Tour"
13214:PDF scan of the March Constitution
13189:. pp. 257–304. Archived from
12868:
12842:
12577:
11876:Routledge History of the Holocaust
11415:. 22 November 2015. Archived from
11212:. 11 December 2008. Archived from
9715:Emigration to Palestine and Israel
9640:
9397:Anti-Fascist Military Organisation
9282:or had been discovered in hiding (
9008:The Warsaw Ghetto and its uprising
8651:Polish Righteous among the Nations
8410:. Some of them, especially Polish
8275:, while 38.8% were trapped in the
5199:Antisemitism in the Russian Empire
5086:Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski
4905:, particularly from the school of
4842:
4676:Ruled by the elected kings of the
4237:The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505
3979:, at that time the capital of the
3695:between 1939 and 1945, called the
1183:Anti-Fascist Military Organisation
25:
20846:
20045:Polish occupation zone in Germany
18953:Poland's Jews:A light flickers on
18863:Historical Sites of Jewish Warsaw
18766:
18047:
17880:United States Department of State
17690:Leland Stanford Junior University
17630:Hagana's training camp in Bolkow.
17098:Institute of National Remembrance
15932:Princeton University Press, 2003.
15356:Institute of National Remembrance
14932:"Polish nation's WWII death toll"
14904:
14787:, Rutgers University Press, 2003
14538:Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs
14448:and other international forums."
14244:Gedeon Kubiszyn; Marta Kubiszyn.
13947:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 24.
13730:. pp. 3, 5–6. Archived from
13151:. In Zimmerman, Joshua D. (ed.).
12635:. Devora Publishing. p. 11.
12447:Mgr inz. arch. Krzysztof Petrus.
11996:American Jewish Committee, 1957,
11747:. Cornell University Press, 2005.
11640:The World Reacts to the Holocaust
11379:' military arm, for the fight in
11359:Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs
11173:"Paradisus Iudaeorum (1569–1648)"
10924:Timeline of Jewish-Polish history
10577:However, most sources other than
10413:Historical demographics of Poland
10319:Chevra Lomdei Mishnayot synagogue
10307:United States Department of State
10281:Institute of National Remembrance
10270:Zagłada Żydów. Studia i Materiały
10044:) was one of the founders of the
8689:The German Nazis established six
8622:Institute of National Remembrance
7923:(1926–1935). Piłsudski countered
7867:German-Polish non-aggression pact
7512:The Polish language, rather than
5458:; it covered much of present-day
5207:Jewish merchants in 19th-century
4261:united with the kingdom of Poland
1667:Historical population comparisons
1195:Resistance movements in Auschwitz
779:Jewish Community Centre of Kraków
18536:Chodakiewicz, Marek Jan (2003).
18489:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
18469:
18417:, Oxford University Press, 2001.
18241:
18215:
18165:
18117:
18063:
18041:
18002:
17976:
17964:
17919:
17894:
17842:
17831:
17763:
17746:
17734:Kamiński, Łukasz (9 June 2002).
17727:
17711:Hodge, Nick (31 December 2008).
17623:
17611:from the original on 30 May 2008
17417:
17349:Holocaust: Studies and Materials
17160:
17029:
16785:
16575:. Berghahn Books. pp. 74–.
16488:
16435:
16402:
16376:
16360:
16305:
16288:
16272:
16260:
16238:
16222:
16210:
16192:
16128:
16043:
15985:
15973:
15961:
15935:
15868:
15855:
15842:
15825:
15812:
15771:
15753:
15734:
15460:
15442:
15416:
15398:
15380:
15368:
15326:
15313:
15300:
15287:
15274:
15253:
15225:
15163:
15004:
14977:
14950:
14847:
14798:
14747:
14731:
14712:
14700:
14661:
14645:
14635:, no. 4, October 19711035-1058.
14625:
14557:
14544:
14501:
14488:
14472:
14459:
14430:
14411:
14387:
14362:
14350:
14341:
14328:
14153:
14102:
14083:
14062:
14051:University of Pittsburgh Press.
14041:
14003:Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin.
13988:
13961:
13934:
13921:
13894:
13829:
13796:
13780:
13764:
13758:Chapter 3: Szkolnictwo żydowskie
13689:
13620:
13595:
13580:
13551:
13524:
13497:
13482:
13459:
13439:
13426:
13414:from the original on 30 May 2008
13344:
13326:
13308:
13290:
13278:
13258:
13238:
12879:(in Polish). Uważam Rze Historia
12609:"Jew, Pole, Legionary 1914-1920"
12368:Herman Rosenthal, J. G. Lipman,
11998:1367 pogrom Poznan. Google Books
11445:from the original on 30 May 2008
11332:, and in the US, with President
11056:"דרכון פולני בזכות הסבתא מוורשה"
10064:History of Poland (1989–present)
9854:founded in 1950 and directed by
9836:Centralny Komitet Żydów Polskich
9832:Central Committee of Polish Jews
8472:
8404:Soviet-occupied Polish territory
5619:
5411:in which permanent residency by
5285:
4873:, and their rabbi principals as
4684:in 1655 in what became known as
3843:Central Committee of Polish Jews
2311:Democratic Republic of the Congo
2225:Historical population by country
1262:
1251:
769:Central Committee of Polish Jews
177:
169:
51:
20600:Repatriation of Poles (1955–59)
20579:Colonization attempts by Poland
18328:Hundert, Gershon David (2004).
18271:
18144:
18132: (archived 17 October 2015)
16217:The Righteous Among the Nations
15718:, New York Times, 17 March 2001
15579:Fleischhauer, Ingeborg (1997).
15310:Indiana University Press, 2007.
15235:Rutgers University Press, 2003.
15173:Rutgers University Press, 2003.
14108:Herbert Arthur Strauss (1993).
13697:"DavidGorodok – Section IV – a"
13026:
13013:
12979:
12909:
12900:
12891:
12829:
12813:
12760:
12744:
12729:
12695:
12601:
12516:
12497:
12392:
12381:
12362:
12351:
12340:
12321:
12310:
12294:
12262:
12199:
12180:
12154:Colletta, John Phillip (2003).
12147:
12117:
12091:
12079:
12042:
11926:
11892:
11867:
11842:
11768:
11750:
11723:
11457:
11401:
11371:"Rydz Smigły agreed to support
11365:
11314:
11272:(HUC Press, 1996), and M. Teter
11194:Historical Dictionary of Poland
11165:
8842:the Sheltering of Escaping Jews
8420:forcibly deported or imprisoned
8386:Jewish–Polish soldier's grave,
8229:Polish Armed Forces in the West
5760:, and the increasingly popular
5717:, and also adapting to the new
4923:, where he was the head of the
4504:, Isserles was also learned in
4247:As a result of the marriage of
396:Zionist Socialist Workers Party
20670:Ukrainian Catholic Archdiocese
18996:History of the Jews in Europe
18896:World War II and the Holocaust
17293:Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna (2014).
17003:. Da Capo Press. p. 285.
16628:Extraordinary State Commission
15676:Oxford University Press, 2005.
15323:Oxford University Press, 1998.
14072:, KTAV Publishing House, 1993
13074:, ex. pp. 4, 7, 10, 26, 33, 84
13036:Pogroms: A Documentary History
12708:. Cambridge University Press.
12513:, Jewish Journal, 7 June 2007.
12195:. Translated by Jeffrey Green.
11575:H-Net Review: John Radzilowski
11100:
11078:Statistical Abstract of Israel
11066:
11054:סיקולר, נעמה (16 March 2007).
10993:
10984:
10944:History of the Jews in Germany
10939:History of the Jews in Austria
10602:(between 20,000 and 100,000).
9574:that immediately followed the
8979:and through the activities of
8913:" (the 'shmalts' people: from
8595:, 1942, addressed to Poland's
8461:includes headstones bearing a
8028:who split in 1923 to join the
7802:. A Polish–Jewish footballer,
5870:League of East European States
5806:Revolutionary Movement of 1905
5456:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
5247:began to dramatically worsen.
4738:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
4380:1492 example of Spanish rulers
3724:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
13:
1:
20809:Slavic Native Faith in Poland
20727:Old Catholic Mariavite Church
20697:Old Catholic Church in Poland
18944:during World War II in Poland
18800:The Spread of Hasidic Judaism
18540:. Columbia University Press.
18321:The Journal of Modern History
18222:Henoch, Vivian (2 May 2015).
17253:10.1080/1462169X.2016.1267853
17179:The American Jewish Year Book
16987:Published by McFarland, 1998.
16936:Civil War in Poland 1942–1948
16662:Polish edition, second volume
15491:Lost Jewish World, Yad Vashem
14825:"The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact"
14823:Benn, David Wedgwood (2011).
14568:Perspectives on the Holocaust
14256:. page 2 of 6. Archived from
13907:. Routledge. pp. 84–85.
13603:"Zionism and Zionist Parties"
13560:The Jews in Poland and Russia
12826:Tauris Parke, 2003 pp. 173–4.
12725:– via Books.google.com.
11618:In: Joshua D. Zimmerman, ed.
11387:located in southern Poland."
11309:The Journal of Modern History
11006:
10949:History of the Jews in Russia
10388:. On 17 June 2009 the future
10051:
9911:, some Jewish officials from
9826:Rebuilding Jewish communities
9742:country to allow free Jewish
9598:imposed by the Allies at the
9576:end of World War II in Europe
9450:Number of Holocaust survivors
9445:History of Poland (1945–1989)
9170:The Uprising was led by ŻOB (
8901:Some individuals blackmailed
8864:1) Providing shelter to Jews,
8789:also in present-day Ukraine,
7808:Poland national football team
6070:
5935:; around 650 Jews joined the
5882:History of Poland (1918–1939)
5534:Pogroms in the Russian Empire
5185:History of Poland (1795–1918)
4550:After the childless death of
4408:Jews were expelled from Spain
3939:, Jewish merchants, known as
3865:country to allow free Jewish
3859:post-war anti-Jewish violence
3653:history of the Jews in Poland
1882:Christianity and Judaism
58:Monument to the Ghetto Heroes
20742:Pentecostal Church in Poland
20732:Seventh-day Adventist Church
18554:Cichopek-Gajraj, A. (2021).
18249:"Q+A with Jonathan Ornstein"
18096:Population since World War I
17973:at www.americangathering.com
17661:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
17441:Kiril Stanilov, ed. (2007).
16774:Wrocławskie Studia Wschodnie
16691:. M.E. Sharpe. p. 229.
14754:Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1998).
13338:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
13320:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
12538:Bartłomiej Szyndler (2009).
12329:"Chmielnicki, Bogdan Zinovi"
12305:Dzielnica żydowska we Lwowie
10386:1968 Polish political crisis
10000:Polish United Workers' Party
9991:Polish 1968 political crisis
9730:soon to be the new state of
9728:British Mandate of Palestine
9409:Treblinka extermination camp
9365:Treblinka extermination camp
9086:Treblinka extermination camp
8869:2) Supplying them with Food,
8793:in present-day Belarus, and
8445:British Mandate of Palestine
8432:army, among them the future
7800:Polish First Football League
7648:, with younger artists like
7447:readily recognized as Jews.
5841:In 1914, the German Zionist
5729:Politics in Polish territory
3959:, known by his Arabic name,
3875:fall of the Communist regime
3683:there was a nearly complete
3679:in the 18th century. During
7:
20712:Evangelical-Augsburg Church
20586:Ethnic minorities in Poland
18604:, Kraków: Austeria P, 2005.
18349:German Occupation of Poland
17688:. The Board of Trustees of
16085:Tadeusz Piotrowski (1998).
15114:Tadeusz Piotrowski (1940).
14585:Friedla, Katharina (2021).
14250:The Jewish history of Radom
14144:Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–39)
13901:Stachura, Peter D. (2004).
13383:(PDF file, direct download)
12544:. Bellona. pp. 64–65.
12189:"Pollak, Ya'akov ben Yosef"
11528:Paulsson, Gunnar S (2002).
11409:"The Hidden Jews of Poland"
11144:Britain and the Netherlands
11137:Hugh Redwald Trevor-Roper,
10896:
9875:People's Republic of Poland
9860:Jewish Historical Institute
9734:, especially after General
9609:The best-known case is the
9533:formerly German territories
8996:governments in the face of
8962:Righteous Among The Nations
8874:3) Selling them Foodstuffs.
8697:by 1942. All of these – at
8455:Cemetery of Polish soldiers
8439:. During the Polish army's
8357:eastern part of the country
8273:under the German occupation
8169:History of Poland (1939–45)
8081:Felicjan Sławoj-Składkowski
7798:, winning promotion to the
6065:Little Treaty of Versailles
5512:Emancipation reform of 1861
5431:. The archaic English term
5403:
5389:
5375:
4516:was built for him in 1557.
4133:of Legnica in 1290–95, and
4071:Władysław III Spindleshanks
3917:Reception of Jews in Poland
3701:fall of communism in Poland
3693:German occupation of Poland
3181:
3162:
2889:Latin America and Caribbean
1585:
1234:Righteous Among the Nations
1190:Częstochowa Ghetto uprising
10:
20851:
20073:Central and Eastern Europe
18704:Prokop-Janiec, E. (2019).
18523:
18386:The introduction is online
18198:"Jewish Renewal in Poland"
17572:Kochavi, Arieh J. (2001).
17471:Gross, Jan Tomasz (2007).
17241:Jewish Culture and History
16246:"Onet – Jesteś na bieżąco"
15880:www.holocaustsurvivors.org
15583:. In Wegner, Bernd (ed.).
15502:Gartner, Lloyd P. (2001).
15011:Fleron, Jr (5 July 2017).
14633:American Historical Review
14485:, NYU Press, 2014, p. 133.
14208:Cambridge University Press
13633:. Routledge. p. 116.
13447:The Jews in Polish culture
12674:. Devora. pp. 12–15.
11835:Postan, Miller, Habakkuk.
11153:(Walburg Instituut, 1994).
10410:
10358:festival of Jewish culture
10262:Polish Academy of Sciences
10247:Jewish Combat Organization
10061:
10055:
10046:Workers' Defence Committee
9718:
9644:
9559:
9442:
9388:, where they were killed.
9345:
9339:
9172:Jewish Combat Organization
9017:
9011:
8973:Polish Government in Exile
8803:
8587:Polish Government-in-Exile
8564:Starving Jewish children,
8476:
8241:Jewish partisan formations
8177:
8166:
7985:With the influence of the
7534:General Jewish Labour Bund
7417:
5885:
5879:
5745:By the late 19th century,
5681:The Jewish Enlightenment,
5608:
5528:assassination of Alexander
5269:
5223:of Russia, instituted the
5188:
5182:
5116:Komisja Edukacji Narodowej
4981:
4578:
4527:
4240:
3905:
3894:
3888:
3765:antisemitic Russian Empire
3494:Jewish political movements
3191:Conversion to Judaism
1212:Jewish Combat Organization
1143:Operation Harvest Festival
20791:
20765:
20722:Catholic Mariavite Church
20665:Catholic Church in Poland
20657:
20570:
20545:
20435:
20399:
20321:
20269:
20223:
20167:
20065:
20058:
20050:Poles in the Soviet Union
20018:
19844:
19818:
19746:
19665:
19647:
19619:
19596:
19546:
19528:
19485:
19452:
19417:
19408:
19320:
19282:
19002:
18843:The Polish Jews Home Page
18805:15 September 2009 at the
18794:15 September 2009 at the
18507:by neighbouring empires.
18505:the century of Partitions
18302:, Lexington Books, 2004,
17988:Jewish Telegraphic Agency
17961:. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
17953:31 August 2009. See also
17181:, vol. 49, 1947, p. 390).
17129:Wokół pogromu kieleckiego
16817:Eberhardt, Piotr (2011).
16717:Grzegorz Berendt (2006).
16529:Eberhardt, Piotr (2006).
16267:The Polish Jews Home Page
16091:. McFarland. p. 66.
15027:– via Google Books.
15000:– via Google Books.
14973:– via Google Books.
14881:German Invasion of Poland
14656:Journal of Modern History
14603:10.1177/16118944211017748
14541:, 8:1, 2014, pp. 103-114.
14230:Pinkas Hakehillot Polin,
13839:, Palgrave (2000), p. 60.
13699:. Davidhorodok.tripod.com
13663:, Yale University Press,
13558:Polonsky, Antony (2012).
13356:kehilalinks.jewishgen.org
11762:kehilalinks.jewishgen.org
11566:Unveiling the Secret City
11362:, 8:1, 2014, pp. 103-114.
11080:(in English and Hebrew).
10466:
10428:
10339:Holocaust Remembrance Day
9767:("Flight") organization.
9647:Nationalization in Poland
9594:, and returned after the
9580:anti-communist resistance
9439:Communist rule: 1945–1989
9415:, several dozen pistols,
9393:Białystok Ghetto Uprising
9348:Białystok Ghetto Uprising
9287:Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński
8174:Polish September Campaign
8079:party and Prime Minister
8030:Communist Party of Poland
7566:Nobel Prize in Literature
7554:Nobel Prize in Literature
7414:Jewish and Polish culture
7394:
5556:
5370:
4984:Hasidic Judaism in Poland
4455:migrating there from the
4410:in 1492, as well as from
3718:From the founding of the
1897:Hinduism and Judaism
1178:Białystok Ghetto uprising
139:
134:
115:
110:
100:
90:
85:
77:
72:
50:
35:
20034:Polish-Lithuanian people
18202:Jewish Renewal in Poland
18112:World Jewish Population.
17854:www.quest-cdecjournal.it
17813:. Beacon Press. p.
17784:10.1177/0888325404270673
17635:27 February 2021 at the
17345:Zagłada Żydów w Zamościu
17124:Around the Kielce pogrom
17094:Niezalezna Gazeta Polska
16959:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz,
16939:. Springer. p. 11.
16399:Jürgen Stroop, May 1943.
16341:David Wdowiński (1963).
16281:Film and Photo Archive,
16137:Film and Photo Archive,
15280:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz.
14667:Celia Stopnicka Heller.
14369:Melzer, Emanuel (1997).
14334:Celia Stopnicka Heller.
14047:Zvi Y. Gitelman (2002),
13927:Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski,
13806:, was modeled after the
13157:Rutgers University Press
12991:Walter de Gruyter, 1993.
12985:Herbert Arthur Strauss.
12666:Domnitch, Larry (2003).
12629:Domnitch, Larry (2003).
12523:David ben Samuel Ha-Levi
12098:Singer, Isidore (1906).
11854:www.yivoencyclopedia.org
11336:. Jewish members of the
11291:20 February 2011 at the
11026:. World Jewish Congress.
10977:
10592:Jewish Agency for Israel
10119:Ronald Lauder Foundation
10088:Chief Rabbi of Poland –
9775:emigration of Jews from
9654:Polish People's Republic
9174:) and the ŻZW. The ŻZW (
9029:Ghetto fighters memorial
8923:Polish Underground State
8620:, in which between 300 (
8548:In 1939 several hundred
8434:Prime Minister of Israel
7751:Nobel Prize in Economics
7652:coming up in the ranks.
