648:, chain extending and introducing crosslink structures have been used to enhance the mechanical properties of PLA polymers. Annealing has been shown to significantly increase the degree of crystallinity of PLA polymers. In one study, increasing the duration of annealing directly affected thermal conductivity, density, and the glass transition temperature. Structural changes from this treatment further improved characteristics such as compressive strength and rigidity by nearly 80%. Processes such as this may boost PLA’s presence in the plastics market, as improving the mechanical properties will be important to replace current petroleum-derived plastics. It has also been demonstrated that the addition of a PLA-based, cross-linked nucleating agent improved the degree of crystallinity of the final PLA material. Alongside the use of the nucleating agent, annealing was shown to further improve the degree of crystallinity and, therefore, the toughness and
668:
increasing molecular weight is by introducing branches of the same polymer chain onto the backbone. Through characterization of a branched and linear grade PLA, branched PLA leads to faster crystallization. Furthermore, the branched PLA experiences much longer relaxation times at low shear rates, contributing to higher viscosity than the linear grade. This is presumed to be from high molecular weight regions within the branched PLA. However, the branched PLA was observed to shear thin more strongly, leading to a much lower viscosity at high shear rates. Understanding properties such as these are crucial when determining optimal processing conditions for materials, and that simple changes to the structure can alter its behavior dramatically.
771:
930:
1000:
472:
102:
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29:
3997:
169:
1148:
945:
4003:
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813:, housings for kitchen appliances and electronics such as laptops and handheld devices, and microwavable trays. (However, PLA is not suitable for microwavable containers because of its low glass transition temperature.) It is used for compost bags, food packaging and loose-fill packaging material that is cast, injection molded, or spun. In the form of a film, it shrinks upon heating, allowing it to be used in
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conditions (58 °C (136 °F)), PLA can partly (about half) decompose into water and carbon dioxide in 60 days, after which the remainder decomposes much more slowly, with the rate depending on the material's degree of crystallinity. Environments without the necessary conditions will see very
1173:
7 ("others") is applicable for PLA. In
Belgium, Galactic started the first pilot unit to chemically recycle PLA (Loopla). Unlike mechanical recycling, waste material can hold various contaminants. Polylactic acid can be chemically recycled to monomer by thermal depolymerization or hydrolysis. When
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at high stress levels. An effort to increase the elongation at break for PLA has been underway, especially to bolster PLA’s presence as a commodity plastic and improve the bioplastics landscape. For example, PLLA biocomposites have been of interest to improve these mechanical properties. By mixing
465:
is required to drive the reaction toward polycondensation. Molecular weights of 130 kDa can be obtained this way. Even higher molecular weights can be attained by carefully crystallizing the crude polymer from the melt. Carboxylic acid and alcohol end groups are thus concentrated in the amorphous
667:
Backbone architecture of PLA and its effect on crystallization kinetics has also been investigated, specifically to better understand the most suitable processing conditions for PLA. The molecular weight of polymer chains can play a significant role in the mechanical properties. One method of
456:
The direct condensation of lactic acid monomers can also be used to produce PLA. This process needs to be carried out at less than 200 °C; above that temperature, the entropically favored lactide monomer is generated. This reaction generates one equivalent of water for every condensation
863:
PLA can degrade into innocuous lactic acid, making it suitable for use as medical implants in the form of anchors, screws, plates, pins, rods, and mesh. Depending on the type used, it breaks down inside the body within 6 months to 2 years. This gradual degradation is desirable for a support
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compared to pure PLLA, indicating improved nucleation density and also contributing to an increase of elongation at break from 6% in pure PLLA to 140-190% in the biocomposites. Biocomposites such as these are of great interest for food packaging because of their improved strength and
596:-lactide). PDLA and PLLA form a highly regular stereocomplex with increased crystallinity. The temperature stability is maximised when a 1:1 blend is used, but even at lower concentrations of 3–10% of PDLA, there is still a substantial improvement. In the latter case, PDLA acts as a
979:
1077:
The degradation rate is very slow in ambient temperatures. A 2017 study found that at 25 °C (77 °F) in seawater, PLA showed no loss of mass over a year, but the study did not measure breakdown of the polymer chains or water absorption. As a result, it degrades poorly in
557:("lac-OCA"), a five-membered cyclic compound has been used academically as well. This compound is more reactive than lactide, because its polymerization is driven by the loss of one equivalent of carbon dioxide per equivalent of lactic acid. Water is not a co-product.
976:
775:
592:. The melting temperature of PLLA can be increased by 40–50 °C and its heat deflection temperature can be increased from approximately 60 °C to up to 190 °C by physically blending the polymer with PDLA (poly-
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during incineration. PLA can be combusted with no remaining residue. This and other results suggest that incineration is an environmentally friendly disposal of waste PLA. Upon being incinerated, PLA can release carbon
787:
PLA-printed solids can be encased in plaster-like moulding materials, then burned out in a furnace, so that the resulting void can be filled with molten metal. This is known as "lost PLA casting", a type of
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of the material. This example reveals the ability to utilize multiple of these processes to reinforce the mechanical properties of PLA. Polylactic acid can be processed like most thermoplastics into
461:) step. The condensation reaction is reversible and subject to equilibrium, so removal of water is required to generate high molecular weight species. Water removal by application of a vacuum or by
904:
PLLA is used to stimulate collagen synthesis in fibroblasts via foreign body reaction in the presence of macrophages. Macrophages act as a stimulant in secretion of cytokines and mediators such as
2072:
Urayama H, Kanamori T, Fukushima K, Kimura Y (1 September 2003). "Controlled crystal nucleation in the melt-crystallization of poly(l-lactide) and poly(l-lactide)/poly(d-lactide) stereocomplex".
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temperatures, making them undesirable because of low strength and melting point. A stereocomplex of PDLA and PLLA has a higher glass transition temperature, lending it more mechanical strength.
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structure, because it gradually transfers the load to the body (e.g., to the bone) as that area heals. The strength characteristics of PLA and PLLA implants are well documented.
855:
In the form of fibers, PLA is used for monofilament fishing line and netting for vegetation and weed prevention. It is used for sandbags, planting pots, binding tape and ropes .
1192:: PLA is biodegradable under industrial composting conditions, starting with chemical hydrolysis process, followed by microbial digestion, to ultimately degrade the PLA. Under
3613:
Pantani R, Sorrentino A (2013). "Influence of crystallinity on the biodegradation rate of injection-moulded poly(lactic acid) samples in controlled composting conditions".
2574:
Sato S, Gondo D, Wada T, Kanehashi S, Nagai K (2013). "Effects of
Various Liquid Organic Solvents on Solvent-Induced Crystallization of AMorphous Poly(lactic acid) Film".
3262:
Pavia FC, La
Carrubba V, Piccarolo S, Brucato V (August 2008). "Polymeric scaffolds prepared via thermally induced phase separation: tuning of structure and morphology".
