Pontine Marshes - Knowledge

73: 2109: 489:, porous, and excessively cracked and faulted. All but the heaviest rainfalls sink into the rock only to appear as a large volume of spring and groundwater at the foot of the mountains. Transport of sediment was minimal. In one estimate, 20 m/s (710 cu ft/s) flow from springs over a distance of 20 km (12 mi). In another estimate, 80% of the rain falling on the Monti Lepini is absorbed, with a single spring at Ninfa exuding 2,000 L/s (71 cu ft/s). These facts explain why the main fill of the lagoon is peat, silt, and clay, and not thicker-grained alluvial deposits, and why it took so long. 1185:"On these little farms of the Pontine marshes Mussolini built hundreds of ... stone farmhouses ... Now and then I saw a farmer plowing while German shells landed right in his field. We tried to evacuate people ... But some of them simply refused to leave their homes. Sometimes the Germans would pick out one of the farmhouses, figuring we had a command post in it, I suppose, and blow it to smithereens. Then, and only then, did some Italian families move out ... on any side road we couldn't drive five minutes without seeing the skeleton of a cow or a horse." 1082:. The project reached a peak in 1933 with 124,000 men employed. The previous agrarian population was moved out under protest in the name of progress. Workers were interned in camps surrounded by barbed wire. The camps were overcrowded, wages were low, hours were long, food was bad, sanitation was poor, healthcare was missing, and medical attention was lacking. Workers could quit, however, and turnover was high. In 1935, at the completion of the phase, they were all dismissed without notice. Many were infected with malaria. 1174:, which thrives in salty environments. The water would also destroy agriculture, removing essential supplies of food and fresh water from the vicinity, an act that had minimal military effect but devastated the population. Although it is true that the bog impeded movement of heavy equipment, the Germans did not flood the marsh for that reason; the equipment under heavy shelling from some of the largest artillery pieces the Germans had was going nowhere, anyway. The flooding was an act of 38: 61: 2053: 53: 1066:, reclaiming land and creating 45 new homesteads with great success, after which Mussolini climbed aboard. At his request to the Director-general of the Department of Health, Alessandro Messea submitted a plan for the Pontine Marshes. In 1928, Mussolini brought it before parliament; it became "Mussolini's Law", and began to be implemented in 1929. In 1939, at the incorporation ceremony of the last new city, 793:"During the expedition he intended ... to receive the Tiber immediately below the city in a deep cut, and giving it a bend toward Circaeum to make it enter the sea by Tarracina, ...besides this he designed to draw off the water from the marshes about Pomentium and Settia, and to make them solid ground, which would employ many thousands of men in the cultivation ..." 1207:

region. The Battle of the Swamps, however, is never quite over; without constant vigilance, dredging the canals, repairing and updating the pumps, and so on, the enemy would soon return. The specter of distant problems remains: the prospect of chemical pollution of the environment, DDT-resistant mosquitoes, and medicine-resistant strains of malaria.

697:, "which thus became a fortified point for the defense of the Pontine region." In 433 BC, Rome was struck by an epidemic and again sent buyers to the Pontine, this time successfully. Apparently, at least some of the marsh was under cultivation, which the high density of Roman settlements along the two northern roads might lead one to expect. 1010:, delayed starting the task. Donat, whose lobbying had operated on his own funds, exhausted his wife's fortune of 75,000 gold marks by 1903. Unsuccessful, he returned to Germany. The Pontine Syndicate was dissolved on September 4, 1914. With it, a premature but bold attempt at a transnational investment to gain more land ended. 549:

itinerant fowlers and fishers, but further, any evidence of human activity there would be deep in the underlying peat. In the fringes, however, most anciently at the north edge of the lagoon and in the coastal fringe, in both the Fogliano and Borgo Grappa land systems, evidence of hunting-gathering dates from the Middle

836:, proposed to finish the project but was opposed by the Duke of Sermoneta over the fishing rights. In 1514, he decided to drain the region around Terracina instead, assigning the task to his brother Giuliano de Medici, commander of the papal army. The Medicis would retain all reclaimed land. In 1515, Giuliano hired 1133:

On September 8, 1943, Italy changed sides in World War II, the king having already issued an order for Mussolini's arrest. Rescued by the Germans, he became the head of the Republic of Salò, a puppet regime over northern Italy. The defense of Italy and the suppression of its insurgent population were

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The government placed about 2,000 families (most from northern Italy) in standardised but carefully varied two-storey country houses of blue stucco with tiled roofs. Each settler family was assigned a farmhouse, an oven, a plough and other agricultural tools, a stable, some cows, and several hectares

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The Tyrrhenian II transgression of ocean water into the lagoon left the Minturno level and complex, a dune barrier of about 13 m (43 ft), dated 125–100 thousand years BP. Behind the beach, deep peat and clay deposits alternating with alluvial sediments evidence the lagoon. It was deepest at

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cleared the scrub forest, constructed a total of 16,500 km (10,300 mi) of checkerboard canals and trenches, dredged rivers, diked their banks, filled depressions, and constructed pumping stations to change the elevation in the canals where necessary. The final channel, the Mussolini Canal,

932:. This would collect the water flowing from the mountain before it reached the lowest levels where it stagnated. The water collected in the canal system would then be pumped into the Mediterranean. The electricity needed to power the canal system would be collected through dams in the mountains with 548:

section; the Latina Plain, the main part of the fields; and the Monti Lepini, the flank of the mountains. The center of the marsh, earlier the lagoon, although currently urban, does not provide any ancient evidence of habitation. The land (or the lake) was undoubtedly uninhabited except possibly for