7148:Stanisławów Voivodeship
6973:Stanisławów Voivodeship
6473:Stanisławów Voivodeship
5845:founded the short-lived
5254:, known by the Jews as "
5064:The Partitions of Poland
4488:(1520–1572), an eminent
3847:Polish People’s Republic
3781:aftermath of World War I
1723:Temple in Jerusalem
1416:Bar and bat mitzvah
653:Old Synagogue (Przemyśl)
628:New Synagogue (Przemyśl)
20804:Protestantism in Poland
20717:United Methodist Church
19402:Ethnic groups in Poland
18925:8 December 2012 at the
18920:Polish Jewish Relations
18771:
18608:Levine, Hillel (1991).
18591:(Berghahn Books, 2023)
18560:Polish American Studies
18486:The Jewish Encyclopedia
17501:Third World Law Journal
17200:Stola, Dariusz (2008).
16299:27 October 2005 at the
16118:PolishResistance-AK.org
15790:Bożena Szaynok (2005),
14877:"Jewish Refugees, 1939"
14264:Piątkowski, S. (2006).
13436:Film and Photo Archive.
13244:Gershon David Hundert.
13231:19 January 2012 at the
13097:26 January 2012 at the
12767:Stanislawski, Michael.
11634:Michael C. Steinlauf. "
11585:Grabowski, Jan (2013).
10959:Jewish ethnic divisions
10954:Israel–Poland relations
10596:Jewish Community Center
10343:Israel Independence Day
10323:Auschwitz Jewish Center
10315:Prince Hassan of Jordan
10224:The Great Synagogue in
10216:Elimelech's of Lizhensk
10131:Jagiellonian University
10112:Beit Warszawa Synagogue
9967:In 1967, following the
9663:displaced-persons camps
9391:On 15 August 1943, the
9152:commander Jürgen Stroop
8685:Ghettos and death camps
8491:under German occupation
8489:the Holocaust in Poland
8479:The Holocaust in Poland
8459:Battle of Monte Cassino
8355:by many Poles from the
8292:Gulag slave labor camps
8288:NKVD prisoner massacres
8257:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
8231:, in the Soviet-formed
8190:1939 September Campaign
6998:Pomeranian Voivodeship
6598:Pomeranian Voivodeship
6573:Pomeranian Voivodeship
5794:Kościuszko Insurrection
5526:was shattered with the
5478:, and parts of western
4955:; and such scholars as
4554:, the last king of the
4376:Grand Duke of Lithuania
4125:of Wrocław in 1273–90,
3971:in Muslim Spain to the
3902:Early history: 966–1385
3871:"anti-Zionist" campaign
3820:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
3705:Jewish Culture Festival
1685:Twelve Tribes of Israel
1229:Rescue of Jews by Poles
814:Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva
20707:Polish Reformed Church
20702:Polish Orthodox Church
20231:Bosnia and Herzegovina
19045:Bosnia and Herzegovina
18908:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
18825:History of Polish Jews
18392:Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski
18296:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz
18278:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz
16468:Urban-Klaehn, Jagoda.
15284:Lexington Books, 2004.
14724:5 October 2007 at the
14693:25 August 2007 at the
14021:Joan Campbell (1992).
13091:PDF scan of the Treaty
12853:Zygmunt Zygmuntowicz,
12586:Olaf Bergmann (2015),
11489:7 October 2007 at the
11389:Archibald L. Patterson
10965:Jewish Roots in Poland
10353:
10327:
10302:
10238:Warsaw Ghetto Memorial
10202:
10114:
10103:
10092:
9815:Polish Socialist Party
9631:
9520:
9429:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
9421:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
9404:
9316:
9313:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
9235:
9198:
9197:Street, Warsaw, Poland
9168:
9141:
9123:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
9052:
9035:
9020:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
8940:
8894:
8878:
8823:
8738:
8599:
8568:
8492:
8391:
8373:
8369:Polish Second Republic
8330:
8264:witnessed a pogrom in
8196:
8072:
7960:
7885:. The position of the
7854:
7690:
7557:
7497:
7440:Second Polish Republic
7438:The newly independent
7435:
7433:Warsaw Great Synagogue
7373:Białystok Voivodeship
6673:Białystok Voivodeship
6423:Białystok Voivodeship
5984:
5976:
5966:Committee for the East
5928:
5925:Warsaw Great Synagogue
5912:
5813:Second Polish Republic
5742:
5546:
5441:
5356:
5211:
5147:
5077:
4979:
4863:
4702:Siege of Kraków (1657)
4673:
4625:royal towns and cities
4547:
4512:of Polish Jewry." The
4403:
4336:
4164:
4135:Bolko III the Generous
4105:among such rulers was
4022:
3924:
3824:German-occupied Poland
3746:Protestant Reformation
3675:which ended after the
1207:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
1200:Auschwitz Combat Group
648:Old Synagogue (Kraków)
623:New Synagogue (Ostrów)
568:Great Synagogue (Łódź)
41:
20830:Jewish Polish history
19419:Greater Poland people
18635:Nikžentaitis, Alvydas
18177:JewishGen KehilaLinks
17100:: 1–8. Archived from
16847:USHMM: The Survivors.
16743:Trela-Mazur, Elżbieta
16538:. Warsaw: Didactica.
15852:Warszawa. 1996, s. 10
15551:A History of the Jews
15358:(11/2005), p. 37-42,
15231:Joshua D. Zimmerman.
15169:Joshua D. Zimmerman.
14641:10.1086/ahr/76.4.1035
14252:(in Polish). Poland:
14165:23 March 2012 at the
14160:Wydarzenia 1931 roku.
14140:Polish census of 1931
14024:European Labor Unions
13748:Anna Jaskóła (2010).
13147:Engel, David (2003).
13019:Andrzej Kapiszewski,
12824:A History of Zionism.
12269:Council of Four Lands
11472:KTAV Publishing House
11334:Franklin D. Roosevelt
11150:The exchange of ideas
10971:List of Polish rabbis
10351:
10311:
10289:
10208:Jewish Cemetery, Łódź
10197:
10109:
10098:
10087:
10062:Further information:
9852:Yiddish State Theater
9514:
9346:Further information:
9310:
9223:
9192:
9176:Jewish Military Union
9143:
9131:
9041:
9027:
9018:Further information:
8947:formally imposed the
8935:
8892:
8833:
8813:
8804:Further information:
8736:
8646:Władysław Raczkiewicz
8585:
8563:
8486:
8385:
8316:
8237:Polish partisan units
8187:
8066:
7950:
7845:
7749:was awarded the 2007
7689:between 2007 and 2014
7681:
7562:Isaac Bashevis Singer
7550:Isaac Bashevis Singer
7548:
7489:
7431:
6923:Tarnopol Voivodeship
6398:Silesian Voivodeship
6273:Silesian Voivodeship
6009:Henry Morgenthau, Sr.
5982:
5974:
5949:, the nucleus of the
5918:
5900:
5886:Further information:
5876:Interbellum (1918–39)
5798:November Insurrection
5736:
5541:
5350:
5232:Alexander I of Russia
5206:
5142:
5072:Jewish dress in 17th
5071:
4974:
4915:("sharp reasoning").
4850:
4671:
4573:Council of Four Lands
4552:Sigismund II Augustus
4545:
4435:Sigismund II Augustus
4396:Sigismund II Augustus
4394:
4343:'s ethnically-German
4331:
4249:Władysław II Jagiełło
4221:. In 1348, the first
4169:Casimir III the Great
4152:
4102:Roman Catholic Church
4020:
3915:
3895:Further information:
3775:(later a part of the
2431:São Tomé and Príncipe
2426:Republic of the Congo
1820:Second Temple Judaism
1691:Kingdom of Judah
1662:Modern historiography
1217:Jewish Military Union
1054:and mass murder sites
774:Council of Four Lands
20799:Irreligion in Poland
20766:Not state-recognised
20687:Native Polish Church
20532:United Arab Emirates
19454:Lesser Poland people
18598:Krajewski, Stanisław
18011:at www.sztetl.org.pl
17931:22 July 2009 at the
17700:on 30 November 2010.
17605:"îéãò ðåñó òì äôøéè"
17558:3 March 2016 at the
17208:. pp. 240–255.
17157:, Palgrave, page 101
17070:7 March 2009 at the
17037:"מידע נוסף על הפריט"
16985:, page 130, (ibidem)
16980:Tadeusz Piotrowski,
16931:Prazmowska, Anita J.
16499:(in Polish). Warsaw.
16443:"מידע נוסף על הפריט"
16343:And we are not saved
16112:Marek Ney-Krwawicz.
16032:, Hippocrene, 1998.
15746:3 March 2016 at the
15183:The Death of Chaimke
15086:23 June 2008 at the
14911:yivoencyclopedia.org
14812:on 18 December 2011.
14783:Joshua D. Zimmerman
14426:, 1985, pp. 261-262.
14210:. pp. 342–344.
13408:"מידע נוסף על הפריט"
13219:5 March 2016 at the
12792:. UPNE. p. 16.
12370:"CZARNIECKI, STEFAN"
12060:on 28 February 2008.
11934:"The Jews of Poland"
11571:12 June 2007 at the
11439:"מידע נוסף על הפריט"
11216:on 11 December 2008.
10401:Warsaw Ghetto Museum
9953:Helena Wolińska-Brus
9913:Urząd Bezpieczeństwa
9888:Urząd Bezpieczeństwa
9753:activists including
9195:Mordechaj Anielewicz
9184:Mordechai Anielewicz
9106:Jewish Ghetto Police
9102:the mass deportation
9081:Jewish Ghetto Police
8822:on the "Aryan side")
8820:Marszałkowska Street
8816:Świętokrzyska Street
8604:Operation Barbarossa
8457:who died during the
8233:Polish People's Army
8034:Second International
7914:Revisionist Zionists
7777:University of Warsaw
7570:Israel Joshua Singer
7452:1931 National Census
7098:Polesie Voivodeship
6698:Polesie Voivodeship
6027:Polish–Ukrainian War
6021:treasonable. In the
5993:Polish–Ukrainian War
5802:January Insurrection
5764:. Jews also took up
5643:improve this section
5605:Haskalah and Halakha
5592:. They included the
5435:is derived from the
5309:improve this section
5250:During the reign of
5094:Confederation of Bar
4967:The rise of Hasidism
4891:Talmudic scholarship
4765:Partitions of Poland
4640:Khmelnytsky Uprising
4585:Warsaw Confederation
4538:Warsaw Confederation
4383:"kings and rulers".
4360:Casimir IV Jagiellon
4333:Casimir IV Jagiellon
4127:Henryk III of Głogów
4047:commercial interests
4041:territory as far as
3757:Partitions of Poland
3677:Partitions of Poland
3533:World Agudath Israel
2674:United Arab Emirates
1761:Second Temple period
1751:Babylonian captivity
794:Vaad Rosh Hashochtim
20773:Jehovah's Witnesses
20651:religions of Poland
20607:Polish Diaspora Day
19283:States with limited
18940:2 July 2010 at the
18872:Joanna Rohozinska,
18816:9 December 2012 at
18783:9 December 2012 at
18499:originate from the
18495:paragraphs lacking
18462:Laurence Weinbaum,
18438:, HUC Press, 1996,
18282:After the Holocaust
18224:"The JCC of Krakow"
17757:2 June 2009 at the
17351:vol. 1 (2008), 188.
17039:. 21 January 2008.
16866:Gross, Jan (2007).
16445:. 21 January 2008.
16178:, Routledge, 1990,
15906:Forgotten Holocaust
15886:on 29 December 2022
15727:Czesław Madajczyk,
15627:on 21 January 2008.
15454:avalon.law.yale.edu
15410:30 May 2008 at the
15349:Krzysztof Szwagrzyk
15259:Tadeusz Piotrowski
13682:Feigue Cieplinski,
13003:Joanna B. Michlic.
12877:"Żydzi w Legionach"
12615:. 25 November 2014.
12509:29 May 2016 at the
12375:Jewish Encyclopedia
12334:Jewish Encyclopedia
12273:Jewish Encyclopedia
12134:Jewish Encyclopedia
12104:Jewish Encyclopedia
12088:- YIVO Encyclopedia
11986:on 5 December 2008.
11739:7 June 2020 at the
11682:Aleksiun, Natalia.
11088:on 13 November 2011
10770:Kuyavian-Pomeranian
10620:Percentage of Jews
10607:
10584:Moses Schorr Centre
10425:
10377:Moses Schorr Centre
10331:March of the Living
10200:March of the Living
9848:Polish Armed Forces
9795:was established in
9473:resistance movement
9249:resistance movement
9224:Freed prisoners of
8691:extermination camps
8657:Holocaust survivors
8504:extermination camps
8221:Holocaust in Poland
8116:Revisionist Zionism
7871:National Democratic
7816:Maccabi World Union
7810:. Another athlete,
7759:Main Judaic Library
7687:President of Israel
7672:Children Must Laugh
7626:Zygmunt Białostocki
7348:Warsaw Voivodeship
7323:Kielce Voivodeship
7223:Lublin Voivodeship
7198:Poznań Voivodeship
7173:Kraków Voivodeship
7123:Poznań Voivodeship
7048:Kielce Voivodeship
7023:Warsaw Voivodeship
6898:Lublin Voivodeship
6873:Kielce Voivodeship
6773:Kraków Voivodeship
6723:Kielce Voivodeship
6523:Warsaw Voivodeship
6498:Kielce Voivodeship
6448:Kielce Voivodeship
6373:Kielce Voivodeship
6348:Lublin Voivodeship
6323:Kielce Voivodeship
6298:Poznań Voivodeship
6223:Kraków Voivodeship
6198:Poznań Voivodeship
6123:Warsaw Voivodeship
6115:Percentage of Jews
6093:
6011:, concluded in its
5908:, c. 1910s, during
5741:demonstration, 1917
5160:Kościuszko Uprising
5158:, took part in the
5152:partition of Poland
5107:annexations of 1772
5090:Catherine the Great
5040:including those of
4825:Sigismund I the Old
4815:into two words of:
4698:Charles X of Sweden
4431:Sigismund I the Old
4372:Alexander Jagiellon
4364:Statute of Nieszawa
4067:Bolesław I the Tall
3753:Counter-Reformation
3732:paradisus iudaeorum
3669:religious tolerance
1826:Hellenistic Judaism
1404:Land of Israel
1363:Principles of faith
968:Concentration camps
187:Historical Timeline
161:History of Jews and
47:
19437:Kuyavian Borowiaks
18961:, 20 December 2005
18688:Polonsky, Antony.
18672:Polonsky, Antony.
18593:online book review
18581:Yad Vashem Studies
18110:Berman Institute,
17990:. 28 February 2008
17680:(11 August 2008).
17678:Hoover Institution
16983:Poland's Holocaust
16771:Trela-Mazur 1997,
16616:on 14 October 2017
16418:Polesie Voivodship
15994:Francis R. Nicosia
15992:Donald L. Niewyk;
15850:Diaries 1939 -1945
15430:on 8 December 2012
15319:Jonathan Frankel.
15306:Samuel D. Kassow.
15263:, McFarland, 1998
15199:Tadeusz Piotrowski
15120:Poland's Holocaust
15077:Marek Wierzbicki,
14835:on 8 December 2015
14706:Shmuel Krakowski,
14420:Francis R. Nicosia
14260:on 22 August 2010.
13995:Herbert A. Strauss
13374:1931 Polish census
13304:on 6 October 2008.
13196:on 6 October 2007.
13159:. pp. 33–34.
12857:excerpt from book
12425:Dariusz Milewski,
12327:Herman Rosenthal,
12130:"Katzenellenbogen"
11906:. 5 December 2013.
11614:Natalia Aleksiun.
10617:Jewish population
10605:
10417:
10354:
10303:
10203:
10184:Judaica Foundation
10115:
10104:
10093:
9707:, director of the
9521:
9386:Auschwitz-Birkenau
9317:
9302:Władysław Szpilman
9236:
9215:Polish underground
9199:
9142:
9132:The cover page of
9090:Grossaktion Warsaw
9053:
9036:
8941:
8895:
8879:
8849:General Government
8824:
8787:Stanisławów Ghetto
8759:Częstochowa Ghetto
8739:
8723:forced labor camps
8669:Gunnar S. Paulsson
8665:Emanuel Ringelblum
8600:
8569:
8493:
8392:
8348:Władysław Sikorski
8331:
8209:September Campaign
8197:
8180:Invasion of Poland
8093:standard of living
8077:National Democracy
8073:
7991:National Democracy
7961:
7910:Polish nationalist
7855:
7831:Polish Jews spoke
7731:Emanuel Ringelblum
7691:
7614:Jerzy Petersburski
7586:Emanuel Schlechter
7558:
7498:
7436:
7248:Wołyń Voivodeship
6948:Wołyń Voivodeship
6823:Wołyń Voivodeship
6248:Wilno Voivodeship
6091:
6077:Congress of Poland
6044:The New York Times
6023:Lwów (Lviv) pogrom
5985:
5977:
5951:interim government
5929:
5913:
5904:schoolchildren in
5817:Apolinary Hartglas
5743:
5598:Grodno Governorate
5569:partitioned Poland
5547:
5520:Pale of Settlement
5421:Kingdom of Prussia
5362:Pale of Settlement
5357:
5353:Pale of Settlement
5277:Pale of Settlement
5225:Pale of Settlement
5212:
5148:
5078:
5076:and 18th centuries
4980:
4864:
4833:David HaLevi Segal
4749:Right-bank Ukraine
4674:
4661:(captivity in the
4652:Bohdan Khmelnytsky
4548:
4459:. Arabic-speaking
4404:
4353:John of Capistrano
4337:
4274:Synod of Constance
4257:Louis I of Hungary
4165:
4129:in 1274 and 1299,
4107:Bolesław the Pious
4023:
3925:
3773:Kingdom of Prussia
3387:Jewish Koine Greek
2929:Dominican Republic
2210:Judaism by country
1889:Jews and Christmas
1744:Assyrian captivity
1063:Auschwitz-Birkenau
784:Judaica Foundation
598:Kowea Itim le-Tora
32:
20817:
20816:
20616:
20615:
20566:
20565:
20317:
20316:
20012:Polish minorities
19974:
19973:
19592:
19591:
19579:Tuchola Borowians
19530:Borderlands Poles
19510:Międzyrzec Boyars
19368:
19367:
18747:978-0-96-565080-9
18730:978-0-804763-83-7
18710:The Polish Review
18699:978-1-904113-48-5
18683:978-1-904113-83-6
18667:978-1-874774-64-8
18501:Chapter: "Russia"
18370:Joanna B. Michlic
18228:My Jewish Detroit
18034:978-1-317-50689-8
17902:"ABOUT THE MARCH"
17824:978-0-8070-5056-9
17794:– via SAGE.
17736:"Wojna zastępcza"
17527:. 24 April 2018.
17482:978-0-8129-6746-3
17452:978-1-4020-6053-3
17343:Adam Kopciowski.
17304:978-1-107-03666-6
17215:978-1-306-54603-4
17138:978-83-60464-87-8
17107:on 26 August 2016
16833:978-83-61590-46-0
16698:978-0-7656-0665-5
16609:978-0-8229-6293-9
16408:The first Jewish
16326:, pp. 10–14.