2848:
Lam CX, Olkowski R, Swieszkowski W, Tan KC, Gibson I, Hutmacher DW (2008). "Mechanical and in vitro evaluations of composite PLDLLA/TCP scaffolds for bone engineering".
2539:
Giordano RA, Wu BM, Borland SW, Cima LG, Sachs EM, Cima MJ (1997). "Mechanical properties of dense polylactic acid structures fabricated by three dimensional printing".
1491:
Vert M, Chen J, Hellwich KH, Hodge P, Nakano T, Scholz C, et al. "Nomenclature and
Terminology for Linear Lactic Acid-Based Polymers (IUPAC Recommendations 2019)".
3695:
Chien YC, Liang C, Liu SH, Yang SH (July 2010). "Combustion kinetics and emission characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from polylactic acid combustion".
2142:
Urayama H, Ma C, Kimura Y (July 2003). "Mechanical and
Thermal Properties of Poly(L-lactide) Incorporating Various Inorganic Fillers with Particle and Whisker Shapes".
478:
Another method devised is by contacting lactic acid with a zeolite. This condensation reaction is a one-step process, and runs about 100 °C lower in temperature.
2177:
Trimaille T, Pichot C, Elaissari A, Fessi H, Briançon S, Delair T (1 November 2003). "Poly(d,l-lactic acid) nanoparticle preparation and colloidal characterization".
1945:
Farah S, Anderson DG, Langer R (December 2016). "Physical and mechanical properties of PLA, and their functions in widespread applications - A comprehensive review".
678:
The high surface energy of PLA results in good printability, making it widely used in 3D printing. The tensile strength for 3D printed PLA was previously determined.
175:
604:
of PDLA is slower than for PLA due to the higher crystallinity of PDLA. The flexural modulus of PLA is higher than polystyrene and PLA has good heat sealability.
3586:
Iovino R, Zullo R, Rao MA, Cassar L, Gianfreda L (2008). "Biodegradation of poly(lactic acid)/starch/coir biocompositesunder controlled composting conditions".
1456:
Simmons H, Tiwary P, Colwell JE, Kontopoulou M (August 2019). "Improvements in the crystallinity and mechanical properties of PLA by nucleation and annealing".
1310:
999:
615:, the material is very brittle and results in less than 10% elongation at break. Furthermore, this limits PLA’s use in applications that require some level of
2107:
Tsuji H (1 January 1995). "Properties and morphologies of poly(l-lactide): 1. Annealing condition effects on properties and morphologies of poly(l-lactide)".
1082:
and household composts, but is effectively digested in hotter industrial composts, usually degrading best at temperatures of over 60 °C (140 °F).
908:, which stimulate the fibroblast to secrete collagen into the surrounding tissue. Therefore, PLLA has potential applications in the dermatological studies.
1135:
4328:
1586:
183:
3643:
541:
PLA which has been found to show crystallinity. The degree of crystallinity, and hence many important properties, is largely controlled by the ratio of
1724:
Jung YK, Kim TY, Park SJ, Lee SY (January 2010). "Metabolic engineering of
Escherichia coli for the production of polylactic acid and its copolymers".
1122:
2825:
Theoretical
Strength Comparison of Bioabsorbable (PLLA) Plates and Conventional Stainless Steel and Titanium Plates Used in Internal Fracture Fixation
2410:
Nunes RW, Martin JR, Johnson JF (March 1982). "Influence of molecular weight and molecular weight distribution on mechanical properties of polymers".
690:
is widely used because of its ease of access and low risk. It is useful in 3D printers for cleaning the extruder heads and for removing PLA supports.
385:
standard nomenclature, which is "poly(lactic acid)". The name "polylactic acid" is potentially ambiguous or confusing, because PLA is not a polyacid (
1544:
Södergård A, Stolt M (2010). "3. Industrial
Production of High Molecular Weight Poly(Lactic Acid)". In Auras R, Lim LT, Selke SE, Tsuji H (eds.).
929:
1047:: A complex phenomenon leading to the appearance of different compounds such as lighter molecules and linear and cyclic oligomers with different
374:, due to its low melting point, high strength, low thermal expansion, and good layer adhesion, although it possesses poor heat resistance unless
197:
1867:
Fiore GL, Jing F, Young Jr VG, Cramer CJ, Hillmyer MA (2010). "High Tg
Aliphatic Polyesters by the Polymerization of Spirolactide Derivatives".
3746:
Sun C, Wei S, Tan H, Huang Y, Zhang Y (October 2022). "Progress in upcycling polylactic acid waste as an alternative carbon source: A review".
3669:
1377:
843:
PLA is used for automotive parts such as floor mats, panels, and covers. Its heat resistance and durability are inferior to the widely used
2255:
Li BH, Yang MC (2006). "Improvement of thermal and mechanical properties of poly(L-lactic acid) with 4,4-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate".
1234:: the least preferable option is landfilling because PLA degrades very slowly in ambient temperatures, often as slowly as other plastics.
3021:
956:
584:
2.7–16 GPa. Heat-resistant PLA can withstand temperatures of 110 °C. The basic mechanical properties of PLA are between those of
190:
2298:
Di Y, Iannace S, Di Maio E, Nicolais L (4 November 2005). "Reactively
Modified Poly(lactic acid): Properties and Foam Processing".
1401:"Perspective on Polylactic Acid (PLA) based Sustainable Materials for Durable Applications: Focus on Toughness and Heat Resistance"
2971:"Investigating the Effect of Biomaterials Such as Poly-(l-Lactic Acid) Particles on Collagen Synthesis In Vitro: Method Is Matter"
4321:
1093:(FBS) (a solution mimicking body fluid). After 30 days of submersion in DMEM+FBS, a PLLA scaffold lost about 20% of its weight.
2758:
4204:
3570:
2832:
2807:
2445:
Dorgan JR, Lehermeier H, Mang M (January 2000). "Thermal and Rheological Properties of Commercial-Grade Poly(Lactic Acid)s".
1561:
867:
Thanks to its bio-compatibility and biodegradability, PLA found interest as a polymeric scaffold for drug delivery purposes.
366:. Its widespread application has been hindered by numerous physical and processing shortcomings. PLA is the most widely used
2916:
Ray S, Adelnia H, Ta HT (September 2021). "Collagen and the effect of poly-l-lactic acid based materials on its synthesis".
4663:
4614:
4583:
3331:
4737:
2630:
2388:
1805:
Södergård A, Stolt M (February 2002). "Properties of lactic acid based polymers and their correlation with composition".
1086:
3553:
Gorrasi G, Pantani R (2017). "Hydrolysis and Biodegradation of Poly(lactic acid)". In Di Lorenzo ML, Androsch R (eds.).
3046:
Guo SZ, Yang X, Heuzey MC, Therriault D (2015). "3D printing of a multifunctional nanocomposite helical liquid sensor".
