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ways that go beyond the original inventor is one instance of positive technical externalities. Let us examine the instance of research and development (R&D) inside the pharmaceutical sector. In addition to possible financial gain, a pharmaceutical company's R&D investment in the creation of a new medicine helps society in other ways. Better health outcomes, higher productivity, and lower healthcare expenses for both people and society at large might result from the new medication. Furthermore, the information created via research and development frequently spreads to other businesses and sectors, promoting additional innovation and economic expansion. For example, biotechnology advances could have uses in agriculture, environmental cleanup, or renewable energy, not just in the pharmaceutical industry. However, technical externalities can also take the form of detrimental spillovers that cost society money. Pollution from industrial manufacturing processes is a prime example. Businesses might not be entirely responsible for the expenses of environmental deterioration if they release toxins into the air or rivers as a result of their production processes. Rather, these expenses are shifted to society in the form of decreased quality of life for impacted populations, harm to the environment, and health risks. In addition, workers in some industries may experience job displacement and unemployment as a result of disruptive developments in labor markets brought about by technological improvements. For instance, individuals with outdated skills may lose their jobs as a result of the automation of manufacturing processes through robots and artificial intelligence, causing social and economic unrest in the affected areas.
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challenged by Coase. He presents the idea of transaction costs, which include the expenses related to reaching, upholding, and keeping an eye on agreements between parties. In the existence of externalities, transaction costs may hinder the effectiveness of private bargaining and result in worse-than-ideal results, according to Coase. He does, however, contend that private parties can establish mutually advantageous arrangements to internalize externalities without the involvement of the government, provided that there are minimal transaction costs and clearly defined property rights. Nevertheless, Coase uses the example of the distribution of property rights between a farmer and a rancher to support his claims. Assume there is a negative externality because the farmer's crops are harmed by the rancher's livestock. In a society where property rights are well-defined and transaction costs are minimal, the farmer and rancher can work out a voluntary agreement to settle the dispute. For example, the farmer may invest in preventive measures to lessen the impact, or the rancher could pay the farmer back for the harm the cattle caused. Coase's approach emphasizes how crucial it is to take property rights and transaction costs into account when managing externalities. He highlights that voluntary transactions between private parties can allow private parties to internalise externalities and that property rights distribution and transaction cost reduction can help make this possible.
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profits. But other customers who now have to pay more for identical goods might also suffer from this price hike. As a result, consumers who were not involved in the initial transaction suffer a monetary externality in the form of diminished buying power, while producers profit from increased prices. Furthermore, markets with economies of scale or network effects may experience pecuniary externalities. For example, when it comes to network products, like social media platforms or communication networks, the more people use the technology or engage in it, the more valuable the product becomes. Consequently, early adopters could gain financially from positive pecuniary externalities such as enhanced network effects or greater resale prices of related products or services. As a conclusion, pecuniary externalities draw attention to the intricate relationships that exist between market players and the effects that market transactions have on distribution. Comprehending pecuniary externalities is essential for assessing market results and formulating policies that advance economic efficiency and equality, even if they might not have the same direct impact on welfare or resource allocation as traditional externalities.
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public roads. Knight shows that government intervention is unnecessary if roads were privately owned instead. If roads were privately owned, their owners could set tolls that would reduce traffic and thus congestion to an efficient level. This argument forms the basis of the traffic equilibrium. This argument supposes that two points are connected by two different highways. One highway is in poor condition, but is wide enough to fit all traffic that desires to use it. The other is a much better road, but has limited capacity. Knight argues that, if a large number of vehicles operate between the two destinations and have freedom to choose between the routes, they will distribute themselves in proportions such that the cost per unit of transportation will be the same for every truck on both highways. This is true because as more trucks use the narrow road, congestion develops and as congestion increases it becomes equally profitable to use the poorer highway. This solves the externality issue without requiring any government tax or regulations.
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production would increase as they would have motivation to do so. With this comes the Free Rider
Problem. The Free Rider Problem arises when people overuse a shared resource without doing their part to produce or pay for it. It represents a failure in the market where goods and services are not able to be distributed efficiently, allowing people to take more than what is fair. For example, if a farmer has honeybees a positive externality of owning these bees is that they will also pollinate the surrounding plants. This farmer has a next door neighbour who also benefits from this externality even though he does not have any bees himself. From the perspective of the neighbour he has no incentive to purchase bees himself as he is already benefiting from them at zero cost. But for the farmer, he is missing out on the full benefits of his own bees which he paid for, because they are also being used by his neighbour.
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positive and negative effects. To further elaborate on this, when expenses associated with the production or use of an item or service are incurred by others but are not accounted for in the market price, this is known as a negative externality. The health and well-being of local populations may be negatively impacted by environmental deterioration resulting from the extraction of natural resources. Comparably, the tranquility of surrounding inhabitants might be disturbed by noise pollution from industry or transit, which lowers their quality of life. On the other hand, positive externalities occur when the activities of producers or consumers benefit other parties in ways that are not accounted for in market exchanges. A prime example of a positive externality is education, as those who invest in it gain knowledge and production for society as a whole in addition to personal profit.
802:," published in 1890. Marshall introduced the concept to elucidate the effects of production and consumption activities that extend beyond the immediate parties involved in a transaction. Marshall's formulation of externalities laid the groundwork for subsequent scholarly inquiry into the broader societal impacts of economic actions. While Marshall provided the initial conceptual framework for externalities, it was Arthur Pigou, a British economist, who further developed the concept in his influential work, "The Economics of Welfare," published in 1920. Pigou expanded upon Marshall's ideas and introduced the concept of "Pigovian taxes" or corrective taxes aimed at internalizing externalities by aligning private costs with social costs. His work emphasized the role of government intervention in addressing market failures resulting from externalities.
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possesses a fireplace, and often lights fires in his house without issue. Then one day, the other neighbor builds a wall that prevents the smoke from escaping and sends it back into the fire-building neighbor’s home. This illustrates the reciprocal nature of externalities. Without the wall, the smoke would not be a problem, but without the fire, the smoke would not exist to cause problems in the first place. Coase also takes issue with Pigou’s assumption of a “benevolent despot” government. Pigou assumes the government’s role is to see the external costs or benefits of a transaction and assign an appropriate tax or subsidy. Coase argues that the government faces costs and benefits just like any other economic agent, so other factors play into its decision-making.
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populations decrease, and as a result, ecosystems are irritated, and the fishing industry experiences financial losses. These consequences have an adverse effect on subsequent generations and other people who depend on the resource. Nevertheless, the reduction of externalities linked to resources in common pools frequently necessitates the adoption of collaborative management approaches, like community-based management frameworks, tradable permits, and quotas. Communities can lessen the tragedy of the commons and encourage sustainable resource use and conservation for the benefit of current and future generations by establishing property rights or controlling access to shared resources.
1451:. This hypothesis challenges the conventional microeconomic model, as outlined by the Common Pool Resource (CPR) mechanism, which typically assumes that an individual's utility derived from consuming a particular good or service remains unaffected by other's consumption choices. Instead, Duesenberry posits that individuals gauge the utility of their consumption based on a comparison with other consumption bundles, thus introducing the notion of relative income into economic analysis. Consequently, the consumption of positional goods becomes highly sought after, as it directly impacts one's perceived status relative to others in their social circle.
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firms that have low abatement costs to firms with higher abatement costs and therefore the system is both cost-effective and cost-efficient. The cap and trade system has some practical advantages over an emissions fee such as the fact that: 1. it reduces uncertainty about the ultimate pollution level. 2. If firms are profit maximizing, they will utilize cost-minimizing technology to attain the standard which is efficient for individual firms and provides incentives to the research and development market to innovate. 3. The market price of pollution rights would keep pace with the price level while the economy experiences inflation.
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2022:, the resort-owner and the logger could, in theory, get together to agree to a deal. For example, the resort-owner could pay the logger not to clear-cut – or could buy the forest. The most problematic situation, from Coase's perspective, occurs when the forest literally does not belong to anyone, or in any example in which there are not well-defined and enforceable property rights; the question of "who" owns the forest is not important, as any specific owner will have an interest in coming to an agreement with the resort owner (if such an agreement is mutually beneficial).
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technology. While it may reduce the pollution, it is not cost-effective and stifles innovation by incentivising research and development for technology that would work better than the mandated one. Performance standards set emissions goals for each polluting firm. The free choice of the firm to determine how to reach the desired emissions level makes this option slightly more efficient than the technology standard, however, it is not as cost-effective as the cap-and-trade system since the burden of emissions reduction cannot be shifted to firms with lower abatement.
1772:, which are goods where it is difficult if not impossible to exclude people from benefits. The production of a public good has beneficial externalities for all, or almost all, of the public. As with external costs, there is a problem here of societal communication and coordination to balance benefits and costs. This also implies that vaccination is not something solved by competitive markets. The government may have to step in with a collective solution, such as subsidizing or legally requiring vaccine use. If the government does this, the good is called a
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to abuse and deterioration when access is unrestrained. Without clearly defined property rights or efficient management structures, people or organizations may misuse common pool resources without thinking through the long-term effects, which might have detrimental externalities on other users and society at large. This phenomenon—famously referred to by
Garrett Hardin as the "tragedy of the commons"—highlights people's propensity to put their immediate self-interests ahead of the sustainability of shared resources.
1800:. While property rights to some things, such as objects, land, and money can be easily defined and protected, air, water, and wild animals often flow freely across personal and political borders, making it much more difficult to assign ownership. This incentivizes agents to consume them without paying the full cost, leading to negative externalities. Positive externalities similarly accrue from poorly defined property rights. For example, a person who gets a flu vaccination cannot own part of the
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2050:). Specifically, when investments are relationship-specific and non-contractible, then insufficient investments will be made when it is anticipated that parts of the investments’ returns will go to the trading partner in future negotiations (see Hart and Moore, 1988). Hence, Pigouvian taxation can be welfare-improving precisely because Coasean bargaining will take place in the future. Antràs and Staiger (2012) make a related point in the context of international trade.
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2042:. Additionally, firms could potentially bribe each other since there is little to no government interaction under the Coase theorem. For example, if one oil firm has a high pollution rate and its neighboring firm is bothered by the pollution, then the latter firm may move depending on incentives. Thus, if the oil firm were to bribe the second firm, the first oil firm would suffer no negative consequences because the government would not know about the bribing.
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assumes environmental and social problems are minor aberrations in an otherwise perfectly functioning efficient economic system. Internalizing the odd externality does nothing to address the structural systemic problem and fails to recognize the all pervasive nature of these supposed 'externalities'. This is precisely why heterodox economists argue for a heterodox theory of social costs to effectively prevent the problem through the precautionary principle.
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imposing taxes on the producers of this externality. This is usually done similar to a quote where there is no tax imposed and then once the externality reaches a certain point there is a very high tax imposed. However, since regulators do not always have all the information on the externality it can be difficult to impose the right tax. Once the externality is internalized through imposing a tax the competitive equilibrium is now Pareto optimal.
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771:") on negative externalities could be used to reduce their incidence to an efficient level. Subsequent thinkers have debated whether it is preferable to tax or to regulate negative externalities, the optimally efficient level of the Pigouvian taxation, and what factors cause or exacerbate negative externalities, such as providing investors in corporations with limited liability for harms committed by the corporation.
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1913:(also called Pigouvian tax, after economist Arthur C. Pigou) is a tax imposed that is equal in value to the negative externality. In order to fully correct the negative externality, the per unit tax should equal the marginal external cost. The result is that the market outcome would be reduced to the efficient amount. A side effect is that revenue is raised for the government, reducing the amount of
990:(also called "external cost" or "external diseconomy") is an economic activity that imposes a negative effect on an unrelated third party, not captured by the market price. It can arise either during the production or the consumption of a good or service. Pollution is termed an externality because it imposes costs on people who are "external" to the producer and consumer of the polluting product.
1819:. Transaction costs are the cost of making an economic trade. These costs prevent economic agents from making exchanges they should be making. The costs of the transaction outweigh the benefit to the agent. When not all mutually beneficial exchanges occur in a market, that market is inefficient. Without transaction costs, agents could freely negotiate and internalize all externalities.
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individual's consumption in a market increases the well-being of others, but the individual does not charge the third party for the benefit. The third party is essentially getting a free product. An example of this might be the apartment above a bakery receiving some free heat in winter. The people who live in the apartment do not compensate the bakery for this benefit.
2007:. The case of the vaccinations would also not satisfy the requirements of the Coase theorem. Since the potential external beneficiaries of vaccination are the people themselves, the people would have to self-organize to pay each other to be vaccinated. But such an organization that involves the entire populace would be indistinguishable from government action.
1191:, the prospect that parties insulated from risk may behave differently from the way they would if they were fully exposed to the risk. For example, individuals with insurance against automobile theft may be less vigilant about locking their cars, because the negative consequences of automobile theft are (partially) borne by the insurance company.
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benefit of an action or decision to an economic agent and the social benefit. A positive externality is anything that causes an indirect benefit to individuals and for which the producer of that positive externality is not compensated. For example, planting trees makes individuals' property look nicer and it also cleans the surrounding areas.
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the external benefit (for example, society as a whole is increasingly protected from smallpox by each vaccination, including those who refuse to participate). This marginal external benefit of getting a smallpox shot is represented by the vertical distance between the two demand curves. Assume there are no external costs, so that social cost
2166:, for instance shows that the bulk of consumers are automatically excluded from having an impact upon the prices of commodities, as these consumers are future generations who have not been born yet. The assumptions behind future discounting, which assume that future goods will be cheaper than present goods, has been criticized by
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Firms could bid the price they are willing to pay for the amount they want to pollute, and then have the right to pollute that amount without penalty. This would allow firms to pollute at the amount where the marginal cost of polluting equals the marginal benefit of another unit of pollution, thus leading to efficiency.