16174:Antony Polonsky,
16015:978-0-231-11200-0
15848:Zofia Nałkowska.
15699:978-0-691-00954-4
15466:Thomas C. Hubka,
14533:Laurence Weinbaum
14509:League of Nations
14446:League of Nations
14397:announced to the
14217:978-0-521-63037-5
14148:Wikimedia Commons
14068:Mordecai Paldiel
13981:978-3-11-083868-8
13954:978-3-11-083868-8
13914:978-0-415-34358-9
13887:978-3-11-083868-8
13863:on 17 March 2014.
13737:on 20 April 2015.
13587:Barbara Engelking
13573:978-1-904113-48-5
13562:. Vol. III.
13517:978-1-909821-53-8
13124:Walter de Gruyter
13046:978-0-19-006011-4
12835:Isaiah Friedman.
12596:978-83-7976-222-4
12494:, pp. 17–18.
12482:, pp. 51–52.
12412:978-83-11-08275-5
12126:Solomon Schechter
11944:on 13 August 2019
11885:978-0-415-52087-4
11777:, historia.wp.pl.
11654:Devorah Hakohen,
11596:978-0-253-01074-2
11354:Laurence Weinbaum
11322:League of Nations
11295:Online exposition
10894:
10893:
10614:Total population
10575:
10574:
10571:
10562:
10553:
10544:
10535:
10526:
10517:
10508:
10499:
10490:
10474:
10424:
10266:Holocaust studies
10176:Dos Jidische Wort
10127:Warsaw University
10090:Michael Schudrich
10071:Koniuchy massacre
10017:March 1968 events
9996:Mieczysław Moczar
9949:Zgoda labour camp
9937:Radio Free Europe
9909:Władysław Gomułka
9905:People's Republic
9811:elections of 1947
9736:Marian Spychalski
9417:Molotov cocktails
9291:Stanisław Aronson
9166:
9134:The Stroop Report
8699:Chełmno (Kulmhof)
8284:Soviet annexation
8225:defended the city
8129:League of Nations
8120:League of Nations
8114:, the founder of
8026:Jewish socialists
7957:Warsaw University
7902:Władysław Grabski
7450:According to the
7424:Culture of Poland
7411:
7410:
7298:Łódź Voivodeship
7273:Lwów Voivodeship
7073:Lwów Voivodeship
6848:Łódź Voivodeship
6798:Lwów Voivodeship
6748:Łódź Voivodeship
6648:Lwów Voivodeship
6623:Łódź Voivodeship
6548:Łódź Voivodeship
6173:Lwów Voivodeship
6148:Łódź Voivodeship
6106:Total population
6082:Polish–Soviet War
6013:Morgenthau Report
5997:Polish–Soviet War
5989:Russian Civil War
5836:first Polish Sejm
5821:Yitzhak Gruenbaum
5719:Religious Zionism
5679:
5678:
5671:
5399:תְּחוּם הַמּוֹשָב
5371:Черта́ осе́длости
5345:
5344:
5337:
5134:French Revolution
5038:Hasidic dynasties
4993:was succeeded by
4909:, the creator of
4862:, Poland, 1610–20
4747:, a rebellion in
4706:Stefan Czarniecki
4556:Jagiellon dynasty
4199:and Jews." Under
4155:Casimir the Great
4119:Statute of Kalisz
4077:(developing into
3973:Holy Roman Empire
3961:Ibrahim ibn Yaqub
3720:Kingdom of Poland
3649:
3648:
3598:
3597:
3346:
3345:
3093:Reconstructionist
3037:
3036:
2189:
2188:
1996:
1995:
1833:Jewish–Roman wars
1781:Hasmonean dynasty
1697:Kingdom of Israel
1601:
1600:
1302:
1301:
1244:
1243:
832:
831:
444:
443:
424:Jewish Autonomism
260:Polish-Ashkenazim
163:Judaism in Poland
146:
145:
44:
16:(Redirected from
20842:
20658:State-recognised
20643:
20636:
20629:
20620:
20619:
20070:
20069:
20063:
20062:
20040:Great Emigration
20001:
19994:
19987:
19978:
19977:
19872:Crimean Karaites
19788:Galician Germans
19569:Polish Uplanders
19415:
19414:
19395:
19388:
19381:
19372:
19371:
19321:Dependencies and
19262:Northern Ireland
19003:Sovereign states
18989:
18982:
18975:
18966:
18965:
18918:Bibliography of
18759:
18732:
18701:
18685:
18669:
18654:Polonsky, Antony
18650:
18641:. Rodopi, 2004,
18631:
18584:
18551:
18497:inline citations
18490:
18473:
18472:
18400:Hippocrene Books
18362:
18343:
18316:William W. Hagen
18311:
18265:
18264:
18262:
18260:
18245:
18239:
18238:
18236:
18234:
18219:
18213:
18212:
18210:
18208:
18194:
18188:
18187:
18185:
18183:
18169:
18163:
18162:
18160:
18158:
18142:
18133:
18121:
18115:
18108:
18099:
18092:
18086:
18085:
18083:
18081:
18067:
18061:
18060:
18058:
18056:
18045:
18039:
18038:
18018:
18012:
18006:
18000:
17999:
17997:
17995:
17980:
17974:
17968:
17962:
17959:Polish Knowledge
17948:
17939:
17938:
17923:
17917:
17916:
17914:
17912:
17898:
17892:
17891:
17889:
17887:
17872:
17866:
17865:
17863:
17861:
17846:
17840:
17835:
17829:
17828:
17812:
17802:
17796:
17795:
17767:
17761:
17750:
17744:
17743:
17731:
17725:
17724:
17723:on 13 July 2011.
17719:. Archived from
17708:
17702:
17701:
17696:. Archived from
17674:
17665:
17664:
17653:
17640:
17627:
17621:
17620:
17618:
17616:
17601:
17595:
17594:
17579:
17569:
17563:
17550:
17541:
17540:
17538:
17536:
17522:
17515:
17509:
17508:
17496:
17487:
17486:
17468:
17457:
17456:
17438:
17427:
17424:Shattered Spaces
17421:
17415:
17409:
17403:
17396:
17390:
17389:
17387:
17385:
17365:
17352:
17341:
17335:
17334:
17326:
17309:
17308:
17290:
17273:
17272:
17236:
17227:
17226:
17224:
17222:
17197:
17182:
17175:
17169:
17164:
17158:
17152:
17143:
17142:
17116:
17114:
17112:
17106:
17091:
17081:
17075:
17062:
17053:
17052:
17050:
17048:
17033:
17027:
17021:
17015:
17014:
16994:
16988:
16978:
16972:
16957:
16951:
16950:
16927:
16921:
16920:
16896:
16890:
16889:
16863:
16852:
16850:Internet Archive
16844:
16838:
16837:
16825:
16814:
16808:
16807:
16789:
16783:
16766:
16739:
16733:
16732:
16730:
16714:
16703:
16702:
16682:
16676:
16675:
16643:God's Playground
16632:
16623:
16621:
16612:. Archived from
16593:
16587:
16586:
16563:
16557:
16556:
16555:on 23 June 2015.
16554:
16548:. Archived from
16537:
16526:
16515:
16514:
16508:
16500:
16495:Mark, B (1952).
16492:
16486:
16485:
16483:
16481:
16465:
16459:
16458:
16456:
16454:
16439:
16433:
16427:
16421:
16406:
16400:
16389:
16383:
16380:
16374:
16364:
16358:
16356:
16338:
16327:
16321:
16315:
16309:
16303:
16292:
16286:
16279:Adam Czerniakow.
16276:
16270:
16264:
16258:
16257:
16252:. Archived from
16242:
16236:
16226:
16220:
16214:
16208:
16207:
16196:
16190:
16172:
16166:
16148:
16142:
16132:
16126:
16125:
16109:
16103:
16102:
16082:
16076:
16070:
16059:
16058:
16053:. Archived from
16047:
16041:
16028:Iwo Pogonowski,
16026:
16020:
16019:
16003:
15989:
15983:
15977:
15971:
15965:
15959:
15958:
15956:
15954:
15939:
15933:
15923:
15917:
15902:
15896:
15895:
15893:
15891:
15882:. Archived from
15872:
15866:
15859:
15853:
15846:
15840:
15829:
15823:
15816:
15810:
15797:Robert Blobaum,
15788:
15782:
15775:
15769:
15768:
15757:
15751:
15738:
15732:
15725:
15719:
15710:
15704:
15703:
15683:
15677:
15668:
15662:
15647:
15641:
15635:
15629:
15628:
15617:
15611:
15605:
15599:
15598:
15576:
15570:
15569:
15542:
15536:
15530:
15524:
15523:
15499:
15493:
15488:
15482:
15464:
15458:
15457:
15446:
15440:
15439:
15437:
15435:
15426:. Archived from
15420:
15414:
15402:
15396:
15395:
15384:
15378:
15372:
15366:
15346:
15340:
15332:Joanna Michlic.
15330:
15324:
15317:
15311:
15304:
15298:
15297:Macmillan, 1999.
15291:
15285:
15278:
15272:
15257:
15251:
15245:
15236:
15229:
15223:
15222:
15195:
15186:
15180:
15174:
15167:
15161:
15160:
15140:
15134:
15133:
15111:
15102:
15076:
15072:
15066:
15060:
15054:
15050:19 July 2009 at
15042:
15029:
15028:
15008:
15002:
15001:
14981:
14975:
14974:
14954:
14948:
14947:
14945:
14943:
14928:
14922:
14921:
14919:
14917:
14902:
14893:
14892:
14890:
14888:
14872:
14863:
14862:
14851:
14845:
14844:
14842:
14840:
14820:
14814:
14813:
14808:. Archived from
14806:"Jews in Poland"
14802:
14796:
14781:
14772:
14771:
14751:
14745:
14735:
14729:
14716:
14710:
14704:
14698:
14685:
14672:
14665:
14659:
14658:July 1996: 1–31.
14652:William W. Hagen
14649:
14643:
14629:
14623:
14622:
14582:
14571:
14561:
14555:
14548:
14542:
14505:
14499:
14492:
14486:
14476:
14470:
14463:
14457:
14434:
14428:
14415:
14409:
14391:
14385:
14384:
14366:
14360:
14354:
14348:
14345:
14339:
14332:
14326:
14325:
14313:
14304:
14298:
14292:
14291:
14285:
14277:
14261:
14241:
14235:
14228:
14222:
14221:
14194:
14188:
14184:God's Playground
14176:
14170:
14157:
14151:
14129:
14120:
14106:
14100:
14087:
14081:
14066:
14060:
14045:
14039:
14038:
14018:
14012:
13992:
13986:
13985:
13965:
13959:
13958:
13938:
13932:
13925:
13919:
13918:
13898:
13892:
13891:
13871:
13865:
13864:
13862:
13855:
13846:
13840:
13833:
13827:
13800:
13794:
13784:
13778:
13771:Yonathan Shapiro
13768:
13762:
13761:
13755:
13745:
13739:
13738:
13736:
13725:
13715:
13709:
13708:
13706:
13704:
13693:
13687:
13680:
13674:
13654:
13645:
13644:
13624:
13618:
13617:
13615:
13613:
13599:
13593:
13584:
13578:
13577:
13555:
13549:
13548:
13528:
13522:
13521:
13501:
13495:
13494:
13486:
13480:
13463:
13457:
13443:
13437:
13430:
13424:
13423:
13421:
13419:
13404:
13398:
13397:
13392:
13390:
13384:
13369:
13360:
13359:
13348:
13342:
13341:
13330:
13324:
13323:
13312:
13306:
13305:
13300:. Archived from
13294:
13288:
13282:
13276:
13262:
13256:
13242:
13236:
13204:
13198:
13197:
13195:
13188:
13177:
13171:
13170:
13144:
13138:
13137:
13108:
13102:
13081:
13075:
13057:
13051:
13050:
13030:
13024:
13017:
13011:
13001:
12992:
12983:
12977:
12960:
12954:
12953:
12951:
12949:
12926:
12920:
12913:
12907:
12904:
12898:
12895:
12889:
12888:
12886:
12884:
12872:
12866:
12851:
12840:
12833:
12827:
12817:
12811:
12810:
12808:
12806:
12783:
12777:
12776:
12769:"Russian Empire"
12764:
12758:
12748:
12742:
12733:
12727:
12726:
12724:
12722:
12699:
12693:
12692:
12690:
12688:
12663:
12654:
12653:
12651:
12649:
12626:
12617:
12616:
12605:
12599:
12584:
12575:
12569:
12563:
12562:
12560:
12558:
12535:
12526:
12520:
12514:
12501:
12495:
12489:
12483:
12477:
12468:
12467:
12465:
12463:
12453:
12444:
12438:
12437:
12423:
12417:
12416:
12396:
12390:
12385:
12379:
12366:
12360:
12355:
12349:
12344:
12338:
12325:
12319:
12314:
12308:
12298:
12292:
12287:
12276:
12266:
12260:
12254:
12248:
12242:
12236:
12235:
12233:
12231:
12217:
12211:
12210:
12203:
12197:
12196:
12184:
12178:
12177:
12161:
12151:
12145:
12144:
12142:
12140:
12121:
12115:
12114:
12112:
12110:
12095:
12089:
12083:
12077:
12071:
12062:
12061:
12056:. Archived from
12054:www.bartleby.com
12046:
12040:
12039:
12037:
12035:
12009:
12000:
11994:
11988:
11987:
11982:. Archived from
11976:
11970:
11960:
11954:
11953:
11951:
11949:
11940:. Archived from
11930:
11924:
11914:
11908:
11907:
11896:
11890:
11889:
11871:
11865:
11864:
11862:
11860:
11846:
11840:
11833:
11827:
11826:
11824:
11822:
11807:
11778:
11772:
11766:
11765:
11754:
11748:
11727:
11721:
11720:
11700:
11691:
11690:
11679:
11668:
11652:
11643:
11632:
11623:
11612:
11601:
11600:
11582:
11576:
11563:
11554:
11553:
11525:
11519:
11506:Richard C. Lukas
11503:
11494:
11481:
11475:
11468:Mordecai Paldiel
11461:
11455:
11454:
11452:
11450:
11435:
11429:
11428:
11426:
11424:
11405:
11399:
11369:
11363:
11318:
11312:
11305:William W. Hagen
11302:
11296:
11283:
11277:
11257:
11251:
11245:
11239:
11233:
11218:
11217:
11206:
11197:
11192:George Sanford,
11190:
11181:
11180:
11169:
11163:
11160:
11154:
11135:
11129:
11128:
11121:
11119:
11104:
11098:
11097:
11095:
11093:
11070:
11064:
11063:
11051:
11045:
11039:
11028:
11027:
11020:
11000:
10997:
10991:
10988:
10802:Warmian-Masurian
10608:
10604:
10567:
10558:
10549:
10540:
10531:
10522:
10513:
10504:
10495:
10479:
10472:
10426:
10422:
10420:
10416:
10309:documents that:
10278:
9943:a member of the
9901:de-Stalinisation
9842:, who served as
9759:Icchak Cukierman
9636:
9627:pogrom in Cracow
9600:Yalta Conference
9342:Białystok Ghetto
9264:Icchak Cukierman
9240:Ghetto uprisings
9207:Heinrich Himmler
9156:
9088:at the onset of
9065:Governor-General
8990:Szmul Zygielbojm
8968:Museum (6,339).
8751:Białystok Ghetto
8532:starved to death
8430:Władysław Anders
8378:
8201:Boruch Steinberg
8194:Powązki Cemetery
8127:declared in the
8112:Ze'ev Jabotinsky
8089:Great Depression
8069:Lwów Polytechnic
8041:Second World War
7951:Student's book (
7938:Great Depression
7934:Kazimierz Bartel
7865:. Following the
7859:Great Depression
7796:Jutrzenka Kraków
7741:" was coined by
7735:Artur Rubinstein
7727:Samuel Eilenberg
7717:(the creator of
7705:, and professor
7697:, mathematician
7657:Michał Waszyński
7638:Maurycy Gottlieb
7590:Bolesław Leśmian
6877:Dąbrowa Górnicza
6094:
6090:
6018:battle for Pińsk
5999:ending with the
5921:Baruch Steinberg
5762:General Zionists
5711:Orthodox Judaism
5674:
5667:
5663:
5660:
5654:
5623:
5615:
5594:Białystok pogrom
5558:
5544:Białystok pogrom
5452:Russian Orthodox
5446:
5406:
5400:
5392:
5390:tkhum-ha-moyshəv
5386:
5378:
5376:chertá osédlosti
5372:
5340:
5333:
5329:
5326:
5320:
5289:
5281:
5237:brewing industry
5156:Berek Joselewicz
5144:Berek Joselewicz
5126:Andrzej Zamoyski
5060:, among others.
5000:In this time of
4978:, 1895 depiction
4856:Zamość Synagogue
4648:Zaporozhian Host
4370:(1492–1501) and
4266:
4259:, Lithuania was
4201:penalty of death
4173:Wiślicki Statute
4131:Henryk V the Fat
4123:Henryk IV Probus
4088:Magdeburg rights
4063:Casimir the Just
4059:Hebraic markings
4002:As elsewhere in
3849:for the nascent
3661:Ashkenazi Jewish
3641:
3634:
3627:
3490:
3489:
3371:
3192:
3186:
3167:
3131:
3130:
3078:
3025:New Zealand
2977:
2940:El Salvador
2930:
2862:Northern America
2854:
2448:
2204:
2203:
2115:Crimean Karaites
2011:
2010:
1989:
1987:
1908:
1906:
1898:
1892:
1883:
1871:Rabbinic Judaism
1852:
1846:
1840:
1828:
1816:
1782:
1775:Maccabean Revolt
1752:
1745:
1739:
1731:
1724:
1718:
1710:
1692:
1616:
1615:
1590:
1485:
1484:
1417:
1405:
1304:
1303:
1294:
1287:
1280:
1266:
1261:
1255:
849:
848:
824:Novardok Yeshiva
762:
761:
548:Chabad-Lubavitch
246:
245:
195:
191:
181:
176:
173:
148:
147:
73:Total population
55:
48:
46:
42:
37:
31:
21:
20850:
20849:
20845:
20844:
20843:
20841:
20840:
20839:
20820:
20819:
20818:
20813:
20787:
20761:
20653:
20647:
20617:
20612:
20562:
20541:
20431:
20395:
20313:
20265:
20224:Southern Europe
20219:
20168:Northern Europe
20163:
20054:
20014:
20008:Polish diaspora
20005:
19975:
19970:
19840:
19814:
19803:Vistula Germans
19742:
19661:
19643:
19615:
19611:Silesian Gorals
19588:
19542:
19538:Bug River Poles
19524:
19481:
19448:
19404:
19399:
19369:
19364:
19322:
19316:
19302:Northern Cyprus
19284:
19278:
19177:North Macedonia
18998:
18993:
18942:Wayback Machine
18927:Wayback Machine
18904:vilnaghetto.com
18898:
18827:
18807:Wayback Machine
18796:Wayback Machine
18774:
18769:
18748:
18724:
18693:
18677:
18661:
18642:
18620:
18587:Korycki, Kate.