1432:
4314:
3821:
3670:"End of Life Options for Bioplastics – Recycling, Energy, Composting, Landfill - Bioplastics Guide | Bioplastics Guide"
2220:
Hu X, Xu HS, Li ZM (4 May 2007). "Morphology and Properties of Poly(L-Lactide) (PLLA) Filled with Hollow Glass Beads".
1770:
Lunt J (3 January 1998). "Large-scale production, properties and commercial applications of polylactic acid polymers".
1667:
1031:
standards. However, certain isomers of PLA such as PLLA or PDLA have been shown to have varying rates of degradation.
840:. Such blends have good form stability and visual transparency, making them useful in low-end packaging applications.
2705:
1220:
1514:
Martin O, Avérous L (2001). "Poly(lactic acid): plasticization and properties of biodegradable multiphase systems".
1318:
1057:: UV radiation induces degradation. This is a factor mainly where PLA is exposed to sunlight in its applications in
836:
PLA has applications in engineering plastics, where the stereocomplex is blended with a rubber-like polymer such as
3539:
1340:
1152:
471:
217:
4707:
4306:
3846:
1244:
905:
837:
4727:
4599:
4578:
4475:
4229:
1896:"Relationship between the Stereocomplex Crystallization Behavior and Mechanical Properties of PLLA/PDLA Blends"
1111:
550:
1578:
1197:
slow decomposition akin to that of non-bioplastics, not fully decomposing for hundreds or thousands of years.
767:
also softens the surface of PLA, making it sticky without dissolving it, for welding to another PLA surface.
701:
can be used, but it has a distinct fish odor and is less safe than ethyl acetate. PLA is also soluble in hot
375:
4653:
4573:
2037:
Nugroho P, Mitomo H, Yoshii F, Kume T (1 May 2001). "Degradation of poly(l-lactic acid) by γ-irradiation".
1174:
purified, the monomer can be used for the manufacturing of virgin PLA with no loss of original properties (
629:
625:
572:
PLA polymers range from amorphous glassy polymer to semi-crystalline and highly crystalline polymer with a
549:
enantiomers used, and to a lesser extent on the type of catalyst used. Apart from lactic acid and lactide,
3236:
2670:
2482:"Recent Progress in Enhancing Poly(Lactic Acid) Stereocomplex Formation for Material Property Improvement"
2335:"Thermal Insulation and Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid (PLA) at Different Processing Conditions"
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region of the solid polymer, and so they can react. Molecular weights of 128–152 kDa are obtainable thus.
4646:
4568:
4384:
3981:
3557:. Advances in Polymer Science. Vol. 279. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 119–151.
886:-lactide) (PLDLLA) with tricalcium phosphate (TCP) is used as PLDLLA/TCP scaffolds for bone engineering.
334:
80:
3911:
3886:
847:(PP), but its properties are improved by means such as capping of the end groups to reduce hydrolysis.
741:
589:
371:
421:
Several industrial routes afford usable (i.e. high molecular weight) PLA. Two main monomers are used:
4722:
4686:
4420:
4219:
4044:
3861:
3851:
3492:"Comparative property analysis of fused filament fabrication PLA using fresh and recycled feedstocks"
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1170:
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510:-lactide). Progress in biotechnology has resulted in the development of commercial production of the
97:
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4480:
4342:
4029:
3976:
3866:
3673:
2648:
1982:"Increase the elongation at break of poly (lactic acid) composites for use in food packaging films"
1832:
Middleton JC, Tipton AJ (December 2000). "Synthetic biodegradable polymers as orthopedic devices".
453:
of the PLA, reducing its stereoregularity compared to the starting material (usually corn starch).
438:
1369:
4742:
4732:
4080:
3971:
3956:
3936:
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Dash A, Kabra S, Misra S, Hrishikeshan G, Singh RP, Patterson AE, et al. (1 November 2022).
2736:
1609:
1175:
944:
756:
462:
442:
3091:"Properties of crosslinked polylactides (PLLA & PDLA) by radiation and its biodegradability"
4495:
4373:
4128:
3856:
3814:
3390:"Chemical Degradation of End-of-Life Poly(lactic acid) into Methyl Lactate by a Zn(II) Complex"
1262:
637:
561:
446:
3299:"Poly(lactic acid) Degradation into Methyl Lactate Catalyzed by a Well-Defined Zn(II) Complex"
817:. In the form of fibers, it is used for monofilament fishing line and netting. In the form of
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314:
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1993:
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52:
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1204:
8:
4717:
4525:
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4209:
4123:
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3138:"Poly(lactic acid)-Mass production, processing, industrial applications, and end of life"
1207:
without producing chlorine-containing chemicals or heavy metals because it contains only
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42:
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2014:
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3525:
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3421:
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3359:
3332:"Zinc Complexes for PLA Formation and Chemical Recycling: Towards a Circular Economy"
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Poly(Lactic Acid): Synthesis, Structures, Properties, Processing, and Applications
1546:
Poly(Lactic Acid): Synthesis, Structures, Properties, Processing, and Applications
1417:
1400:
4425:
4411:
4276:
4163:
4153:
3136:
Castro-Aguirre E, Iñiguez-Franco F, Samsudin H, Fang X, Auras R (December 2016).
2901:
2884:
1041:: The ester groups of the main chain are cleaved, thus reducing molecular weight.
1023:
conditions but not in home compost, based off of the results of tests done using
990:
818:
760:
706:
612:
518:
386:
4454:
4266:
4168:
4039:
3716:
3516:
3491:
3154:
3137:
2602:
1958:
1610:"GREEN CHEMISTRY. Shape-selective zeolite catalysis for bioplastics production"
1179:
1097:
697:, which is safer than ethyl acetate but is difficult to purchase commercially.
601:
458:
430:
211:
3767:
3388:
Román-Ramírez LA, McKeown P, Shah C, Abraham J, Jones MD, Wood J (June 2020).
2861:
2728:
2618:
2458:
2190:
1553:
911:
PLLA is under investigation as a scaffold that can generate a small amount of
620:
PLLA with poly (3-hydroxy butyrate) (PHB), cellulose nano crystal (CNC) and a
4701:
4641:
4448:
4234:
4224:
4214:
4118:
4019:
3941:
3891:
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3315:
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1791:
1268:
1254:
1117:
1105:
1058:
916:
844:
814:
687:
657:
577:
354:
PLA has become a popular material due to it being economically produced from
249:
128:
2552:
1663:
1633:
381:
Although the name "polylactic acid" is widely used, it does not comply with
4261:
4251:
4113:
4060:
3961:
3906:
3881:
3724:
3476:
3425:
3363:
3355:
3283:
3222:
3203:
3163:
3075:
3006:
2947:
2525:
2370:
2311:
2233:
2155:
2023:
1966:
1931:
1853:
1745:
1664:"Bioengineers succeed in producing plastic without the use of fossil fuels"
1641:
1200:
1130:
664:
polymer, but has a significantly lower maximum continuous use temperature.