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In 1928, the population of the marshes was 1,637. They were people who lived in shanties across the fields, herded, practiced agriculture, and were in poor health most of the time. The Italian Red Cross related that, during the malaria season, 80% of those having spent one night in the marsh became

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of the marshes could prevent emigration of 200,000 Italians. Around 1900, one could count fewer than 1,000 inhabitants for a coastal region larger than 700 km. By a law passed in 1899, the proprietors were bound to arrange for the safe outlet of the water from the mountains, keep the existing

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of 494 BC, a strike by the common people for political rights, a famine occurred at Rome due to decreased economic activity. Grain buyers were sent to "the people of the Pontine marshes" and elsewhere to acquire new supplies, but were met with refusal. The Volsci attempted to exploit this momentary

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The road proved difficult to keep above water. Under Augustus, a compromise was reached with the construction of a parallel canal. The part of the marsh above sea level was successfully drained by channels, and new agricultural land of legendary fertility came into being. Whenever the channels were

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The Tyrrhenian III transgression left the Borgo Ermada Complex and Level, about 90 thousand years BP. It consisted of elongated sand ridges parallel to the shore, 8 to 15 m (26 to 49 ft) high. During the regression phase, fluvial incisions indicate by then at very latest, the lagoon was

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Today, a duct system runs through the dried-out area. Wheat, fruit, and wine grapes are cultivated in the Pontine region. The "Agro Pontino" is a flowering landscape with modern cities with both prewar and postwar architecture. By 2000, about 520,000 inhabitants lived in this formerly deserted

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left the marsh in the state of devastation; nearly everything Mussolini had accomplished was reversed. The cities were in ruins, the houses blown up, the marshes full of brackish water, the channels filled in, the plain depopulated, the mosquitos flourishing, and malaria on the rise. The major

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on his property. In 1902, large German newspapers, as well as foreign papers, carried long articles about the project. They often carried a sense of national pride about the development project. Donat argued above all for the extermination of malaria in the countryside surrounding the capital.

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The marsh was an extensive alluvial plain at about sea level (some above, some below) created by the failure of the streams draining the mountains to find clearly defined outlets to the sea through the barrier dunes. Above sea level, it was a forested swamp; below, it was mud flats and pools.

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about 11700 years BP, was a single ridge behind which clay, peat, and peaty clay were being deposited at sea level. No land was yet above it. The region was a shallow lagoon interspersed with marshland. Fluvial incisions in the beach let out the excess water, which was brackish and contained

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is notable for what it does not say, which is the names and locations of the cities. Many more than 24 Roman settlements were built in the marsh, but it is not possible to find 24 of the size of Terracina or Antium without counting Latium Vetus or the coastal lands south of Terracina.

361:'s regime in the 1930s, the problem was nearly solved by placing dikes and pumping out that portion of the marsh below sea level. It continues to need constant maintenance. Italian confidence in the project was so high, the city placed by Mussolini in 1932 in the center of the marsh, 844:

with outlets through the Canale Giuliano and Canale Portatore. Giuliano died in 1516, and the city of Tarracina combined with Sermoneta and Sezze to halt work, over the issue of property rights. The people of the marsh were not going to allow the Medicis to take their land.

912:, Act V: "A marsh extends along the mountain-chain, That poisons what so far I’ve been achieving; Were I that noisome pool to drain, 'Twould be the highest, last achieving. Thus space to many millions I will give. Where, though not safe, yet free and active they may live." 312:, a Roman military road constructed in 312 BC, crosses the inland side of the former marsh in a long, straight stretch flanked by trees. Before then, travelers had to use the Via Latina along the flanks of the mountains; Terracina could not be reached across the marsh. 997:

Donat's plan failed. This time it was not the technical inadequacy as with the predecessors, but political deliberations that stood in the way of the project. The liberal government hesitated and gave the North preference, where large marshes in the valley of the

905:, that they "have never seen so bad of an appearance as they are usually described in Rome". Goethe became interested in the dewatering attempts, after observing that it is "a large and extensive task". He probably used this image in this scene in his 2523: 388:, the eastern part of the region, which the Romans removed from the sovereignty of the Volsci. The two terms create some confusion in the literature, as the region was often heavily settled, but the marsh supported no resident population. 1199:

structures for water control survived, and in a few years, the Agro Pontino was restored. In 1947, the province of Littoria, created by Mussolini, was renamed to Latina. The last of the malaria was conquered in the 1950s, with the aid of

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In 1898, Fedor von Donat resigned from his position as battalion commander and moved to Rome with his family. There, he lobbied the government for his project, as well as four large landowners, connections in financial circles, and the

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and other medicines were in short supply or withheld by the Germans, the food was bad, a shortage of metal prevented repair of the screens, and veterans returning from the Balkans brought back resistant strains of the disease.

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were set aside for the project. (With one mark being five grams of pure silver, the amount is equivalent to $ 17.5M in 1900 US dollars.) One of the conditions was that the Italians would have to match the funds on the project.