18562:, 78(1), 60–82.
18548:
18532:
18524:Main articles:
18522:
18520:Further reading
18481:Singer, Isidore
18470:
18366:Antony Polonsky
18359:
18340:
18303:
18274:
18269:
18268:
18258:
18256:
18247:
18246:
18242:
18232:
18230:
18220:
18216:
18206:
18204:
18196:
18195:
18191:
18181:
18179:
18171:
18170:
18166:
18156:
18154:
18143:
18136:
18130:Wayback Machine
18122:
18118:
18109:
18102:
18093:
18089:
18079:
18077:
18069:
18068:
18064:
18054:
18052:
18046:
18042:
18035:
18019:
18015:
18007:
18003:
17993:
17991:
17982:
17981:
17977:
17969:
17965:
17949:
17942:
17936:
17933:Wayback Machine
17924:
17920:
17910:
17908:
17900:
17899:
17895:
17885:
17883:
17874:
17873:
17869:
17859:
17857:
17848:
17847:
17843:
17836:
17832:
17825:
17803:
17799:
17768:
17764:
17759:Wayback Machine
17751:
17747:
17732:
17728:
17709:
17705:
17675:
17668:
17655:
17654:
17643:
17637:Wayback Machine
17628:
17624:
17614:
17612:
17607:. 30 May 2008.
17603:
17602:
17598:
17588:
17570:
17566:
17560:Wayback Machine
17551:
17544:
17534:
17532:
17525:Financial Times
17517:
17516:
17512:
17497:
17490:
17483:
17469:
17460:
17453:
17439:
17430:
17422:
17418:
17410:
17406:
17397:
17393:
17383:
17381:
17366:
17355:
17342:
17338:
17327:
17312:
17305:
17291:
17276:
17237:
17230:
17220:
17218:
17216:
17198:
17185:
17176:
17172:
17165:
17161:
17153:
17146:
17139:
17110:
17108:
17104:
17089:
17082:
17078:
17072:Wayback Machine
17063:
17056:
17046:
17044:
17035:
17034:
17030:
17022:
17018:
17011:
16995:
16991:
16979:
16975:
16958:
16954:
16947:
16928:
16924:
16913:
16897:
16893:
16878:
16864:
16855:
16845:
16841:
16834:
16823:
16815:
16811:
16804:
16790:
16786:
16763:
16740:
16736:
16728:
16715:
16706:
16699:
16683:
16679:
16658:
16619:
16617:
16610:
16594:
16590:
16583:
16564:
16560:
16552:
16546:
16535:
16527:
16518:
16502:
16501:
16493:
16489:
16479:
16477:
16476:on 17 July 2009
16466:
16462:
16452:
16450:
16441:
16440:
16436:
16428:
16424:
16410:ghetto uprising
16407:
16403:
16390:
16386:
16381:
16377:
16365:
16361:
16353:
16339:
16330:
16322:
16318:
16310:
16306:
16301:Wayback Machine
16293:
16289:
16277:
16273:
16265:
16261:
16256:on 15 May 2011.
16244:
16243:
16239:
16227:
16223:
16215:
16211:
16198:
16197:
16193:
16173:
16169:
16149:
16145:
16133:
16129:
16110:
16106:
16099:
16083:
16079:
16071:
16062:
16057:on 9 June 2009.
16049:
16048:
16044:
16027:
16023:
16016:
15990:
15986:
15978:
15974:
15966:
15962:
15952:
15950:
15940:
15936:
15924:
15920:
15903:
15899:
15889:
15887:
15874:
15873:
15869:
15860:
15856:
15847:
15843:
15830:
15826:
15817:
15813:
15789:
15785:
15776:
15772:
15759:
15758:
15754:
15748:Wayback Machine
15739:
15735:
15726:
15722:
15711:
15707:
15700:
15684:
15680:
15670:Norman Davies.
15669:
15665:
15648:
15644:
15636:
15632:
15619:
15618:
15614:
15606:
15602:
15595:
15577:
15573:
15566:
15543:
15539:
15531:
15527:
15520:
15500:
15496:
15489:
15485:
15465:
15461:
15448:
15447:
15443:
15433:
15431:
15422:
15421:
15417:
15412:Wayback Machine
15403:
15399:
15386:
15385:
15381:
15374:Yisrael Gutman
15373:
15369:
15347:
15343:
15331:
15327:
15318:
15314:
15305:
15301:
15292:
15288:
15279:
15275:
15258:
15254:
15246:
15239:
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15189:
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15177:
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15157:
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15105:
15088:Wayback Machine
15074:
15073:
15069:
15061:
15057:
15043:
15032:
15025:
15009:
15005:
14998:
14990:. Basic Books.
14982:
14978:
14971:
14963:. Basic Books.
14955:
14951:
14941:
14939:
14938:on 6 April 2012
14930:
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14726:Wayback Machine
14717:
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14695:Wayback Machine
14686:
14675:
14666:
14662:
14650:
14646:
14630:
14626:
14583:
14574:
14564:Yitshaq Ben-Ami
14562:
14558:
14549:
14545:
14525:Szymon Rudnicki
14506:
14502:
14493:
14489:
14477:
14473:
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14435:
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14167:Wayback Machine
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13899:
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13888:
13872:
13868:
13860:
13853:
13848:
13847:
13843:
13834:
13830:
13812:First World War
13801:
13797:
13787:Jehuda Reinharz
13785:
13781:
13769:
13765:
13753:
13746:
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13502:
13498:
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13483:
13464:
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13444:
13440:
13431:
13427:
13417:
13415:
13410:. 30 May 2008.
13406:
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13233:Wayback Machine
13221:Wayback Machine
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12511:Wayback Machine
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12356:
12352:
12345:
12341:
12326:
12322:
12315:
12311:
12299:
12295:
12288:
12279:
12271:article in the
12267:
12263:
12255:
12251:
12243:
12239:
12229:
12227:
12225:Cracow-life.com
12219:
12218:
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12138:
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11991:
11978:
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11973:
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11957:
11947:
11945:
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11927:
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11911:
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11872:
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11741:Wayback Machine
11728:
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11671:
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11613:
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11583:
11579:
11573:Wayback Machine
11564:
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11546:
11526:
11522:
11504:
11497:
11491:Wayback Machine
11482:
11478:
11474:, pages 176-236
11462:
11458:
11448:
11446:
11441:. 30 May 2008.
11437:
11436:
11432:
11422:
11420:
11407:
11406:
11402:
11385:Tatra Mountains
11370:
11366:
11346:Szymon Rudnicki
11319:
11315:
11303:
11299:
11293:Wayback Machine
11286:Beyond the Pale
11284:
11280:
11258:
11254:
11246:
11242:
11234:
11221:
11208:
11207:
11200:
11191:
11184:
11171:
11170:
11166:
11161:
11157:
11136:
11132:
11117:
11115:
11105:
11101:
11091:
11089:
11072:
11071:
11067:
11052:
11048:
11040:
11031:
11022:
11021:
11014:
11009:
11004:
11003:
10998:
10994:
10989:
10985:
10980:
10975:
10899:
10754:West Pomeranian
10569:
10566:
10560:
10557:
10551:
10548:
10542:
10539:
10533:
10530:
10524:
10521:
10515:
10512:
10506:
10503:
10497:
10494:
10485:
10478:
10471:
10421:
10418:
10415:
10409:
10272:
10243:Nathan Rapoport
10100:Lesko Synagogue
10079:Auschwitz cross
10066:
10060:
10054:
10041:Gazeta Wyborcza
9965:
9917:Roman Romkowski
9897:Bolesław Bierut
9828:
9723:
9717:
9697:Stephen Denburg
9649:
9643:
9641:Jewish property
9564:
9558:
9529:eastern regions
9509:
9452:
9447:
9441:
9425:ghetto uprising
9350:
9344:
9338:
9329:Aktion Reinhard
9276:Warsaw Uprising
9244:Warsaw Uprising
9073:Adam Czerniakow
9042:Deportation to
9033:Nathan Rapoport
9022:
9016:
9010:
8876:
8871:
8866:
8861:
8859:
8858:
8856:
8846:
8840:
8836:
8808:
8781:in present-day
8695:occupied Poland
8687:
8618:Jedwabne pogrom
8481:
8475:
8327:occupied Poland
8300:interwar period
8249:
8182:
8176:
8171:
8165:
8000:Numerus clausus
7921:Józef Piłsudski
7887:Catholic Church
7828:interwar Poland
7824:
7763:Yiddish theatre
7723:Georges Charpak
7715:Ludwik Zamenhof
7667:Aleksander Ford
7646:Maurycy Trębacz
7642:Artur Markowicz
7630:Szymon Kataszek
7507:Liberal Judaism
7503:Hasidic Judaism
7426:
7418:Main articles:
7416:
6097:City or town #
6073:
5961:Austrian kronen
5943:Józef Piłsudski
5938:Legiony Polskie
5895:
5890:
5884:
5878:
5843:Max Bodenheimer
5832:General Zionist
5777:rights of labor
5731:
5715:Hasidic Judaism
5675:
5664:
5658:
5655:
5640:
5624:
5613:
5607:
5596:of 1906 in the
5577:met in Katowice
5536:
5429:Austria-Hungary
5409:Imperial Russia
5341:
5330:
5324:
5321:
5306:
5290:
5279:
5274:
5201:
5187:
5181:
5165:Congress Poland
5066:
4986:
4969:
4845:
4843:Jewish learning
4773:
4642:, in which the
4581:
4569:Gershon Hundert
4540:
4526:
4514:Remuh Synagogue
4474:Ashkenazi Jewry
4424:Jews from Spain
4389:
4378:, followed the
4269:Lithuanian Jews
4264:
4245:
4239:
4161:Wojciech Gerson
4033:in 1098. Under
4012:medieval Poland
3995:in the city of
3993:Jehuda ha-Kohen
3910:
3904:
3899:
3893:
3887:
3851:State of Israel
3832:Jedwabne pogrom
3789:interwar period
3769:Austria-Hungary
3761:sovereign state
3727:created in 1569
3673:social autonomy
3645:
3600:
3599:
3487:
3477:
3476:
3467:Judeo-Malayalam
3447:Judaeo-Georgian
3367:
3358:
3348:
3347:
3248:Yiddish theatre
3190:
3128:
3118:
3117:
3076:
3049:
3039:
3038:
2975:
2928:
2852:
2446:
2230:Genetic studies
2201:
2191:
2190:
2008:
1998:
1997:
1985:
1984:
1904:
1903:
1896:
1886:
1881:
1863:and Middle Ages
1861:Rabbinic period
1848:
1842:
1835:
1823:
1794:
1780:
1750:
1743:
1734:
1726:
1722:
1713:
1708:in Judaism
1705:
1690:
1613:
1603:
1602:
1482:
1472:
1471:
1415:
1403:
1348:
1298:
1259:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1162:
1128:Kielce Cemetery
1097:
1093:Valley of Death
1046:
962:
846:
845:
834:
833:
828:
798:
759:
758:
749:
748:
747:
553:Chachmei Lublin
527:
526:
515:
514:
513:
458:
457:
446:
445:
440:
400:
343:
302:Izhbitza-Radzin
243:
242:
231:
193:
189:
174:
162:
68:
39:
34:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
20848:
20838:
20837:
20832:
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20762:
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20759:
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20749:
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20739:
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20719:
20714:
20709:
20704:
20699:
20694:
20689:
20684:
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20646:
20645:
20638:
20631:
20623:
20614:
20613:
20611:
20610:
20603:
20596:
20589:
20582:
20574:
20572:
20568:
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20563:
20561:
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20547:
20543:
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20540:
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20534:
20529:
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20522:
20512:
20507:
20506:
20505:
20495:
20490:
20485:
20480:
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20470:
20465:
20460:
20455:
20450:
20445:
20439:
20437:
20433:
20432:
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20429:
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20414:
20409:
20403:
20401:
20397:
20396:
20394:
20393:
20388:
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20381:
20371:
20366:
20361:
20356:
20351:
20346:
20341:
20336:
20331:
20325:
20323:
20319:
20318:
20315:
20314:
20312:
20311:
20310:
20309:
20302:United Kingdom
20299:
20294:
20289:
20284:
20279:
20273:
20271:
20270:Western Europe
20267:
20266:
20264:
20263:
20258:
20253:
20248:
20243:
20238:
20233:
20227:
20225:
20221:
20220:
20218:
20217:
20212:
20207:
20202:
20197:
20192:
20187:
20182:
20177:
20171:
20169:
20165:
20164:
20162:
20161:
20156:
20151:
20146:
20141:
20136:
20135:
20134:
20124:
20119:
20118:
20117:
20112:
20107:
20097:
20095:Czech Republic
20092:
20087:
20082:
20076:
20074:
20067:
20060:
20056:
20055:
20053:
20052:
20047:
20042:
20037:
20030:
20022:
20020:
20016:
20015:
20004:
20003:
19996:
19989:
19981:
19972:
19971:
19969:
19968:
19963:
19958:
19953:
19952:
19951:
19946:
19936:
19931:
19926:
19921:
19916:
19911:
19910:
19909:
19907:Ashkenazi Jews
19899:
19894:
19889:
19884:
19879:
19874:
19869:
19864:
19859:
19854:
19848:
19846:
19842:
19841:
19839:
19838:
19833:
19828:
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19805:
19800:
19795:
19790:
19780:
19779:
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19768:
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19762:
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19750:
19748:
19744:
19743:
19741:
19740:
19735:
19730:
19725:
19720:
19715:
19714:
19713:
19703:
19698:
19693:
19688:
19683:
19678:
19672:
19670:
19663:
19662:
19660:
19659:
19657:Cieszyn Vlachs
19653:
19651:
19645:
19644:
19642:
19641:
19636:
19631:
19625:
19623:
19617:
19616:
19614:
19613:
19608:
19602:
19600:
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19593:
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19589:
19587:
19586:
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19576:
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19512:
19507:
19502:
19497:
19491:
19489:
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19482:
19480:
19479:
19474:
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19464:
19458:
19456:
19450:
19449:
19447:
19446:
19441:
19440:
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19429:
19423:
19421:
19412:
19406:
19405:
19398:
19397:
19390:
19383:
19375:
19366:
19365:
19363:
19362:
19357:
19352:
19347:
19342:
19337:
19332:
19326:
19324:
19323:other entities
19318:
19317:
19315:
19314:
19309:
19304:
19299:
19294:
19288:
19286:
19280:
19279:
19277:
19276:
19275:
19274:
19269:
19264:
19259:
19252:United Kingdom
19249:
19244:
19239:
19234:
19229:
19224:
19219:
19214:
19209:
19204:
19199:
19194:
19189:
19184:
19179:
19174:
19169:
19164:
19159:
19154:
19149:
19144:
19139:
19134:
19129:
19124:
19119:
19117:
19112:
19107:
19102:
19097:
19092:
19087:
19082:
19077:
19072:
19067:
19065:Czech Republic
19062:
19057:
19052:
19047:
19042:
19037:
19032:
19027:
19022:
19017:
19012:
19006:
19004:
19000:
18999:
18992:
18991:
18984:
18977:
18969:
18963:
18962:
18950:
18945:
18932:
18931:
18930:
18929:during the War
18916:
18905:
18897:
18894:
18893:
18892:
18887:
18882:
18877:
18870:
18865:
18860:
18855:
18850:
18845:
18840:
18839:
18838:
18836:Virtual Shtetl
18826:
18823:
18822:
18821:
18773:
18770:
18768:
18767:External links
18765:
18764:
18763:
18760:
18746:
18733:
18717:
18702:
18686:
18670:
18651:
18632:
18618:
18605:
18595:
18585:
18573:
18563:
18552:
18546:
18521:
18518:
18517:
18516:
18467:
18460:
18446:
18432:
18420:M. J. Rosman,
18418:
18411:
18402:, Inc., 1998,
18389:
18363:
18358:978-1941656105
18357:
18344:
18338:
18325:
18313:
18293:
18273:
18270:
18267:
18266:
18255:. 6 April 2016
18240:
18214:
18189:
18164:
18134:
18116:
18100:
18087:
18062:
18048:Weiss, Clara.
18040:
18033:
18013:
18001:
17975:
17963:
17940:
17918:
17893:
17867:
17856:. 3 April 2010
17841:
17830:
17823:
17797:
17778:(2): 185–225.
17762:
17745:
17726:
17703:
17666:
17641:
17639:Sztetl.org.pl.
17622:
17596:
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17542:
17510:
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17458:
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17391:
17353:
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17303:
17274:
17228:
17214:
17183:
17170:
17159:
17144:
17137:
17076:
17054:
17028:
17016:
17010:978-0306816505
17009:
16989:
16973:
16952:
16945:
16922:
16912:978-1107036666
16911:
16891:
16876:
16853:
16839:
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16809:
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16784:
16761:
16734:
16704:
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16677:
16657:978-8324015566
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16077:
16060:
16042:
16030:Jews in Poland
16021:
16014:
15984:
15972:
15960:
15934:
15918:
15904:Richard Lukas
15897:
15867:
15854:
15841:
15824:
15811:
15783:
15770:
15752:
15733:
15720:
15712:Adam Michnik,
15705:
15698:
15678:
15663:
15642:
15630:
15612:
15600:
15593:
15571:
15564:
15537:
15535:, p. 150.
15525:
15518:
15494:
15483:
15470:, UPNE, 2003,
15459:
15441:
15415:
15397:
15379:
15367:
15360:online article
15341:
15325:
15312:
15299:
15286:
15273:
15252:
15237:
15224:
15217:
15187:
15175:
15162:
15156:978-3865832405
15155:
15135:
15128:
15103:
15067:
15055:
15030:
15023:
15003:
14996:
14976:
14969:
14949:
14923:
14905:Engel, David.
14894:
14864:
14846:
14815:
14797:
14773:
14766:
14746:
14730:
14711:
14699:
14673:
14660:
14644:
14624:
14597:(3): 277–280.