645:
538:
450:
4507:
3996:
2799:
2697:
2560:
2423:
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1912:
1500:
196:
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3457:
898:
745:
621:
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nature of lactic acid, several distinct forms of polylactide exist: poly-
422:
403:
318:
3330:
McKeown P, Román-Ramírez LA, Bates S, Wood J, Jones MD (November 2019).
3275:
3135:
2987:
2938:
2729:"Does Acetone also work for welding and smoothing PLA 3D printed parts?"
1351:
624:(TBC), a drastic improvement of mechanical properties were shown. Using
182:
4520:
4148:
4138:
3562:
3089:
Quynh TM, Mitomo H, Nagasawa N, Wada Y, Yoshii F, Tamada M (May 2007).
3067:
2929:
1880:
1702:
1250:
1038:
1028:
822:
641:
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The monomer is typically made from fermented plant starch such as from
359:
189:
63:
2587:
2005:
1737:
1147:
28:
4609:
4515:
4485:
4355:
3916:
3901:
3876:
3179:"Fate of So-Called Biodegradable Polymers in Seawater and Freshwater"
1608:
Dusselier M, Van Wouwe P, Dewaele A, Jacobs PA, Sels BF (July 2015).
1166:
986:
920:
726:
560:
The direct biosynthesis of PLA, in a manner similar to production of
415:
411:
252:
2268:
607:
Although PLA performs mechanically similar to PET for properties of
210:
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their
4530:
1311:"Material Properties of Polylactic Acid (PLA), Agro Based Polymers"
1231:
1216:
1079:
1024:
894:
783:
A corn form 3D printed using corn-derivative PLA (polylactic acid).
698:
537:), which is amorphous. Use of stereospecific catalysts can lead to
434:
155:
4002:
3022:"Electric knee implants could help millions of arthritis patients"
4658:
4535:
4436:
4338:
3830:
3383:
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1282:
1189:
1169:: which can be either chemical or mechanical. Currently, the SPI
1126:
962:
830:
764:
710:
702:
426:
407:
338:
118:
3297:
Román-Ramírez LA, Mckeown P, Jones MD, Wood J (4 January 2019).
3261:
2333:
Barkhad MS, Abu-Jdayil B, Mourad AH, Iqbal MZ (September 2020).
333:
with loss of water (hence its name). It can also be prepared by
3540:"Chemical recycling closes the LOOPLA for cradle-to-cradle PLA"
3387:
2674:
1607:
1455:
1212:
1208:
826:
749:
3378:
2071:
1219:
atoms. Since it does not contain chlorine it does not produce
660:
processes) and film. PLA has similar mechanical properties to
3329:
3296:
3176:
2176:
935:
732:
653:
382:
2332:
1433:"Worldwide most used 3D printing materials, as of July 2018"
1096:
PLA samples of various molecular weights were degraded into
805:
PLA is used in a large variety of consumer products such as
85:
3896:
3799:
2882:
1278:
661:
133:
150 to 160 °C (302 to 320 °F; 423 to 433 K)
3489:
3177:
Bagheri AR, Laforsch C, Greiner A, Agarwal S (July 2017).
2847:
1689:
Kricheldorf HR, Jonté JM (1983). "New polymer syntheses".
1370:"Bioplastics - Study: Market, Analysis, Trends - Ceresana"
1162:
Four possible end-of-life scenarios are the most common:
919:
effect that stimulates the growth of mechanically robust
358:. In 2021, PLA had the highest consumption volume of any
3555:
Synthesis, Structure and Properties of Poly(lactic acid)
2644:
2297:
3088:
3045:
2480:
Luo F, Fortenberry A, Ren J, Qiang Z (20 August 2020).
2036:
1866:
721:
PLA objects can be fabricated by 3D printing, casting,
2573:
2479:
3697:
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
3439:
Tokiwa Y, Calabia BP, Ugwu CU, Aiba S (August 2009).
3438:
2538:
1398:
1100:(a green solvent) by using a metal complex catalyst.
3585:
2444:
3644:"How long does it take for plastics to biodegrade?"
2823:Nazre A, Lin S (1994). Harvey JP, Games RF (eds.).
1944:
1103:PLA can also be degraded by some bacteria, such as
429:. The most common route to PLA is the ring-opening
2789:
2409:
498:) is the product resulting from polymerization of
3694:
3612:
2790:Auras R, Lim LT, Selke SE, Tsuji H, eds. (2010).
1490:
1178:). End-of-life PLA can be chemically recycled to
1034:PLA is degraded abiotically by three mechanisms:
1019:PLA is generally considered to be compostable in
529:-lactides usually leads to the synthesis of poly-
4699:
3264:Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. Part A
2541:Journal of Biomaterials Science. Polymer Edition
1688:
351:, the cyclic dimer of the basic repeating unit.
3394:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
2141:
1831:
740:PLA is used as a feedstock material in desktop
686:PLA is soluble in a range of organic solvents.
600:, thereby increasing the crystallization rate.
171:
51:
3745:
3552:
2883:Bose S, Vahabzadeh S, Bandyopadhyay A (2013).
1804:
1723:
1543:
1451:
1449:
989:using a conductive mixture of polylactide and
893:-lactic acid (PLLA) is the main ingredient in
449:. The metal-catalyzed reaction tends to cause
4322:
3815:
1513:
1341:"Polylactic Acid. Material Safety Data Sheet"
1085:Pure PLA foams are selectively hydrolysed in
897:, a facial volume enhancer used for treating
2962:
2915:
2909:
3606:
3445:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
2885:"Bone tissue engineering using 3D printing"
1539:
1537:
1446:
1405:ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering
4329:
4315:
3822:
3808:
3579:
2726:
2698:"Dichloromethane Vapor Treating PLA parts"
2603:"A Literature Review of Poly(Lactic Acid)"
644:agents, forming composites with fibers or
628:(POM), the PLLA biocomposites had smaller
100:
3515:
3466:
3456:
3415:
3405:
3314:
3212:
3202:
3153:
2996:
2986:
2937:
2900:
2515:
2505:
2360:
2350:
2013:
1921:
1911:
1416:
1399:Nagarajan V, Mohanty AK, Misra M (2016).
1305:
1303:
362:of the world, although it is still not a
3019:
2822:
2785:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2600:
2300:Macromolecular Materials and Engineering
2222:Macromolecular Materials and Engineering
2144:Macromolecular Materials and Engineering
1893:
1534:
1484:
1285:– biologically derived coating materials
1146:
1125:, can also degrade PLA. Enzymes such as
965:made of PLA. Peppermint tea is enclosed.