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first touches the sea ... Near Tarracina, as you go toward Rome, there is a canal that runs alongside the Appian Way, and is fed at numerous places by waters from the marshes and the rivers ... The boat is towed by a

976:, he was able to prove that the moorland had a high percentage of organics in its soil, of over 70 points; this proved that three harvests per year were possible. He protected his 80 workers from malaria with a daily dose of 1037:, which would drain the swamp and control the waters. Mussolini and his party called it "the battle of the swamps" because it required the recruitment, deployment, and supply of an army of workers. In the second stage, the 564:

material comes from Campoverde at the north edge of the Pontino Agro. It is dated by typology, as none has been found in context. The assemblage of amateur collections of surface artifacts "shares affinities with various

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weakness by raising an army of invasion but were struck down by an epidemic, of what sort, or whether historians can conclude to be malaria, remains unsaid. The Romans, buying grain in Sicily, reinforced their colony at

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today, looking northward at the promontory: the former marsh to the right of it stretches over the horizon. In the lower right corner, the Volscian Mountains descend to the edge of the narrow strip on which Terracina is

512:. The modern rivers incised the marsh: the Ufente, the Sisto, and the Amaseno, which had shifting rather than stable tributaries. The marsh drains to the southeast, with channels parallel to the coast, exiting between 408:. Underneath the marsh is such a valley, while the steeply-sided Volscian Mountains and the floor under the outer dunes are the corresponding horsts. The graben was formed over a period approximated by the end of the 607:, and others. Also from Campoverde come animal bones excavated unscientifically from a trench during construction and one human tooth. The latter is too large to be of modern humans and has been assigned the genus 524:

began in the sixth century BC. The marsh rapidly acquired the alluvial deposits of the Amaseno Fan over the peat, bringing much of it above water. No buried soils indicate any cultivation of dry land in the marsh.

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The Agro Pontino geologically is one of four geomorphic divisions of a somewhat larger area, the Pontine Region, also comprising the Monti Albani, the Volscian Mountains and Monte Circeo; in short, all of Roman

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dating to about 65 thousand years BP. On May 8, 2021, 9 Neanderthal skeletons were discovered in the same cave by a team of archaeologists. The team concluded that the Neanderthals were killed by a pack of

736:, "the rest of the cities of Latium ... are situated either on these roads or near them, or between them." He lists a number of settlements of the Monti Lepini Land System, from southeast to northwest: 412:

about 2.588 million years ago. The natural outcome of this graben topography was the creation of outer barrier islands and a lagoon that gradually filled with runoff sediment transported from the mountains.

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in Berlin. Rathenau saw market potential for electric investments, so he and some industrialists in Berlin, as well as private financiers, created the "Pontine Syndicate Ltd" in 1900. Seventy million

425:, a series of volcanic changes began leading to the current landform: the first four eruptive cycles of a new volcano in the vicinity of the Monti Albani, which spread pyroclastic rock and formed a 1181:

The allies and the Germans equally, therefore, found themselves fighting in a mosquito-infested bog. The new homes were being used as refuges for infantry and cover for tanks. Ernie Pyle relates:

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attempted to solve the now-longstanding water dispute between Sermoneta and Sezze by digging another canal to connect and control the rivers of those regions, but the project ended when he died.

2538: 2413: 453:, sand fused by volcanic activity, reach the surface. At this time, Latium Vetus had been formed as a volcanic land mass, while Latium Novum was a lagoon, the future marsh. 1090:

purposes, and was often photographed between workers, shirtless with a shovel in his hand, or threshing wheat at harvest time; these occasions were regularly filmed by the

341:, this land is mainly reclaimed, as well, but the more frequent incursion of hills permitted more dense settlements. Leaving Terracina, the Via Appia crosses it, as well. 1919:

Archaeological land evaluation: a reconstruction of the suitability of ancient landscapes for various land uses in Italy focused on the first millennium BC (Dissertation)

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Archaeological land evaluation: a reconstruction of the suitability of ancient landscapes for various land uses in Italy focused on the first millennium BC (Dissertation)

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Starting in 1922, the Italian government's Department of Health, working with the Opera Nazionale Combattenti, developed a new initiative to combat malaria called the

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Sparsely inhabited throughout much of their history, the Pontine Marshes were the subject of extensive land reclamation work performed periodically. The tribe of the

544:. Four land systems have been defined: Fogliano coastal, the beach system; Borgo Grappa Beach Ridge, the region just inland from the beach, rather extensive in the 2383: 925: 421:

The rift valley remained a depression in the Tyrrhenian Sea for about two million years and then in the Tuscolano-Artemisio phase, dated 600–360 thousand years

2458: 1851: 1912:"Chapter 3, Landscape reconstruction and description of the research areas: Salento Isthmus, Pontine region, and Sibaritide Land systems: landforms and soils" 2483: 2388: 501: 1911: 1881: 2528: 2403: 2393: 770:, who was three times consul, has reported to be the site of 24 cities. Then comes the river Aufentum, above which is the town of Tarracina ..." 1178:

and was opposed by former Italian colleagues of the Germans in malariology, but someone on Kesselring's staff—unknown to this day—issued the order.

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At around 22 thousand years BP, the volcanic complex became active for the last time, erupting in hydromagmatic explosions that created the beds of

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The Germans stopped the pumps and opened the dikes, refilling the marsh with brackish water. They were being advised by the German malariologists

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Linoli, Anatolio (2005), "Twenty-six Centuries of Reclamation & Agricultural Improvement on the Pontine Marshes", in Ohleg, Christof (ed.),

553:. Evidently, man has witnessed the entire history of the lagoon and marsh from its first formation, when he hunted and fished along its shores. 2553: 2508: 2488: 2473: 2423: 2408: 2398: 2373: 989:

Malaria prevented the expansion of Rome to the south, the settling of which could provide a new province for Italy without a colonial war. The

841: 811: 2518: 2498: 2463: 2448: 2368: 1041:, homesteads with stone houses and public utilities were to be constructed and the land was to be parcelled among settlers. The third stage, 807: 1055:(so the mosquitos could be easily identified and killed), and against malaria, such as distributing quinine and setting up health services. 882:

The ambitious Sixtus V also made unsuccessful attempts at reclamation of the area and died of malaria after a visit to the Pontine Marshes.