14572:
14556:
14543:
14529:Marek Karliner
14500:
14487:
14479:Adam L. Rovner
14471:
14458:
14429:
14410:
14386:
14379:
14361:
14349:
14340:
14327:
14305:
14293:
14254:Virtual Shtetl
14236:
14223:
14216:
14198:Alice Teichova
14189:
14171:
14152:
14121:
14101:
14094:Martin Gilbert
14082:
14061:
14040:
14033:
14013:
13987:
13980:
13960:
13953:
13933:
13920:
13913:
13893:
13886:
13866:
13841:
13828:
13820:Timothy Snyder
13816:Menachem Begin
13808:Polish Legions
13795:
13779:
13763:
13740:
13710:
13688:
13675:
13657:Timothy Snyder
13646:
13639:
13619:
13594:
13579:
13572:
13550:
13543:
13523:
13516:
13496:
13481:
13458:
13438:
13425:
13399:
13361:
13343:
13325:
13307:
13289:
13277:
13257:
13237:
13199:
13183:Studia Judaica
13172:
13165:
13139:
13133:978-3110137156
13132:
13112:Davies, Norman
13103:
13076:
13066:, Yale, 2002,
13052:
13045:
13025:
13012:
12993:
12978:
12963:Davies, Norman
12955:
12941:
12921:
12908:
12899:
12890:
12867:
12841:
12828:
12820:Walter Laqueur
12812:
12799:978-1584657293
12798:
12778:
12759:
12743:
12735:Brian Porter,
12728:
12714:
12694:
12680:
12655:
12641:
12618:
12600:
12576:
12564:
12550:
12541:Racławice 1794
12527:
12515:
12496:
12484:
12469:
12439:
12418:
12411:
12391:
12380:
12361:
12350:
12339:
12320:
12309:
12293:
12277:
12261:
12249:
12237:
12212:
12198:
12179:
12172:
12146:
12116:
12090:
12078:
12063:
12041:
12027:
12001:
11989:
11971:
11955:
11925:
11909:
11904:Henry Abramson
11891:
11884:
11866:
11850:"YIVO | Trade"
11841:
11828:
11815:polishjews.org
11779:
11767:
11749:
11722:
11715:
11692:
11669:
11644:
11624:
11602:
11595:
11577:
11555:
11544:
11520:
11495:
11476:
11456:
11430:
11419:on 16 May 2018
11400:
11364:
11350:Marek Karliner
11313:
11297:
11278:
11252:
11240:
11219:
11198:
11182:
11179:. 13 May 2013.
11164:
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11130:
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10724:
10718:
10717:
10714:
10711:
10708:
10702:
10701:
10698:
10695:
10692:
10690:Greater Poland
10686:
10685:
10682:
10679:
10676:
10674:Lower Silesian
10670:
10669:
10666:
10663:
10660:
10654:
10653:
10650:
10647:
10644:
10638:
10637:
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10573:
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10468:
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10460:
10457:
10454:
10451:
10448:
10445:
10442:
10439:
10436:
10433:
10430:
10408:
10405:
10301:, 26 June 2007
10295:Lech Kaczyński
10056:Main article:
10053:
10050:
9964:
9961:
9929:Witold Pilecki
9921:Jacek Różański
9827:
9824:
9785:Czechoslovakia
9719:Main article:
9716:
9713:
9645:Main article:
9642:
9639:
9596:border changes
9560:Main article:
9557:
9554:
9508:
9505:
9468:eastern Poland
9451:
9448:
9443:Main article:
9440:
9437:
9384:, and then to
9378:Theresienstadt
9340:Main article:
9337:
9334:
9325:Final Solution
9012:Main article:
9009:
9006:
8983:, a member of
8981:Witold Pilecki
8964:awards at the
8937:Janusz Korczak
8686:
8683:
8613:Einsatzgruppen
8597:western Allies
8477:Main article:
8474:
8471:
8443:' stay in the
8437:Menachem Begin
8400:Katyń massacre
8336:Aleksander Wat
8248:
8245:
8178:Main article:
8175:
8172:
8164:
8161:
8056:repairers. In
7995:ghetto benches
7980:Menachem Begin
7823:
7820:
7812:Alojzy Ehrlich
7785:Yitzhak Shamir
7781:Menachem Begin
7747:Leonid Hurwicz
7699:Stanisław Ulam
7695:Leopold Infeld
7650:Chaim Goldberg
7598:Jerzy Jurandot
7568:. His brother
7491:L. L. Zamenhof
7420:Jewish culture
7415:
7412:
7409:
7408:
7405:
7402:
7399:
7396:
7392:
7391:
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6407:
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6399:
6396:
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6391:
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6363:
6360:
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6335:
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6310:
6307:
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6299:
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6285:
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6279:
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6266:
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6260:
6257:
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6232:
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6224:
6221:
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6210:
6207:
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6154:
6149:
6146:
6142:
6141:
6138:
6135:
6132:
6129:
6124:
6121:
6117:
6116:
6113:
6110:
6107:
6104:
6101:
6098:
6072:
6069:
6037:, soldiers of
6005:Woodrow Wilson
6001:Treaty of Riga
5894:
5891:
5880:Main article:
5877:
5874:
5768:, forming the
5758:Polish Mizrahi
5730:
5727:
5699:Musar movement
5677:
5676:
5627:
5625:
5618:
5609:Main article:
5606:
5603:
5579:, forming the
5535:
5532:
5404:tḥùm ha-mosháv
5343:
5342:
5293:
5291:
5284:
5278:
5275:
5252:Tsar Nicolas I
5183:Main article:
5180:
5177:
5173:Polish Legions
5065:
5062:
5034:Haredi Judaism
5016:Eastern Europe
4982:Main article:
4968:
4965:
4957:Mordecai Jaffe
4938:Shulkhan Arukh
4931:(known as the
4929:Moses Isserles
4917:Shalom Shachna
4844:
4841:
4789:transliterated
4772:
4769:
4690:Crimean Tatars
4682:Swedish Empire
4663:Ottoman Empire
4632:Union of Brest
4580:
4577:
4562:) gathered at
4525:
4522:
4486:Moses Isserles
4457:Ottoman Empire
4453:Romaniote Jews
4388:
4385:
4255:, daughter of
4241:Main article:
4238:
4235:
4231:Western Europe
4167:In 1332, King
4027:Western Europe
4008:Eastern Europe
3981:Polish kingdom
3906:Main article:
3903:
3900:
3889:Main article:
3886:
3883:
3665:Jewish culture
3647:
3646:
3644:
3643:
3636:
3629:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3610:
3602:
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3593:
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3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3545:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3528:Territorialism
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3497:
3496:
3488:
3483:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3475:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3412:Judaeo-Spanish
3409:
3407:Judaeo-Iranian
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3373:
3372:
3359:
3354:
3353:
3350:
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3298:
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3255:
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3119:
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3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
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3017:
3012:
3004:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
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2947:
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2932:
2925:
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2905:
2900:
2892:
2891:
2885:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2853:United Kingdom
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
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2511:
2506:
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2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2286:Bilad-el-Sudan
2283:
2278:
2270:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2242:
2241:
2239:Land of Israel
2235:
2234:
2233:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2202:
2197:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2099:
2098:
2097:Related groups
2094:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2009:
2004:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1954:Jewish atheism
1951:
1946:
1941:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:Islamic–Jewish
1900:
1893:
1878:
1873:
1865:
1864:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1830:
1817:
1789:
1784:
1777:
1772:
1770:Yehud Medinata
1764:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1754:
1747:
1740:
1732:
1719:
1711:
1699:
1694:
1687:
1679:
1678:
1676:Ancient Israel
1672:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1632:Land of Israel
1629:
1621:
1620:
1614:
1609:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1587:Shulchan Aruch
1582:
1577:
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1567:
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1419:
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18958:The Economist
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18818:archive.today
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18648:90-420-0850-4
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18566:Dynner, Glenn
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18547:0-88033-511-4
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18476:public domain
18468:
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18458:0-521-85673-6
18455:
18451:
18448:Magda Teter,
18447:
18445:
18444:0-8143-2906-3
18441:
18437:
18434:Edward Fram,
18433:
18431:
18430:0-916458-18-0
18427:
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18413:David Vital,
18412:
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18408:0-7818-0604-6
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17023:David Engel,
17020:
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16969:0-88033-511-4
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16762:83-7133-100-2
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16669:
16666:Translation:
16663:
16659:
16653:
16649:
16648:Boże igrzysko
16645:
16644:
16639:
16638:Norman Davies
16635:
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16405:
16398:
16397:Gruppenführer
16394:
16393:Stroop Report
16388:
16379:
16373:
16372:0-394-73817-9
16369:
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16352:0-8022-2486-5
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16204:isurvived.org
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16123:
16119:
16115:
16108:
16100:
16094:
16090:
16089:
16081:
16074:
16069:
16067:
16065:
16056:
16052:
16046:
16039:
16038:0-7818-0604-6
16035:
16031:
16025:
16017:
16011:
16007:
16002:
16001:
15995:
15988:
15981:
15976:
15969:
15964:
15948:
15944:
15938:
15931:
15929:
15922:
15915:
15914:0-7818-0901-0
15911:
15907:
15901:
15885:
15881:
15877:
15871:
15864:
15858:
15851:
15845:
15838:
15834:
15831:David Engel.
15828:
15821:
15820:Slavic Review
15815:
15808:
15804:
15800:
15796:
15793:
15787:
15780:
15774:
15766:
15762:
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15717:
15716:
15709:
15701:
15695:
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15690:
15682:
15675:
15674:
15667:
15660:
15659:Slavic Review
15656:
15652:
15651:Slavic Review
15646:
15640:, p. 31.
15639:
15634:
15626:
15622:
15616:
15610:, p. 21.
15609:
15604:
15596:
15594:1-57181-882-0
15590:
15586:
15582:
15575:
15567:
15565:0-06-091533-1
15561:
15557:
15553:
15552:
15547:
15546:Johnson, Paul
15541:
15534:
15529:
15521:
15519:0-19-289259-2
15515:
15511:
15507:
15506:
15498:
15492:
15487:
15481:
15477:
15476:1-58465-216-0
15473:
15469:
15463:
15455:
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15445:
15429:
15425:
15419:
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15409:
15406:
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15393:
15392:www.zchor.org
15389:
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15353:
15350:
15345:
15338:
15335:
15329:
15322:
15316:
15309:
15303:
15296:
15293:Martin Dean,
15290:
15283:
15277:
15270:
15269:0-7864-0371-3
15266:
15262:
15256:
15249:
15244:
15242:
15234:
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15220:
15218:0-7864-0371-3
15214:
15210:
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15110:
15108:
15101:
15100:0-691-09433-0
15097:
15093:
15089:
15085:
15082:
15081:
15071:
15064:
15059:
15053:
15052:archive.today
15049:
15046:
15041:
15039:
15037:
15035:
15026:
15024:9781351488594
15020:
15017:. Routledge.
15016:
15015:
15007:
14999:
14997:9780465032976
14993:
14989:
14988:
14980:
14972:
14970:9780465054923
14966:
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14834:
14830:
14829:Chatham House
14826:
14819:
14811:
14807:
14801:
14794:
14793:0-8135-3158-6
14790:
14786:
14780:
14778:
14769:
14767:9780786403714
14763:
14760:. McFarland.
14759:
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14514:
14510:
14504:
14497:
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14468:
14462:
14455:
14451:
14450:Joseph Marcus
14447:
14443:
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14380:0-87820-418-0
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14180:
14179:Norman Davies
14175:
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14141:
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14128:
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14078:0-88125-376-6
14075:
14071:
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13809:
13805:
13799:
13792:
13788:
13783:
13776:
13772:
13767:
13759:
13751:
13744:
13733:
13729:
13726:(in Polish).
13721:
13714:
13698:
13692:
13685:
13679:
13673:
13670:
13669:0-300-10586-X
13666:
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13640:9780429721045
13636:
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13544:9781845116972
13540:
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13513:
13509:
13508:
13500:
13492:
13485:
13478:
13477:0-521-57697-0
13474:
13470:
13469:
13465:Ilya Prizel,
13462:
13456:
13455:0-8101-0758-9
13452:
13448:
13442:
13435:
13429:
13413:
13409:
13403:
13396:
13381:
13380:
13375:
13372:GUS (1938). "
13368:
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13335:
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13317:
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13072:0-300-09313-6
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12774:
12770:
12763:
12756:
12752:
12747:
12740:
12739:
12732:
12717:
12715:9780521515733
12711:
12707:
12706:
12698:
12683:
12681:9781930143852
12677:
12673:
12672:
12669:
12662:
12660:
12644:
12642:1-930143-85-0
12638:
12634:
12633:
12625:
12623:
12614:
12610:
12604:
12597:
12593:
12589:
12583:
12581:
12574:, p. 18.
12573:
12568:
12553:
12551:9788311116061
12547:
12543:
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12534:
12532:
12524:
12519:
12512:
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12395:
12389:
12384:
12377:
12376:
12371:
12365:
12359:
12354:
12348:
12343:
12336:
12335:
12330:
12324:
12318:
12313:
12306:
12302:
12301:Majer Bałaban
12297:
12291:
12286:
12284:
12282:
12274:
12270:
12265:
12259:, p. 19.
12258:
12253:
12247:, p. 11.
12246:
12241:
12226:
12222:
12216:
12208:
12202:
12194:
12190:
12183:
12175:
12173:0-8063-1741-8
12169:
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12094:
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12068:
12059:
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12045:
12030:
12028:1-886223-11-4
12024:
12020:
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12014:
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11999:
11993:
11985:
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11786:
11784:
11776:
11771:
11763:
11759:
11753:
11746:
11742:
11738:
11735:
11731:
11730:Dariusz Stola
11726:
11718:
11716:1-56639-955-6
11712:
11708:
11707:
11699:
11697:
11689:
11685:
11678:
11676:
11674:
11667:
11666:0-8156-2969-9
11663:
11659:
11658:
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11641:
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11592:
11588:
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11552:
11547:
11545:0-300-09546-5
11541:
11537:
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11524:
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11507:
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11500:
11492:
11488:
11485:
11480:
11473:
11469:
11465:
11460:
11444:
11440:
11434:
11418:
11414:
11413:Shavei Israel
11410:
11404:
11397:
11396:
11395:Edward Smigły
11390:
11386:
11382:
11378:
11374:
11368:
11361:
11360:
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10996:
10987:
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10972:
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10960:
10957:
10955:
10952:
10950:
10947:
10945:
10942:
10940:
10937:
10935:
10932:
10930:
10929:Galician Jews
10927:
10925:
10922:
10920:
10917:
10915:
10912:
10910:
10907:
10905:
10902:
10901:
10889:
10886:
10883:
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10875:
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10869:
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10864:
10863:
10859:
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10851:
10848:
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10843:
10840:
10837:
10835:
10832:
10831:
10827:
10824:
10821:
10819:
10816:
10815:
10811:
10808:
10805:
10803:
10800:
10799:
10795:
10792:
10789:
10787:
10786:Subcarpathian
10784:
10783:
10779:
10776:
10773:
10771:
10768:
10767:
10763:
10760:
10757:
10755:
10752:
10751:
10747:
10744:
10741:
10739:
10736:
10735:
10731:
10728:
10725:
10723:
10720:
10719:
10715:
10712:
10709:
10707:
10704:
10703:
10699:
10696:
10693:
10691:
10688:
10687:
10683:
10680:
10677:
10675:
10672:
10671:
10667:
10664:
10661:
10659:
10656:
10655:
10651:
10648:
10645:
10643:
10642:Lesser Poland
10640:
10639:
10635:
10632:
10629:
10627:
10624:
10623:
10619:
10616:
10613:
10610:
10609:
10603:
10601:
10597:
10593:
10589:
10585:
10580:
10564:
10555:
10546:
10537:
10528:
10519:
10510:
10501:
10492:
10488:
10483:
10476:
10469:
10465:
10461:
10458:
10455:
10452:
10449:
10446:
10443:
10440:
10437:
10434:
10431:
10427:
10414:
10404:
10402:
10398:
10393:
10391:
10387:
10381:
10378:
10374:
10373:Bielsko-Biała
10370:
10366:
10361:
10359:
10350:
10346:
10344:
10340:
10336:
10332:
10326:
10324:
10320:
10316:
10310:
10308:
10300:
10296:
10292:
10288:
10284:
10282:
10276:
10271:
10267:
10263:
10258:
10256:
10250:
10248:
10244:
10239:
10234:
10232:
10227:
10222:
10220:
10217:
10213:
10209:
10201:
10196:
10192:
10190:
10185:
10181:
10177:
10173:
10172:
10166:
10164:
10163:Beit Warszawa
10159:
10158:Góra Kalwaria
10155:
10151:
10147:
10143:
10138:
10136:
10132:
10128:
10124:
10120:
10113:
10108:
10101:
10097:
10091:
10086:
10082:
10080:
10076:
10075:Kielce pogrom
10072:
10065:
10059:
10049:
10047:
10043:
10042:
10037:
10032:
10030:
10026:
10021:
10019:
10018:
10012:
10010:
10009:United States
10006:
10001:
9997:
9993:
9992:
9985:
9981:
9978:
9974:
9970:
9960:
9958:
9957:Emil Fieldorf
9954:
9950:
9946:
9942:
9941:Solomon Morel
9938:
9934:
9933:Józef Światło
9930:
9926:
9925:Anatol Fejgin
9922:
9918:
9914:
9910:
9906:
9902:
9898:
9894:
9890:
9889:
9884:
9880:
9876:
9871:
9869:
9868:Joseph Stalin
9865:
9861:
9857:
9853:
9849:
9845:
9841:
9837:
9833:
9823:
9820:
9816:
9812:
9807:
9805:
9800:
9798:
9794:
9790:
9786:
9782:
9778:
9774:
9770:
9766:
9765:
9760:
9756:
9752:
9747:
9745:
9741:
9737:
9733:
9729:
9722:
9712:
9710:
9706:
9705:Dariusz Stola
9700:
9698:
9693:
9690:
9688:
9683:
9680:
9678:
9672:
9669:
9664:
9660:
9659:Dariusz Stola
9655:
9648:
9638:
9635:
9634:
9628:
9623:
9619:
9616:
9612:
9611:Kielce pogrom
9607:
9605:
9601:
9597:
9593:
9589:
9585:
9581:
9577:
9573:
9568:
9563:
9553:
9550:
9546:
9542:
9538:
9534:
9530:
9526:
9518:
9513:
9504:
9502:
9498:
9494:
9490:
9489:Lower Silesia
9486:
9482:
9478:
9474:
9469:
9463:
9459:
9457:
9446:
9436:
9434:
9433:Armia Krajowa
9430:
9426:
9422:
9418:
9414:
9410:
9406:
9402:
9398:
9394:
9389:
9387:
9383:
9379:
9374:
9368:
9366:
9361:
9359:
9355:
9349:
9343:
9333:
9330:
9326:
9323:to begin the
9322:
9314:
9309:
9305:
9303:
9300:
9296:
9292:
9288:
9285:
9281:
9277:
9273:
9269:
9268:Armia Krajowa
9265:
9261:
9260:Marek Edelman
9257:
9256:Waclaw Micuta
9253:
9252:Armia Krajowa
9250:
9245:
9241:
9233:
9232:
9231:Szare Szeregi
9227:
9222:
9218:
9216:
9210:
9208:
9204:
9203:Jürgen Stroop
9196:
9191:
9187:
9185:
9181:
9180:Armia Krajowa
9177:
9173:
9167:
9164:
9163:Stroop Report
9160:
9159:Jürgen Stroop
9155:
9151:
9147:
9139:
9135:
9130:
9126:
9124:
9120:
9116:
9111:
9110:Umschlagplatz
9107:
9103:
9099:
9093:
9091:
9087:
9082:
9078:
9074:
9069:
9066:
9062:
9061:1943 Uprising
9058:
9057:Warsaw Ghetto
9051:
9050:
9049:Umschlagplatz
9045:
9040:
9034:
9030:
9026:
9021:
9015:
9014:Warsaw Ghetto
9005:
9003:
8999:
8998:the Holocaust
8995:
8991:
8986:
8985:Armia Krajowa
8982:
8978:
8974:
8969:
8967:
8963:
8958:
8953:
8950:
8949:death penalty
8946:
8938:
8934:
8930:
8928:
8927:Armia Krajowa
8924:
8920:
8916:
8912:
8908:
8904:
8899:
8891:
8887:
8883:
8875:
8870:
8865:
8854:
8853:death penalty
8850:
8845:
8843:
8839:
8832:
8828:
8821:
8817:
8812:
8807:
8802:
8800:
8796:
8792:
8791:Brześć Ghetto
8788:
8784:
8780:
8776:
8775:Lublin Ghetto
8772:
8768:
8767:Kraków Ghetto
8764:
8763:Kielce Ghetto
8760:
8756:
8752:
8748:
8744:
8743:Warsaw Ghetto
8735:
8731:
8729:
8724:
8720:
8716:
8712:
8708:
8704:
8700:
8696:
8692:
8682:
8680:
8675:
8670:
8666:
8662:
8658:
8654:
8652:
8647:
8641:
8639:
8635:
8631:
8627:
8623:
8619:
8615:
8614:
8609:
8605:
8598:
8594:
8593:
8588:
8584:
8580:
8578:
8574:
8567:
8566:Warsaw Ghetto
8562:
8558:
8556:
8551:
8546:
8544:
8539:
8537:
8533:
8529:
8525:
8521:
8517:
8513:
8509:
8505:
8502:
8498:
8497:the Holocaust
8490:
8485:
8480:
8473:The Holocaust
8470:
8468:
8464:
8463:Star of David
8460:
8456:
8452:
8451:
8446:
8442:
8438:
8435:
8431:
8427:
8426:
8421:
8417:
8413:
8409:
8405:
8401:
8397:
8389:
8388:Monte Cassino
8384:
8380:
8377:
8376:
8370:
8366:
8361:
8358:
8352:
8349:
8345:
8344:Norman Davies
8341:
8337:
8328:
8324:
8320:
8315:
8311:
8307:
8303:
8301:
8295:
8293:
8289:
8285:
8280:
8278:
8274:
8269:
8267:
8262:
8258:
8254:
8244:
8242:
8238:
8234:
8230:
8226:
8222:
8218:
8214:
8210:
8206:
8202:
8195:
8191:
8186:
8181:
8170:
8160:
8157:
8156:
8155:Gazeta Polska
8149:
8147:
8141:
8139:
8135:
8130:
8126:
8121:
8117:
8113:
8108:
8106:
8102:
8097:
8094:
8090:
8086:
8082:
8078:
8070:
8065:
8061:
8059:
8054:
8050:
8046:
8042:
8037:
8035:
8031:
8027:
8022:
8018:
8012:
8008:
8006:
8002:
8001:
7996:
7992:
7988:
7983:
7981:
7977:
7973:
7970:
7966:
7958:
7954:
7949:
7945:
7943:
7939:
7935:
7930:
7926:
7922:
7917:
7915:
7911:
7907:
7903:
7899:
7894:
7892:
7888:
7884:
7880:
7876:
7875:Roman Dmowski
7872:
7868:
7864:
7860:
7852:
7848:
7847:Roman Dmowski
7844:
7840:
7838:
7834:
7829:
7819:
7817:
7813:
7809:
7805:
7801:
7797:
7793:
7792:Hasmonea Lwów
7788:
7786:
7782:
7778:
7774:
7773:
7768:
7764:
7760:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7740:
7736:
7732:
7728:
7724:
7720:
7716:
7712:
7708:
7704:
7703:Alfred Tarski
7700:
7696:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7676:
7674:
7673:
7668:
7664:
7663:
7658:
7653:
7651:
7647:
7643:
7639:
7635:
7631:
7627:
7623:
7619:
7615:
7611:
7607:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7592:, as well as
7591:
7587:
7583:
7579:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7555:
7551:
7547:
7543:
7541:
7540:
7535:
7532:
7528:
7524:
7519:
7515:
7510:
7508:
7504:
7496:
7493:, creator of
7492:
7488:
7484:
7482:
7478:
7474:
7470:
7466:
7462:
7458:
7453:
7448:
7445:
7441:
7434:
7430:
7425:
7421:
7406:
7403:
7400:
7397:
7393:
7389:
7386:
7383:
7380:
7378:
7375:
7372:
7369:
7368:
7364:
7361:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7347:
7344:
7343:
7339:
7336:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7325:
7322:
7319:
7318:
7314:
7311:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7297:
7294:
7293:
7289:
7286:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7275:
7272:
7269:
7268:
7264:
7261:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7250:
7247:
7244:
7243:
7239:
7236:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7222:
7219:
7218:
7214:
7211:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7197:
7194:
7193:
7189:
7186:
7183:
7180:
7178:
7175:
7172:
7169:
7168:
7164:
7161:
7158:
7155:
7153:
7150:
7147:
7144:
7143:
7139:
7136:
7133:
7130:
7128:
7125:
7122:
7119:
7118:
7114:
7111:
7108:
7105:
7103:
7100:
7097:
7094:
7093:
7089:
7086:
7083:
7080:
7078:
7075:
7072:
7069:
7068:
7064:
7061:
7058:
7055:
7053:
7050:
7047:
7044:
7043:
7039:
7036:
7033:
7030:
7028:
7025:
7022:
7019:
7018:
7014:
7011:
7008:
7005:
7003:
7000:
6997:
6994:
6993:
6989:
6986:
6983:
6980:
6978:
6975:
6972:
6969:
6968:
6964:
6961:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6947:
6944:
6943:
6939:
6936:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6922:
6919:
6918:
6914:
6911:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6897:
6894:
6893:
6889:
6886:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6872:
6869:
6868:
6864:
6861:
6858:
6855:
6853:
6852:Tomaszów Maz.