769:
731:
2763:Make: DIY Projects and Ideas for Makers
2607:Journal of Polymers and the Environment
2447:Journal of Polymers and the Environment
1979:
1579:"Cheaper, greener, route to bioplastic"
96:
4700:
3912:Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, PETE)
2254:
2219:
1315:Matbase - Material Properties Database
1300:
1005:3D printed human skull with data from
567:
392:
4310:
3852:Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX, XLPE)
3847:Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
3803:
3638:
3636:
3627:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2013.01.005
3600:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.10.011
2968:
2776:
2739:from the original on 21 December 2021
2695:
2673:. MakerBot Industries. Archived from
2106:
1765:
1763:
1576:
1470:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2019.06.001
4664:List of environmental health hazards
4584:List of environmental health hazards
2816:
2759:"Metal Casting with Your 3D Printer"
2708:from the original on 1 December 2017
1769:
1589:from the original on 1 December 2017
1380:from the original on 4 November 2017
1367:
3237:"Is PLA Biodegradable? – The Truth"
736:PLA filament for use in 3D printing
671:Racemic PLA and pure PLLA have low
13:
4469:Miscellaneous additives incl. PHCs
3633:
2975:Journal of Functional Biomaterials
2827:. ASTM International. p. 53.
2576:Journal of Applied Polymer Science
2257:Polymers for Advanced Technologies
1760:
1087:Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium
729:, machining, and solvent welding.
167:
14:
4754:
3785:
3615:Polymer Degradation and Stability
2651:from the original on 16 July 2011
2633:from the original on 26 May 2013.
2412:Polymer Engineering & Science
2385:"Compare Materials: PLA and PETE"
2039:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1772:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1458:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1247:(ABS) - also used for 3D printing
1061:, packaging containers and films.
829:, feminine hygiene products, and
800:
656:(for example, using conventional
4001:
3995:
3887:Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
3862:Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
3588:Polymer Degradation and Stabilit
2850:Virtual and Physical Prototyping
2727:Sanladerer T (9 December 2016).
1726:Biotechnology and Bioengineering
1670:from the original on 6 June 2011
998:
970:
955:
943:
928:
481:
470:
27:
3867:Poly(ethyl methacrylate) (PEMA)
3739:
3688:
3662:
3546:
3532:
3483:
3432:
3323:
3290:
3255:
3229:
3170:
3129:
3115:10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2007.03.007
3082:
3039:
3013:
2876:
2841:
2751:
2720:
2689:
2663:
2637:
2594:
2567:
2532:
2473:
2438:
2403:
2391:from the original on 1 May 2011
2377:
2326:
2291:
2248:
2213:
2170:
2135:
2100:
2065:
2030:
1973:
1938:
1887:
1860:
1825:
1798:
1717:
1682:
1656:
1601:
1570:
1265:– biologically derived polymers
1245:Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
850:
795:
214:(at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
4230:Category:Plastics applications
3977:Styrene maleic anhydride (SMA)
3972:Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)
3957:Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
3441:"Biodegradability of plastics"
3142:Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
3020:Petersen M (18 January 2022).
1947:Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
1894:Park HS, Hong CK (June 2021).
1507:
1425:
1392:
1361:
1333:
1142:
1014:
716:
433:of lactide with various metal
1:
3937:Poly(p-phenylene oxide) (PPO)
2647:. Reprap Wiki. 4 April 2011.
2086:10.1016/S0032-3861(03)00583-4
2051:10.1016/S0141-3910(01)00030-1
1846:10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00101-0
1819:10.1016/S0079-6700(02)00012-6
1784:10.1016/S0141-3910(97)00148-1
1528:10.1016/S0032-3861(01)00086-6
1418:10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b00321
1294:
636:Several technologies such as
4654:Persistent organic pollutant
4615:Toxic Substances Control Act
4574:Persistent organic pollutant
3857:Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
3829:
3748:Chemical Engineering Journal
2902:10.1016/j.mattod.2013.11.017
2121:10.1016/0032-3861(95)93647-5
1577:Drury J (15 February 2016).
1065:The hydrolytic reaction is:
938:made of PLA-blend "bio-flex"
870:The composite blend of poly(
693:Other safe solvents include
626:polarized optical microscopy
397:
7:
4647:Great Pacific garbage patch
4569:Great Pacific garbage patch
3982:Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)
3897:Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
2179:Colloid and Polymer Science
1807:Progress in Polymer Science
1238:
1115:. A purified protease from
923:in multiple animal models.
681:
425:, and the cyclic di-ester,
389:), but rather a polyester.
335:ring-opening polymerization
10:
4759:
4738:Fused filament fabrication
4610:Japan Toxic Substances Law
4405:Miscellaneous plasticizers
3717:10.3155/1047-3289.60.7.849
3496:Materials Research Express
3155:10.1016/j.addr.2016.03.010
2969:Ray S, Ta HT (July 2020).
1959:10.1016/j.addr.2016.06.012
1176:cradle-to-cradle recycling
858:
742:fused filament fabrication
4684:
4629:
4605:European REACH regulation
4600:California Proposition 65
4592:
4549:
4506:
4468:
4435:
4404:
4350:
4343:polyhalogenated compounds
4299:
4244:
4220:High-performance plastics
4189:
4182:
4094:
4053:
4045:High-performance plastics
4010:
3993:
3837:
3768:10.1016/j.cej.2022.136881
2862:10.1080/17452750802551298
2696:Coysh A (12 April 2013).
2191:10.1007/s00396-003-0894-1
1554:10.1002/9780470649848.ch3
1289:Poly(methyl methacrylate)
1171:resin identification code
1089:(DMEM) supplemented with
208:
149:
112:
35:
26:
4030:Fibre-reinforced plastic
3967:Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
3517:10.1088/2053-1591/ac96d4
3407:10.1021/acs.iecr.0c01122
3316:10.1021/acscatal.8b04863
3095:European Polymer Journal
2507:10.3389/fchem.2020.00688
506:-lactide (also known as
259:) with backbone formula
4081:Biodegradable additives
2619:10.1023/A:1020200822435
2553:10.1163/156856297x00588
2459:10.1023/A:1010185910301
1980:El-Hadi AM (May 2017).
1634:10.1126/science.aaa7169
825:, disposable garments,
580:130-180 °C, and a
562:poly(hydroxyalkanoate)s
463:azeotropic distillation
313:, formally obtained by
4708:Biodegradable plastics
4496:Perfluorooctanoic acid
3932:Polyphenyl ether (PPE)
3927:Polyoxymethylene (POM)
3872:Polyacrylic acid (PAA)
3356:10.1002/cssc.201902755
3204:10.1002/gch2.201700048
2486:Frontiers in Chemistry
2312:10.1002/mame.200500115
2234:10.1002/mame.200600504
2156:10.1002/mame.200350004
1493:IUPAC Standards Online
1263:poly-3-hydroxybutyrate
1159:
950:Biodegradable PLA cups
784:
737:
178:
4728:Transparent materials
4676:Biodegradable plastic
4025:Thermosetting polymer
3922:Polylactic acid (PLA)
3792:"Your plastic pal" |
2800:10.1002/9780470649848
2424:10.1002/pen.760220402
2352:10.3390/polym12092091
1913:10.3390/polym13111851
1501:10.1515/iupac.92.0001
1194:industrial composting
1150:
1129:and most effectively
1045:Thermal decomposition
1021:industrial composting
782:
735:
564:, has been reported.