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also needed to be reclaimed. Violent resistance by the four large property owners in the Pontine Marshes was the reaction to the necessary

437:, 781-126 thousand years BP, beds of sand and clay, termed the Latina Complex, appeared above sea level over the outer karst, enclosing a 1062:

was made prime minister by the king. In 1926, the Department of Health undertook a pilot project of the new strategy in the delta of the

1713:"Producing the ideal fascist landscape: Nature, materiality and the cinematic representation of land reclamation in the Pontine Marshes" 964:. He leased 95 hectares (240 acres) of the marsh near Terracina and established a model farm, "Tenuta Ponte Maggiore". With the help of 1222:

It was a veteran's organization, founded in 1917 and reformulated in 1923 and 1926. One of its functions was to find land for veterans.

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An accessible and positive contemporary description is E. J. Russell, "Agricultural Colonization in the Pontine Marshes and Libya",

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began with minor draining projects in the vicinity of Tarracina in connection with their occupation of it in the pre-Roman period.

1235:, the party's agricultural expert, attributed the terms to Mussolini, they were developed by the Department of Health, 1917–1923. 2493: 928:(1847–1919), had an idea; he would build a channel that followed the base of the mountains, cutting through a sand dune at 76:

National Park of Circeo, on the coast of the Pontine Fields: the view is an aerial photograph. Visible in the foreground is

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and leasing to the German syndicate of a large part of their marsh country. The cofinancer, the Banca Commerciale in

895: 500:, a time of warmer and moister climate dated around 5000-3000 BC. Pollen from the marsh indicates the replacement of 319:

is another stretch of former coastal marsh called the South Pontino, the largest section being between Terracina and

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Region of central Italy, extending along the coast southeast of Rome about 45 km (28 mi) from just east of

170: 124: 2889: 1860: 2678: 1859:, Schriften der Deutschen Wasserhistorischen Gesellschaft (DWhG) Sonderband 2, DWhG, pp. 27–56, archived from 2011: 1957:

Stewart-Steinberg, Suzanne (May 2016). "Grounds for reclamation: fascism and postfascism in the Pontine Marshes".

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LaRosa, M.; Mazza, P.; Rustioni, M. (2001), "The elephant remains from the Agro Pontino, Latina, Central Italy",

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of land, depending on local soil fertility and the size of the family. Mussolini used the 10-year operation for

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patented the project under the number 17,120. He expected to dry out the marshes within a five-year time span.

818:, recently bought by his nephews. The increase in water in the Cavata caused severe flooding in the marsh near 2153: 2145: 711:

lies a great marsh, formed by two rivers; the larger one is called the Aufidus (Ufente). It is here that the

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F. Caprotti, "Mussolini's Cities: Internal Colonialism in Italy, 1930–1939", Cambria Press, New Jersey 2007.

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had ambitious plans for the marsh, which if realized or realizable would have diverted the Tiber through

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Major von Donat published his idea in Rome and Berlin, and succeeded in gaining the attention of

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had not buried the region. The answer is in the composition of the Volscian Mountains, which are

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The Third Reich at War, 1939–1945,Richard J Evans, Penguin 2009, Kindle Edition, location 8517

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This article is about a reclaimed agricultural area in Italy. For other uses of Pontine, see

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salt-water mollusks, leading to the question of where the excess water came from and why

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canals open, and reclaim the district exposed to inundation, for a period of 24 years.

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totally enclosed. After it drained, aeolian (wind-driven) sand covered the notches.

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Otto Julius Bierbaum, "Eine empfindsame Reise mit dem Automobil", Berlin 1903:194

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industries of Latium. Chronologically referred to the second half of the Middle

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in an effort to outflank the Germans. Malaria had returned to the Agro Pontino:

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Alluvial deposits known as the Sezze Fan began about 4000 BC in the marsh below

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all attempted to solve the problem. Pius VI reconstructed the road. In 1561,

853: 803: 783: 430: 362: 254: 45: 1949: 496:. The increased rainfall required to move the sediment is attributed to the 441:. The beaches survive at the Latina Level from about 560 thousand years BP. 2800: 2790: 2574: 2418: 2338: 2313: 2298: 2293: 2283: 2212: 2177: 2140: 2135: 1457: 990: 861: 673: 647: 608: 592: 482: 290: 250: 246: 206: 766:"Another marvel not far from Circello is the Pomptine Marsh, a place that 2740: 2730: 2725: 2273: 2172: 1143: 1063: 745: 623: 574: 570: 561: 550: 541: 537: 461: 434: 405: 294: 476:

The most recent beach, the Terracina Complex and Level, which began the

37: 2820: 2288: 1087: 981: 965: 829: 733: 712: 450: 404:, in which expansion of the crust causes a section to drop, creating a 353:

not maintained, the swamp reappeared. Meanwhile, frequent epidemics of

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The northwestern border runs approximately from the mouth of the river

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in Italy on February 25, 1939, by a team of paleontologists headed by

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formed in the caldera. Approximately contemporaneously, in the Middle

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that the return of the salt water would encourage the return of