6850:
6847:
6844:
6843:
6839:
6836:
6833:
6830:
6828:
6825:
6822:
6819:
6818:
6814:
6811:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6797:
6794:
6793:
6789:
6786:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6772:
6769:
6768:
6764:
6761:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6747:
6744:
6743:
6739:
6736:
6733:
6730:
6728:
6725:
6722:
6719:
6718:
6714:
6711:
6708:
6705:
6703:
6700:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6689:
6686:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6672:
6669:
6668:
6664:
6661:
6658:
6655:
6653:
6650:
6647:
6644:
6643:
6639:
6636:
6633:
6630:
6628:
6625:
6622:
6619:
6618:
6614:
6611:
6608:
6605:
6603:
6600:
6597:
6594:
6593:
6589:
6586:
6583:
6580:
6578:
6575:
6572:
6569:
6568:
6564:
6561:
6558:
6555:
6553:
6550:
6547:
6544:
6543:
6539:
6536:
6533:
6530:
6528:
6525:
6522:
6519:
6518:
6514:
6511:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6497:
6494:
6493:
6489:
6486:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6472:
6469:
6468:
6464:
6461:
6458:
6455:
6453:
6450:
6447:
6444:
6443:
6439:
6436:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6422:
6419:
6418:
6414:
6411:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6397:
6394:
6393:
6389:
6386:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6372:
6369:
6368:
6364:
6361:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6347:
6344:
6343:
6339:
6336:
6333:
6330:
6328:
6325:
6322:
6319:
6318:
6314:
6311:
6308:
6305:
6303:
6300:
6297:
6294:
6293:
6289:
6286:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6275:
6272:
6269:
6268:
6264:
6261:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6247:
6244:
6243:
6239:
6236:
6233:
6230:
6228:
6225:
6222:
6219:
6218:
6214:
6211:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6197:
6194:
6193:
6189:
6186:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6175:
6172:
6169:
6168:
6164:
6161:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6147:
6144:
6143:
6139:
6136:
6133:
6130:
6128:
6125:
6122:
6119:
6118:
6114:
6111:
6108:
6105:
6103:City or town
6102:
6099:
6096:
6095:
6089:
6086:
6083:
6078:
6068:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6052:
6050:
6046:
6045:
6040:
6036:
6032:
6031:Sich Riflemen
6028:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5981:
5973:
5969:
5967:
5962:
5958:
5957:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5939:
5934:
5926:
5922:
5917:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5899:
5889:
5883:
5873:
5871:
5867:
5866:German Empire
5863:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5839:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5824:
5822:
5818:
5814:
5809:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5790:
5788:
5787:
5786:Agudat Israel
5782:
5778:
5774:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5754:
5748:
5740:
5735:
5726:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5695:
5690:
5686:
5685:
5673:
5670:
5662:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5638:
5637:
5633:
5628:This section
5626:
5622:
5617:
5616:
5612:
5602:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5590:
5584:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5565:Alexander III
5562:
5554:
5553:
5545:
5540:
5531:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5508:
5506:
5505:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5483:
5481:
5477:
5473:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5448:
5445:
5444:
5438:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5425:German Empire
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5405:
5396:
5391:
5382:
5377:
5368:
5364:
5363:
5354:
5349:
5339:
5336:
5328:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5304:
5303:
5299:
5294:This section
5292:
5288:
5283:
5282:
5273:
5268:
5266:
5262:
5257:
5253:
5248:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5186:
5176:
5174:
5168:
5167:(1815–1831).
5166:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5124:
5123:
5118:
5117:
5110:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5075:
5070:
5061:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5026:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5009:
5008:
5007:Baal Shem Tov
5003:
4998:
4996:
4992:
4985:
4977:
4973:
4964:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4949:
4944:
4943:Solomon Luria
4940:
4939:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4913:
4908:
4904:
4899:
4897:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4861:
4857:
4854:
4849:
4840:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4829:the Holocaust
4826:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4768:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4745:Koliivshchyna
4743:In 1768, the
4741:
4739:
4733:
4729:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4678:House of Vasa
4670:
4666:
4664:
4660:
4659:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4621:private towns
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4576:
4574:
4570:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4544:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4521:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4502:legal scholar
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4481:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4449:Sephardi Jews
4447:, as well as
4446:
4442:
4441:
4436:
4432:
4427:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4401:
4398:followed his
4397:
4393:
4384:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4368:John I Albert
4365:
4361:
4356:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4308:, Wolczko of
4307:
4301:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4270:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4244:
4234:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4213:
4209:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4162:
4158:
4156:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4096:
4091:
4089:
4084:
4082:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4031:First Crusade
4028:
4019:
4015:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4000:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3985:Piast dynasty
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3909:
3898:
3892:
3882:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3839:
3837:
3836:Collaboration
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3808:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3777:German Empire
3774:
3770:
3767:, as well as
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3733:
3728:
3725:
3721:
3716:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3642:
3637:
3635:
3630:
3628:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3619:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3604:
3603:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3480:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3452:Judeo-Aramaic
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3442:Judeo-Italian
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3422:Ghardaïa Sign
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3370:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3361:
3360:
3357:
3352:
3351:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3324:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3231:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3133:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3121:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3074:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3048:
3047:Denominations
3043:
3042:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2893:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2875:United States
2873:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2489:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2361:Guinea-Bissau
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2215:Lists of Jews
2213:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2194:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2002:
2001:
1990:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1974:The Holocaust
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1901:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1884:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1851:
1845:
1839:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1622:
1618:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1606:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1575:Mishneh Torah
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1475:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1347:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1335:Who is a Jew?
1333:
1331:
1328:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1295:
1290:
1288:
1283:
1281:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1269:
1268:Poland portal
1265:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1249:
1235:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1222:Oyneg Shabbos
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1118:Easter Pogrom
1116:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
996:
993:
992:
991:
988:
984:
981:
980:
979:
976:
975:
973:
972:
969:
966:
965:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
860:
858:
857:
854:
851:
850:
844:
843:The Holocaust
838:
837:
825:
822:
820:
819:Lomza Yeshiva
817:
815:
812:
811:
809:
808:
805:
802:
801:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
766:
764:
763:
757:Organizations
753:
752:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
530:
525:
519:
518:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
461:
456:
450:
449:
437:
434:
430:
427:
426:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
411:
409:
408:
404:
403:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
375:
372:
371:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
356:
354:
353:
350:
347:
346:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
274:
273:
270:
266:
263:
262:
261:
258:
257:
255:
254:
251:
248:
247:
241:
235:
234:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
207:Early history
205:
204:
202:
201:
198:
188:
185:
184:
180:
172:
168:
167:
164:
159:
158:
154:
150:
149:
142:
138:
133:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
109:
105:
103:
99:
96:10,000–20,000
95:
93:
89:
84:
81:
76:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
49:
45:
27:
19:
18:Polish-Jewish
20746:
20605:
20598:
20591:
20584:
20577:
20527:Turkmenistan
20462:
20412:South Africa
20307:White Polish
20132:Transnistria
20032:
20025:
19919:Lipka Tatars
19901:
19862:Bangladeshis
19808:Walddeutsche
19312:Transnistria
19186:
18956:
18737:
18720:
18719:Ury, Scott.
18713:
18709:
18689:
18673:
18657:
18638:
18609:
18601:
18588:
18580:
18577:Engel, David
18569:
18559:
18537:
18484:
18463:
18449:
18435:
18421:
18414:
18395:
18373:
18348:
18329:
18319:
18299:
18281:
18272:Bibliography
18257:. Retrieved
18252:
18243:
18231:. Retrieved
18227:
18217:
18205:. Retrieved
18201:
18192:
18180:. Retrieved
18176:
18167:
18157:26 September
18155:. Retrieved
18150:
18119:
18090:
18078:. Retrieved
18074:
18065:
18053:. Retrieved
18043:
18023:
18016:
18004:
17992:. Retrieved
17978:
17966:
17921:
17909:. Retrieved
17905:
17896:
17884:. Retrieved
17870:
17858:. Retrieved
17853:
17844:
17833:
17808:
17800:
17775:
17771:
17765:
17748:
17739:
17729:
17721:the original
17716:
17706:
17698:the original
17685:
17660:
17625:
17613:. Retrieved
17599:
17591:
17575:
17567:
17533:. Retrieved
17524:
17513:
17504:
17500:
17472:
17442:
17419:
17407:
17399:
17394:
17382:. Retrieved
17377:
17373:
17348:
17344:
17339:
17330:
17294:
17247:(1): 34–53.
17244:
17240:
17219:. Retrieved
17205:
17178:
17173:
17162:
17128:
17123:
17117:
17109:. Retrieved
17102:the original
17093:
17079:
17045:. Retrieved
17031:
17019:
16999:
16992:
16982:
16976:
16960:
16955:
16935:
16925:
16916:
16901:
16894:
16867:
16842:
16819:
16812:
16793:
16787:
16778:pp. 87–104,
16772:
16768:
16752:
16747:
16737:
16724:
16719:
16687:
16680:
16671:
16667:
16665:
16647:
16642:
16634:
16625:
16618:. Retrieved
16614:the original
16598:
16591:
16571:
16567:Bernd Wegner
16561:
16550:the original
16531:
16496:
16490:
16478:. Retrieved
16474:the original
16463:
16451:. Retrieved
16437:
16425:
16404:
16387:
16378:
16362:
16342:
16319:
16307:
16290:
16274:
16262:
16254:the original
16249:
16240:
16224:
16212:
16203:
16194:
16175:
16170:
16151:
16146:
16130:
16117:
16107:
16087:
16080:
16055:the original
16045:
16029:
16024:
15999:
15987:
15975:
15963:
15951:. Retrieved
15937:
15927:
15921:
15905:
15900:
15888:. Retrieved
15884:the original
15879:
15870:
15857:
15849:
15844:
15836:
15832:
15827:
15819:
15814:
15798:
15794:
15786:
15778:
15773:
15764:
15755:
15736:
15728:
15723:
15713:
15708:
15688:
15681:
15672:
15666:
15650:
15645:
15633:
15625:the original
15615:
15603:
15584:
15574:
15550:
15540:
15528:
15504:
15497:
15486:
15467:
15462:
15453:
15444:
15432:. Retrieved
15428:the original
15418:
15400:
15391:
15382:
15370:
15364:entire issue
15351:
15344:
15336:
15328:
15315:
15302:
15289:
15276:
15255:
15227:
15203:
15178:
15165:
15145:
15138:
15119:
15092:Jan T. Gross
15079:
15070:
15058:
15013:
15006:
14986:
14979:
14959:
14952:
14940:. Retrieved
14936:the original
14926:
14914:. Retrieved
14910:
14885:. Retrieved
14880:
14858:
14849:
14837:. Retrieved
14833:the original
14828:
14818:
14810:the original
14800:
14756:
14749:
14742:Isaiah Trunk
14733:
14714:
14702:
14668:
14663:
14655:
14647:
14632:
14627:
14594:
14590:
14570:, pp. 75-76.
14567:
14559:
14551:
14546:
14536:
14521:antisemitism
14513:Anthony Eden
14503:
14495:
14490:
14482:
14474:
14466:
14461:
14453:
14432:
14425:
14418:
14413:
14406:
14389:
14370:
14364:
14352:
14343:
14330:
14321:
14296:
14268:. Warszawa.
14265:
14258:the original
14249:
14239:
14226:
14202:
14192:
14182:
14174:
14155:
14109:
14104:
14089:
14085:
14064:
14048:
14043:
14023:
14016:
13998:
13990:
13970:
13963:
13943:
13936:
13928:
13923:
13903:
13896:
13876:
13869:
13858:the original
13844:
13836:
13835:Leo Cooper,
13831:
13823:
13798:
13790:
13782:
13774:
13766:
13757:
13743:
13732:the original
13713:
13701:. Retrieved
13691:
13683:
13678:
13660:
13629:
13622:
13610:. Retrieved
13597:
13582:
13564:1914 to 2000
13563:
13559:
13553:
13533:
13526:
13506:
13499:
13490:
13484:
13467:
13461:
13441:
13432:Yad Vashem,
13428:
13416:. Retrieved
13402:
13394:
13387:. Retrieved
13378:
13355:
13346:
13337:
13328:
13319:
13310:
13302:the original
13292:
13280:
13273:Philadelphia
13268:
13265:Yehuda Bauer
13260:
13245:
13240:
13206:
13202:
13191:the original
13182:
13175:
13152:
13142:
13119:
13106:
13083:
13079:
13063:
13055:
13035:
13028:
13015:
13005:
12987:
12981:
12966:
12958:
12946:. Retrieved
12931:
12924:
12915:Neal Pease.