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In contrast, ecological economists, like Joan
Martinez-Alier, appeal to a different line of reasoning. Rather than assuming some (new) form of capitalism is the best way forward, an older ecological economic critique questions the very idea of internalizing externalities as providing some corrective
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This theorem would not apply to the steel industry case discussed above. For example, with a steel factory that trespasses on the lungs of a large number of individuals with pollution, it is difficult if not impossible for any one person to negotiate with the producer, and there are large transaction
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Imagine, for instance, that there are no rules or limits in place and that several fishermen have access to a single fishing area. In order to maintain their way of life, fishermen are motivated to maximize their catches, which eventually causes overfishing and the depletion of fish populations. Fish
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The graph shows the effects of a positive or beneficial externality. For example, the industry supplying smallpox vaccinations is assumed to be selling in a competitive market. The marginal private benefit of getting the vaccination is less than the marginal social or public benefit by the amount of
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if some job candidates begin wearing expensive custom-tailored suits, a side effect of their action is that other candidates become less likely to make favorable impressions on interviewers. From any individual job seeker's point of view, the best response might be to match the higher expenditures of
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has argued that this method of privatising profits while socialising the costs through externalities, passing the costs to the community, to the natural environment or to future generations is inherently destructive. Social ecological economist Clive Spash argues that externality theory fallaciously
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argued that an efficient outcome can sometimes be reached without government intervention. Some take this argument further, and make the political argument that government should restrict its role to facilitating bargaining among the affected groups or individuals and to enforcing any contracts that
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Government intervention might not always be needed. Traditional ways of life may have evolved as ways to deal with external costs and benefits. Alternatively, democratically run communities can agree to deal with these costs and benefits in an amicable way. Externalities can sometimes be resolved by
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When resources are managed poorly or there are no well-defined property rights, externalities frequently result, especially when it comes to common pool resources. Due to their rivalrous usage and non-excludability, common pool resources including fisheries, forests, and grazing areas are vulnerable
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contributed to the understanding of externalities through his writings on social costs and benefits in the 1920s and 1930s. Knight's work highlighted the inherent challenges in quantifying and mitigating externalities within market systems, underscoring the complexities involved in achieving optimal
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These externalities occur when technology spillovers from the acts of one economic agent impact the production or consumption potential of another agency. Depending on their nature, these spillovers may produce positive or negative externalities. The creation of new technologies that help people in
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for their properties. This is an example of a pecuniary externality, because the positive spillover is accounted for in market prices. In this case, house prices in the neighborhood will increase to match the increased real estate value from maintaining their aesthetic. (such as by mowing the lawn,
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The recognition of externalities as a pervasive phenomenon with wide-ranging implications has led to its incorporation into various fields beyond economics, including environmental science, public health, and urban planning. Contemporary debates surrounding issues such as climate change, pollution,
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Further arguments against Pigou disagree with his assumption every externality has someone at fault or responsible for the damages. Coase argues that externalities are reciprocal in nature. Both parties must be present for an externality to exist. He uses the example of two neighbors. One neighbor
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The concept of inframarginal externalities was introduced by James
Buchanan and Craig Stubblebine in 1962. Inframarginal externalities differ from other externalities in that there is no benefit or loss to the marginal consumer. At the relevant margin to the market, the externality does not affect
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Government involvement is frequently necessary to address externalities. This can be done by enacting laws, Pigovian taxes, or other measures that encourage positive externalities or internalize external costs. Through the integration of externalities into economic research and policy formulation,
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In microeconomic theory, externalities are factored into competitive equilibrium analysis as the social effect, as opposed to the private market which only factors direct economic effects. The social effect of economic activity is the sum of the indirect (the externalities) and direct factors. The
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merely an ethical problem. The problem is one of the disjunctures between marginal private and social costs that are not solved by the free market. It is a problem of societal communication and coordination to balance costs and benefits. This also implies that pollution is not something solved by
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What curve is added depends on the type of externality that is described, but not whether it is positive or negative. Whenever an externality arises on the production side, there will be two supply curves (private and social cost). However, if the externality arises on the consumption side, there
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Example: consider a scenario where individuals within a social group vie for the latest luxury cars. As one member acquires a top-of-the-line vehicle, others may feel compelled to upgrade their own cars to preserve their status within the group. This cycle of competitive consumption can result in
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Although positive externalities may appear to be beneficial, while Pareto efficient, they still represent a failure in the market as it results in the production of the good falling under what is optimal for the market. By allowing producers to recognise and attempt to control their externalities
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The cap-and-trade system enables the efficient level of pollution (determined by the government) to be achieved by setting a total quantity of emissions and issuing tradable permits to polluting firms, allowing them to pollute a certain share of the permissible level. Permits will be traded from
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Frank Knight also argued against government intervention as the solution to externalities. He proposed that externalities could be internalized with privatization of the relevant markets. He uses the example of road congestion to make his point. Congestion could be solved through the taxation of
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Kenneth Arrow suggests another private solution to the externality problem. He believes setting up a market for the externality is the answer. For example, suppose a firm produces pollution that harms another firm. A competitive market for the right to pollute may allow for an efficient outcome.
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The consumption of positional goods engenders negative externalities, wherein the acquisition of such goods by one individual diminishes the utility or value of similar goods held by others within the same reference group. This positional externality, can lead to a cascade of overconsumption, as
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A positive production externality occurs when a firm's production increases the well-being of others but the firm is uncompensated by those others, while a positive consumption externality occurs when an individual's consumption benefits other but the individual is uncompensated by those others.
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is not paid by either the producers or users of motorized transport to the rest of society. Water pollution from mills and factories is another example. All (water) consumers are made worse off by pollution but are not compensated by the market for this damage. A positive externality is when an
2185:, argue an orthodox economic line that the only reason why goods produced unsustainably are usually cheaper than goods produced sustainably is due to a hidden subsidy, paid by the non-monetized human environment, community or future generations. These arguments are developed further by Hawken,
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Externalities can be either positive or negative. Governments and institutions often take actions to internalize externalities, thus market-priced transactions can incorporate all the benefits and costs associated with transactions between economic agents. The most common way this is done is by
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Some arguments against
Pigovian taxes say that the tax does not account for all the transfers and regulations involved with an externality. In other words, the tax only considers the amount of externality produced. Another argument against the tax is that it does not take private property into
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to individuals. An example is the toxic gases that are released from industries or mines, these gases cause harm to individuals within the surrounding area and have to bear a cost (indirect cost) to get rid of that harm. Conversely, a positive externality is any difference between the private
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The effect that rising demand has on prices in marketplaces with intense competition is a typical illustration of pecuniary externalities. Prices rise in response to shifts in consumer preferences or income levels, which raise demand for a product and benefit suppliers by increasing sales and
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Externalities are the residual effects of economic activity on persons not directly participating in the transaction. The consequences of producer or consumer behaviors that result in external costs or advantages imposed on others are not taken into account by market pricing and can have both
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Command-and-control regulations act as an alternative to the incentive-based approach. They require a set quantity of pollution reduction and can take the form of either a technology standard or a performance standard. A technology standard requires pollution producing firms to use specified
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However, the most common type of solution is a tacit agreement through the political process. Governments are elected to represent citizens and to strike political compromises between various interests. Normally governments pass laws and regulations to address pollution and other types of
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In order to further understand transactional costs, it is crucial to discuss Ronald Coase's methodologies. The standard theory of externalities, which holds that internalizing external costs or benefits requires government action through measures like
Pigovian taxes or regulations, has been
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produced in production exacerbate the numerous environmental and human impacts of anthropogenic climate change. These negative effects are not reflected in the cost of producing, nor in the market price of the final goods. There are many public and private solutions proposed to combat this
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without producing a solution. Conversely, the costs of managing the long-term risks of disposal of chemicals, which may remain hazardous on similar time scales, is not commonly internalized in prices. The USEPA regulates chemicals for periods ranging from 100 years to a maximum of 10,000
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In a dynamic setup, Rosenkranz and
Schmitz (2007) have shown that the impossibility to rule out Coasean bargaining tomorrow may actually justify Pigouvian intervention today. To see this, note that unrestrained bargaining in the future may lead to an underinvestment problem (the so-called
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A positive externality (also called "external benefit" or "external economy" or "beneficial externality") is the positive effect an activity imposes on an unrelated third party. Similar to a negative externality, it can arise either on the production side, or on the consumption side.
1436:, 1899) refers to the consumption of goods or services primarily for the purpose of displaying social status or wealth. In simpler terms, individuals engange in conspicuous consumption to signal their economic standing or to gain social recognition. Positional goods (introduced by
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can increase economic welfare by providing transit services to other economic activities, however the benefits of those other economic activities are not felt by the operator, it can also decrease the negative externalities of increasing road patronage in the absence of a
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Clearly, we have compiled a record of serious failures in recent technological encounters with the environment. In each case, the new technology was brought into use before the ultimate hazards were known. We have been quick to reap the benefits and slow to comprehend the
2083:, is a tax levied on each unit of pollution produced in the production of a good or service. The tax incentivised producers to either lower their production levels or to undertake abatement activities that reduce emissions by switching to cleaner technology or inputs.
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The use of taxes and subsidies in solving the problem of externalities
Correction tax, respectively subsidy, means essentially any mechanism that increases, respectively decreases, the costs (and thus price) associated with the activities of an individual or company.
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others, lest her chances of landing the job fall. But this outcome may be inefficient since when all spend more, each candidate's probability of success remains unchanged. All may agree that some form of collective restraint on expenditure would be useful."
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Demand curve with external costs; if social costs are not accounted for price is too low to cover all costs and hence quantity produced is unnecessarily high (because the producers of the good and their customers are essentially underpaying the total, real
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the consumer and does not cause a market inefficiency. The externality only affects at the inframarginal range outside where the market clears. These types of externalities do not cause inefficient allocation of resources and do not require policy action.
1440:, 1977) are such goods, whose value is heavily contingent upon how they compare to similar goods owned by others. Their desirability is or derived utility is intrinsically tied to their relative scarcity or exclusivity within a particular social context.
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taxes that the government must impose elsewhere. Governments justify the use of
Pigovian taxes saying that these taxes help the market reach an efficient outcome because this tax bridges the gap between marginal social costs and marginal private costs.
1557:. Similarly, there might be two curves for the demand or benefit of the good. The social demand curve would reflect the benefit to society as a whole, while the normal demand curve reflects the benefit to consumers as individuals and is reflected as
1744:. This latter again reflect the idea that the marginal social benefit should equal the marginal social cost, i.e., that production should be increased as long as the marginal social benefit exceeds the marginal social cost. The result in an
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Externalities may arise between producers, between consumers or between consumers and producers. Externalities can be negative when the action of one party imposes costs on another, or positive when the action of one party benefits another.
1379:). This will increase the usefulness of such phones to other people who have a video cellphone. When each new user of a product increases the value of the same product owned by others, the phenomenon is called a network externality or a
1177:, caused by increased usage of antibiotics: Individuals do not consider this efficacy cost when making usage decisions. Government policies proposed to preserve future antibiotic effectiveness include educational campaigns, regulation,
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or benefit to an uninvolved third party that arises as an effect of another party's (or parties') activity. Externalities can be considered as unpriced components that are involved in either consumer or producer market transactions.
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third party costs and benefits, for example, by requiring a polluter to repair any damage caused. But in many cases, internalizing costs or benefits is not feasible, especially if the true monetary values cannot be determined.
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Frank notes that treating positional externalities like other externalities might lead to "intrusive economic and social regulation." He argues, however, that less intrusive and more efficient means of "limiting the costs of
879:, and since Pareto efficiency underpins the justification for private property, they undermine the whole idea of a market economy. For these reasons, negative externalities are more problematic than positive externalities.
1107:; air quality problems; the contamination of rivers, streams, and coastal waters with concentrated animal waste; animal welfare problems, mainly as a result of the extremely close quarters in which the animals are housed."
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are those which affect a third party's profit but not their ability to produce or consume. These externalities "occur when new purchases alter the relevant context within which an existing positional good is evaluated."
1205:" and are distinguished from "real externalities" or "technological externalities". Pecuniary externalities appear to be externalities, but occur within the market mechanism and are not considered to be a source of
1187:: Shared costs of declining health and vitality caused by smoking or alcohol abuse. Here, the "cost" is that of providing minimum social welfare. Economists more frequently attribute this problem to the category of
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for more than 1,000 years (over 100,000 for some types of nuclear waste) is, in principle, included in the cost of the electricity the plant produces in the form of a fee paid to the government and held in the
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Price increases: Consumption by one party causes prices to rise and therefore makes other consumers worse off, perhaps by preventing, reducing or delaying their consumption. These effects are sometimes called
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Supply curve with external benefits; when the market does not account for the additional social benefits of a good both the price for the good and the quantity produced are lower than the market could bear.
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However, the Coase theorem is difficult to implement because Coase does not offer a negotiation method. Moreover, Coasian solutions are unlikely to be reached due to the possibility of running into the
1492:"—i.e., the hypothesized increase in spending of middle-income families beyond their means "because of indirect effects associated with increased spending by top earners"—exist; one such method is the
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A negative externality is any difference between the private cost of an action or decision to an economic agent and the social cost. In simple terms, a negative externality is anything that causes an
1197:: When more people use public roads, road users experience congestion costs such as more waiting in traffic and longer trip times. Increased road users also increase the likelihood of road accidents.
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consideration. Under the
Pigovian system, one firm, for example, can be taxed more than another firm, even though the other firm is actually producing greater amounts of the negative externality.
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Buekers, Jurgen; Dons, Evi; Elen, Bart; Int Panis, Luc (December 2015). "Health impact model for modal shift from car use to cycling or walking in Flanders: application to two bicycle highways".
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solution is needed, such as a court system to allow parties affected by the pollution to be compensated, government intervention banning or discouraging pollution, or economic incentives such as
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Anything that reduces the rate of transmission of an infectious disease carries positive externalities. This includes vaccines, quarantine, tests and other diagnostic procedures. For airborne
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in the 1920s. The prototypical example of a negative externality is environmental pollution. Pigou argued that a tax, equal to the marginal damage or marginal external cost, (later called a "
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costs. Hence the most common approach may be to regulate the firm (by imposing limits on the amount of pollution considered "acceptable") while paying for the regulation and enforcement with
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will allow confidential sharing of information among members, reducing the positive externalities that would occur if the information were shared in an economy consisting only of individuals.
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Kapp, Karl William (1971) Social costs, neo-classical economics and environmental planning. The Social Costs of Business Enterprise, 3rd edition. K. W. Kapp. Nottingham, Spokesman: 305–18
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Torfs R, Int Panis L, De Nocker L, Vermoote S (2004). Peter Bickel, Rainer Friedrich (eds.). "Externalities of Energy Methodology 2005 Update Other impacts: ecosystems and biodiversity".
4916:
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Buekers, Jurgen; Van Holderbeke, Mirja; Bierkens, Johan; Int Panis, Luc (December 2014). "Health and environmental benefits related to electric vehicle introduction in EU countries".
2428:
2207:
argues that the concept of "externality" is a misnomer. In fact the modern business enterprise operates on the basis of shifting costs onto others as normal practice to make profits.
2709:, p. 80 (Island Press 2012): "Economists often say that externalities need to be 'internalized,' meaning that some action needs to be taken to correct this kind of market failure."
1844:
The central planner can decide to create and allocate jobs in industries that work to mitigate externalities, rather than waiting for the market to create a demand for these jobs.
894:
There are a number of theoretical means of improving overall social utility when negative externalities are involved. The market-driven approach to correcting externalities is to
778:
cannot reflect the true costs or benefits of that product or service for society as a whole. This causes the externality competitive equilibrium to not adhere to the condition of
1401:
fire protection services provide a positive externality to neighboring properties, which are less at risk of the protected neighbor's fire spreading to their (unprotected) house.
810:
resource allocation. Throughout the 20th century, the concept of externalities continued to evolve with advancements in economic theory and empirical research. Scholars such as
2799:
1517:
Technological externalities directly affect a firm's production and therefore, indirectly influence an individual's consumption; and the overall impact of society; for example
1011:"The corporation is an externalizing machine (moving its operating costs and risks to external organizations and people), in the same way that a shark is a killing machine." -
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9282:
1565:
will be two demand curves instead (private and social benefit). This distinction is essential when it comes to resolving inefficiencies that are caused by externalities.
2195:
1761:, the social benefit is greater than the societal cost, so society as a whole would be better off if more goods had been produced. The problem is that people are buying
982:
is an example of an externality because the consumption of street lighting has an effect on bystanders that is not compensated for by the consumers of the lighting.
6332:
4618:
4402:
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1549:
that consumers pay as individuals for additional quantities of the good, which in competitive markets, is the marginal private cost. The other curve is the
4792:
4237:"Spash, C. L. (2007) The economics of climate change impacts à la Stern: Novel and nuanced or rhetorically restricted? Ecological Economics 63(4): 706–13"
4755:
2634:
1602:. This is represented by the vertical distance between the two supply curves. It is assumed that there are no external benefits, so that social benefit
915:
sometimes refer to externalities as "neighborhood effects" or "spillovers", although externalities are not necessarily minor or localized. Similarly,
8776:
6124:
4611:
713:
1637:. These latter reflect the idea that the marginal social benefit should equal the marginal social cost, that is that production should be increased
5921:
2896:
Rabl A, Hurley F, Torfs R, Int Panis L, De Nocker L, Vermoote S, Bickel P, Friedrich R, Droste-Franke B, Bachmann T, Gressman A, Tidblad J (2005).