177:
16:Biodegradable polymer
4687:Identification codes
4287:Foam food containers
4210:Engineering plastics
3458:10.3390/ijms10093722
2918:Biomaterials Science
807:disposable tableware
517:Polymerization of a
257:polyhydroxyalkanoate
160:(fire diamond)
4526:Endocrine disruptor
4124:Compression molding
4076:Polymer stabilizers
3760:2022ChEnJ.44636881S
3709:2010JAWMA..60..849C
3676:on 25 February 2021
3542:. 20 November 2015.
3508:2022MRE.....9k5303D
3400:(24): 11149–11156.
3348:2019ChSCh..12.5233M
3276:10.1002/jbm.a.31621
3195:2017GloCh...100048B
3107:2007EurPJ..43.1779Q
3060:2015Nanos...7.6451G
2988:10.3390/jfb11030051
2601:Garlotta D (2001).
2498:2020FrCh....8..688L
1998:2017NatSR...746767E
1626:2015Sci...349...78D
1321:on 10 February 2012
1184:transesterification
1007:computed tomography
695:propylene carbonate
617:plastic deformation
578:melting temperature
568:Physical properties
393:Chemical properties
356:renewable resources
140:Solubility in water
23:
4541:Polymer fume fever
4200:Commodity plastics
4174:Rotational molding
4144:Fiberglass molding
4104:Injection moulding
4086:Filler (materials)
4035:Corrugated plastic
3987:Tritan copolyester
3942:Polypropylene (PP)
3892:Polycarbonate (PC)
3650:. 15 December 2010
3563:10.1007/12_2016_12
3243:. 10 December 2019
3068:10.1039/C5NR00278H
2930:10.1039/d1bm00516b
2387:. Makeitfrom.com.
1986:Scientific Reports
1881:10.1039/C0PY00029A
1703:10.1007/BF00262719
1548:. pp. 27–41.
1357:on 6 January 2009.
1259:plastarch material
1160:
1136:Tritirachium album
1091:fetal bovine serum
1009:. Transparent PLA.
790:investment casting
785:
738:
723:injection moulding
633:biodegradability.
439:tin ethylhexanoate
218:Infobox references
179:
21:
4693:
4692:
4671:Plastic recycling
4637:Plastic pollution
4623:
4622:
4557:Plastic pollution
4337:Health issues of
4295:
4294:
4191:Plastics industry
4109:Plastic extrusion
3962:Polyurethane (PU)
3952:Polysulfone (PES)
3907:Polyethylene (PE)
3882:Polybutylene (PB)
3572:978-3-319-64229-1
3342:(24): 5233–5238.
3183:Global Challenges
2924:(17): 5714–5731.
2834:978-0-8031-1897-3
2809:978-0-470-29366-9
2588:10.1002/app.38833
2306:(11): 1083–1090.
2185:(12): 1184–1190.
2115:(14): 2709–2716.
2080:(19): 5635–5641.
2006:10.1038/srep46767
1869:Polymer Chemistry
1840:(23): 2335–2346.
1738:10.1002/bit.22548
1563:978-0-470-64984-8
1522:(14): 6209–6219.
1225:hydrochloric acid
985:3D printing of a
980:
892:
885:
881:
873:
821:, it is used for
780:
595:
576:60–65 °C, a
555:-carboxyanhydride
548:
544:
532:
528:
524:
514:enantiomer form.
513:
509:
505:
501:
493:
364:commodity polymer
226:Chemical compound
224:
223:
81:CompTox Dashboard
4750:
4723:Synthetic fibers
4562:Rubber pollution
4412:Organophosphates
4331:
4324:
4317:
4308:
4307:
4187:
4186:
4159:Filament winding
4134:Transfer molding
4061:Polymer additive
4005:
3999:
3947:Polystyrene (PS)
3824:
3817:
3810:
3801:
3800:
3780:
3779:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3683:
3681:
3672:. Archived from
3666:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3640:
3631:
3630:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3550:
3544:
3543:
3536:
3530:
3529:
3519:
3487:
3481:
3480:
3470:
3460:
3451:(9): 3722–3742.
3436:
3430:
3429:
3419:
3409:
3385:
3376:
3375:
3327:
3321:
3320:
3318:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3216:
3206:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3157:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3101:(5): 1779–1785.
3086:
3080:
3079:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3032:
3017:
3011:
3010:
3000:
2990:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2941:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2880:
2874:
2873:
2845:
2839:
2838:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2787:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2677:on 23 April 2011
2667:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2582:(3): 1607–1617.
2571:
2565:
2564:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2519:
2509:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2396:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2364:
2354:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2017:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1925:
1915:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1813:(6): 1123–1163.
1802:
1796:
1795:
1778:(1–3): 145–152.
1767:
1758:
1757:
1721:
1715:
1714:
1691:Polymer Bulletin
1686:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1541:
1532:
1531:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1453:
1444:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1420:
1411:(6): 2899–2916.
1396:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1374:www.ceresana.com
1365:
1359:
1358:
1356:
1350:. Archived from
1345:
1337:
1331:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1317:. Archived from
1307:
1274:Polycaprolactone
1123:PLA depolymerase
1055:Photodegradation
1002:
991:carbon nanotubes
982:
981:
959:
947:
932:
913:electric current
890:
883:
879:
871:
819:nonwoven fabrics
781:
673:glass transition
650:flexural modulus
609:tensile strength
598:nucleating agent
593:
574:glass transition
546:
542:
530:
526:
522:
511:
507:
503:
499:
491:
474:
368:plastic filament
350:
349:
348:
332:
330:
329:
312:
311:
310:
299:
298:
297:
287:
286:
278:
277:
269:
268:
232:, also known as
199:
192:
185:
170:
105:
104:
89:
87:
55:
31:
24:
22:Polylactic acid
20:
4758:
4757:
4753:
4752:
4751:
4749:
4748:
4747:
4698:
4697:
4694:
4689:
4680:
4625:
4624:
4619:
4588:
4545:
4502:
4464:
4431:
4400:
4346:
4335:
4301:
4291:
4240:
4178:
4164:Solvent bonding
4154:Plastic welding
4096:
4090:
4049:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3991:
3902:Polyester (PEs)
3839:
3833:
3828:
3788:
3783:
3744:
3740:
3693:
3689:
3679:
3677:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3653:
3651:
3642:
3641:
3634:
3611:
3607:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3551:
3547:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3488:
3484:
3437:
3433:
3386:
3379:
3328:
3324:
3295:
3291:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3244:
3235:
3234:
3230:
3175:
3171:
3134:
3130:
3087:
3083:
3044:
3040:
3030:
3028:
3018:
3014:
2967:
2963:
2914:
2910:
2895:(12): 496–504.