1121:(rural villages). The carefully differentiated architecture and 2775: 2750: 2699: 2599: 2130: 1270: 1139: 721: 700: 545: 521: 513: 509: 438: 429:. In the Campi di Annibale phase, 300-200 thousand years BP, a 401: 379: 346: 357:

at Rome and elsewhere kept the reclamation issue alive. Under

159: 2850: 2755: 2745: 2694: 2594: 2057: 2052: 1519:"Archaeologists Discover Remains of 9 Neanderthals Near Rome" 1260: 1147: 1079: 1007: 819: 737: 694: 656: 573:;" that is, about 500 thousand years BP. These are primarily 505: 493: 334: 324: 234: 230: 226: 2693: 241:(ancient Tarracina), varying in distance inland between the 2760: 1117:(1939) were founded, side by side with several other small 973: 875:

in reclaiming marshland in the Val di Chiana in the Tuscan

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created by draining and filling, separated from the sea by

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Integrated Land and Water Resources Management in History

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south of the marshes, necessitating an Allied landing at

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work on the marsh has been extensive, including surveys,

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for inclusion in nationally shown propaganda newsreels.

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Malaria and Rome: a history of malaria in ancient Italy

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The former marsh is a low tract of mainly agricultural

1503:. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 171: 162: 153: 125: 116: 107: 2524:

Monte Val de' Varri – Monte Faito – Monte San Nicola

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Lake Fogliano, a coastal lagoon in the Pontine Plain

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differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies