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855:
A voluntary exchange may reduce societal welfare if external costs exist. The person who is affected by the negative externalities in the case of
5971:
5444:
2116:"Relative percentage price increases for broad categories when externalities of greenhouse gas emissions are included in the producer's price."
1930:
environmental harm. These laws and regulations can take the form of "command and control" regulation (such as enforcing standards and limiting
5531:
4829:
4824:
4797:
1946:
or the creation of markets for ecological services). The second type of resolution is a purely private agreement between the parties involved.
2174:(although the Stern report itself does employ discounting and has been criticized for this and other reasons by ecological economists such as
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863:: either subjective displeasure or potentially explicit costs, such as higher medical expenses. The externality may even be seen as a
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There are several general types of solutions to the problem of externalities, including both public- and private-sector resolutions:
1265:
of surrounding crops by the bees. The value generated by the pollination may be more important than the value of the harvested honey.
822:
and resource depletion underscore the enduring relevance of the concept of externalities in addressing pressing societal challenges.
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1594:). The marginal private cost is less than the marginal social or public cost by the amount of the external cost, i.e., the cost of
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If all of these conditions apply, the private parties can bargain to solve the problem of externalities. The second part of the
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2162:(NCE) assumption that environmental and community costs and benefits are mutually cancelling "externalities" is not warranted.
818:
made significant contributions to the understanding of externalities and their implications for market efficiency and welfare.
17:
4407:
Berger, Sebastian (2017) The Social Costs of Neoliberalism: Essays in the Economics of K. William Kapp. Nottingham: Spokesman.
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2723:. Classics in economics series (First issued in hardback ed.). London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
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6941:
5236:
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Hawken, Paul; Amory and Hunter Lovins (2000) "Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution" (Back Bay Books)
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2095:
The emissions fee and cap and trade systems are both incentive-based approaches to solving a negative externality problem.
1716:
If consumers only take into account their own private benefits from getting vaccinations, the market will end up at price
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A 2020 scientific analysis of external climate costs of foods indicates that external greenhouse gas costs are typically
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agreement between the parties involved. This resolution may even come about because of the threat of government action.
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5000:
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4582:(2008) Externalities. In: Palgrave Macmillan (eds) The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Palgrave Macmillan, London
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is assumed to be selling in a competitive market – before pollution-control laws were imposed and enforced (e.g. under
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2788:, The Review of Economic Studies, Volume 72, Issue 3, July 2005, Pages 885–915, doi: 10.1111/j.1467-937X.2005.00355.x
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1841:, production is typically limited only to necessity, which would eliminate externalities created by overproduction.
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cost that society as a whole pays for production and consumption of increased production the good, or the marginal
839:
Pareto optimum, therefore, is at the levels in which the social marginal benefit equals the social marginal cost.
699:
53:
4328:
Einsentein, Charles (2011), "Sacred Economics: Money, Gift and Society in an Age in Transition" (Evolver Editions)
1658:, the social benefit is less than the social cost, so society as a whole would be better off if the goods between
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1216:, air pollution, climate change, work misallocation, resource requirements and land/space requirements as in the
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Many negative externalities are related to the environmental consequences of production and use. The article on
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on their health or violating their property rights (by reduced valuation). Thus, an external cost may pose an
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and integration of different sciences in the concept. Ecological economics is founded upon the view that the
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Berger, Sebastian (ed) (2015) The Heterodox Theory of Social Costs - by K. William Kapp. London: Routledge.
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1935:
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An individual who maintains an attractive house may confer benefits to neighbors in the form of increased
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5826:
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5039:
4923:
4680:
3874:
Rosenkranz, Stephanie; Schmitz, Patrick W. (2007). "Can Coasean Bargaining Justify Pigouvian Taxation?".
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3324:
1016:
424:
409:
290:
4310:
Kapp, Karl William (1963) The Social Costs of Business Enterprise. Bombay/London, Asia Publishing House.
3080:. The University of California Transportation Center, University of California at Berkeley. p. 213.
1299:
A foreign firm that demonstrates up-to-date technologies to local firms and improves their productivity.
1296:
Restored historic buildings may encourage more people to visit the area and patronize nearby businesses.
1088:: the risks to the overall economy arising from the risks that the banking system takes. A condition of
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1347:, it also includes masking. For waterborne diseases, it includes improved sewers and sanitation. (See
798:
The term "externality" was first coined by the British economist Alfred Marshall in his seminal work, "
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society may endeavor to get results that optimize aggregate well-being and foster sustainable growth.
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Externalities often occur when the production or consumption of a product or service's private price
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also addresses externalities and how they may be addressed in the context of environmental issues.
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4074:"Calculation of external climate costs for food highlights inadequate pricing of animal products"
3422:
2864:
Barry Commoner "Frail Reeds in a Harsh World". New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
2677:
Stewart, Frances; Ghani, Ejaz (June 1991). "How significant are externalities for development?".
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124:
94:
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61:
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Varian, Hal (1994). "A Solution to the Problem of Externalities When Agents Are Well Informed."
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1015:(2003) Republican candidate for Senate from Maine and corporate governance adviser in the film "
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1545:. An extra supply or demand curve is added, as in the diagrams below. One of the curves is the
1119:
607:
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1957:
The private-sector may sometimes be able to drive society to the socially optimal resolution.
1641:
as long as the marginal social benefit exceeds the marginal social cost. The result is that a
1459:
individuals strive to maintain or improve their relative position through excessive spending.
1060:
says "Climate change presents a unique challenge for economics: it is the greatest example of
1043:. This activity causes damages to crops, materials and (historic) buildings and public health.
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of individuals, as this can lead to broader society benefits in the form of greater economic
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612:
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134:
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42:
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1985:
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1895:
Voting to cause participants to internalize externalities subject to the conditions of the
1883:
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1489:
1286:, since much of the economic benefits of research are not captured by the originating firm.
775:
660:
531:
270:
250:
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If the consumers only take into account their own private cost, they will end up at price
8:
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5181:
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4011:
Arrow, Kenneth, "Political and Economic Evaluation of Social Effects and Externalities",
2759:
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1493:
592:
536:
491:
260:
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2225: – A theoretical concept in resource allocation to explain economic decision-making
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4174:"Organic meats found to have approximately the same greenhouse impact as regular meats"
4114:
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3959:
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3799:
3782:
Barnett, A. H.; Yandle, Bruce (24 June 2009). "The end of the externality revolution".
3601:
3537:
3289:
3155:
2588:
2553:
2506:
2459:
2387:"Ex Post Liability for Harm vs. Ex Ante Safety Regulation: Substitutes or Complements?"
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2027:
1307:
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632:
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3491:. A twentieth century fund study (Repr ed.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
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3373:
2525:
1384:
1103:, including "the increase in the pool of antibiotic-resistant bacteria because of the
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3492:
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3270:"Determinants of Horizontal Spillovers from FDI: Evidence from a Large Meta-Analysis"
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2402:
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1979:
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1455:
inefficient allocation of resources and exacerbate income inequality within society.
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876:
779:
587:
576:
399:
327:
119:
114:
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4446:
4366:
4243:
3187:
Gruber, J. (2010) Public Finance and Public Policy, Worth Publishers. G-8 (Glossary)
2510:
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during the production process, which may be mentally and psychologically disruptive.
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Liebowitz, S.J.; Margolis, Stephen E., "Network Externality: An Uncommon Tragedy",
3556:
3442:
3434:
3421:
Alesina, Alberto; Hausmann, Ricardo; Hommes, Rudolf; Stein, Ernesto (August 1999).
3411:
Weisbrod, Burton, 1962. External Benefits of Public Education, Princeton University
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1996:
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Positional externalities are related, but not similar to Percuniary externalities.
1433:
1387:" where, suddenly, the product reaches general acceptance and near-universal usage.
1302:
1289:
An industrial company providing first aid classes for employees to increase on the
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919:
argues that externalities arise from lack of "clear personal property definition."
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185:
152:
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1537:
The usual economic analysis of externalities can be illustrated using a standard
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782:. Thus, since resources can be better allocated, externalities are an example of
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548:
347:
302:
190:
3654:"Environmental and Natural Resource Economics" by Tom Tietenberg and Lynne Lewis
3645:"Environmental and Natural Resource Economics" by Tom Tietenberg and Lynne Lewis
1421:
The sociological basis of Positional externalities is rooted in the theories of
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The Environmentalism of the Poor: A Study of Ecological Conflicts and Valuation
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2135:
and concludes that contemporary monetary evaluations are "inadequate" and that
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asserts that, when these conditions hold, whoever holds the property rights, a
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99:
45:
is not compensated for by either the producers or users of motorized transport.
8393:
4358:
3795:
3632:
3597:
3062:"Proc Putting Meat on The Table: Industrial Farm Animal Production in America"
2386:
1209:
or inefficiency, although they may still result in substantial harm to others.
975:
9419:
9305:
9252:
9180:
9026:
8837:
8623:
8613:
8588:
8528:
8523:
8518:
8498:
8488:
8458:
8448:
8353:
8253:
8226:
7990:
7520:
7420:
7411:
7382:
7368:
7358:
7302:
7066:
7056:
7046:
6906:
6835:
6607:
5951:
5339:
5294:
5274:
5096:
4871:
4532:
4486:
4299:
The Social Costs of Neoliberalism: Essays on the Economics of K. William Kapp
4105:
3905:
3706:
3689:
3390:
3332:
3151:
3024:
2549:
2502:
2455:
2398:
2344:
2326:
2234:
2190:
1992:
1966:
1905:
or negotiation between those affected by externalities and those causing them
1801:
1785:
1595:
1591:
1522:
1406:
1391:
1349:
1269:
1130:
1126:
1085:
1036:
904:
856:
831:
748:
744:
367:
362:
352:
332:
245:
225:
205:
104:
84:
38:
34:
3398:
3078:
Road Pricing for Congestion Management: The Transition from Theory to Policy
2356:
1679:
This discussion implies that negative externalities (such as pollution) are
1375:
An individual buying a product that is interconnected in a network (e.g., a
1171:: Sleep deprivation due to a neighbor listening to loud music late at night.
9399:
9387:
9088:
8868:
8653:
8598:
8493:
8483:
8478:
8403:
8248:
7773:
7701:
7490:
7322:
7317:
7051:
6931:
6810:
6777:
6752:
6687:
6627:
6587:
6476:
6456:
6441:
6209:
6169:
5931:
5545:
5032:
5027:
5015:
4975:
4960:
4648:
4123:
3997:
2186:
2171:
2129:
1958:
1910:
1867:
1861:
1857:
1769:
1750:
1672:
had not been produced. The problem is that people are buying and consuming
1647:
1361:
1314:
1188:
1089:
1055:
1040:
811:
806:
768:
622:
337:
215:
129:
8754:
6102:
4072:
Pieper, Maximilian; Michalke, Amelie; Gaugler, Tobias (15 December 2020).
3549:
Why Inequality Matters: Lessons for Policy from the Economics of Happiness
9163:
9093:
8927:
8628:
8618:
8408:
8287:
8231:
7706:
7515:
7427:
7307:
7073:
6727:
6702:
6572:
6486:
6349:
6284:
6279:
5510:
5101:
4970:
4943:
4026:
Knight, Frank H., "Some Fallacies in the Interpretation of Social Cost",
2494:
2182:
2175:
2167:
1745:
1642:
1554:
1273:
1262:
1111:
6310:
3955:
3716:
3109:
3092:
2994:
White, Lawrence J.; McKenzie, Joseph; Cole, Rebel A. (3 November 2008),
2979:
2962:
2907:. Luxembourg: European Commission Publications Office. pp. 75–129.
2478:
2310:
1586:
The graph shows the effects of a negative externality. For example, the
9377:
9367:
9125:
8910:
8895:
8888:
8789:
8538:
8338:
8115:
7275:
7027:
6946:
6901:
6757:
6747:
6617:
6552:
6501:
6416:
6174:
5895:
5679:
5211:
4564:
4427:
3963:
3896:
3447:
2592:
2571:
Buchanan, James; Wm. Craig Stubblebine (November 1962). "Externality".
2080:
1877:
1773:
1700:
1573:
1410:
1376:
1290:
1073:
763:
in the 1890s and achieved broader attention in the works of economist
162:
109:
4414:
Baumol, W. J. (1972). "On Taxation and the Control of Externalities".
3583:
2557:
2391:
The Theory and Practice of Command and Control in Environmental Policy
9063:
8997:
8964:
8388:
8318:
7675:
7586:
7353:
7270:
7265:
7078:
6732:
6371:
5981:
5905:
5795:
5790:
5709:
5704:
5585:
5334:
4980:
4202:
Getting Down to Earth: Practical Applications of Ecological Economics
3269:
2996:
Deregulation Gone Awry: Moral Hazard in the Savings and Loan Industry
2429:"Optimal Control of Externalities in the Presence of Income Taxation"
2385:
Kolstad, Charles D.; Ulen, Thomas S.; Johnson, Gary V. (2018-01-12),
2228:
2125:
2061:
1902:
1871:
1689:
1357:
1344:
1250:
872:
727:
553:
342:
4556:
4198:
Costanza, Robert; Segura, Olman; Olsen, Juan Martinez-Alier (1996).
3947:
2635:"How do externalities affect equilibrium and create market failure?"
2584:
2128:-subdomain – followed by conventional dairy products and lowest for
1261:. A side effect or externality associated with such activity is the
9392:
9019:
8937:
8167:
7378:
7373:
7248:
6861:
6792:
6697:
6406:
5956:
5946:
2541:
2258: – Adage of the impossibility of getting something for nothing
1053:
from the burning of fossil fuels and the rearing of livestock. The
864:
200:
4524:
3755:
Barthold, Thomas A. (1994). "Issues in the Design of Excise Tax."
3371:
2154:
criticizes the concept of externality because there is not enough
1804:
this confers on society, so they may choose not to be vaccinated.
9352:
9158:
8992:
7432:
7331:
7243:
6977:
6637:
6361:
5161:
5111:
3061:
2193:
to promote their vision of an environmental capitalist utopia in
2011:
1889:
1781:
1443:
The economic concept of Positional externalities originates from
868:
860:
3309:"Review of Optimal Transit Subsidies: Comparison between Models"
2124:– conventional and organic to about the same extent within that
2010:
In some cases, the Coase theorem is relevant. For example, if a
69:
7618:
7407:
6471:
6366:
6229:
5724:
5595:
4985:
3538:
Are Positional Externalities Different from Other Externalities
2880:
2181:
Concerning these externalities, some, like the eco-businessman
2136:
2019:
2015:
1939:
30:
4149:"Organic meat production just as bad for climate, study finds"
3124:
Gössling, Stefan; Kees, Jessica; Litman, Todd (1 April 2022).
2885:. European Commission Publications Office, Luxembourg: 229–37.
1776:. Examples include policies to accelerate the introduction of
1070:
from industrial effluents can harm plants, animals, and humans
7292:
7174:
7154:
6411:
6376:
5872:
4129:
4067:
4065:
3860:
Marney, G.A. (1971). "The ‘Coase Theorem:' A Reexamination."