2889:Materials Today
2881:
2877:
2846:
2842:
2835:
2821:
2817:
2810:
2788:
2777:
2767:
2765:
2757:
2756:
2752:
2742:
2740:
2725:
2721:
2711:
2709:
2702:Thingiverse.com
2694:
2690:
2680:
2678:
2669:
2668:
2664:
2654:
2652:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2599:
2595:
2572:
2568:
2537:
2533:
2478:
2474:
2443:
2439:
2408:
2404:
2394:
2392:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2331:
2327:
2296:
2292:
2269:10.1002/pat.731
2253:
2249:
2218:
2214:
2175:
2171:
2140:
2136:
2105:
2101:
2070:
2066:
2035:
2031:
1978:
1974:
1943:
1939:
1892:
1888:
1865:
1861:
1830:
1826:
1803:
1799:
1768:
1761:
1722:
1718:
1687:
1683:
1673:
1671:
1666:. Physorg.com.
1662:
1661:
1657:
1620:(6243): 78–80.
1606:
1602:
1592:
1590:
1575:
1571:
1564:
1542:
1535:
1512:
1508:
1489:
1485:
1454:
1447:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1397:
1393:
1383:
1381:
1366:
1362:
1354:
1343:
1339:
1338:
1334:
1324:
1322:
1309:
1308:
1301:
1297:
1241:
1145:
1073:O → -COOH + -OH
1072:
1017:
1010:
1003:
994:
983:
971:
966:
960:
951:
948:
939:
933:
901:of the cheeks.
861:
853:
803:
798:
770:
761:dichloromethane
719:
707:tetrahydrofuran
684:
613:elastic modulus
582:Young's modulus
570:
519:racemic mixture
484:
416:sugar beet pulp
400:
395:
387:polyelectrolyte
372:FDM 3D printing
347:
344:
343:
342:
341:
328:
325:
324:
323:
321:
309:
304:
303:
302:
301:
296:
291:
290:
289:
285:
282:
281:
280:
276:
273:
272:
271:
267:
264:
263:
262:
260:
230:Polylactic acid
227:
220:
215:
204:
203:
202:
201:
194:
187:
180:
176:
168:
142:
123:1210–1430 kg/m
108:
90:
83:
74:
58:
45:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4756:
4746:
4745:
4743:Food packaging
4740:
4735:
4733:Thermoplastics
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4691:
4690:
4685:
4682:
4681:
4679:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4667:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4650:
4649:
4633:
4631:
4627:
4626:
4621:
4620:
4618:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4596:
4594:
4590:
4589:
4587:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4565:
4564:
4553:
4551:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4512:
4510:
4504:
4503:
4501:
4500:
4499:
4498:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4472:
4470:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4462:
4455:Vinyl chloride
4452:
4449:Polycarbonates
4441:
4439:
4433:
4432:
4430:
4429:
4423:
4414:
4408:
4406:
4402:
4401:
4399:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4382:
4377:
4371:
4366:
4360:
4358:
4348:
4347:
4334:
4333:
4326:
4319:
4311:
4305:
4303:
4297:
4296:
4293:
4292:
4290:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4262:Packaging film
4259:
4254:
4248:
4246:
4245:Specific goods
4242:
4241:
4239:
4238:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4196:
4194:
4184:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4176:
4171:
4169:Vacuum forming
4166:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4100:
4098:
4092:
4091:
4089:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4057:
4055:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4047:
4042:
4040:Polymeric foam
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4016:
4014:
4008:
4007:
3994:
3992:
3990:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3917:Polyimide (PI)
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3877:Polyamide (PA)
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3843:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3827:
3826:
3819:
3812:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3787:
3786:External links
3784:
3782:
3781:
3738:
3703:(7): 849–855.
3687:
3661:
3632:
3605:
3578:
3571:
3545:
3531:
3502:(11): 115303.
3482:
3431:
3377:
3322:
3309:(1): 409–416.
3289:
3270:(2): 459–466.
3254:
3228:
3189:(4): 1700048.
3169:
3128:
3081:
3054:(15): 6451–6.
3038:
3012:
2961:
2908:
2875:
2856:(4): 193–197.
2840:
2833:
2815:
2808:
2775:
2750:
2719:
2688:
2662:
2636:
2593:
2566:
2531:
2472:
2437:
2418:(4): 205–228.
2402:
2376:
2325:
2290:
2263:(6): 439–443.
2247:
2228:(5): 646–654.
2212:
2169:
2150:(7): 562–568.
2134:
2099:
2064:
2045:(2): 337–343.
2029:
1972:
1937:
1886:
1875:(6): 870–877.
1859:
1824:
1797:
1759:
1732:(1): 161–171.
1716:
1681:
1655:
1600:
1569:
1562:
1533:
1506:
1483:
1445:
1424:
1391:
1360:
1332:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1248:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1235:
1229:
1198:
1187:
1180:methyl lactate
1144:
1141:
1098:methyl lactate
1075:
1074:
1070:
1063:
1062:
1052:
1051:, and lactide.
1042:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1011:
1004:
997:
995:
984:
969:
967:
961:
954:
952:
949:
942:
940:
934:
927:
860:
857:
852:
849:
815:shrink tunnels
802:
801:Consumer goods
799:
797:
794:
757:solvent welded
718:
715:
683:
680:
646:nano-particles
602:Biodegradation
569:
566:
483:
480:
476:
475:
459:esterification
431:polymerization
399:
396:
394:
391:
345:
326:
305:
292:
283:
274:
265:
225:
222:
221:
216:
212:standard state
209:
206:
205:
195:
188:
181:
166:
165:
164:
163:
161:
152:
151:
147:
146:
143:
138:
135:
134:
131:
125:
124:
121:
115:
114:
110:
109:
107:
106:
98:DTXSID20904011
93:
91:
79:
76:
75:
73:
72:
68:
66:
60:
59:
57:
56:
48:
46:
41:
38:
37:
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4755:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4705:
4703:
4696:
4688:
4683:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4648:
4645:
4644:
4643:
4642:Garbage patch
4640:
4639:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4632:
4628:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4595:
4591:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4563:
4560:
4559:
4558:
4555:
4554:
4552:
4548:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4511:
4509:
4508:Health issues
4505:
4497:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4471:
4467:
4460:
4456:
4453:
4450:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4434:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4409:
4407:
4403:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4361:
4359:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4344:
4340:
4332:
4327:
4325:
4320:
4318:
4313:
4312:
4309:
4304:
4298:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4282:Shopping bags
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4249:
4247:
4243:
4237:(Agriculture)
4236:
4235:Plasticulture
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4215:Geosynthetics
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4188:
4185:
4181:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4119:Thermoforming
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4093:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4052:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4020:Thermoplastic
4018:
4017:
4015:
4009:
4004:
3998:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
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3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
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3903:
3900:
3898:
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3893:
3890:
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3883:
3880:
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3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
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3844:
3842:
3836:
3832:
3825:
3820:
3818:
3813:
3811:
3806:
3805:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3794:The Economist
3790:
3789:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3742:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3691:
3675:
3671:
3665:
3649:
3648:HowStuffWorks
3645:
3639:
3637:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3609:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3582:
3574:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3549:
3541:
3535:
3527:
3523:
3518:
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3509:
3505:
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3497:
3493:
3486:
3478:
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3442:
3435:
3427:
3423:
3418:
3413:
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3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3384:
3382:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3326:
3317:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3303:ACS Catalysis
3300:
3293:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3258:
3242:
3238:
3232:
3224:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
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3180:
3173:
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3147:
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3112:
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3027:
3023:
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3008:
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2940:
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2118:
2114:
2110:
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2068:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
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2033:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
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1349:
1348:ampolymer.com
1342:
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1304:
1299:
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1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1269:Polilactofate
1267:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1255:polyglycolide
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1203:: PLA can be
1202:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1157:
1156:resin ID code
1154:
1149:
1140:
1139:degrade PLA.