814:, which drained much of the land in the Dukedom of 144: 98: 225:) is an approximately quadrangular area of former 1956: 2920: 1033:. It featured three stages, the first being the 445:the Terracina end diminishing to the surface at 1125:aspects of these towns is striking even today. 293:along the river and from its upper reaches to 2679: 2035: 1789: 1787: 1710: 1670: 1668: 1410: 1408: 1380: 1378: 1376: 752:, and a number of others in the north of the 192: 672:The geographers and historians of the early 315:Further southward along the coast as far as 1991: 1777: 1775: 894:visited the region with his painter-friend 728:. Through the marsh, with reference to the 216: 210: 2686: 2672: 2042: 2028: 1909: 1879: 1845:, Rome: Sovraintendenza del Comune di Roma 1784: 1665: 1468:(3637) (published 2024): 106. 1939-07-15. 1405: 1373: 1363: 1361: 1348: 1346: 1873:The Conquest of Malaria: Italy, 1900–1962 1810:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 1711:Caprotti, Federico; Kaïka, Maria (2008). 762:'s statement on the topic of the marshes: 1940:Graf von Hutten-Czapski, Bogdan (1936). 1772: 1494: 365:, became the capital of a new province, 71: 59: 51: 36: 1870: 1793: 1698: 1686: 1674: 1659: 1647: 1358: 1343: 1236: 1045:, took measures against the mosquitos ( 879:, but the project also came to naught. 840:to design the project. It provided the 14: 2921: 1849: 1835: 1626: 1614: 1444: 1432: 1367: 1352: 2667: 2023: 1319: 1097:The new towns of Littoria (1932, now 1078:empties into the Tyrrhenian Sea near 1070:, the project was declared complete. 1022: 186: 2539:Parco regionale urbano Monte Orlando 1805: 920:Near the end of the 19th century, a 1875:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 871:, who had gained a reputation as a 24: 2414:Cima del Redentore (monti Aurunci) 2107: 1992:Berger, Alan; Brown, Case (2008). 1128: 382:. The marsh itself was located in 25: 2945: 1985: 1942:60 Jahre Politik und Gesellschaft 1142:, they successfully defended the 896:Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein 27:Former marshland near Rome, Italy 2051: 1423:Van Joolen 2003 Chapter 3 p. 64. 1414:Van Joolen 2003 Chapter 3 p. 79. 1402:Van Joolen Chapter 3 2003 p. 65. 1393:Van Joolen Chapter 1 2003 p. 11. 1384:Van Joolen Chapter 1 2003 p. 10. 245:and the Volscian Mountains (the 140: 94: 1828: 1799: 1763: 1746: 1720:Social & Cultural Geography 1704: 1692: 1680: 1653: 1641: 1632: 1620: 1608: 1596: 1584: 1572: 1560: 1548: 1536: 1511: 1488: 1450: 1438: 1426: 1417: 1242: 1225: 1216: 1189: 1013: 915: 885: 806:had a canal dug to connect the 1525:. Associated Press. 2021-05-08 1396: 1387: 1331: 1308: 797: 724:extends south of Tarracina to 667: 556: 528: 416: 42:Hunting in the Pontine Marshes 13: 1: 1302: 864:employed the services of the 396:The underlying landform is a 7: 2623:List of presidents of Lazio 1280: 471: 391: 10: 2950: 1910:Van Joolen, Ester (2003). 1880:Van Joolen, Ester (2003). 1458:"Neanderthal Man in Italy" 898:. He reports in his book, 822:. Before he died in 1447, 662: 372: 29: 2711: 2652: 2631: 2608: 2562: 2261: 2165: 2118: 2105: 2064: 1944:. Berlin: E. S. Mittler. 1882:"Chapter 1, Introduction" 1871:Snowden, Frank M (2006). 1732:10.1080/14649360802292447 1495:Sallares, Robert (2002). 947:, the general manager of 646:was found in a grotto on 599:, side scrapers, borers, 327:. It was part of ancient 188:[ˈaːɡroponˈtiːno] 1977:10.1215/10407391-3522769 1754:The Geographical Journal 1210: 972:type, revolved by three 693:and planted a colony at 682:reported that after the 32:Pontine (disambiguation) 1315:History of Rome, 6.5.2. 1073:Beginning in 1930, the 1051:), such as screens and 253:in the center, and the 2112: 1839:The World of Elephants 1187: 892:Johann Wolfgang Goethe 890:On February 17, 1787, 795: 772: 718: 613:. The animals include 217: 211: 202: 193: 183: 85: 69: 57: 49: 2841:Santi Cosma e Damiano 2826:Roccasecca dei Volsci 2228:Lago di Posta Fibreno 2111: 1999:. Columbia University 1969:Duke University Press 1183: 1172:Anopheles labranchiae 1048:Anopheles labranchiae 926:Fedor Maria von Donat 791: 764: 705: 620:Mammuthus primigenius 468:, both crater lakes. 333:and still belongs to 297:in the Monti Lepini. 75: 63: 55: 40: 2644:Marino Wine Festival 2459:Monte Lauro in Gaeta 2066:Provinces and places 1806:Pyle, Ernie (2001). 1138:. After the loss of 676:describe the marsh. 84:, "coastal lagoons". 2901: / 2484:Maschio delle Faete 2384:Maschio dell'Ariano 2269:Seven hills of Rome 2203:Lago di Giulianello 1760:.4 (1939: 273-289). 980:. He invited Roman 936:plants. The German 934:hydroelectric power 756:on the Via Latina. 652:Alberto Carlo Blanc 636:Capreolus capreolus 577:and 5–6 cm (2– 323:, as far inland as 257:in the south) from 44:, oil on canvas by 2934:Landforms of Lazio 2736:Cisterna di Latina 2705:Province of Latina 2618:Elections in Lazio 2389:Maschio di Lariano 2113: 1591:Historia Naturalis 1297:Province of Latina 1292:Geography of Italy 1287:Cisterna di Latina 1233:Giuseppe Tassinari 1176:biological warfare 1075:bonifica idraulica 1035:bonifica idraulica 1031:bonifica integrale 1024:Bonifica integrale 873:hydraulic engineer 720:In Strabo's view, 567:Lower Palaeolithic 337:. Bordered by the 259:15 to 25 km ( 249:in the north, the 86: 70: 58: 50: 2905:41.467°N 12.900°E 2884: 2883: 2836:San Felice Circeo 2661: 2660: 2354:Monti della Tolfa 2279:Aurunci Mountains 2193:Lago di Caprolace 2158: 2150: 2012:Google Earth view 1603:Life of C. Caesar 1043:bonifica igienica 838:Leonardo da Vinci 597:denticulate tools 339:Aurunci Mountains 218:Pomptīnae Paludes 16:(Redirected from 2941: 2929:Marshes of Italy 2916: 2915: 2913: 2912: 2911: 2906: 2902: 2899: 2898: 2897: 2894: 2786:Monte San Biagio 2688: 2681: 2674: 2665: 2664: 2454:Monte Guadagnolo 2349:Monte Terminillo 2329:Monti Prenestini 2319:Monti della Meta 2309:Monti della Laga 2188:Lago di Canterno 2156: 2148: 2099:List of communes 2056: 2055: 2044: 2037: 2030: 2021: 2020: 2008: 2006: 2004: 1998: 1980: 1953: 1936: 