3423:"Budget institutions and fiscal performance in Latin America"
3247:"The Positive Externalities of Historic District Designation"
2748:"Microeconomics" by Robert S. Pindyck and Daniel L. Rubinfeld
2570:
2267: – Self-interests causing depletion of a shared resource
2004:
1542:
1258:
7644:
2526:"Toward Unlimited Shareholder Liability for Corporate Torts"
7449:
6466:
6431:
6426:
5560:
5452:
4594:
ExternE – European Union project to evaluate external costs
4593:
2706:
Environmental Economics for Tree Huggers and Other Skeptics
2196:
Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution
2107:
1254:
4399:
Environmental Economics and Natural Resource Management 5e
4062:
3420:
1340:
keeping the trash orderly, and getting the house painted)
6632:
6386:
5857:
3586:
Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment
3075:
1892:
to compensate affected parties for negative externalities
1880:
to limit activity that might cause negative externalities
1815:
Another common cause of externalities is the presence of
3618:
2895:
4266:
Hawken, Paul (1994) "The Ecology of Commerce" (Collins)
3690:"Environmental Exigencies and the Efficient Voter Rule"
3023:(Report). Bank of Japan. pp. 37–84. Archived from
2898:"Impact pathway Approach Exposure – Response functions"
2260:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
2245:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1122:
in the absence of appropriate environmental governance.
1110:
The depletion of the stock of fish in the ocean due to
3374:"Externalities, public goods, and infectious diseases"
3064:. The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.
2786:
Negative Externalities and Evolutionary Implementation
1874:
intended to redress economic injustices or imbalances.
4071:
3084:
3060:
Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production.
2296:
Gruber, J. (2018). Public Finance & Public Policy
1768:
The issue of external benefits is related to that of
1541:
diagram if the externality can be valued in terms of
1322:
1147:
1831:
1413:
activities with positive or negative externalities.
1237:
1076:
during the sending of unsolicited messages by email.
1023:
4633:
3514:
Income, saving, and the theory of consumer behavior
3372:Spencer Graves; Douglas A. Samuelson (March 2022).
2868:. Journal of the American Museum of Natural History
1432:Conspicuous consumption (originally articulated by
4199:
3816:Coase, R.H. (1960). "The Problem of Social Cost."
3529:
3527:
3525:
3523:
3466:. Great minds series. New York: Prometheus Books.
3123:
2384:
2098:
2066:The negative effect of carbon emissions and other
2062:Solutions to greenhouse gas emission externalities
1096:, or in the presence of badly designed regulation.
759:The concept of externality was first developed by
43:costs of the air pollution for the rest of society
3873:
3833:(volume 44 ed.). Feb-2008. pp. 367–382.
3268:Iršová, Zuzana; Havránek, Tomáš (February 2013).
3091:Liebowitz, S. J; Margolis, Stephen E (May 1994).
3090:
2993:
2744:
2742:
2740:
1368:, greater household mobility and higher rates of
9417:
4539:
3977:Antràs, Pol; Staiger, Robert W (December 2012).
3664:Dahlman, Carl J., "The Problem of Externality",
3307:Elgar, Ilan; Kennedy, Christopher (2005-06-01).
3076:Small, Kenneth A.; José A. Gomez-Ibañez (1998).
3015:
2934:The Economics of Climate Change The Stern Review
2719:Knight, Frank Hyneman; Boyd, Richard H. (2017).
2613:. Santa Fe: Cengage Learning. pp. 198–199.
2611:Principios de Economía (Principles of Economics)
2523:
2308:
2018:in a way that has a negative impact on a nearby
1848:
5972:Environmental, social, and corporate governance
3520:
2905:Externalities of Energy Methodology 2005 Update
2656:(6th ed.). Worth Publishers. p. 334.
2524:Hansmann, Henry; Kraakman, Reinier (May 1991).
1730:as before, instead of the more efficient price
1293:. This may also save lives outside the factory.
4226:Pearce, Fred "Blueprint for a Greener Economy"
3267:
3175:Intermediate microeconomics: a modern approach
2961:Rao, Justin M; Reiley, David H (August 2012).
2815:
2813:
2737:
1796:Externalities often arise from poorly defined
8770:
7660:
6993:
6326:
6118:
5438:
4619:
4464:Public Goods, Redistribution and Rent Seeking
4413:
3979:"Offshoring and the Role of Trade Agreements"
3976:
3781:
3568:
2309:Boudreaux, Donald J.; Meiners, Roger (2019).
707:
41:is an example of a negative externality. The
3678:"The Problem of Social Cost" by Ronald Coase
3306:
2903:. In Peter Bickel, Rainer Friedrich (eds.).
2676:
2338:
2336:
1999:outcome will be reached through bargaining.
1532:
9268:Political polarization in the United States
8784:
6132:
4458:
4441:
3612:
3511:
2870:, Vol. LXXVIII No. 2, February, 1969, p. 44
2810:
2304:
2302:
890:Graph of Positive Externality in Production
8777:
8763:
7667:
7653:
7000:
6986:
6333:
6319:
6125:
6111:
5445:
5431:
4626:
4612:
4146:
4056:"Command-and-control regulation (Article)"
3093:"Network Externality: An Uncommon Tragedy"
2718:
2311:"Externality: Origins and Classifications"
1138:, although much of that fund was spent on
1125:In the United States, the cost of storing
1092:can occur in the absence of well-designed
714:
700:
9321:Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal
6340:
5137:Environmental issues in the United States
4543:(October 1974). "Prices vs. Quantities".
4113:
3926:
3895:
3715:
3705:
3577:
3446:
3313:Journal of Urban Planning and Development
3221:"Externalities - Definition and examples"
3141:
3108:
3043:"Report Targets Costs Of Factory Farming"
2978:
2960:
2839:
2479:"Limited Liability and the Known Unknown"
2333:
2256:There ain't no such thing as a free lunch
994:commented on the costs of externalities:
793:
5122:Effects of climate change on agriculture
3929:"Incomplete Contracts and Renegotiation"
3687:
2604:
2602:
2299:
2278: – Unforeseen outcomes of an action
2143:to be possible, appropriate and urgent.
2111:
2108:Scientific calculation of external costs
2086:
1699:
1572:
1313:
1158:
974:
885:
29:
27:In economics, an imposed cost or benefit
5806:Pollutant release and transfer register
4340:"The Brave New World of Carbon Trading"
4147:Carrington, Damian (23 December 2020).
3768:Nye, John (2008). "The Pigou Problem."
1886:of services with positive externalities
1140:Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository
14:
9418:
5127:Effects of climate change on livestock
4480:
4383:by K. William Kapp. London: Routledge.
3735:. Worth Publishers. pp. 364–365.
3486:
3461:
3325:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9488(2005)131:2(71)
3244:
3172:
3009:
2797:
2608:
2426:
1623:, instead of the more efficient price
961:Positive externalities in consumption
950:Negative externalities in consumption
9363:Psychological effects of Internet use
8758:
7648:
6981:
6314:
6106:
5591:Principles for Responsible Investment
5426:
4607:
4337:
3177:. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co.
3040:
2927:
2599:
2342:
1826:
1383:. Network externalities often have "
964:Positive externalities in production
953:Negative externalities in production
805:Additionally, the American economist
6080:
5381:
5237:Tropical cyclones and climate change
4381:The Heterodox Theory of Social Costs
3516:. New York: Oxford University Press.
3245:Romero, Ana Maria (1 January 2004).
3126:"The lifetime cost of driving a car"
2764:The Library of Economics and Liberty
1695:
875:problem. Negative externalities are
9338:Digital media use and mental health
7744:Agent-based computational economics
6578:Maintenance, repair, and operations
5270:Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion
3663:
3345:
3016:De Bandt, O.; Hartmann, P. (1998).
2476:
2203:to the current system. The work by
24:
7556:Microfoundations of macroeconomics
7007:
5770:Environmental full-cost accounting
4491:The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
4390:
4206:. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
4025:
3927:Hart, Oliver; Moore, John (1988).
3730:
3666:The Journal of Law & Economics
2757:
2651:
2343:Pigou, Arthur Cecil (2017-10-24),
1329:positive consumption externalities
1323:Positive consumption externalities
1268:The corporate development of some
1154:negative consumption externalities
1148:Negative consumption externalities
1058:on the Economics of Climate Change
628:Renewable energy commercialization
25:
9457:
9343:Effects of violence in mass media
9047:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
6882:Controlled-access highway systems
4917:pharmaceuticals and personal care
4587:
4010:
3831:Journal of Mathematical Economics
3818:The Journal of Law and Economics.
3757:Journal of Economic Perspectives.
3621:Journal of Transport & Health
3202:, 2006 Harvard University Press.
2122:highest for animal-based products
1832:Solutions in non-market economies
1568:
1244:positive production externalities
1238:Positive production externalities
1101:Industrial farm animal production
1030:negative production externalities
1024:Negative production externalities
9316:2021 Facebook company files leak
9042:Mobile phones and driving safety
8202:neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis
7629:
7628:
7617:
6942:San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge
6763:Sustainable urban infrastructure
6079:
6070:
6069:
6059:
5644:
5551:Extended producer responsibility
5392:
5391:
5380:
5068:decline in amphibian populations
4773:Deforestation and climate change
4466:. Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.
4128:
3888:10.1111/j.1468-0335.2006.00556.x
3733:Public Finance and Public Policy
3571:Journal of Economic Perspectives
3547:? " (draft for presentation for
3427:Journal of Development Economics
3097:Journal of Economic Perspectives
2967:Journal of Economic Perspectives
2821:"Microeconomics – Externalities"
2654:Public Finance and Public Policy
2448:10.1111/j.1468-2354.2012.00689.x
2074:
1982:be minimal (costless bargaining)
1965:This result, often known as the
1512:
1503:
1390:In an area that does not have a
1318:Positive consumption externality
1163:Negative consumption externality
932:Classification of externalities
753:cost of air pollution to society
68:
9288:2020 U.S. presidential election
9283:2016 U.S. presidential election
6897:Hong Kong International Airport
6523:Infrastructure asset management
5760:Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
5202:Land surface effects on climate
4659:Environmental impact assessment
4635:Human impact on the environment
4379:Berger, Sebastian (ed) (2015).
4373:
4331:
4322:
4313:
4304:
4291:
4278:
4269:
4260:
4229:
4220:
4191:
4166:
4140:
4048:
4034:
4019:
4004:
3970:
3920:
3867:
3862:Quarterly Journal of Economics.
3854:
3837:
3823:
3810:
3775:
3762:
3749:
3724:
3681:
3672:
3657:
3648:
3639:
3562:
3505:
3480:
3464:The theory of the leisure class
3455:
3414:
3405:
3365:
3348:"What Pecuniary Externalities?"
3339:
3300:
3261:
3238:
3213:
3190:
3181:
3166:
3117:
3069:
3053:
3034:
2987:
2954:
2921:
2889:
2874:
2858:
2833:
2798:Rasure, E (December 29, 2020).
2791:
2778:
2751:
2712:
2697:
2670:
2645:
2627:
2393:, Routledge, pp. 331–344,
2099:Command-and-control regulations
1973:Property rights be well-defined
850:
6032:Socially responsible marketing
6027:Socially responsible investing
4545:The Review of Economic Studies
4438:"A Glossary of Economic Terms"
4028:Quarterly Journal of Economics
3286:10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.07.001
3143:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107335
2940:. Cambridge University Press.
2840:Goodstein, Eban (2014-01-21).
2564:
2517:
2470:
2420:
2378:
2345:"Welfare and Economic Welfare"
2290:
2252: – Concept in game theory
2231: – Type of economic goods
825:
13:
1:
8859:Betteridge's law of headlines
8138:Critique of political economy
7674:
6260:Rebound effect (conservation)
6022:Socially responsible business
5073:decline in insect populations
4338:Spash, Clive L. (June 2010).
4013:The Analysis of Public Output
3439:10.1016/S0304-3878(99)00012-7
2842:Economics and the Environment
2436:International Economic Review
2283:
1849:Solutions in market economies
1525:development by corporations.
1478:gives the following example:
1416:
1118:, which is vulnerable to the
405:Socially responsible business
181:Bright green environmentalism
9373:Social aspects of television
9273:Social media use in politics
8923:Missing white woman syndrome
6912:Kansai International Airport
6773:Transit-oriented development
6240:Parable of the broken window
5967:Environmental pricing reform
5498:environmental responsibility
4284:Martinez-Alier, Joan (2002)
3784:Social Philosophy and Policy
3018:What Is Systemic Risk Today?
2691:10.1016/0305-750X(91)90195-N
2351:, Routledge, pp. 3–22,
2241:Externalities of automobiles
2237: – Theorem in economics
2146:
1936:environmental pricing reform
1465:
1218:externalities of automobiles
1047:Anthropogenic climate change
656:Environmental pricing reform
7:
9446:Inefficiency in game theory
8884:Least objectionable program
7501:Civil engineering economics
7486:Statistical decision theory
7126:Income elasticity of demand
6887:Electric power transmission
5997:Market governance mechanism
5853:Global Reporting Initiative
5823:standards and certification
5730:Social return on investment
3688:Anderson, David A. (2020).
3382:Real-world economics review
2215:
2014:is planning to clear-cut a
1224:
970:
922:
410:Social return on investment
10:
9462:
9219:Algorithmic radicalization
8276:Real business-cycle theory
7136:Price elasticity of supply
7131:Price elasticity of demand
7121:Cross elasticity of demand
6967:Transcontinental railroads
6613:Public–private partnership
6300:Tyranny of small decisions
5937:Community interest company
5881:Community-based monitoring
5715:Genuine progress indicator
4507:10.4135/9781412965811.n101
4481:Volokh, Alexander (2008).
4397:Anderson, David A. (2019)
4297:Berger, Sebastian (2017).
4288:. Cheltenham, Edward Elgar
4098:10.1038/s41467-020-19474-6
3512:Duesenberry, J.S. (1967).
3462:Veblen, Thorstein (1998).
3197:The success of open source
3041:Weiss, Rick (2008-04-30).
2427:Kaplow, Louis (May 2012).
2243: – Impacts of car use
1944:tradable pollution permits
1684:competitive markets. Some
1449:Relative Income Hypothesis
1397:, homeowners who purchase
1114:. This is an example of a
395:Pollution haven hypothesis
390:Natural resource economics
375:High-performance buildings
9333:Cultural impact of TikTok
9298:
9204:
9119:
8963:
8851:
8796:
8716:
8674:
8316:
8050:
7799:
7764:
7682:
7612:
7579:
7458:
7015:
6872:Bus rapid transit systems
6849:
6801:
6646:
6510:
6348:
6185:Excess burden of taxation
6140:
6055:
5962:Environmental degradation
5914:
5871:
5845:
5811:Sustainability accounting
5743:
5675:Ethical positioning index
5653:
5642:
5467:
5375:
5310:Environmental engineering
5260:
5157:Environmental degradation
5048:
4934:fishing down the food web
4711:
4641:
4359:10.1080/13563460903556049
3796:10.1017/S0265052509090190
3633:10.1016/j.jth.2015.08.003
3598:10.1016/j.trd.2014.09.002
2721:The ethics of competition
2609:Mankiw, Nicholas (1998).
2315:Natural Resources Journal
2141:reductions of these costs
1942:or other Pigovian taxes,
1791:
1533:Supply and demand diagram
158:Climate change mitigation
9405:Violence and video games
9383:Social impact of YouTube
9263:Knowledge gap hypothesis
9186:Social-desirability bias
9084:Information–action ratio
7192:Income–consumption curve
5992:Health impact assessment
5863:Sustainability reporting
5832:Toxics Release Inventory
5626:Transparency (behavioral
5601:Social impact assessment
5490:Corporate accountability
5315:Environmental mitigation
5172:Greenhouse gas emissions
5132:Environmental insecurity
4599:Econ 120 – Externalities
4416:American Economic Review
4301:. Nottingham: Spokesman.
3986:American Economic Review
3847:American Economic Review
3707:10.3390/economies8040100
3251:The Park Place Economist
2931:(2006). "Introduction".
