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crustal motion, changes in global sea levels and the Earth's gravity field, induced earthquakes, and changes in the Earth's rotation. Another alternate term is "glacial isostasy", because the uplift near the centre of rebound is due to the tendency towards the restoration of isostatic equilibrium (as in the case of isostasy of mountains). Unfortunately, that term gives the wrong impression that isostatic equilibrium is somehow reached, so by appending "adjustment" at the end, the motion of restoration is emphasized.
705:). As well as the addition of melted ice water from glaciers and ice sheets, recent sea level changes are affected by the thermal expansion of sea water due to global warming, sea level change due to deglaciation of the last glacial maximum (postglacial sea level change), deformation of the land and ocean floor and other factors. Thus, to understand global warming from sea level change, one must be able to separate all these factors, especially postglacial rebound, since it is one of the leading factors.
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but is large enough to reactivate pre-existing faults that are close to failure. Thus, both postglacial rebound and past tectonics play important roles in today's intraplate earthquakes in eastern Canada and southeast US. Generally postglacial rebound stress could have triggered the intraplate earthquakes in eastern Canada and may have played some role in triggering earthquakes in the eastern US including the
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subside. Therefore, ancient beaches are found below present day sea level in the bulge area. The "relative sea level data", which consists of height and age measurements of the ancient beaches around the world, tells us that glacial isostatic adjustment proceeded at a higher rate near the end of deglaciation than today.
641:, plate-plate interaction results in earthquakes near plate boundaries. However, large earthquakes are found in intraplate environments like eastern Canada (up to M7) and northern Europe (up to M5) which are far away from present-day plate boundaries. An important intraplate earthquake was the magnitude 8
217:, the total area of the country is growing by about seven square kilometers per year. Studies suggest that rebound will continue for at least another 10,000 years. The total uplift from the end of deglaciation depends on the local ice load and could be several hundred metres near the centre of rebound.
673:
of rock failure, large glacial loads generally suppress earthquakes, but rapid deglaciation promotes earthquakes. According to Wu & Hasagawa, the rebound stress that is available to trigger earthquakes today is of the order of 1 MPa. This stress level is not large enough to rupture intact rocks
628:
is a reference surface for altitude measurement and plays vital roles in many human activities, including land surveying and construction of buildings and bridges. Since postglacial rebound continuously deforms the crustal surface and the gravitational field, the vertical datum needs to be redefined
845:
In areas where the rising of land is seen, it is necessary to define the exact limits of property. In
Finland, the "new land" is legally the property of the owner of the water area, not any land owners on the shore. Therefore, if the owner of the land wishes to build a pier over the "new land", they
484:
In the near field outside the former ice margin, the land sinks relative to the sea. This is the case along the east coast of the United States, where ancient beaches are found submerged below present day sea level and
Florida is expected to be submerged in the future. GPS data in North America also
220:
Recently, the term "post-glacial rebound" is gradually being replaced by the term "glacial isostatic adjustment". This is in recognition that the response of the Earth to glacial loading and unloading is not limited to the upward rebound movement, but also involves downward land movement, horizontal
23:
A model of present-day mass change due to post-glacial rebound and the reloading of the ocean basins with seawater. Blue and purple areas indicate rising due to the removal of the ice sheets. Yellow and red areas indicate falling as mantle material moved away from these areas in order to supply the
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local ice thickness. A popular ice model deduced this way is the ICE5G model. Because the response of the Earth to changes in ice height is slow, it cannot record rapid fluctuation or surges of ice sheets, thus the ice sheet profiles deduced this way only gives the "average height" over a thousand
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One of the possible impacts of global warming-triggered rebound may be more volcanic activity in previously ice-capped areas such as
Iceland and Greenland. It may also trigger intraplate earthquakes near the ice margins of Greenland and Antarctica. Unusually rapid (up to 4.1 cm/year) present
544:
The combination of horizontal and vertical motion changes the tilt of the surface. That is, locations farther north rise faster, an effect that becomes apparent in lakes. The bottoms of the lakes gradually tilt away from the direction of the former ice maximum, such that lake shores on the side of
229:
Post-glacial rebound produces measurable effects on vertical crustal motion, global sea levels, horizontal crustal motion, gravity field, Earth's rotation, crustal stress, and earthquakes. Studies of glacial rebound give us information about the flow law of mantle rocks, which is important to the
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Since the glacial isostatic adjustment process causes the land to move relative to the sea, ancient shorelines are found to lie above present day sea level in areas that were once glaciated. On the other hand, places in the peripheral bulge area which was uplifted during glaciation now begins to
764:
experiments of mantle rocks at natural strain rates would take thousands of years to observe and the ambient temperature and pressure conditions are not easy to attain for a long enough time. Thus, the observations of postglacial rebound provide a natural experiment to measure mantle rheology.