1934: 1933: 1927: 1916: 1906: 1904: 1903: 1897: 1886: 1876: 1867: 1865: 1858: 1846: 1844: 1823: 1821: 1803: 1797: 1791: 1782: 1779: 1770: 1767: 1761: 1750: 1744: 1743: 1717: 1708: 1702: 1696: 1690: 1684: 1678: 1672: 1663: 1657: 1651: 1645: 1639: 1636: 1630: 1624: 1618: 1612: 1606: 1600: 1594: 1588: 1582: 1576: 1570: 1564: 1558: 1552: 1546: 1540: 1534: 1533: 1531: 1530: 1523:Voice of America 1515: 1509: 1508: 1502: 1492: 1486: 1485: 1474:10.1038/144106a0 1454: 1448: 1442: 1436: 1430: 1424: 1421: 1415: 1412: 1403: 1400: 1394: 1391: 1385: 1382: 1371: 1365: 1356: 1350: 1341: 1335: 1329: 1323: 1317: 1312: 1275: 1246: 1240: 1229: 1223: 1220: 1168:Ernst Rodenwaldt 1060:Benito Mussolini 1039:bonifica agraria 986:press conference 970:ancient Egyptian 789: 616:Elephas antiquus 595:, consisting of 590: 589: 585: 582: 449:, where beds of 359:Benito Mussolini 288: 286: 285: 281: 278: 272: 271: 267: 264: 220: 214: 196: 191:, formerly also 190: 174: 169: 168: 165: 164: 161: 158: 155: 152: 149: 146: 139: 128: 123: 122: 119: 118: 115: 112: 109: 106: 103: 100: 78:Lago di Fogliano 21: 2949: 2948: 2944: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2939: 2938: 2919: 2918: 2909: 2907: 2903: 2900: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2887: 2885: 2880: 2866:Spigno Saturnia 2707: 2692: 2662: 2657: 2648: 2627: 2604: 2580:Pontine marshes 2570:Castelli Romani 2558: 2529:Monte di Cambio 2404:Monte Carbonaro 2394:Monte Artemisio 2257: 2248:Lago del Turano 2233:Lago di Rascino 2218:Lago dei Monaci 2208:Lake Martignano 2161: 2154:Roman Republic 2146:Roman Republic 2114: 2103: 2060: 2050: 2048: 2017: 2002: 2000: 1996: 1988: 1983: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1914: 1901: 1899: 1895: 1884: 1863: 1856: 1842: 1831: 1826: 1818: 1804: 1800: 1792: 1785: 1780: 1773: 1768: 1764: 1751: 1747: 1715: 1709: 1705: 1697: 1693: 1685: 1681: 1673: 1666: 1658: 1654: 1646: 1642: 1637: 1633: 1625: 1621: 1613: 1609: 1601: 1597: 1589: 1585: 1577: 1573: 1565: 1561: 1555:History of Rome 1553: 1549: 1543:History of Rome 1541: 1537: 1528: 1526: 1517: 1516: 1512: 1493: 1489: 1456: 1455: 1451: 1443: 1439: 1431: 1427: 1422: 1418: 1413: 1406: 1401: 1397: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1374: 1366: 1359: 1351: 1344: 1338:Natural History 1336: 1332: 1326:Natural History 1324: 1320: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1283: 1278: 1247: 1243: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1196:Battle of Anzio 1192: 1131: 1129:Battle of Anzio 1027: 1016: 924:officer, Major 918: 902:Italian Journey 888: 869:Rafael Bombelli 800: 787: 760:Pliny the Elder 685:Secessio plebis 670: 665: 644:Neanderthal man 628:Bos primigenius 587: 583: 580: 578: 559: 531: 498:Atlantic Period 474: 419: 394: 375: 330:Latium adiectum 283: 279: 276: 274: 269: 265: 262: 260: 258: 223:Pliny the Elder 172: 143: 134: 133: 126: 97: 93: 90:Pontine Marshes 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Pontine marshes 15: 12: 11: 5: 2947: 2937: 2936: 2931: 2910:41.467; 12.900 2882: 2881: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2733: 2728: 2723: 2718: 2712: 2709: 2708: 2691: 2690: 2683: 2676: 2668: 2659: 2658: 2653: 2650: 2649: 2647: 2646: 2641: 2635: 2633: 2629: 2628: 2626: 2625: 2620: 2614: 2612: 2606: 2605: 2603: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2587: 2585:Roman Campagna 2582: 2577: 2572: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2559: 2557: 2556: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2534:Monte le Pezze 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2514:Monte Sorgenze 2511: 2506: 2504:Monte Cervello 2501: 2496: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2469:Le Rave Fosche 2466: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2426: 2421: 2416: 2411: 2406: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2371: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2334:Monti Sabatini 2331: 2326: 2324:Monte Petrella 2321: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2258: 2256: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2243:Lago del Salto 2240: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2183:Lake Bracciano 2180: 2175: 2169: 2167: 2163: 2162: 2160: 2159: 2157:(19th century) 2151: 2149:(18th century) 2143: 2138: 2133: 2128: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2115: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2101: 2096: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2070: 2068: 2062: 2061: 2047: 2046: 2039: 2032: 2024: 2015: 2014: 2009: 1987: 1986:External links 1984: 1982: 1981: 1954: 1937: 1907: 1877: 1868: 1847: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1824: 1816: 1798: 1796:, p. 186. 1783: 1771: 1762: 1745: 1726:(6): 613–634. 1703: 1701:, p. 157. 1691: 1689:, p. 152. 1679: 1677:, p. 153. 1664: 1662:, p. 150. 1652: 1640: 1631: 1619: 1607: 1595: 1583: 1571: 1559: 1547: 1535: 1510: 1487: 1449: 1447:, p. 206. 1437: 1425: 1416: 1404: 1395: 1386: 1372: 1357: 1342: 1330: 1318: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1300: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1276: 1241: 1239:, p. 150. 1224: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1191: 1188: 1130: 1127: 1123:urban planning 1058:In 1922 also, 1026: 1021: 1015: 1012: 917: 914: 887: 884: 824:Pope Eugene IV 802:In 1298, Pope 799: 796: 754:Roman Campagna 669: 666: 664: 661: 639:, and others. 