2399:10.4324/9781315197296-16
2349:The Economics of Welfare
1784:, both of which benefit
1405:Collective solutions or
1284:Research and development
1116:common property resource
1051:greenhouse gas emissions
598:Environmental technology
241:Ecological modernization
196:Corporate sustainability
9426:Environmental economics
9358:Mass shooting contagion
8811:Evolutionary psychology
7916:Industrial organization
7739:Computational economics
7526:Industrial organization
6382:Critical infrastructure
6270:Self-defeating prophecy
6134:Unintended consequences
6047:Supply chain management
5987:Global justice movement
5786:profit-and-loss account
5362:Sustainable consumption
4703:Social ecology (ethics)
3489:Social limits to growth
2963:"The Economics of Spam"
2883:EUR 21951 EN – Extern E
2357:10.4324/9781351304368-1
2276:Unintended consequences
2250:Incentive compatibility
1471:Pecuniary externalities
1423:conspicuous consumption
1370:political participation
1203:pecuniary externalities
1136:nuclear waste superfund
1005:environmental economics
859:will see it as lowered
800:Principles of Economics
671:Green industrial policy
385:Marginal abatement cost
308:Fiscal environmentalism
125:Personal carbon trading
95:Carbon fee and dividend
90:Carbon emission trading
62:Environmental economics
9348:Fascination with death
9211:Political polarization
9139:Availability heuristic
9104:Television consumption
8121:Modern monetary theory
7786:Experimental economics
7756:Pluralism in economics
7729:Mathematical economics
6826:Mechanical engineering
6821:Electrical engineering
6528:Build–operate–transfer
6392:Electricity generation
6295:Tragedy of the commons
6012:SDG Publishers Compact
5774:Environmental conflict
5581:Organizational justice
5305:Ecological engineering
5085:runaway climate change
3998:10.1257/aer.102.7.3140
3864:Vol. 85 No. 4. 718–23.
2265:Tragedy of the commons
2160:neoclassical economics
2117:
1754:since at the quantity
1705:
1651:since at the quantity
1583:
1319:
1164:
1120:tragedy of the commons
1105:overuse of antibiotics
1021:
1001:
983:
891:
794:History of the concept
608:Fossil fuel divestment
46:
18:Positive externalities
9311:Criticism of Facebook
9191:Social influence bias
9079:Information pollution
9069:Information explosion
9052:Texting while driving
9008:Low information voter
8906:Pink-slime journalism
7496:Engineering economics
7091:Cost–benefit analysis
6962:Trans-Alaska pipeline
6568:Life-cycle assessment
6543:Engineering contracts
6422:Municipal solid waste
6342:Public infrastructure
6245:Paradox of enrichment
6002:Product certification
5801:Life-cycle assessment
5720:Performance indicator
5611:Social responsibility
5576:Organizational ethics
5506:social responsibility
4688:List of global issues
4493:. Thousand Oaks, CA:
4347:New Political Economy
4078:Nature Communications
3553:Brookings Institution
3487:Hirsch, Fred (1978).
3173:Varian, H.R. (2010).
2844:. Wiley. p. 32.
2784:William H. Sandholm,
2477:Sim, Michael (2018).
2139:-making that lead to
2115:
2087:Cap-and-trade systems
2079:An emissions fee, or
1976:People act rationally
1703:
1580:factors of production
1576:
1317:
1214:public infrastructure
1175:Antibiotic resistance
1162:
1009:
996:
978:
889:
666:Free public transport
613:Fossil fuel phase-out
135:Social cost of carbon
33:
9328:Criticism of Netflix
9134:Availability cascade
9074:Information overload
8983:Attention management
8978:Attention inequality
8874:Human-interest story
8816:Behavioral modernity
8801:Cognitive psychology
7995:Social choice theory
7751:Behavioral economics
7734:Complexity economics
7313:Price discrimination
7207:Intertemporal choice
6857:Akashi Kaikyō Bridge
6723:Mobile data terminal
6497:Water supply network
6492:Wastewater treatment
6215:Inverse consequences
6007:Public participation
5942:Conflict of interest
5532:inequality in the UK
5524:in the United States
5516:Environmental racism
5290:Community resilience
5090:in the United States
5058:Biodiversity threats
4731:cannabis cultivation
4698:Planetary boundaries
4664:Environmental issues
4654:Ecological footprint
4580:Jean-Jacques Laffont
4448:Economics of Welfare
4404:New York: Routledge.
3130:Ecological Economics
2800:"Free Rider Problem"
2530:The Yale Law Journal
2495:10.2139/ssrn.3121519
2271:True cost accounting
2152:Ecological economics
1986:Complete information
1897:efficient voter rule
1884:Government provision
1606:individual benefit.
1519:Open-source software
1490:expenditure cascades
1272:(studied notably by
1099:Negative effects of
1049:as a consequence of
988:negative externality
751:is one example. The
661:Environmental tariff
286:full-cost accounting
251:Efficient energy use
236:Ecological footprint
231:Ecological economics
9241:Post-truth politics
9171:Mean world syndrome
8079:American (National)
7779:Economic statistics
7624:Business portal
7561:Operations research
7388:Substitution effect
6927:Offshore wind farms
6738:Renewable resources
6658:Air traffic control
6563:Infrastructure bond
6190:Four Pests campaign
5977:Ethical consumerism
5927:Benefit corporation
5819:metrics and indices
5621:Sullivan principles
5536:injustice in Europe
5352:Restoration ecology
5285:Climate engineering
5222:Ocean acidification
5212:Loss of green belts
5182:Holocene extinction
5177:Habitat destruction
4852:Environmental crime
4501:. pp. 162–63.
4090:2020NatCo..11.6117P
4042:"Carbon Tax Basics"
3770:The Cato Institute.
3110:10.1257/jep.8.2.133
2980:10.1257/jep.26.3.87
2766:. Liberty Fund, Inc
2164:Joan Martinez Alier
1494:personal income tax
1409:are implemented to
1064:we have ever seen."
933:
907:economists such as
593:Carbon-neutral fuel
256:Energy conservation
9059:Influence-for-hire
9037:Media multitasking
9032:Human multitasking
8950:Tabloid television
8901:Media manipulation
7202:Indifference curve
7170:Goods and services
7111:Economies of scope
7106:Economies of scale
6768:Traffic congestion
6678:Congestion pricing
6482:Telecommunications
6397:Energy development
6275:Self-refuting idea
6255:Perverse incentive
6065:Environment portal
5837:Triple bottom line
5765:Emission inventory
5670:Double bottom line
5616:Stakeholder theory
5367:Waste minimization
5325:Mitigation banking
5320:Industrial ecology
5280:Cleaner production
5232:Resource depletion
4768:Corporate behavior
4726:animal agriculture
4044:. 20 October 2017.
4030:, pp. 582–606
3731:Gruber, Jonathan.
3668:, pp. 141–162
3573:, pp. 133–150
3559:, June 4–5, 2003).
3543:2012-12-21 at the
2652:Gruber, Jonathan.
2209:Charles Eisenstein
2118:
2036:free-rider problem
2028:assignment problem
1827:Possible solutions
1706:
1584:
1320:
1195:Traffic congestion
1165:
1094:banking regulation
984:
931:
892:
877:Pareto inefficient
633:Sustainable energy
618:Low-carbon economy
457:consumer behaviour
47:
9436:Welfare economics
9413:
9412:
9236:Fake news website
9196:Spiral of silence
9149:Confirmation bias
8973:Attention economy
8955:Yellow journalism
8843:Social psychology
8752:
8751:
8283:New institutional
7642:
7641:
7604:Political economy
7403:Supply and demand
7283:Pareto efficiency
6975:
6974:
6892:High-speed trains
6816:Civil engineering
6718:Land-use planning
6668:Bus rapid transit
6308:
6307:
6265:Risk compensation
6100:
6099:
6017:Social enterprise
5922:Bangladesh Accord
5782:management system
5778:impact assessment
5755:Carbon accounting
5685:Impact assessment
5636:UN Global Compact
5528:in Western Europe
5480:Aarhus Convention
5420:
5419:
5242:Water degradation
5117:Ecological crisis
5063:biodiversity loss
4862:Industrialisation
4847:Genetic pollution
4693:Impact assessment
4516:978-1-4129-6580-4
4473:978-1-84376-637-7
4453:Macmillan and Co.
4434:Johnson, Paul M.
3742:978-1-319-20584-3
3498:978-0-7100-8610-5
3473:978-1-57392-219-7
3274:World Development
3030:on 17 April 2003.
2947:978-0-521-70080-1
2914:978-92-79-00423-0
2730:978-1-56000-955-9
2703:Jaeger, William.
2679:World Development
2663:978-1-319-20584-3
2620:978-607-481-829-1
2513:– via SSRN.
2408:978-1-315-19729-6
2366:978-1-351-30436-8
2205:Karl William Kapp
2133:plant-based foods
2040:transaction costs
1980:Transaction costs
1932:process variables
1839:planned economies
1817:transaction costs
1778:electric vehicles
1746:unfettered market
1713:individual cost.
1696:External benefits
1539:supply and demand
1366:unemployment rate
1308:congestion charge
968:
967:
780:Pareto optimality
724:
723:
588:Carbon neutrality
577:2000-watt society
571:Energy transition
482:development goals
400:Social accounting
120:Environmental tax
115:Emissions trading
16:(Redirected from
9453:
9441:Public economics
9258:Knowledge divide
9154:Crowd psychology
9144:Bandwagon effect
8916:Public relations
8833:Media psychology
8779:
8772:
8765:
8756:
8755:
7956:Natural resource
7791:Economic history
7717:Mechanism design
7669:
7662:
7655:
7646:
7645:
7632:
7631:
7622:
7621:
7364:Returns to scale
7222:Market structure
7002:
6995:
6988:
6979:
6978:
6957:Three Gorges Dam
6937:Port of Shanghai
6831:Public economics
6683:Containerization
6673:Carbon footprint
6583:Natural monopoly
6452:Public utilities
6447:Public transport
6335:
6328:
6321:
6312:
6311:
6290:Streisand effect
6200:Hawthorne effect
6160:Butterfly effect
6155:Braess's paradox
6127:
6120:
6113:
6104:
6103:
6083:
6082:
6073:
6072:
6063:
5648:
5566:Little Eichmanns
5447:
5440:
5433:
5424:
5423:
5395:
5394:
5384:
5383:
5217:Phosphorus cycle
5197:Land consumption
5192:Land degradation
5167:Freshwater cycle
4966:Overexploitation
4939:marine pollution
4746:cocoa production
4628:
4621:
4614:
4605:
4604:
4576:
4541:Weitzman, Martin
4536:
4477:
4455:
4431:
4384:
4377:
4371:
4370:
4344:
4335:
4329:
4326:
4320:
4317:
4311:
4308:
4302:
4295:
4289:
4282:
4276:
4273:
4267:
4264:
4258:
4257:
4255:
4254:
4248:
4242:. Archived from
4241:
4233:
4227:
4224:
4218:
4217:
4205:
4195:
4189:
4188:
4186:
4184:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4159:
4144:
4138:
4133:Available under
4132:
4127:
4117:
4069:
4060:
4059:
4052:
4046:
4045:
4038:
4032:
4031:
4023:
4017:
4016:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3992:(7): 3140–3183.
3983:
3974:
3968:
3967:
3933:
3924:
3918:
3917:
3899:
3882:(296): 573–585.
3871:
3865:
3858:
3852:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3827:
3821:
3814:
3808:
3807:
3779:
3773:
3766:
3760:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3728:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3709:
3685:
3679:
3676:
3670:
3669:
3661:
3655:
3652:
3646:
3643:
3637:
3636:
3616:
3610:
3609:
3581:
3575:
3574:
3566:
3560:
3557:Washington, D.C.
3531:
3518:
3517:
3509:
3503:
3502:
3484:
3478:
3477:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3418:
3412:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3378:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3360:
3358:
3352:Economist's View
3343:
3337:
3336:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3265:
3259:
3258:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3217:
3211:
3194:
3188:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3145:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3088:
3082:
3081:
3073:
3067:
3065:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3029:
3022:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2991:
2985:
2984:
2982:
2958:
2952:
2951:
2939:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2902:
2893:
2887:
2886:
2878:
2872:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2827:
2817:
2808:
2807:
2795:
2789:
2782:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2755:
2749:
2746:
2735:
2734:
2716:
2710:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2606:
2597:
2596:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2483:Duke Law Journal
2474:
2468:
2467:
2433:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2415:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2374:
2373:
2340:
2331:
2330:
2306:
2297:
2294:
2261:
2246:
2068:greenhouse gases
1997:Pareto efficient
1969:, requires that
1559:effective demand
1427:positional goods
1303:Public transport
934:
930:
917:Ludwig von Mises
816:Harold Hotelling
716:
709:
702:
582:Alternative fuel
472:design standards
380:Impact investing
186:Circular economy
153:Carbon footprint
72:
49:
48:
21:
9461:
9460:
9456:
9455:
9454:
9452:
9451:
9450:
9416:
9415:
9414:
9409:
9294:
9209:
9200:
9176:Negativity bias
9124:
9115:
9003:Cognitive miser
8959:
8852:Media practices
8847:
8792:
8783:
8753:
8748:
8745:Business portal
8712:
8711:
8710:
8670:
8434:von Böhm-Bawerk
8322:
8321:
8312:
8084:Ancient thought
8062:
8061:
8055:
8046:
8045:
8044:
7795:
7760:
7712:Contract theory
7697:Decision theory
7678:
7673:
7643:
7638:
7616:
7608:
7575:
7454:
7096:Deadweight loss
7033:Consumer choice
7011:
7006:
6976:
6971:
6867:Brooklyn Bridge
6845:
6803:
6797:
6783:Waste-to-energy
6743:Reverse osmosis
6713:Hybrid vehicles
6708:High-speed rail
6693:Fuel efficiency
6663:Brownfield land
6650:
6648:
6642:
6558:Government debt
6506:
6402:Hazardous waste
6354:
6352:
6344:
6339:
6309:
6304:
6250:Parkinson's law
6145:Abilene paradox
6136:
6131:
6101:
6096:
6051:
5910:
5867:
5841:
5746:
5739:
5735:Whole-life cost
5665:Corporate crime
5656:
5649:
5640:
5571:Loss and damage
5541:Ethical banking
5485:Climate justice
5472:
5463:
5451:
5421:
5416:
5371:
5330:Organic farming
5256:
5247:Water pollution
5227:Ozone depletion
5207:Loss and damage
5107:Desertification
5044:
4956:Overconsumption
4877:cleaning agents
4778:Energy industry
4741:meat production
4707:
4637:
4632:
4590:
4585:
4557:10.2307/2296698
4517:
4483:"Externalities"
4474:
4393:
4391:Further reading
4388:
4387:
4378:
4374:
4342:
4336:
4332:
4327:
4323:
4318:
4314:
4309:
4305:
4296:
4292:
4283:
4279:
4274:
4270:
4265:
4261:
4252:
4250:
4246:
4239:
4235:
4234:
4230:
4225:
4221:
4214:
4196:
4192:
4182:
4180:
4172:
4171:
4167:
4157:
4155:
4145:
4141:
4070:
4063:
4054:
4053:
4049:
4040:
4039:
4035:
4024:
4020:
4015:, pp. 1–30
4009:
4005:
3981:
3975:
3971:
3948:10.2307/1912698
3931:
3925:
3921:
3872:
3868:
3859:
3855:
3842:
3838:
3829:
3828:
3824:
3815:
3811:
3780:
3776:
3767:
3763:
3754:
3750:
3743:
3729:
3725:
3686:
3682:
3677:
3673:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3649:
3644:
3640:
3617:
3613:
3582:
3578:
3567:
3563:
3545:Wayback Machine
3534:Robert H. Frank
3532:
3521:
3510:
3506:
3499:
3485:
3481:
3474:
3460:
3456:
3419:
3415:
3410:
3406:
3376:
3370:
3366:
3356:
3354:
3344:
3340:
3305:
3301:
3266:
3262:
3243:
3239:
3229:
3227:
3219:
3218:
3214:
3195:
3191:
3186:
3182:
3171:
3167:
3122:
3118:
3089:
3085:
3074:
3070:
3058:
3054:
3047:Washington Post
3039:
3035:
3027:
3020:
3014:
3010:
2992:
2988:
2959:
2955:
2948:
2937:
2929:Stern, Nicholas
2926:
2922:
2915:
2900:
2894:
2890:
2879:
2875:
2866:Natural History
2863:
2859:
2852:
2838:
2834:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2811:
2796:
2792:
2783:
2779:
2769:
2767:
2760:"Externalities"
2758:Caplan, Bryan.