1138:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1118:Amycolatopsis
1114:
1113:
1112:Saccharothrix
1108:
1107:
1106:Amycolatopsis
1101:
1099:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1081:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1060:
1059:plasticulture
1056:
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1046:
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1037:
1036:
1035:
1032:
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968:
964:
958:
953:
946:
941:
937:
931:
926:
925:
924:
922:
918:
917:piezoelectric
914:
909:
907:
902:
900:
896:
887:
877:
868:
865:
856:
848:
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4252:Blister pack
4205:Construction
4114:Blow molding
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2675:the original
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1834:Biomaterials
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1201:Incineration
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315:condensation
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156:
36:Identifiers
18:
4713:Bioplastics
4593:Regulations
4445:Bisphenol A
4129:Calendering
4071:Plasticizer
4011:Mechanical
3621:(5): 1089.
3336:ChemSusChem
3148:: 333–366.
3026:ZME Science
2768:30 November
2733:youtube.com
2345:(9): 2091.
1953:: 367–392.
1583:reuters.com
1464:: 248–257.
1384:22 November
1205:incinerated
1143:End of life
1015:Degradation
899:lipoatrophy
755:PLA can be
746:3D printers
717:Fabrication
630:spherulites
622:plasticizer
586:polystyrene
486:Due to the
443:in solution
437:(typically
423:lactic acid
319:lactic acid
242:polylactide
238:lactic acid
113:Properties
4718:Polyesters
4702:Categories
4521:Carcinogen
4486:Organotins
4356:Phthalates
4302:and health
4149:Pultrusion
4139:Laminating
4097:processing
3031:19 January
2453:(1): 1–9.
1438:19 January
1368:Ceresana.
1325:6 February
1295:References
1251:Cellophane
1190:Composting
1039:Hydrolysis
1029:ASTM D6400
936:Mulch film
823:upholstery
752:printers.
748:, such as
642:nucleating
533:-lactide (
494:-lactide (
447:suspension
360:bioplastic
331:)(OH)HCOOH
64:ChemSpider
53:26100-51-6
43:CAS Number
4550:Pollution
4516:Teratogen
4447:(BPA, in
4095:Plastics
4066:Colorants
4054:Additives
3838:Chemical
3776:248715252
3526:252665567
3372:207941305
3123:0014-3057
3048:Nanoscale
2981:(3): 51.
2956:236199608
2870:135582844
2743:9 January
2467:1572-8900
2432:0032-3888
2320:1438-7492
2277:1042-7147
2242:1438-7492
2199:0303-402X
2164:1438-7492
2129:0032-3861
2094:0032-3861
2059:0141-3910
1792:0141-3910
1754:205499487
1650:206635718
1478:195550926
1167:Recycling
1080:landfills
1069:-COO- + H
987:microcoil
921:cartilage
874:-lactide-
727:extrusion
640:, adding
638:annealing
435:catalysts
412:sugarcane
398:Synthesis
253:polyester
145:0 mg/ml
4531:Diabetes
4437:Monomers
4417:Adipates
4339:plastics
4193:segments
4183:Products
3831:Plastics
3733:34100178
3725:20681432
3477:19865515
3426:32581423
3364:31714680
3284:17975822
3223:31565274
3164:27046295
3076:25793923
3007:32722074
2948:34296717
2737:Archived
2706:Archived
2681:11 April
2655:11 April
2649:Archived
2631:Archived
2526:32974273
2395:11 April
2389:Archived
2371:32938000
2339:Polymers
2285:98536537
2207:98078359
2024:28466854
1967:27356150
1932:34199577
1900:Polymers
1854:11055281
1746:19937727
1711:95429767
1674:11 April
1668:Archived
1642:26138977
1587:Archived
1378:Archived
1239:See also
1232:Landfill
1228:dioxide.
1217:hydrogen
1151:PLA has
1025:EN 13432
963:Tea bags
915:via the
895:Sculptra
699:Pyridine
682:Solvents
445:or as a
376:annealed
248:), is a
157:NFPA 704
150:Hazards
4659:Dioxins
4579:Dioxins
4536:Obesity
4277:Cutlery
4267:Bottles
3756:Bibcode
3705:Bibcode
3680:9 March
3654:9 March
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3504:Bibcode
3468:2769161
3417:7304880
3344:Bibcode
3247:26 June
3214:6607129
3191:Bibcode
3103:Bibcode
3056:Bibcode
2998:7564527
2627:8630569
2561:8933291
2517:7468453
2494:Bibcode
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2362:7570036
2109:Polymer
2074:Polymer
2015:5413939
1994:Bibcode
1923:8199684
1697:(6–7).
1622:Bibcode
1614:Science
1516:Polymer
1283:shellac
1221:dioxins
1127:pronase
859:Medical
831:diapers
827:awnings
811:cutlery
765:Acetone
711:dioxane
703:benzene
427:lactide
408:cassava
339:lactide
119:Density
4376:(BBzP)
4345:(PHCs)
4257:Chairs
4225:Nurdle
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3731:
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1213:oxygen
1209:carbon
759:using
750:RepRap
709:, and
525:- and
488:chiral
4630:Waste
4476:PBDEs
4387:(DOP)
4013:types
3840:types
3772:S2CID
3729:S2CID
3522:S2CID
3368:S2CID
2952:S2CID
2866:S2CID
2712:9 May
2671:"PLA"
2645:"PLA"
2623:S2CID
2281:S2CID
2203:S2CID
1750:S2CID
1707:S2CID
1646:S2CID
1593:9 May
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1676:2011
1638:PMID
1595:2018
1558:ISBN
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1327:2012
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1109:and
1027:and
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588:and
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