632:Cervus elaphus 558: 555: 534:Archaeological 530: 527: 473: 470: 418: 415: 393: 390: 374: 371: 302:reclaimed land 243:Tyrrhenian Sea 212:Pomptīna Palus 203:Pomptīnus Ager 194:Paludi Pontine 82:laghi costieri 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2946: 2935: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2926: 2924: 2917: 2914: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2817: 2816:Rocca Massima 2814: 2812: 2809: 2807: 2804: 2802: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2792: 2789: 2787: 2784: 2782: 2779: 2777: 2774: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2752: 2749: 2747: 2744: 2742: 2739: 2737: 2734: 2732: 2729: 2727: 2724: 2722: 2719: 2717: 2714: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2701: 2696: 2689: 2684: 2682: 2677: 2675: 2670: 2669: 2666: 2656: 2651: 2645: 2642: 2640: 2637: 2636: 2634: 2630: 2624: 2621: 2619: 2616: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2607: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2591: 2588: 2586: 2583: 2581: 2578: 2576: 2573: 2571: 2568: 2567: 2565: 2561: 2555: 2552: 2550: 2549:Monte Pizzuto 2547: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2537: 2535: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2525: 2522: 2520: 2517: 2515: 2512: 2510: 2507: 2505: 2502: 2500: 2497: 2495: 2492: 2490: 2487: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2467: 2465: 2462: 2460: 2457: 2455: 2452: 2450: 2447: 2445: 2444:Mont Fogliano 2442: 2440: 2439:Monte Fammera 2437: 2435: 2434:Monte Faggeto 2432: 2430: 2429:Monte Dragone 2427: 2425: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2415: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2405: 2402: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2380: 2379:Monte Appiolo 2377: 2375: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2365: 2364:Monte Cassino 2362: 2360: 2359:Monti Volsini 2357: 2355: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2344:Monte Soratte 2342: 2340: 2337: 2335: 2332: 2330: 2327: 2325: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2305: 2304:Monte Gorzano 2302: 2300: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2238:Lake Sabaudia 2236: 2234: 2231: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2199: 2198:Lago di Fondi 2196: 2194: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2184: 2181: 2179: 2176: 2174: 2171: 2170: 2168: 2164: 2155: 2152: 2147: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2137: 2134: 2132: 2129: 2127: 2124: 2123: 2121: 2117: 2110: 2100: 2097: 2095: 2092: 2090: 2087: 2085: 2082: 2080: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2071: 2069: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2054: 2045: 2040: 2038: 2033: 2031: 2026: 2025: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2010: 1995: 1990: 1989: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1961: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1938: 1928:on 2012-02-25 1924: 1920: 1913: 1908: 1898:on 2011-09-28 1894: 1890: 1883: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1866:on 2011-07-16 1862: 1855: 1854: 1848: 1841: 1840: 1834: 1833: 1819: 1817:0-8032-8768-2 1813: 1809: 1802: 1795: 1790: 1788: 1778: 1776: 1766: 1759: 1755: 1749: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1714: 1707: 1700: 1695: 1688: 1683: 1676: 1671: 1669: 1661: 1656: 1650:, p. 146 1649: 1644: 1635: 1628: 1623: 1616: 1611: 1604: 1599: 1592: 1587: 1580: 1575: 1568: 1563: 1556: 1551: 1544: 1539: 1524: 1520: 1514: 1506: 1501: 1500: 1491: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1453: 1446: 1441: 1435:, p. 205 1434: 1429: 1420: 1411: 1409: 1399: 1390: 1381: 1379: 1377: 1370:, p. 28. 1369: 1364: 1362: 1355:, p. 27. 1354: 1349: 1347: 1339: 1334: 1327: 1322: 1316: 1311: 1307: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1284: 1273: 1272: 1267: 1266: 1265:Erica arborea 1262: 1261:Olea europaea 1257: 1256: 1252: 1251:Quercus suber 1245: 1238: 1234: 1228: 1219: 1215: 1208: 1204: 1202: 1197: 1186: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1164:Erich Martini 1160: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1093: 1092:Istituto Luce 1089: 1083: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1049: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1025: 1020: 1011: 1009: 1005: 1004:expropriation 1001: 995: 992: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 957: 954: 950: 946: 945:Emil Rathenau 941: 939: 938:patent office 935: 931: 927: 923: 913: 911: 909: 904: 903: 897: 893: 883: 880: 878: 874: 870: 867: 866:mathematician 863: 859: 855: 851: 846: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 825: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 804:Boniface VIII 794: 790: 785: 784:Julius Caesar 781: 778:According to 776: 771: 769: 763: 761: 757: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 717: 714: 710: 707:"In front of 704: 702: 698: 696: 692: 687: 686: 681: 677: 675: 660: 658: 653: 649: 645: 640: 638: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 612: 611: 606: 603:flakes, some 602: 598: 594: 576: 572: 568: 563: 554: 552: 547: 543: 539: 535: 526: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 490: 488: 484: 483:alluvial fans 479: 469: 467: 463: 458: 454: 452: 448: 442: 440: 436: 432: 431:stratovolcano 428: 424: 414: 411: 407: 403: 399: 389: 387: 386: 381: 370: 368: 364: 360: 356: 350: 348: 342: 340: 336: 332: 331: 326: 322: 318: 313: 311: 307: 303: 298: 296: 292: 256: 255:Monti Aurunci 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 219: 213: 208: 204: 200: 195: 189: 185: 181: 177: 176: 167: 137: 131: 130: 121: 91: 83: 80:, one of the 79: 74: 66: 62: 54: 47: 46:Horace Vernet 43: 39: 33: 19: 2886: 2698: 2575:Valle Latina 2554:Monte Ruazzo 2509:Monte Revole 2489:Meta (monte) 2474:Monte Livata 2424:Monte Crispi 2409:Monte Cefalo 2399:Monte Autore 2374:Monte Altino 2339:Monti Sabini 2314:Monti Lepini 2299:Monti Ernici 2294:Cimini Hills 2284:Monti Ausoni 2213:Lake Mezzano 2178:Lake Bolsena 2141:Papal States 2136:Ancient Rome 2016: 2001:. Retrieved 1964: 1958: 1941: 1930:. Retrieved 1923:the original 1918: 1900:. Retrieved 1893:the original 1888: 1872: 1861:the original 1852: 1838: 1829:Bibliography 1807: 1801: 1794:Snowden 2006 1765: 1757: 1753: 1748: 1723: 1719: 1706: 1699:Snowden 2006 1694: 1687:Snowden 2006 1682: 1675:Snowden 2006 1660:Snowden 2006 1655: 1648:Snowden 2006 1643: 1634: 1629:, p. 33 1622: 1617:, p. 32 1610: 1602: 1598: 1590: 1586: 1578: 1574: 1566: 1562: 1554: 1550: 1542: 1538: 1527:. 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