2756:
2752:
2747:
2738:
2731:
2717:
2713:
2702:
2698:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2650:
2646:
2633:
2632:
2628:
2621:
2607:
2600:
2585:10.2307/2551386
2579:(116): 371–84.
2569:
2565:
2522:
2518:
2475:
2471:
2431:
2425:
2421:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2383:
2379:
2371:
2369:
2367:
2341:
2334:
2307:
2300:
2295:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2259:
2244:
2218:
2156:system thinking
2149:
2110:
2101:
2089:
2077:
2064:
2048:hold-up problem
2032:holdout problem
1851:
1834:
1829:
1798:property rights
1794:
1759:
1742:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1698:
1670:
1663:
1656:
1635:
1628:
1621:
1614:
1600:water pollution
1571:
1561:in the market.
1535:
1515:
1506:
1476:Robert H. Frank
1468:
1419:
1407:public policies
1395:fire department
1325:
1240:
1227:
1185:Passive smoking
1179:Pigouvian taxes
1169:Noise pollution
1150:
1080:Noise pollution
1068:Water pollution
1026:
1017:The Corporation
980:Light pollution
973:
925:
913:Milton Friedman
909:Friedrich Hayek
853:
828:
796:
761:Alfred Marshall
720:
691:
690:
646:
638:
637:
572:
564:
563:
549:Thermoeconomics
303:Ethical banking
191:Climate finance
176:
168:
167:
148:
140:
139:
80:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9459:
9449:
9448:
9443:
9438:
9433:
9431:Market failure
9428:
9411:
9410:
9408:
9407:
9402:
9397:
9396:
9395:
9385:
9380:
9375:
9370:
9365:
9360:
9355:
9350:
9345:
9340:
9335:
9330:
9325:
9324:
9323:
9318:
9308:
9302:
9300:
9299:Related topics
9296:
9295:
9293:
9292:
9291:
9290:
9285:
9280:
9270:
9265:
9260:
9255:
9250:
9249:
9248:
9243:
9233:
9228:
9227:
9226:
9215:
9213:
9206:Digital divide
9202:
9201:
9199:
9198:
9193:
9188:
9183:
9178:
9173:
9168:
9167:
9166:
9161:
9151:
9146:
9141:
9136:
9130:
9128:
9121:Cognitive bias
9117:
9116:
9114:
9113:
9111:Sticky content
9108:
9107:
9106:
9101:
9099:Binge-watching
9091:
9086:
9081:
9076:
9071:
9066:
9061:
9056:
9055:
9054:
9049:
9044:
9039:
9029:
9024:
9023:
9022:
9015:Digital zombie
9012:
9011:
9010:
9000:
8995:
8990:
8988:Attention span
8985:
8980:
8975:
8969:
8967:
8961:
8960:
8958:
8957:
8952:
8947:
8942:
8941:
8940:
8933:Sensationalism
8930:
8925:
8920:
8919:
8918:
8913:
8908:
8898:
8893:
8892:
8891:
8886:
8881:
8879:Junk food news
8876:
8866:
8861:
8855:
8853:
8849:
8848:
8846:
8845:
8840:
8835:
8830:
8829:
8828:
8823:
8818:
8808:
8803:
8797:
8794:
8793:
8782:
8781:
8774:
8767:
8759:
8750:
8749:
8747:
8742:
8737:
8732:
8727:
8722:
8717:
8714:
8713:
8709:
8708:
8703:
8693:
8688:
8682:
8681:
8680:
8678:
8672:
8671:
8669:
8668:
8661:
8656:
8651:
8646:
8641:
8636:
8631:
8626:
8621:
8616:
8611:
8606:
8601:
8596:
8591:
8586:
8581:
8576:
8571:
8566:
8561:
8556:
8551:
8546:
8541:
8536:
8531:
8526:
8521:
8516:
8511:
8506:
8501:
8496:
8491:
8486:
8481:
8476:
8471:
8466:
8461:
8456:
8451:
8446:
8441:
8436:
8431:
8426:
8421:
8416:
8411:
8406:
8401:
8396:
8391:
8386:
8381:
8376:
8371:
8366:
8361:
8356:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
8331:
8325:
8323:
8317:
8314:
8313:
8311:
8310:
8305:
8300:
8295:
8290:
8285:
8280:
8279:
8278:
8268:
8267:
8266:
8256:
8251:
8246:
8245:
8244:
8234:
8229:
8224:
8223:
8222:
8221:
8220:
8210:
8205:
8190:
8185:
8180:
8175:
8170:
8165:
8160:
8155:
8150:
8148:Disequilibrium
8145:
8140:
8135:
8130:
8125:
8124:
8123:
8113:
8108:
8103:
8098:
8097:
8096:
8086:
8081:
8076:
8071:
8065:
8063:
8051:
8048:
8047:
8043:
8042:
8037:
8032:
8027:
8022:
8017:
8012:
8007:
8002:
7997:
7988:
7983:
7978:
7973:
7968:
7963:
7961:Organizational
7958:
7953:
7948:
7943:
7938:
7933:
7928:
7923:
7918:
7913:
7908:
7903:
7898:
7893:
7888:
7883:
7878:
7873:
7868:
7863:
7858:
7853:
7848:
7843:
7838:
7833:
7828:
7823:
7818:
7813:
7807:
7806:
7805:
7803:
7797:
7796:
7794:
7793:
7788:
7783:
7782:
7781:
7770:
7768:
7762:
7761:
7759:
7758:
7753:
7748:
7747:
7746:
7736:
7731:
7726:
7724:Macroeconomics
7721:
7720:
7719:
7714:
7709:
7704:
7699:
7692:Microeconomics
7688:
7686:
7680:
7679:
7672:
7671:
7664:
7657:
7649:
7640:
7639:
7637:
7636:
7626:
7613:
7610:
7609:
7607:
7606:
7601:
7599:Macroeconomics
7596:
7595:
7594:
7583:
7581:
7577:
7576:
7574:
7573:
7568:
7563:
7558:
7553:
7548:
7543:
7538:
7533:
7528:
7523:
7518:
7513:
7508:
7503:
7498:
7493:
7488:
7483:
7478:
7473:
7468:
7462:
7460:
7456:
7455:
7453:
7452:
7447:
7446:
7445:
7440:
7430:
7425:
7424:
7423:
7414:
7400:
7395:
7390:
7385:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7361:
7356:
7351:
7346:
7341:
7336:
7335:
7334:
7329:
7320:
7315:
7310:
7305:
7300:
7298:Price controls
7290:
7285:
7280:
7279:
7278:
7273:
7268:
7263:
7262:
7261:
7256:
7246:
7241:
7240:
7239:
7234:
7219:
7217:Market failure
7214:
7209:
7204:
7199:
7194:
7189:
7184:
7183:
7182:
7177:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7152:
7151:
7150:
7140:
7139:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7123:
7113:
7108:
7103:
7098:
7093:
7088:
7087:
7086:
7081:
7076:
7071:
7070:
7069:
7059:
7054:
7044:
7035:
7030:
7025:
7019:
7017:
7013:
7012:
7009:Microeconomics
7005:
7004:
6997:
6990:
6982:
6973:
6972:
6970:
6969:
6964:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6929:
6924:
6919:
6917:Millau Viaduct
6914:
6909:
6904:
6899:
6894:
6889:
6884:
6879:
6877:Channel Tunnel
6874:
6869:
6864:
6859:
6853:
6851:
6847:
6846:
6844:
6843:
6841:Urban planning
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6807:
6805:
6799:
6798:
6796:
6795:
6790:
6788:Weatherization
6785:
6780:
6775:
6770:
6765:
6760:
6755:
6750:
6745:
6740:
6735:
6730:
6725:
6720:
6715:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6670:
6665:
6660:
6654:
6652:
6644:
6643:
6641:
6640:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6620:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6598:Public finance
6595:
6593:Public capital
6590:
6585:
6580:
6575:
6570:
6565:
6560:
6555:
6550:
6545:
6540:
6535:
6530:
6525:
6520:
6514:
6512:
6508:
6507:
6505:
6504:
6499:
6494:
6489:
6484:
6479:
6474:
6469:
6464:
6462:Rail transport
6459:
6454:
6449:
6444:
6439:
6437:Public housing
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6399:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6358:
6356:
6346:
6345:
6338:
6337:
6330:
6323:
6315:
6306:
6305:
6303:
6302:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6282:
6277:
6272:
6267:
6262:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6235:Osborne effect
6232:
6227:
6222:
6220:Jevons paradox
6217:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6195:Goodhart's law
6192:
6187:
6182:
6177:
6172:
6167:
6165:Campbell's law
6162:
6157:
6152:
6150:Adverse effect
6147:
6141:
6138:
6137:
6130:
6129:
6122:
6115:
6107:
6098:
6097:
6095:
6094:
6089:
6077:
6067:
6056:
6053:
6052:
6050:
6049:
6044:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5918:
5916:
5912:
5911:
5909:
5908:
5903:
5893:
5883:
5877:
5875:
5869:
5868:
5866:
5865:
5860:
5858:GxP guidelines
5855:
5849:
5847:
5843:
5842:
5840:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5751:
5749:
5741:
5740:
5738:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5696:
5691:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5661:
5659:
5651:
5650:
5643:
5641:
5639:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5608:
5606:Social justice
5603:
5598:
5593:
5588:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5513:
5508:
5502:responsibility
5487:
5482:
5476:
5474:
5465:
5464:
5461:accountability
5450:
5449:
5442:
5435:
5427:
5418:
5417:
5415:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5388:
5376:
5373:
5372:
5370:
5369:
5364:
5359:
5357:Sustainability
5354:
5349:
5348:
5347:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5266:
5264:
5258:
5257:
5255:
5254:
5252:Water scarcity
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5187:Nitrogen cycle
5184:
5179:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5152:Forest dieback
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5093:
5092:
5087:
5080:Climate change
5077:
5076:
5075:
5070:
5065:
5054:
5052:
5046:
5045:
5043:
5042:
5037:
5036:
5035:
5025:
5024:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4947:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4921:
4920:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4897:nanotechnology
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4843:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4802:
4801:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4759:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4717:
4715:
4709:
4708:
4706:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4684:
4683:
4681:on marine life
4673:
4672:
4671:
4669:list of issues
4661:
4656:
4651:
4645:
4643:
4639:
4638:
4631:
4630:
4623:
4616:
4608:
4602:
4601:
4596:
4589:
4588:External links
4586:
4584:
4583:
4577:
4537:
4515:
4499:Cato Institute
4487:Hamowy, Ronald
4478:
4472:
4456:
4439:
4432:
4411:
4408:
4405:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4372:
4353:(2): 169–195.
4330:
4321:
4312:
4303:
4290:
4277:
4268:
4259:
4228:
4219:
4213:978-1559635035
4212:
4190:
4165:
4139:
4061:
4047:
4033:
4018:
4003:
3969:
3942:(4): 755–785.
3919:
3866:
3853:
3851:Vol. 84 No. 5.
3836:
3822:
3809:
3774:
3761:
3748:
3741:
3723:
3680:
3671:
3656:
3647:
3638:
3627:(4): 549–562.
3611:
3576:
3561:
3519:
3504:
3497:
3479:
3472:
3454:
3433:(2): 253–273.
3413:
3404:
3364:
3338:
3299:
3260:
3237:
3212:
3189:
3180:
3165:
3116:
3103:(2): 133–150.
3083:
3068:
3052:
3033:
3008:
2986:
2953:
2946:
2920:
2913:
2888:
2873:
2857:
2850:
2832:
2809:
2790:
2777:
2750:
2736:
2729:
2711:
2696:
2685:(6): 569–594.
2669:
2662:
2644:
2626:
2619:
2598:
2563:
2542:10.2307/796812
2516:
2469:
2442:(2): 487–509.
2419:
2407:
2377:
2365:
2332:
2298:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2273:
2268:
2262:
2253:
2247:
2238:
2232:
2226:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2148:
2145:
2109:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2088:
2085:
2076:
2073:
2063:
2060:
1989:
1988:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1907:
1906:
1900:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1868:Pigovian taxes
1865:
1850:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1842:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1793:
1790:
1765:vaccinations.
1757:
1740:
1733:
1726:
1719:
1697:
1694:
1668:
1661:
1654:
1633:
1626:
1619:
1612:
1588:steel industry
1570:
1569:External costs
1567:
1534:
1531:
1514:
1511:
1505:
1502:
1485:
1484:
1467:
1464:
1418:
1415:
1403:
1402:
1388:
1385:tipping points
1381:network effect
1373:
1354:
1341:
1324:
1321:
1312:
1311:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1287:
1281:
1266:
1253:who keeps the
1239:
1236:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1210:
1207:market failure
1198:
1192:
1182:
1181:, and patents.