12911:
12902:
12893:
12881:. Retrieved
12870:
12858:
12831:
12815:
12803:. Retrieved
12788:
12781:
12772:
12762:
12754:
12751:Simon Dubnow
12746:
12736:
12731:
12719:. Retrieved
12704:
12697:
12685:. Retrieved
12671:
12668:
12646:. Retrieved
12631:
12612:
12603:
12587:
12572:Hundert 2004
12567:
12557:26 September
12555:. Retrieved
12540:
12518:
12499:
12492:Hundert 2004
12487:
12480:Hundert 2004
12460:. Retrieved
12455:
12442:
12429:
12421:
12401:
12394:
12383:
12373:
12364:
12353:
12342:
12332:
12323:
12312:
12296:
12264:
12257:Hundert 2004
12252:
12245:Hundert 2004
12240:
12228:. Retrieved
12224:
12215:
12201:
12192:
12182:
12157:
12149:
12139:16 September
12137:. Retrieved
12133:
12119:
12109:16 September
12107:. Retrieved
12103:
12093:
12081:
12058:the original
12053:
12044:
12032:. Retrieved
12017:
12013:S. M. Dubnow
11992:
11984:the original
11974:
11966:
11963:Simon Dubnow
11958:
11946:. Retrieved
11942:the original
11937:
11928:
11920:
11917:Simon Dubnow
11912:
11903:
11894:
11875:
11869:
11857:. Retrieved
11853:
11844:
11831:
11821:30 September
11819:. Retrieved
11814:
11770:
11761:
11752:
11744:
11725:
11705:
11687:
11656:
11639:
11619:
11586:
11580:
11549:
11530:
11523:
11515:
11510:
11479:
11459:
11447:. Retrieved
11433:
11421:. Retrieved
11417:the original
11412:
11403:
11392:
11367:
11357:
11342:antisemitism
11330:Anthony Eden
11316:
11300:
11281:
11273:
11269:
11265:
11261:
11255:
11247:
11243:
11214:the original
11193:
11176:
11167:
11158:
11148:
11142:
11138:
11133:
11124:
11123:
11116:. Retrieved
11113:The Atlantic
11112:
11102:
11090:. Retrieved
11086:the original
11077:
11068:
11059:
11049:
10995:
10986:
10963:
10611:Voivodeship
10576:
10489:of the total
10486:
10481:
10394:
10382:
10362:
10355:
10328:
10312:
10304:
10259:
10251:
10235:
10223:
10204:
10179:
10175:
10169:
10167:
10139:
10116:
10069:pogrom, the
10067:
10039:
10038:(founder of
10036:Adam Michnik
10033:
10025:Eastern Bloc
10022:
10015:
10013:
9988:
9986:
9982:
9966:
9912:
9886:
9883:Jakub Berman
9872:
9864:Folks-Shtime
9863:
9856:Ida Kamińska
9840:Dawid Kahane
9835:
9829:
9808:
9801:
9768:
9762:
9755:Adolf Berman
9748:
9740:Eastern Bloc
9724:
9709:POLIN Museum
9701:
9694:
9691:
9684:
9681:
9677:Michael Meng
9673:
9650:
9624:
9620:
9608:
9582:against the
9569:
9565:
9535:east of the
9522:
9464:
9460:
9453:
9427:, after the
9390:
9369:
9362:
9351:
9321:Nazi Germany
9318:
9298:
9283:
9237:
9229:
9211:
9200:
9175:
9171:
9169:
9153:
9145:
9144:
9094:
9054:
9047:
8984:
8970:
8957:black market
8954:
8942:
8939:'s orphanage
8918:
8914:
8911:szmalcowniks
8900:
8896:
8884:
8880:
8873:
8868:
8863:
8841:
8837:
8834:
8825:
8814:Walling-off
8795:Radom Ghetto
8740:
8688:
8679:szmalcowniks
8655:
8642:
8634:antisemitism
8626:Jan T. Gross
8611:
8608:death squads
8601:
8590:
8572:
8570:
8547:
8543:Soviet Union
8540:
8494:
8448:
8423:
8416:Jakub Berman
8408:Soviet Union
8393:
8362:
8353:
8332:
8308:
8304:
8296:
8281:
8270:
8261:Nazi Germany
8253:Soviet Union
8250:
8217:Nazi ghettos
8198:
8153:
8150:
8145:
8142:
8109:
8098:
8074:
8038:
8017:trade unions
8013:
8009:
7998:
7986:
7984:
7962:
7952:
7929:Polonization
7918:
7895:
7863:Nazi Germany
7856:
7850:
7825:
7789:
7779:, including
7770:
7767:Vilna Troupe
7743:Rafał Lemkin
7711:Moses Schorr
7692:
7683:Shimon Peres
7670:
7660:
7654:
7602:Jan Brzechwa
7582:Marian Hemar
7578:Julian Tuwim
7574:Bruno Schulz
7559:
7537:
7518:Bruno Schulz
7511:
7499:
7449:
7444:World War II
7437:
6100:Voivodeship
6087:
6074:
6053:
6042:
5986:
5954:
5936:
5930:
5862:protectorate
5858:
5850:
5840:
5825:
5810:
5791:
5784:
5751:
5746:
5744:
5702:
5692:
5688:
5682:
5680:
5665:
5656:
5641:Please help
5629:
5587:
5585:
5581:Hovevei Zion
5550:
5548:
5516:Alexander II
5509:
5502:
5484:
5449:
5432:
5416:
5385:תּחום-המושבֿ
5360:
5358:
5331:
5322:
5307:Please help
5295:
5249:
5229:
5220:
5217:Catherine II
5213:
5169:
5149:
5129:
5120:
5114:
5111:
5079:
5073:
5023:
5011:
5005:
4999:
4991:Sabbatianism
4987:
4946:
4936:
4932:
4924:
4910:
4907:Jacob Pollak
4900:
4878:
4877:. Important
4865:
4837:Divre David;
4836:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4804:
4803:("dwells"),
4800:
4796:
4792:
4780:
4776:
4774:
4751:west of the
4742:
4734:
4730:
4675:
4657:
4629:
4582:
4549:
4517:
4484:
4477:
4469:Jacob Pollak
4465:Persian Jews
4461:Mizrahi Jews
4438:
4428:
4405:
4357:
4338:
4316:, Samson of
4302:
4246:
4183:(1367), and
4166:
4157:and the Jews
4153:
4144:
4139:blood libels
4115:Great Poland
4113:, Prince of
4099:
4092:
4085:
4078:
4035:Bolesław III
4024:
4001:
3926:
3916:
3873:. After the
3863:Eastern Bloc
3840:
3816:Soviet Union
3812:Nazi Germany
3809:
3785:Antisemitism
3730:
3717:
3699:. Since the
3689:Nazi Germany
3681:World War II
3652:
3650:
3591:Post-Zionism
3462:Judeo-Berber
3457:Judeo-Arabic
3417:Judeo-Gascon
3164:Pidyon haben
3083:Conservative
2811:
2629:Saudi Arabia
2447:South Africa
2436:Sierra Leone
2258:Israeli Jews
2172:Mosaic Arabs
2125:Kaifeng Jews
1986:Arab–Israeli
1959:Emancipation
1838:Great Revolt
1647:Anti-Judaism
1642:Antisemitism
1637:Name "Judea"
1432:Baal teshuva
995:Mittelsteine
563:Ezras Israel
364:Brit HaHayal
227:1989–present
222:20th century
217:19th century
212:18th century
197:List of Jews
160:
79:
43:Polscy Żydzi
29:Ethnic group
26:
20558:New Zealand
20493:Philippines
20297:Netherlands
20154:Switzerland
19949:Polska Roma
19924:Lithuanians
19867:Circassians
19798:Pomeranians
19793:Kosznajders
19776:Vilamovians
19691:Macedonians
19676:Belarusians
19639:Slovincians
19520:Podlachians
19350:Isle of Man
19285:recognition
19237:Switzerland
19172:Netherlands
18716:(2), 24–36.
18493:copy-pasted
18259:20 February
18233:20 February
18207:20 February
18182:20 February
18153:(in Polish)
18151:stat.gov.pl
17937:(in Polish)
17860:11 December
17717:Kraków Post
17111:27 December
16250:www.onet.pl
16229:Karski, Jan
15953:17 February
15943:Marci Shore
15434:28 December
15075:(in Polish)
14942:12 December
14916:26 November
14839:13 December
14403:Norman Goda
13060:Isaac Babel
12883:26 December
12436:(in Polish)
12431:Mówią Wieki
11423:20 February
11092:11 February
10999:As of 2010.
10884:38,036,118
10341:as well as
10273: [
10007:and in the
9969:Six-Day War
9893:Hilary Minc
9844:chief rabbi
9804:Six-Day War
9549:German Jews
9527:, with its
9493:Dzierżoniów
9413:machine gun
9358:Biala River
9295:Soviet Army
8838:Concerning:
8818:(seen from
8779:Lwów Ghetto
8747:Łódź Ghetto
8693:throughout
8661:Nazi crimes
8545:'s) lived.
8255:signed the
8205:Polish Army
8101:blood libel
8005:1931 census
7942:stomatology
7804:Józef Klotz
7662:The Dybbuk)
7634:Jakub Kagan
7622:Henryk Gold
7610:Henryk Wars
7606:Jan Kiepura
6477:Stanisławów
6327:Częstochowa
5933:World War I
5851:Pufferstaat
5811:During the
5804:(1863) and
5800:(1830–31),
5781:Folkspartei
5773:labor union
5427:) and with
5423:(later the
5146:(1764–1809)
4976:Jacob Frank
4961:Yoel Sirkis
4853:Renaissance
4320:, Josko of
4312:, Natko of
4286:Black Death
4278:blood libel
4223:blood libel
4219:Black Death
4051:Mieszko III
3955:in Spanish
3921:Jan Matejko
3879:citizenship
3586:Revisionist
3576:Neo-Zionism
3183:Zeved habat
2976:Puerto Rico
2802:Netherlands
2634:South Korea
2619:Philippines
2499:Afghanistan
2366:Ivory Coast
2140:Crypto-Jews
2105:Bnei Anusim
2084:Bene Israel
2049:Beta Israel
2006:Communities
1913:Middle Ages
1652:Persecution
1427:Bereavement
1113:Częstochowa
1052:Death camps
990:Gross-Rosen
948:Stanisławów
878:Częstochowa
733:Wolf Popper
723:White Stork
638:Nomer Tamid
429:Folkspartei
60:beside the
36:יהודי פולין
33:Polish Jews
20824:Categories
20649:Principal
20537:Uzbekistan
20520:Polonezköy
20510:Tajikistan
20478:Kyrgyzstan
20473:Kazakhstan
20448:Azerbaijan
20292:Luxembourg
20277:after 2004
20110:after WWII
20019:Historical
19966:Vietnamese
19892:Hungarians
19738:Ukrainians
19696:Podlashuks
19621:Kashubians
19606:Sącz Lachs
19574:Sieradzans
19559:Kocievians
19472:Lublinians
19462:Cracovians
19207:San Marino
19167:Montenegro
19147:Luxembourg
19127:Kazakhstan
19030:Azerbaijan
17096:. Warsaw:
16946:0230504884
16803:8385888365
16670:Original:
16620:15 January
16582:1571818820
16283:Yad Vashem
16235:'s website
16233:Yad Vashem
16139:Yad Vashem
16098:0786403713
16040:. Page 99.
15807:0801443474
15129:0786403713
14859:Yad Vashem
14744:, page 115
14395:Józef Beck
14034:031326371X
14009:3110137151
13225:Amendments
13166:0813531586
13064:1920 Diary
12942:1580461379
12100:"Rapoport"
11326:Józef Beck
11007:References
10854:1,196,557
10850:Holy Cross
10822:1,154,283
10806:1,382,232
10790:2,093,360
10774:2,027,261
10758:1,657,716
10742:2,052,340
10726:2,410,286
10710:2,357,320
10706:Pomeranian
10694:3,504,579
10678:2,904,894
10662:4,402,950
10646:3,432,295
10630:5,514,699
10477:3,250,000
10470:2,845,000
10467:Population
10411:See also:
10356:An annual
10052:Since 1989
9915:including
9891:(UB), and
9881:including
9789:Yugoslavia
9721:Aliyah Bet
9633:Żydokomuna
9483:, Kraków,
9380:ghetto in
9068:Hans Frank
8977:Jan Karski
8966:Yad Vashem
8602:Following
8550:synagogues
8412:Communists
8375:Żydokomuna
8340:Jan Karski
8167:See also:
8125:Józef Beck
8105:Józef Beck
7906:Leon Reich
7891:Bolshevism
7772:The Dybbuk
7693:Scientist
7618:Artur Gold
7594:Konrad Tom
7127:Inowrocław
6071:Population
6061:Paderewski
5995:, and the
5941:formed by
5910:Partitions
5828:Poale Zion
5753:Poale Zion
5575:delegates
5555:(Russian:
5524:status quo
5495:Sevastopol
5189:See also:
5046:Aleksander
4896:Jewish law
4799:("here"),
4716:, Kraków,
4710:pestilence
4686:the Deluge
4558:, nobles (
4528:See also:
4510:Maimonides
4347:and other
4322:Hrubieszów
4215:cemeteries
4181:Sandomierz
4039:Lithuanian
3957:Al-Andalus
3943:, crossed
3941:Radhanites
3571:Maximalism
3523:Secularism
3503:Autonomism
3320:Literature
3113:Humanistic
2717:Azerbaijan
2679:Uzbekistan
2654:Tajikistan
2574:Kyrgyzstan
2559:Kazakhstan
2406:Mozambique
2381:Madagascar
2301:Cape Verde
2253:New Yishuv
2248:Old Yishuv
2199:Population
2177:Subbotniks
2135:Samaritans
2074:Romanyotim
2017:Ashkenazim
1964:Old Yishuv
1944:Sabbateans
1931:Modern era
1923:Golden Age
1850:Bar Kokhba
1570:Beit Yosef
1437:Philosophy
1168:Resistance
578:Inowrocław
524:Synagogues
374:Komverband
369:Poale Zion
332:Sochatchov
277:Aleksander
80:1,300,000+
20553:Australia
20391:Venezuela
20329:Argentina
20205:Lithuania
20105:Ruhrpolen
19882:Georgians
19877:Filipinos
19857:Armenians
19701:Poleshuks
19649:Silesians
19564:Łęczycans
19515:Poborzans
19505:Masurians
19495:Łowiczans
19487:Masovians
19467:Lasovians
19432:Kuyavians
19427:Kaliszans
19340:Gibraltar
19142:Lithuania
18513:632370258
17792:145804324
17740:WPROST.pl
17507:(2): 233.
17269:151471207
17261:1462-169X
16886:841327982
16505:cite book
16391:From the
15750:(English)
15657:, JSTOR:
14619:236898673
14611:1611-8944
14442:Palestine
14282:cite book
14274:176630823
14118:490035434
14057:795425570
13793:, p. 306.
13612:22 August
13254:837032828
12975:715788575
12086:Sephardim
11948:13 August
11684:"Beriḥah"
11398:, p. 101.
11381:Palestine
11118:15 August
10818:Podlaskie
10505:(+130.0%)
10395:In 2013,
10231:ner tamid
9687:Jan Gross
9588:Holocaust
9140:markings.
9044:Treblinka
8872:.........
8867:.........
8862:.........
8755:Białystok
8719:Auschwitz
8711:Treblinka
8512:Treblinka
8508:Auschwitz
8406:into the
8365:Communism
8323:Białystok
8021:Christian
7719:Esperanto
7707:Adam Ulam
7531:Socialist
7495:Esperanto
7473:Lithuania
7327:Ostrowiec
7177:Nowy Sącz
7077:Drohobycz
7052:Zawiercie
6752:Pabianice
6577:Grudziądz
6527:Włocławek
6427:Białystok
6377:Sosnowiec
6302:Bydgoszcz
6112:Non-Jews
6039:Blue Army
5956:Porucznik
5766:socialism
5659:July 2018
5630:does not
5460:Lithuania
5325:July 2018
5296:does not
5272:Cantonist
5265:Cantonist
5150:A second
5028:known as
5022:based on
5002:mysticism
4953:Rabbinism
4851:The Late
4819:("here")
4787:, and as
4761:haydamaks
4490:Talmudist
4310:Drohobycz
4265:1388–1389
4205:Christian
4185:Kazimierz
4075:landlords
3965:Mieszko I
3793:Palestine
3697:Holocaust
3685:genocidal
3581:Religious
3437:Zarphatic
3427:Bukharian
3397:Judeo-Tat
3382:Yeshivish
3356:Languages
3311:Sephardic
3301:Israelite
3291:Ethiopian
3281:Ashkenazi
3220:Religious
3010:Australia
2992:Venezuela
2898:Argentina
2880:Greenland
2792:Lithuania
2644:Sri Lanka
2639:Singapore
2564:Kurdistan
2529:Indonesia
2519:Hong Kong
2472:Abayudaya
2396:Mauritius
2130:Igbo Jews
2120:Krymchaks
2039:Sephardim
1907:relations
1801:Sadducees
1797:Pharisees
1787:Sanhedrin
1702:Jerusalem
1462:Synagogue
1330:Etymology
1153:Szczuczyn
1103:Massacres
1088:Treblinka
1012:Poniatowa
978:Auschwitz
943:Sosnowiec
913:Nowy Sącz
868:Białystok
678:Przedbórz
663:Piaskower
543:Bydgoszcz
474:Białystok
317:Peshischa
111:Languages
20792:See also
20783:Hinduism
20778:Buddhism
20675:Armenian
20571:See also
20503:Buryatia
20488:Pakistan
20427:Zimbabwe
20417:Tanzania
20364:Paraguay
20349:Colombia
20322:Americas
20149:Slovakia
20090:Bulgaria
20059:Diaspora
20027:Lechites
19852:Africans
19836:Walloons
19831:Italians
19771:Flemings
19759:Olenders
19747:Germanic
19718:Russians
19584:Warmians
19360:Svalbard
19345:Guernsey
19292:Abkhazia
19267:Scotland
19222:Slovenia
19217:Slovakia
19192:Portugal
19050:Bulgaria
18938:Archived
18923:Archived
18814:Archived
18803:Archived
18792:Archived
18781:Archived
18756:38756480
18628:22908198
17929:Archived
17906:motl.org
17755:Archived
17694:Stanford
17633:Archived
17609:Archived
17556:Archived
17529:Archived
17380:(3): 273
17068:Archived
17041:Archived
16933:(2004).
16769:Also in:
16640:(2012).
16447:Archived
16297:Archived
16122:Archived
15996:(2000).
15744:Archived
15548:(1987).
15408:Archived
15201:(1997).
15084:Archived
15048:Archived
14887:21 March
14855:"Grodno"
14722:Archived
14691:Archived
14438:Sanation
14262:Source:
14163:Archived
14142:for the
14080:, p. 181
13997:(1993),
13703:26 March
13412:Archived
13229:Archived
13217:Archived
13114:(1993).
13095:Archived
12721:26 March
12687:11 March
12648:11 March
12507:Archived
12230:24 March
12015:(2000).
11737:Archived
11686:. YIVO.