1172:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1144:
1131:nuclear plants
1123:
1108:
1097:
1083:
1077:
1071:
1065:
1062:market failure
1044:
1025:
1022:
992:Barry Commoner
972:
969:
966:
965:
962:
959:
955:
954:
951:
948:
944:
943:
940:
937:
924:
921:
852:
849:
827:
824:
795:
792:
784:market failure
749:motor vehicles
722:
721:
719:
718:
711:
704:
696:
693:
692:
689:
688:
686:Rail subsidies
683:
681:Green politics
678:
676:Green New Deal
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
651:Carbon leakage
647:
644:
643:
640:
639:
636:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
603:Feed-in tariff
600:
595:
590:
585:
579:
573:
570:
569:
566:
565:
562:
561:
559:Value of Earth
556:
551:
546:
545:
544:
539:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
434:
433:
432:
427:
422:
415:Sustainability
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
372:
371:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
310:
305:
300:
299:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
258:
253:
248:
243:
238:
233:
228:
223:
221:Eco-innovation
218:
213:
211:Eco-capitalism
208:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
177:
174:
173:
170:
169:
166:
165:
160:
155:
149:
147:Climate change
146:
145:
142:
141:
138:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
100:Carbon finance
97:
92:
87:
81:
78:
77:
74:
73:
65:
64:
58:
57:
39:motor vehicles
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9458:
9447:
9444:
9442:
9439:
9437:
9434:
9432:
9429:
9427:
9424:
9423:
9421:
9406:
9403:
9401:
9398:
9394:
9391:
9390:
9389:
9386:
9384:
9381:
9379:
9376:
9374:
9371:
9369:
9366:
9364:
9361:
9359:
9356:
9354:
9351:
9349:
9346:
9344:
9341:
9339:
9336:
9334:
9331:
9329:
9326:
9322:
9319:
9317:
9314:
9313:
9312:
9309:
9307:
9306:Computer rage
9304:
9303:
9301:
9297:
9289:
9286:
9284:
9281:
9279:
9278:United States
9276:
9275:
9274:
9271:
9269:
9266:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9254:
9253:Filter bubble
9251:
9247:
9246:United States
9244:
9242:
9239:
9238:
9237:
9234:
9232:
9229:
9225:
9222:
9221:
9220:
9217:
9216:
9214:
9212:
9207:
9203:
9197:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9181:Peer pressure
9179:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9165:
9162:
9160:
9157:
9156:
9155:
9152:
9150:
9147:
9145:
9142:
9140:
9137:
9135:
9132:
9131:
9129:
9127:
9122:
9118:
9112:
9109:
9105:
9102:
9100:
9097:
9096:
9095:
9092:
9090:
9087:
9085:
9082:
9080:
9077:
9075:
9072:
9070:
9067:
9065:
9062:
9060:
9057:
9053:
9050:
9048:
9045:
9043:
9040:
9038:
9035:
9034:
9033:
9030:
9028:
9027:Doomscrolling
9025:
9021:
9018:
9017:
9016:
9013:
9009:
9006:
9005:
9004:
9001:
8999:
8996:
8994:
8991:
8989:
8986:
8984:
8981:
8979:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8970:
8968:
8966:
8962:
8956:
8953:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8943:
8939:
8936:
8935:
8934:
8931:
8929:
8926:
8924:
8921:
8917:
8914:
8912:
8909:
8907:
8904:
8903:
8902:
8899:
8897:
8894:
8890:
8887:
8885:
8882:
8880:
8877:
8875:
8872:
8871:
8870:
8867:
8865:
8862:
8860:
8857:
8856:
8854:
8850:
8844:
8841:
8839:
8838:Media studies
8836:
8834:
8831:
8827:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8813:
8812:
8809:
8807:
8804:
8802:
8799:
8798:
8795:
8791:
8790:human factors
8787:
8780:
8775:
8773:
8768:
8766:
8761:
8760:
8757:
8746:
8743:
8741:
8738:
8736:
8733:
8731:
8728:
8726:
8723:
8721:
8718:
8715:
8707:
8704:
8701:
8697:
8694:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8683:
8679:
8677:
8673:
8667:
8666:
8662:
8660:
8657:
8655:
8652:
8650:
8647:
8645:
8642:
8640:
8637:
8635:
8632:
8630:
8627:
8625:
8622:
8620:
8617:
8615:
8612:
8610:
8607:
8605:
8602:
8600:
8597:
8595:
8592:
8590:
8587:
8585:
8582:
8580:
8577:
8575:
8572:
8570:
8567:
8565:
8562:
8560:
8557:
8555:
8552:
8550:
8547:
8545:
8542:
8540:
8537:
8535:
8532:
8530:
8527:
8525:
8522:
8520:
8517:
8515:
8512:
8510:
8507:
8505:
8502:
8500:
8497:
8495:
8492:
8490:
8487:
8485:
8482:
8480:
8477:
8475:
8472:
8470:
8467:
8465:
8462:
8460:
8457:
8455:
8452:
8450:
8447:
8445:
8442:
8440:
8437:
8435:
8432:
8430:
8427:
8425:
8422:
8420:
8417:
8415:
8412:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8390:
8387:
8385:
8382:
8380:
8377:
8375:
8372:
8370:
8367:
8365:
8362:
8360:
8357:
8355:
8352:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8335:
8332:
8330:
8329:de Mandeville
8327:
8326:
8324:
8320:
8315:
8309:
8306:
8304:
8301:
8299:
8296:
8294:
8291:
8289:
8286:
8284:
8281:
8277:
8274:
8273:
8272:
8271:New classical
8269:
8265:
8262:
8261:
8260:
8257:
8255:
8252:
8250:
8247:
8243:
8240:
8239:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8228:
8227:Malthusianism
8225:
8219:
8216:
8215:
8214:
8211:
8209:
8206:
8203:
8199:
8196:
8195:
8194:
8191:
8189:
8188:Institutional
8186:
8184:
8181:
8179:
8176:
8174:
8171:
8169:
8166:
8164:
8161:
8159:
8156:
8154:
8151:
8149:
8146:
8144:
8141:
8139:
8136:
8134:
8131:
8129:
8126:
8122:
8119:
8118:
8117:
8114:
8112:
8109:
8107:
8104:
8102:
8099:
8095:
8092:
8091:
8090:
8087:
8085:
8082:
8080:
8077:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8066:
8064:
8059:
8054:
8049:
8041:
8038:
8036:
8033:
8031:
8028:
8026:
8023:
8021:
8018:
8016:
8013:
8011:
8008:
8006:
8003:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7992:
7991:Public choice
7989:
7987:
7984:
7982:
7979:
7977:
7974:
7972:
7969:
7967:
7966:Participation
7964:
7962:
7959:
7957:
7954:
7952:
7949:
7947:
7944:
7942:
7939:
7937:
7934:
7932:
7929:
7927:
7926:Institutional
7924:
7922:
7919:
7917:
7914:
7912:
7909:
7907:
7904:
7902:
7899:
7897:
7894:
7892:
7889:
7887:
7884:
7882:
7879:
7877:
7876:Expeditionary
7874:
7872:
7869:
7867:
7866:Environmental
7864:
7862:
7859:
7857:
7854:
7852:
7849:
7847:
7844:
7842:
7839:
7837:
7834:
7832:
7829:
7827:
7824:
7822:
7819:
7817:
7814:
7812:
7809:
7808:
7804:
7802:
7798:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7784:
7780:
7777:
7776:
7775:
7772:
7771:
7769:
7767:
7763:
7757:
7754:
7752:
7749:
7745:
7742:
7741:
7740:
7737:
7735:
7732:
7730:
7727:
7725:
7722:
7718:
7715:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7698:
7695:
7694:
7693:
7690:
7689:
7687:
7685:
7681:
7677:
7670:
7665:
7663:
7658:
7656:
7651:
7650:
7647:
7635:
7627:
7625:
7620:
7615:
7614:
7611:
7605:
7602:
7600:
7597:
7593:
7590:
7589:
7588:
7585:
7584:
7582:
7578:
7572:
7569:
7567:
7564:
7562:
7559:
7557:
7554:
7552:
7549:
7547:
7544:
7542:
7539:
7537:
7534:
7532:
7531:Institutional
7529:
7527:
7524:
7522:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7512:
7509:
7507:
7504:
7502:
7499:
7497:
7494:
7492:
7489:
7487:
7484:
7482:
7479:
7477:
7476:Computational
7474:
7472:
7469:
7467:
7464:
7463:
7461:
7457:
7451:
7448:
7444:
7441:
7439:
7436:
7435:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7422:
7421:Law of supply
7418:
7415:
7413:
7412:Law of demand
7409:
7406:
7405:
7404:
7401:
7399:
7398:Social choice
7396:
7394:
7391:
7389:
7386:
7384:
7383:Excess supply
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7370:
7369:Risk aversion
7367:
7365:
7362:
7360:
7357:
7355:
7352:
7350:
7347:
7345:
7342:
7340:
7337:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7324:
7321:
7319:
7316:
7314:
7311:
7309:
7306:
7304:
7303:Price ceiling
7301:
7299:
7296:
7295:
7294:
7291:
7289:
7286:
7284:
7281:
7277:
7274:
7272:
7269:
7267:
7264:
7260:
7259:Complementary
7257:
7255:
7252:
7251:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7229:
7228:
7225:
7224:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7185:
7181:
7178:
7176:
7173:
7172:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7149:
7146:
7145:
7144:
7141:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7119:
7118:
7117:
7114:
7112:
7109:
7107:
7104:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7085:
7082:
7080:
7077:
7075:
7072:
7068:
7065:
7064:
7063:
7060:
7058:
7055:
7053:
7050:
7049:
7048:
7045:
7043:
7042:non-convexity
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7024:
7021:
7020:
7018:
7014:
7010:
7003:
6998:
6996:
6991:
6989:
6984:
6983:
6980:
6968:
6965:
6963:
6960:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6922:Nuclear power
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6907:Humber Bridge
6905:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6893:
6890:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6854:
6852:
6848:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6836:Public policy
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6806:
6800:
6794:
6791:
6789:
6786:
6784:
6781:
6779:
6776:
6774:
6771:
6769:
6766:
6764:
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6741:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6726:
6724:
6721:
6719:
6716:
6714:
6711:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6681:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6666:
6664:
6661:
6659:
6656:
6655:
6653:
6645:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6608:Public sector
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6579:
6576:
6574:
6571:
6569:
6566:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6554:
6551:
6549:
6546:
6544:
6541:
6539:
6536:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6518:Appropriation
6516:
6515:
6513:
6509:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6493:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6477:State schools
6475:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6458:
6455:
6453:
6450:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6442:Public spaces
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6360:
6359:
6357:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6336:
6331:
6329:
6324:
6322:
6317:
6316:
6313:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6291:
6288:
6286:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6186:
6183:
6181:
6178:
6176:
6173:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6148:
6146:
6143:
6142:
6139:
6135:
6128:
6123:
6121:
6116:
6114:
6109:
6108:
6105:
6093:
6092:Organizations
6090:
6088:
6087:
6078:
6076:
6068:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6057:
6054:
6048:
6045:
6042:
6038:
6035:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5952:Disinvestment
5950:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5923:
5920:
5919:
5917:
5913:
5907:
5904:
5901:
5900:certification
5897:
5894:
5891:
5890:certification
5887:
5886:Environmental
5884:
5882:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5874:
5870:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5844:
5838:
5835:
5833:
5830:
5828:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5804:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5753:
5752:
5750:
5748:
5745:Environmental
5742:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5700:
5697:
5695:
5692:
5690:
5689:environmental
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5658:
5652:
5647:
5637:
5634:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5614:
5612:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5592:
5589:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5503:
5499:
5495:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5483:
5481:
5478:
5477:
5475:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5459:
5458:environmental
5455:
5448:
5443:
5441:
5436:
5434:
5429:
5428:
5425:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5389:
5387:
5378:
5377:
5374:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5346:
5343:
5342:
5341:
5340:Reforestation
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5295:Cultured meat
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5275:Birth control
5273:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5265:
5263:
5259:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5097:Deforestation
5095:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5082:
5081:
5078:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5060:
5059:
5056:
5055:
5053:
5051:
5047:
5041:
5038:
5034:
5031:
5030:
5029:
5026:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5003:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4926:
4925:
4922:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4874:
4873:
4872:Manufacturing
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4820:nuclear power
4818:
4816:
4815:fracking (US)
4813:
4811:
4808:
4807:
4806:
4803:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4780:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4723:
4722:
4719:
4718:
4716:
4714:
4710:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4682:
4679:
4678:
4677:
4674:
4670:
4667:
4666:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4646:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4629:
4624:
4622:
4617:
4615:
4610:
4609:
4606:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4591:
4581:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4551:(4): 477–91.
4550:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4479:
4475:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4454:
4450:
4449:
4444:
4440:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4422:(3): 307–22.
4421:
4417:
4412:
4409:
4406:
4403:
4400:
4396:
4395:
4382:
4376:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4341:
4334:
4325:
4316:
4307:
4300:
4294:
4287:
4281:
4272:
4263:
4249:on 2014-02-02
4245:
4238:
4232:
4223:
4215:
4209:
4204:
4203:
4194:
4179:
4175:
4169:
4154:
4150:
4143:
4136:
4131:
4125:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4068:
4066:
4057:
4051:
4043:
4037:
4029:
4022:
4014:
4007:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3980:
3973:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3930:
3923:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3870:
3863:
3857:
3850:
3848:
3840:
3832:
3826:
3819:
3813:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3790:(2): 130–50.
3789:
3785:
3778:
3771:
3765:
3758:
3752:
3744:
3738:
3734:
3727:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3684:
3675:
3667:
3660:
3651:
3642:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3615:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3580:
3572:
3565:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3539:
3535:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3524:
3515:
3508:
3500:
3494:
3490:
3483:
3475:
3469:
3465:
3458:
3449:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3417:
3408:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3385:(99): 25–56.
3384:
3383:
3375:
3368:
3353:
3349:
3342:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3303:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3264:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3226:
3222:
3216:
3209:
3208:0-674-01292-5
3205:
3201:
3198:
3193:
3184:
3176:
3169:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3120:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3087:
3079:
3072:
3063:
3056:
3048:
3044:
3037:
3026:
3019:
3012:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2981:
2976:
2973:(3): 87–110.
2972:
2968:
2964:
2957:
2949:
2943:
2936:
2935:
2930:
2924:
2916:
2910:
2906:
2899:
2892:
2884:
2877:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2853:
2851:9781118539729
2847:
2843:
2836:
2822:
2816:
2814:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2787:
2781:
2765:
2761:
2754:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2732:
2726:
2722:
2715:
2708:
2707:
2700:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2673:
2665:
2659:
2655:
2648:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2622:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2603:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2567:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2520:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2473:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2430:
2423:
2410:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2381:
2368:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2339:
2337:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2305:
2303:
2293:
2289:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2235:Coase theorem
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2192:
2191:Hunter Lovins
2188:
2184:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2144:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2114:
2105:
2096:
2093:
2084:
2082:
2075:Emissions fee
2072:
2069:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2049:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2008:
2006:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1993:Coase theorem
1987:
1984:
1981:
1978:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1967:Coase theorem
1963:
1960:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1915:distortionary
1912:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1869:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1843:
1840:
1836:
1835:
1824:
1820:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1803:
1802:herd immunity
1799:
1789:
1787:
1786:public health
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1737:and quantity
1736:
1729:
1723:and quantity
1722:
1714:
1712:
1702:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1664:
1657:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1630:and quantity
1629:
1622:
1616:and quantity
1615:
1607:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1596:air pollution
1593:
1592:laissez-faire
1589:
1581:
1575:
1566:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1530:
1526:
1524:
1523:free software
1520:
1513:Technological
1510:
1504:Inframarginal
1501:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1481:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1472:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1400:
1396:
1393:
1389:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1350:herd immunity
1346:
1342:
1338:
1337:market values
1334:
1333:
1332:
1330:
1316:
1309:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1270:free software
1267:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1245:
1235:
1231:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1189:moral hazards
1186:
1183:
1180:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1155:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1127:nuclear waste
1124:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1086:Systemic risk
1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:from burning
1038:
1037:Air pollution
1035:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1028:Examples for
1020:
1018:
1014:
1008:
1006:
1000:
995:
993:
989:
981:
977:
963:
960:
957:
956:
952:
949:
946:
945:
941:
938:
936:
935:
929:
920:
918:
914:
910:
906:
905:Laissez-faire
902:
899:
898:
888:
884:
880:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
857:air pollution
848:
844:
840:
836:
833:
832:indirect cost
823:
819:
817:
813:
808:
803:
801:
791:
787:
785:
781:
777:
772:
770:
769:Pigouvian tax
766:
762:
757:
754:
750:
746:
745:Air pollution
741:
740:indirect cost
737:
736:external cost
733:
729:
717:
712:
710:
705:
703:
698:
697:
695:
694:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
648:
642:
641:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
583:
580:
578:
575:
574:
568:
567:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
527:refurbishment
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
439:
438:
435:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
417:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
315:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
297:
294:
292:
291:impact design
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
263:
262:
261:Environmental
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
246:Ecotechnology
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
229:
227:
226:Eco-investing
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
209:
207:
206:Disinvestment
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
178:
172:
171:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
150:
144:
143:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
105:Carbon offset
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
91:
88:
86:
85:Carbon credit
83:
82:
76:
75:
71:
67:
66:
63:
60:
59:
55:
51:
50:
44:
40:
36:
35:Air pollution
32:
19:
9400:Technophobia
9388:Technophilia
9231:Echo chamber
9089:Rage farming
8869:Infotainment
8805:
8740:Publications
8696:Publications
8663:
8259:Neoclassical
8249:Mercantilism
8158:Evolutionary
8020:Sociological
7993: /
7891:Geographical
7871:Evolutionary
7846:Digitization
7811:Agricultural
7774:Econometrics
7702:Price theory
7566:Optimization
7551:Mathematical
7511:Experimental
7506:Evolutionary
7491:Econometrics
7349:Public goods
7323:Price system
7318:Price signal
7232:Monopolistic
7159:
7101:Distribution
7016:Major topics
6932:Panama Canal
6811:Architecture
6778:Urban sprawl
6753:Smart growth
6688:Ethanol fuel
6628:Supply chain
6588:Property tax
6547:
6533:Design–build
6457:Public works
6225:Murphy's law
6210:Hydra effect
6205:Hutber's law
6179:
6170:Cobra effect
6084:
5957:Eco-labeling
5932:Child labour
5827:supply chain
5825: /
5821: /
5817: /
5813: /
5784: /
5780: /
5776: /
5772: /
5555:
5546:Ethical code
5534: /
5530: /
5526: /
5522: /
5518: /
5504: /
5500: /
5496: /
5492: /
5146:
5033:urban sprawl
5028:Urbanization
4976:Particulates
4961:Overdrafting
4676:Human impact
4649:Anthropocene
4548:
4544:
4490:
4463:
4447:
4419:
4415:
4398:
4380:
4375:
4350:
4346:
4333:
4324:
4315:
4306:
4298:
4293:
4280:
4271:
4262:
4251:. Retrieved
4244:the original
4231:
4222:
4201:
4193:
4181:. Retrieved
4177:
4168:
4156:. Retrieved
4153:The Guardian
4152:
4142:
4081:
4077:
4050:
4036:
4027:
4021:
4012:
4006:
3989:
3985:
3972:
3956:1721.1/63746
3939:
3936:Econometrica
3935:
3922:
3879:
3875:
3869:
3861:
3856:
3844:
3839:
3830:
3825:
3817:
3812:
3787:
3783:
3777:
3769:
3764:
3756:
3751:
3732:
3726:
3717:10419/257149
3697:
3693:
3683:
3674:
3665:
3659:
3650:
3641:
3624:
3620:
3614:
3589:
3585:
3579:
3570:
3564:
3548:
3513:
3507:
3488:
3482:
3463:
3457:
3430:
3426:
3416:
3407:
3380:
3367:
3355:. Retrieved
3351:
3341:
3319:(2): 71–78.
3316:
3312:
3302:
3277:
3273:
3263:
3254:
3250:
3240:
3228:. Retrieved
3225:Conceptually
3224:
3215:
3200:Steven Weber
3196:
3192:
3183:
3174:
3168:
3133:
3129:
3119:
3100:
3096:
3086:
3077:
3071:
3055:
3046:
3036:
3025:the original
3011:
2995:
2989:
2970:
2966:
2956:
2933:
2923:
2904:
2891:
2882:
2876:
2869:
2865:
2860:
2841:
2835:
2824:. Retrieved
2804:Investopedia
2803:
2793:
2780:
2768:. Retrieved
2763:
2753:
2720:
2714:
2704:
2699:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2653:
2647:
2639:investopedia
2638:
2629:
2610:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2533:
2529:
2519:
2486:
2482:
2472:
2439:
2435:
2422:
2412:, retrieved
2390:
2380:
2370:, retrieved
2348:
2318:
2314:
2292:
2201:
2194:
2180:
2172:Stern Report
2150:
2119:
2102:
2094:
2090:
2078:
2071:externality
2065:
2056:
2052:
2044:
2024:
2009:
2001:
1990:
1964:
1959:Ronald Coase
1956:
1952:
1948:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1911:Pigovian tax
1908:
1862:partnerships
1858:Corporations
1852:
1821:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1795:
1770:public goods
1767:
1762:
1755:
1749:
1738:
1731:
1724:
1717:
1715:
1710:
1707:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1673:
1666:
1659:
1652:
1646:
1638:
1631:
1624:
1617:
1610:
1608:
1603:
1585:
1563:
1550:
1547:private cost
1546:
1536:
1527:
1516:
1507:
1498:
1486:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1442:
1431:
1420:
1404:
1362:productivity
1348:
1328:
1327:Examples of
1326:
1278:Steven Weber
1243:
1242:Examples of
1241:
1232:
1228:
1153:
1152:Examples of
1151:
1090:moral hazard
1056:Stern Review
1054:
1041:fossil fuels
1029:
1027:
1013:Robert Monks
1010:
1002:
997:
987:
985:
939:Consumption
926:
903:
896:
895:
893:
881:
854:
851:Implications
845:
841:
837:
829:
820:
812:Ronald Coase
807:Frank Knight
804:
797:
788:
773:
765:Arthur Pigou
758:
735:
731:
725:
623:Net metering
497:food systems
425:organization
216:Eco commerce
130:Pigovian tax
79:Carbon price
9164:Moral panic
9094:Screen time
8928:News values
8864:Gatekeeping
8806:Externality
8534:von Neumann
8303:Supply-side
8288:Physiocracy
8232:Marginalism
7921:Information
7861:Engineering
7841:Development
7836:Demographic
7707:Game theory
7684:Theoretical
7516:Game theory
7481:Development
7428:Uncertainty
7308:Price floor
7288:Preferences
7227:Competition
7197:Information
7160:Externality
7143:Equilibrium
7084:Transaction
7062:Opportunity
7023:Aggregation
6952:Solar power
6728:Pork barrel
6703:Groundwater
6603:Public good
6573:Lindahl tax
6548:Externality
6487:Town square
6417:Lighthouses
6285:Social trap
6280:Serendipity
6180:Externality
6037:Stakeholder
5815:measurement
5556:Externality
5511:Dirty hands
5147:Externality
5142:Coral reefs
5102:Defaunation
4971:Overgrazing
4944:overfishing
4924:Marine life
4798:electricity
4721:Agriculture
4460:Tullock, G.
4443:Pigou, A.C.
4084:(1): 6117.
3897:10419/22952
3448:10419/87844
2536:(7): 1879.
2489:: 275–332.
2321:(1): 1–34.
2183:Paul Hawken
2176:Clive Spash
2170:and by the
2168:Fred Pearce
1780:or promote
1751:inefficient
1690:green taxes
1648:inefficient
1643:free market
1555:social cost
1445:Duesenberry
1274:Jean Tirole
1263:pollination
1112:overfishing
1074:Spam emails
942:Production
897:internalize
826:Definitions
776:equilibrium
732:externality
522:procurement
477:development
462:consumption
447:agriculture
442:advertising
437:Sustainable
328:development
9420:Categories
9378:Social bot
9368:Sealioning
9126:Conformity
8911:Propaganda
8896:Media bias
8889:Soft media
8691:Economists
8564:Schumacher
8469:Schumpeter
8439:von Wieser
8359:von Thünen
8319:Economists
8218:Circuitism
8183:Humanistic
8178:Historical
8153:Ecological
8143:Democratic
8116:Chartalism
8106:Behavioral
8069:Mainstream
8030:Statistics
8025:Solidarity
7946:Managerial
7911:Humanistic
7906:Historical
7851:Ecological
7816:Behavioral
7546:Managerial
7466:Behavioral
7339:Production
7276:Oligopsony
7116:Elasticity
7028:Budget set
6947:Suez Canal
6902:Hoover Dam
6758:Stormwater
6748:Smart grid
6618:Renovation
6553:Fixed cost
6502:Wind power
6355:facilities
6175:CSI effect
6041:engagement
5896:Fair trade
5747:accounting
5680:Higg Index
5657:accounting
5473:principles
5412:mitigation
5407:assessment
5402:by country
5300:Decoupling
5262:Mitigation
4991:Reservoirs
4912:pesticides
4857:Explosives
4835:reservoirs
4736:irrigation
4525:2008009151
4436:Definition
4253:2012-12-23
4183:16 January
4158:16 January
3399:Q111367750
3357:8 November
3136:: 107335.
2826:2014-11-23
2770:28 January
2414:2020-11-03
2372:2020-11-03
2284:References
2223:CC–PP game
2081:carbon tax
1878:Regulation
1774:merit good
1686:collective
1417:Positional
1377:smartphone
1364:, a lower
1356:Increased
1345:infections
1291:job safety
1257:for their
512:management
507:livelihood
502:industries
452:capitalism
420:accounting
318:accounting
276:enterprise
266:accounting
163:Food miles
110:Carbon tax
9064:Infodemic
8998:Clickbait
8965:Attention
8821:Cognition
8609:Greenspan
8574:Samuelson
8554:Galbraith
8524:Tinbergen
8464:von Mises
8459:Heckscher
8419:Edgeworth
8298:Stockholm
8293:Socialist
8193:Keynesian
8173:Happiness
8133:Classical
8094:Mutualism
8089:Anarchist
8074:Heterodox
7971:Personnel
7931:Knowledge
7896:Happiness
7886:Financial
7856:Education
7831:Democracy
7766:Empirical
7676:Economics
7587:Economics
7459:Subfields
7354:Rationing
7271:Oligopoly
7266:Monopsony
7254:Bilateral
7187:Household
7038:Convexity
6733:Recycling
6623:Spillover
6407:Hospitals
6372:Broadband
5982:Euthenics
5947:Disasters
5906:ISO 19011
5846:Reporting
5796:ISO 14031
5791:ISO 14000
5710:ISO 45001
5705:ISO 26000
5586:Pollution
5520:in Russia
5494:behaviour
5335:Recycling
5001:Transport
4986:Quarrying
4981:Pollution
4840:transport
4830:petroleum
4825:oil shale
4788:biodiesel
4573:153209646
4533:750831024
4135:CC BY 4.0
4106:2041-1723
3914:154310004
3906:0013-0427
3876:Economica
3804:154357550
3694:Economies
3606:110866624
3592:: 26–38.
3391:1755-9472
3346:Samwick.
3333:0733-9488
3294:153632547
3160:246059536
3152:0921-8009
2573:Economica
2550:0044-0094
2503:1556-5068
2456:0020-6598
2327:0028-0739
2229:Club good
2147:Criticism
2126:ecosystem
1938:(such as
1903:Mediation
1872:subsidies
1681:more than
1466:Pecuniary
1358:education
1331:include:
1251:beekeeper
1156:include:
1032:include:
958:Positive
947:Negative
873:political
728:economics
554:Used good
542:transport
430:reporting
348:marketing
9393:Neophile
9020:Phubbing
8938:Hot take
8826:Mismatch
8720:Category
8700:journals
8686:Glossary
8639:Stiglitz
8604:Rothbard
8584:Buchanan
8569:Friedman
8559:Koopmans
8549:Leontief
8529:Robinson
8414:Marshall
8264:Lausanne
8168:Georgism
8163:Feminist
8111:Buddhist
8101:Austrian
8000:Regional
7976:Planning
7951:Monetary
7881:Feminist
7826:Cultural
7821:Business
7634:Category
7580:See also
7471:Business
7443:Marginal
7438:Expected
7379:Shortage
7374:Scarcity
7249:Monopoly
7155:Exchange
7067:Implicit
7057:Marginal
6862:Autobahn
6850:Examples
6804:of study
6793:Wireless
6698:Fuel tax
6633:Taxation
6511:Concepts
6362:Airports
6075:Category
5873:Auditing
5694:equality
5397:Category
5021:shipping
5006:aviation
4892:plastics
4882:concrete
4867:Land use
4783:biofuels
4751:palm oil
4462:(2005).
4445:(1920).
4367:44071002
4178:phys.org
4124:33323933
3700:(4): 7.
3541:Archived
3395:Wikidata
3280:: 1–15.
2511:44186028
2464:33103243
2216:See also
1962:result.
1940:ecotaxes
1890:Lawsuits
1674:too much
1411:regulate
1225:Positive
971:Negative
923:Examples
865:trespass
645:Policies
532:sourcing
358:recovery
323:building
296:planning
201:Degrowth
175:Concepts
54:a series
52:Part of
9353:Griefer
9159:Mobbing
8993:Chumbox
8945:Spiking
8735:Outline
8706:Schools
8698: (
8659:Piketty
8654:Krugman
8519:Kuznets
8509:Kalecki
8484:Polanyi
8374:Cournot
8369:Bastiat
8354:Ricardo
8344:Malthus
8334:Quesnay
8237:Marxian
8128:Chicago
8058:history
8053:Schools
8040:Welfare
8010:Service
7801:Applied
7592:Applied
7571:Welfare
7433:Utility
7393:Surplus
7332:Pricing
7244:Duopoly
7237:Perfect
7180:Service
7148:General
7052:Average
6638:Upgrade
6538:Earmark
6367:Bridges
6086:Commons
6039: (
5915:Related
5898: (
5888: (
5687: (
5631:social)
5386:Commons
5162:Erosion
5112:Ecocide
5050:Effects
4996:Tourism
4929:fishing
4887:fashion
4810:fashion
4763:Bitcoin
4642:General
4565:2296698
4489:(ed.).
4428:1803378
4115:7738510
4086:Bibcode
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3004:1293468
2593:2551386
2130:organic
1782:cycling
1763:too few
1676:steel.
1399:private
869:ethical
861:utility
537:tourism
492:finance
368:vehicle
363:trading
353:paradox
333:economy
281:finance
8644:Thaler
8624:Ostrom
8619:Becker
8614:Sowell
8594:Baumol
8499:Myrdal
8494:Sraffa
8489:Frisch
8479:Knight
8474:Keynes
8449:Fisher
8444:Veblen
8429:Pareto
8409:Menger
8404:George
8399:Jevons
8394:Walras
8384:Gossen
8308:Thermo
7986:Public
7981:Policy
7936:Labour
7901:Health
7417:Supply
7408:Demand
7344:Profit
7212:Market
7074:Social
6802:Fields
6647:Issues
6472:Sewage
6412:Levees
6377:Canals
6350:Assets
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5725:SA8000
5699:social
5655:Social
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517:market
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467:design
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271:design
9224:Youth
8786:Media
8730:Lists
8725:Index
8676:Lists
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8634:Lucas
8599:Solow
8589:Arrow
8579:Simon
8544:Lange
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8514:Röpke
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8035:Urban
8015:Socio
8005:Rural
7536:Labor
7521:Green
7293:Price
7175:Goods
7165:Firms
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6467:Roads
6432:Ports
6427:Parks
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2507:S2CID
2460:S2CID
2432:(PDF)
2187:Amory
2038:, or
2005:taxes
1543:money
1259:honey
1212:Weak
1129:from
747:from
730:, an
313:Green
56:about
37:from
8788:and
8665:more
8389:Marx
8379:Mill
8364:List
8242:Neo-
8198:Neo-
7450:Wage
7359:Rent
7327:Free
7079:Sunk
7047:Cost
7040:and
6387:Dams
5561:Harm
5456:and
5011:rail
4793:coal
4756:(US)
4529:OCLC
4521:LCCN
4511:ISBN
4495:SAGE
4468:ISBN
4208:ISBN
4185:2021
4160:2021
4120:PMID
4102:ISSN
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3737:ISBN
3493:ISBN
3468:ISBN
3387:ISSN
3359:2020
3329:ISSN
3257:(1).
3232:2021
3204:ISBN
3148:ISSN
3000:SSRN
2942:ISBN
2909:ISBN
2846:ISBN
2772:2020
2725:ISBN
2658:ISBN
2615:ISBN
2546:ISSN
2499:ISSN
2452:ISSN
2403:ISBN
2361:ISBN
2323:ISSN
2189:and
1665:and
1639:only
1598:and
1551:true
1425:and
1276:and
1255:bees
911:and
814:and
8629:Sen
8349:Say
8208:New
7941:Law
7541:Law
6649:and
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5471:and
5040:War
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4503:doi
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3994:doi
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