11569:Archived
11487:Archived
11443:Archived
11377:Zionists
11289:Archived
11024:"Poland"
10897:See also
10870:991,213
10838:954,133
10658:Silesian
10626:Masovian
10550:(−24.0%)
10541:(−44.4%)
10532:(−71.0%)
10523:(−55.7%)
10514:(−69.6%)
10502:230,000
10496:(−96.9%)
10493:100,000
10473:(+14.2%)
10335:Birkenau
10321:and the
10268:journal
10226:Oświęcim
10129:and the
10121:and the
10102:, Poland
9975:and the
9971:between
9517:Oświęcim
9491:, e.g.,
9373:Majdanek
9272:Gesiowka
9228:and the
9226:Gęsiówka
9077:Judenrat
9059:and its
8715:Majdanek
8577:tabloids
8516:Majdanek
8441:II Corps
8213:prisoner
8146:en masse
8058:Lubartów
8032:and the
7965:interwar
7739:genocide
7471:(now in
7463:(now in
7404:3689058
7401:1363390
7398:5052448
7352:Żyrardów
6977:Kołomyja
6927:Tarnopol
6802:Borysław
6652:Przemyśl
6627:Piotrków
6277:Katowice
6131:1171898
6127:Warszawa
5859:de facto
5857:, being
5796:(1794),
5747:Haskalah
5723:Mizrachi
5703:Haskalah
5694:Maskilim
5689:Haskalah
5684:Haskalah
5611:Haskalah
5487:Caucasus
5245:the Pale
5130:szlachta
5122:kanclerz
5058:Nadvorna
5030:Hasidism
5025:Kabbalah
4995:Frankism
4948:Kabbalah
4925:yeshivah
4879:yeshivot
4871:gymnasia
4867:Yeshivot
4811:"), and
4757:Volhynia
4722:Piotrków
4694:Ottomans
4644:Cossacks
4636:Ruthenia
4583:Despite
4560:szlachta
4506:Kabbalah
4479:yeshivot
4476:and its
4349:Silesian
4318:Zydaczow
4179:(1356),
4080:szlachta
3997:Przemyśl
3951:town of
3929:Crusades
3855:Americas
3814:and the
3750:Catholic
3741:Paradise
3608:Category
3566:Kahanism
3513:Feminism
3485:Politics
3369:Biblical
3339:American
3286:Bukharan
3276:American
3176:Shidduch
3152:Clothing
3108:Haymanot
3054:Orthodox
2982:Suriname
2965:Paraguay
2918:Colombia
2817:Portugal
2727:Bulgaria
2664:Thailand
2614:Pakistan
2594:Mongolia
2589:Malaysia
2509:Cambodia
2483:Zimbabwe
2458:Tanzania
2336:Eswatini
2326:Ethiopia
2316:Djibouti
2296:Cameroon
2291:Botswana
2220:Diaspora
2182:Noahides
2155:Marranos
2079:Cochinim
2064:Bukharim
2054:Gruzinim
2044:Teimanim
2034:Mizrahim
2022:Galician
1988:conflict
1949:Hasidism
1939:Haskalah
1844:Diaspora
1715:timeline
1627:Timeline
1540:Rabbinic
1447:Kabbalah
1422:Marriage
1398:Tzedakah
1388:Holidays
1346:Religion
1309:a series
1307:Part of
1148:Radziłów
1123:Jedwabne
1073:Majdanek
1037:Trawniki
1027:Stutthof
1017:Potulice
1007:Lipowa 7
983:Monowitz
928:Piotrków
883:Frysztak
804:Yeshivas
668:Piotrków
658:Oświęcim
419:Haskalah
381:HeHalutz
250:Orthodox
153:a series
151:Part of
135:Religion
20747:Judaism
20546:Oceania
20483:Lebanon
20458:Georgia
20443:Armenia
20407:Senegal
20386:Uruguay
20282:Belgium
20236:Croatia
20195:Ireland
20190:Iceland
20185:Finland
20180:Estonia
20175:Denmark
20159:Ukraine
20139:Romania
20127:Moldova
20122:Hungary
20100:Germany
20085:Belarus
20080:Austria
19934:Nepalis
19914:Koreans
19897:Indians
19819:Romance
19783:Germans
19766:English
19728:Slovaks
19634:Krubans
19554:Bambers
19500:Kurpies
19444:Taśtaks
19257:England
19247:Ukraine
19197:Romania
19157:Moldova
19115:Ireland
19110:Iceland
19105:Hungary
19095:Germany
19090:Georgia
19080:Finland
19075:Estonia
19070:Denmark
19055:Croatia
19040:Belgium
19035:Belarus
19025:Austria
19020:Armenia
19015:Andorra
19010:Albania
18478::
18128:at the
17615:3 April
17118:Also in
16780:Wrocław
16416:in the
13826:, 2015.
13810:of the
13777:, p. 36
13418:3 April
13389:3 March
12034:11 June
11636:Poland.
11449:3 April
10887:17,156
10881:Poland
10568:(−8.6%)
10559:(−7.9%)
10520:31,000
10511:70,000
10365:Wrocław
10212:Leżajsk
10171:Midrasz
10150:Rzeszów
10146:Tykocin
10110:Reform
9903:in the
9846:of the
9781:Hungary
9777:Romania
9769:Berihah
9764:Berihah
9751:Zionist
9604:pogroms
9501:Bielawa
9497:Legnica
9485:Wrocław
9382:Bohemia
9165:, 1943.
9098:typhoid
9046:at the
8919:szmalec
8915:shmalts
8907:Gestapo
8799:typhoid
8707:Sobibór
8630:pogroms
8610:called
8536:ghettos
8534:in the
8528:Chełmno
8524:Sobibór
8487:Map of
8467:Bologna
8398:in the
8390:, Italy
8134:Haganah
8071:(1937).
7987:Endecja
7969:Zionist
7925:Endecja
7883:Judaism
7879:Marxism
7851:Endecja
7833:Yiddish
7556:in 1978
7523:Yiddish
7514:Yiddish
7465:Ukraine
7277:Rzeszów
7202:Gniezno
6902:Siedlce
6406:101977
6402:Chorzów
6381:108959
6356:112285
6331:117179
6312:115508
6306:117200
6287:120342
6281:126058
6262:140065
6256:195071
6237:162771
6231:219286
6212:244516
6206:246470
6187:212636
6181:312231
6162:402132
6159:202497
6156:604629
6137:819239
6134:352659
6049:Ukraine
5964:(Kfdo)(
5923:before
5902:Hasidic
5864:of the
5739:Bundist
5721:of the
5707:Halakha
5651:removed
5636:sources
5589:Okhrana
5573:Zionist
5557:погро́м
5552:pogroms
5504:shtetls
5476:Ukraine
5472:Moldova
5464:Belarus
5381:Yiddish
5367:Russian
5351:Map of
5317:removed
5302:sources
5221:Tzarina
5103:Prussia
5099:Austria
5082:Prussia
5020:Judaism
4903:Bohemia
4875:rectors
4839:1689).
4793:Polania
4777:Polania
4753:Dnieper
4646:of the
4601:Vilnius
4579:Decline
4494:yeshiva
4420:Germany
4416:Hungary
4412:Austria
4345:Wrocław
4341:Bohemia
4298:Bochnia
4253:Jadwiga
4208:baptism
4193:Opoczno
4189:Esterka
4004:Central
3983:of the
3977:Gniezno
3953:Tortosa
3949:Moorish
3945:Silesia
3937:Bukhara
3853:or the
3797:Haganah
3551:General
3542:Zionism
3518:Leftism
3508:Bundism
3432:Knaanic
3392:Yevanic
3377:Yiddish
3334:Yiddish
3329:Israeli
3306:Mizrahi
3296:Israeli
3267:Cuisine
3243:Ancient
3225:Secular
3171:Kashrut
3147:Wedding
3134:Customs
3126:Culture
3103:Science
3098:Renewal
3088:Karaite
3069:Hasidic
3001:Oceania
2987:Uruguay
2955:Jamaica
2935:Ecuador
2903:Bolivia
2847:Ukraine
2822:Romania
2797:Moldova
2777:Hungary
2767:Germany
2762:Georgia
2752:Finland
2747:Estonia
2742:Denmark
2737:Czechia
2722:Belarus
2712:Austria
2707:Armenia
2684:Vietnam
2599:Myanmar
2584:Lebanon
2504:Bahrain
2463:Tunisia
2441:Somalia
2416:Nigeria
2411:Namibia
2401:Morocco
2331:Eritrea
2276:Algeria
2160:Neofiti
2069:Italkim
2059:Juhurim
1969:Zionism
1918:Khazars
1813:Sicarii
1809:Zealots
1805:Essenes
1792:Schisms
1657:Leaders
1619:General
1611:History
1554:Tosefta
1549:Midrash
1526:Mishnah
1508:Ketuvim
1503:Nevi'im
1452:Customs
1383:Shabbat
1378:Halakha
1370: (
1368:Mitzvot
1355: (
1321:Judaism
1133:Tykocin
1083:Sobibor
1068:Chełmno
1032:Szebnie
938:Siedlce
888:Gorlice
873:Brzesko
853:Ghettos
743:Zasanie
728:Włodawa
713:Tykocin
708:Szydłów
673:Pińczów
618:Maharam
593:Końskie
533:Bielsko
469:Beuthen
414:Bundism
349:Zionist
322:Radomsk
287:Bluzhev
272:Hasidim
192:•
141:Judaism
125:Yiddish
38:
20757:Karaim
20515:Turkey
20498:Russia
20463:Israel
20422:Uganda
20400:Africa
20359:Mexico
20339:Canada
20334:Brazil
20287:France
20256:Serbia
20241:Greece
20215:Sweden
20210:Norway
20200:Latvia
20144:Russia
20066:Europe
19939:Romani
19929:Locals
19887:Greeks
19845:Others
19826:French
19711:Boykos
19706:Rusyns
19686:Lemkos
19681:Czechs
19668:Slavic
19666:Other
19598:Gorals
19547:Others
19355:Jersey
19297:Kosovo
19242:Turkey
19232:Sweden
19212:Serbia
19202:Russia
19187:Poland
19182:Norway
19162:Monaco
19132:Latvia
19100:Greece
19085:France
19060:Cyprus
18754:
18744:
18728:
18697:
18681:
18665:
18646:
18626:
18616:
18544:
18511:
18456:
18442:
18428:
18406:
18380:
18355:
18336:
18307:
18288:
18253:J-Wire
18094:YIVO,
18055:3 July
18031:
17994:4 July
17886:25 May
17882:. 2001
17821:
17790:
17584:
17535:10 May
17479:
17449:
17384:12 May
17301:
17267:
17259:
17221:14 May
17212:
17135:
17047:20 May
17007:
16967:
16943:
16909:
16884:
16874:
16830:
16800:
16759:
16727:]
16695:
16654:
16606:
16579:
16542:
16480:22 May
16453:20 May
16414:Łachwa
16395:by SS
16370:
16349:
16182:
16164:p. 114
16158:
16095:
16036:
16012:
15912:
15890:16 May
15805:
15765:DW.COM
15696:
15591:
15562:
15516:
15474:
15267:
15215:
15153:
15126:
15098:
15021:
14994:
14967:
14791:
14764:
14617:
14609:
14531:&
14377:
14324:: 182.
14272:
14232:Radom.
14214:
14116:
14076:
14055:
14031:
14007:
13978:
13951:
13911:
13884:
13667:
13637:
13570:
13541:
13514:
13479:p. 65.
13475:
13453:
13275:, 1974
13252:
13163:
13130:
13070:
13043:
12973:
12948:4 June
12939:
12805:6 June
12796:
12712:
12678:
12639:
12594:
12548:
12409:
12170:
12166:–148.
12025:
11882:
11859:2 July
11839:. 1948
11817:. 2009
11713:
11664:
11593:
11542:
11375:, The
11352:&
10890:0.05%
10876:0.03%
10866:Lubusz
10860:0.02%
10844:0.03%
10828:0.03%
10812:0.03%
10796:0.02%
10780:0.03%
10764:0.04%
10748:0.03%
10738:Lublin
10732:0.04%
10716:0.05%
10713:1,086
10700:0.03%
10697:1,173
10684:0.05%
10681:1,482
10668:0.04%
10665:1,611
10652:0.05%
10649:1,693
10636:0.09%
10633:5,224
10600:Kraków
10556:3,500
10547:3,800
10538:5,000
10529:9,000
10371:, and
10369:Kraków
10180:Jidele
10154:Kielce
10142:Zamość
10133:. The
10077:, the
10073:, the
10005:Europe
9973:Israel
9923:, and
9907:under
9858:, the
9797:Bolków
9793:Hagana
9773:Aliyah
9744:aliyah
9732:Israel
9615:police
9572:Poland
9541:Neisse
9499:, and
9477:Warsaw
9401:Polish
9354:ghetto
9148:wrote
9002:Żegota
8994:Allied
8835:NOTICE
8771:Kraków
8703:Bełżec
8674:Warsaw
8555:Rabbis
8526:, and
8520:Belzec
8501:German
8414:(e.g.
8266:Grodno
8049:Brześć
7953:indeks
7837:Hebrew
7753:. The
7733:, and
7644:, and
7527:Hebrew
7481:Warsaw
7477:Kraków
7407:27.0%
7390:35.6%
7387:16110
7381:25022
7365:10.9%
7362:22389
7356:25115
7340:38.3%
7337:15974
7331:25908
7315:17.1%
7312:22071
7306:26618
7302:Zgierz
7290:41.7%
7287:15674
7284:11228
7281:26902
7265:46.4%
7262:14835
7259:12842
7256:27677
7240:46.6%
7237:15537
7234:13537
7231:29074
7212:30538
7206:30675
7190:30.0%
7187:21214
7181:30298
7165:35.6%
7162:19622
7159:10869
7156:30491
7137:34225
7131:34364
7115:63.4%
7112:11692
7109:20220
7106:31912
7090:40.1%
7087:19330
7084:12931
7081:32261
7065:17.3%
7062:27195
7056:32872
7040:19.9%
7037:26427
7031:32998
7012:33133
7006:33217
7002:Gdynia
6990:42.4%
6987:19456
6984:14332
6981:33788
6965:48.8%
6962:18188
6959:17366
6956:35554
6940:39.3%
6937:21645
6934:13999
6931:35644
6915:40.1%
6912:22138
6909:14793
6906:36931
6890:13.9%
6887:31792
6881:36942
6865:29.7%
6862:26710
6859:11310
6856:38020
6840:56.0%
6837:17875
6834:22737
6831:40612
6815:28.9%
6812:29500
6809:11996
6806:41496
6790:43.0%
6787:25597
6784:19330
6781:44927
6777:Tarnów
6765:18.3%
6762:37313
6756:45670
6740:45.4%
6737:25972
6734:21625
6731:47597
6727:Będzin
6715:44.3%
6712:26945
6709:21440
6706:48385
6702:Brześć
6690:42.6%
6687:28510
6684:21159
6681:49669
6677:Grodno
6665:33.9%
6662:33712
6659:17326
6656:51038
6640:22.2%
6637:39949
6634:11400
6631:51349
6612:53500
6606:53993
6587:53337
6581:54014
6565:35.0%
6562:35759
6559:19248
6556:55007
6552:Kalisz
6540:18.2%
6537:45757
6534:10209
6531:55966
6515:31.1%
6512:40153
6509:18083
6506:58236
6502:Kielce
6490:41.4%
6487:35137
6484:24823
6481:59960
6465:32.3%
6462:52743
6459:25159
6456:77902
6440:43.0%
6437:51936
6434:39165
6431:91101
6412:99166
6390:19.1%
6387:88154
6384:20805
6365:34.7%
6362:73348
6359:38937
6352:Lublin
6340:21.8%
6337:91591
6334:25588
6265:28.2%
6259:55006
6240:25.8%
6234:56515
6227:Kraków
6202:Poznań
6190:31.9%
6184:99595
6165:33.5%
6140:30.1%
6035:Warsaw
5991:, the
5919:Rabbi
5779:. The
5691:, the
5561:rubles
5480:Russia
5468:Poland
5395:Hebrew
5219:, the
5209:Warsaw
5197:, and
5101:, and
5042:Chabad
4921:Lublin
4912:Pilpul
4887:Lublin
4860:Zamość
4827:until
4785:Hebrew
4726:Lublin
4718:Poznań
4714:Kalisz
4650:under
4630:After
4597:Kraków
4593:Lublin
4589:Poznań
4564:Warsaw
4536:, and
4498:Kraków
4400:father
4294:Kraków
4290:Kalisz
4282:Kraków
4227:Poznań
4212:Jewish
4163:, 1874
4111:Kalisz
3989:Prague
3969:Toledo
3923:, 1889
3867:aliyah
3803:, and
3709:Warsaw
3657:Poland
3613:Portal
3472:Domari
3402:Shassi
3363:Hebrew
3258:Humour
3202:Hiloni
3197:Aliyah
3157:Niddah
3142:Minyan
3077:Reform
3064:Haredi
3059:Modern
2960:Mexico
2945:Guyana
2908:Brazil
2870:Canada
2842:Sweden
2832:Serbia
2827:Russia
2812:Poland
2807:Norway
2787:Latvia
2772:Greece
2757:France
2732:Cyprus
2698:Europe
2669:Turkey
2659:Taiwan
2569:Kuwait
2554:Jordan
2544:Israel
2478:Zambia
2468:Uganda
2386:Malawi
2356:Guinea
2346:Gambia
2281:Angola
2267:Africa
2150:Dönmeh
2145:Anusim
2089:Berber
2027:Litvak
1979:Israel
1885:
1822:
1736:Second
1704:
1565:Targum
1531:Gemara
1517:Talmud
1489:Tanakh
1442:Ethics
1393:Prayer
1260:
1158:Wąsosz
1078:Belzec
1042:Warsaw
1022:Soldau
958:Warsaw
953:Tarnów
923:Opatów
918:Olkusz
898:Kraków
893:Kielce
863:Będzin
738:Zamość
718:Warsaw
608:Łańcut
558:Danzig
509:Wieluń
494:Łęczna
489:Kraków
484:Kalisz
479:Gdańsk
464:Adamów
455:Cities
391:Tarbut
240:Groups
194:
190:
175:
155:on the
129:German
121:Hebrew
117:Polish
102:Israel
92:Poland
66:Warsaw
20752:Islam
20468:Japan
20453:China
20354:Haiti
20344:Chile
20261:Spain
20251:Malta
20246:Italy
19961:Turks
19956:Scots
19754:Dutch
19733:Sorbs
19723:Serbs
19629:Gochs
19410:Poles
19330:Åland
19272:Wales
19227:Spain
19152:Malta
19122:Italy
18145:GUS.
18080:9 May
17911:9 May
17788:S2CID
17265:S2CID
17127:[
17105:(PDF)
17090:(PDF)
16824:(PDF)
16751:[
16729:(PDF)
16723:[
16646:[
16553:(PDF)
16536:(PDF)
16188:p.149
15980:Kapos
15480:p. 57
15271:p. 49
15209:49–65
14795:p. 47
14615:S2CID
13861:(PDF)
13854:(PDF)
13804:Betar
13754:(PDF)
13735:(PDF)
13724:(PDF)
13672:p.144
13591:p. 47
13286:p. 12
13194:(PDF)
13187:(PDF)
12462:5 May
12452:(PDF)
12378:1901.
12337:1901.
12075:p. 50
11373:Irgun
10978:Notes
10834:Opole
10570:0.01%
10565:3,200
10561:0.01%
10552:0.01%
10543:0.01%
10534:0.03%
10525:0.10%
10516:0.28%
10507:0.97%
10498:0.43%
10487:9.14%
10277:]
10198:2005
10156:, or
9668:Joint
9270:from
9136:with
8945:Nazis
8728:Kapos
8638:Kresy
8450:Irgun
8425:Gulag
8422:in a
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