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again. However, geological records of sea level changes show that the redistribution of the melted ice water is not the same everywhere in the oceans. In other words, depending upon the location, the rise in sea level at a certain site may be more than that at another site. This is due to the
681:
Increasing pressure due to the weight of the ice during glaciation may have suppressed melt generation and volcanic activities below
Iceland and Greenland. On the other hand, decreasing pressure due to deglaciation can increase the melt production and volcanic activities by 20-30 times.
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The elastic behavior of the lithosphere and mantle, illustrating subsidence of the crust with respect to landscape properties as a result of the downward force of a glacier ("Before"), and the effects that melting and glacial retreat have on the rebound of the mantle and lithosphere in
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in southeastern Canada. When the postglacial faults formed at the end of deglaciation 9000 years ago, the horizontal principal stress orientation was almost perpendicular to the former ice margin, but today the orientation is in the northeast–southwest, along the direction of
1241:{\displaystyle S(\theta ,\lambda ,t)={\frac {\rho _{i}}{\gamma }}G_{s}\otimes _{i}I+{\frac {\rho _{w}}{\gamma }}G_{s}\otimes _{o}S+S^{E}-{\frac {\rho _{i}}{\gamma }}{\overline {G_{s}\otimes _{i}I}}-{\frac {\rho _{w}}{\gamma }}{\overline {G_{o}\otimes _{o}S}},}
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satellite mission are useful for such purpose. However, glacial isostatic adjustment of the ice sheets affect ground deformation and the gravity field today. Thus understanding glacial isostatic adjustment is important in monitoring recent global warming.
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ice sheets are closely related to the basal condition of the ice sheets. Thus the volume of ice locked up is proportional to their instantaneous area. Finally, the heights of ancient beaches in the sea level data and observed land uplift rates (e.g. from
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Modelling of glacial isostatic adjustment addresses the question of how viscosity changes in the radial and lateral directions and whether the flow law is linear, nonlinear, or composite rheology. Mantle viscosity may additionally be estimated using
462:, and the post-glacial rebound of northern Great Britain (up to 10 cm per century) is causing a corresponding downward movement of the southern half of the island (up to 5 cm per century). This will eventually lead to an increased risk of
653:. Since the mantle and the lithosphere continuously respond to the changing ice and water loads, the state of stress at any location continuously changes in time. The changes in the orientation of the state of stress is recorded in the
569:. The effects are similar to that concerning seashores, but occur above sea level. Tilting of land will also affect the flow of water in lakes and rivers in the future, and thus is important for water resource management planning.
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Accompanying vertical motion is the horizontal motion of the crust. The BIFROST GPS network shows that the motion diverges from the centre of rebound. However, the largest horizontal velocity is found near the former ice margin.
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gravitational attraction between the mass of the melted water and the other masses, such as remaining ice sheets, glaciers, water masses and mantle rocks and the changes in centrifugal potential due to Earth's variable rotation.
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were so massive that global sea level fell by about 120 metres. Thus continental shelves were exposed and many islands became connected with the continents through dry land. This was the case between the
British Isles and Europe
2884:
Wang, H.S.; P. Wu (2006). "Effects of lateral variations in lithospheric thickness and mantle viscosity on glacially induced relative sea levels and long wavelength gravity field in a spherical, self-gravitating
Maxwell Earth".
878:, and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides. In the words of Wu and Peltier, the solution of the SLE yields the space– and time–dependent change of ocean
405:), the harbour has had to be relocated several times. Place names in the coastal regions also illustrate the rising land: there are inland places named 'island', 'skerry', 'rock', 'point' and 'sound'. For example,
2147:
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Glacial loads provided more than 30 MPa of vertical stress in northern Canada and more than 20 MPa in northern Europe during glacial maximum. This vertical stress is supported by the mantle and the flexure of the
2748:
Barletta, V.; M. Bevis; B. Smith; T. Wilson; A. Brown; A. Bordoni; M. Willis; S. Khan; M. Rovira-Navarro; I. Dalziel; B. Smalley; E. Kendrick; S. Konfal; D. Caccamise; R. Aster; A. Nyblade & D. Wiens (2018).
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glacial isostatic rebound due to recent ice mass losses in the
Amundsen Sea embayment region of Antarctica coupled with low regional mantle viscosity is predicted to provide a modest stabilizing influence on
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a number of marks were made in rock on different locations along the
Swedish coast. In 1765 it was possible to conclude that it was not a lowering of sea levels but an uneven rise of land. In 1865
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tell us the areal extent and retreat of past ice sheets. Physics of glaciers gives us the theoretical profile of ice sheets at equilibrium, it also says that the thickness and horizontal extent of
576:'s outlet in the northwest has a rebound of 2.36 mm/a while in the eastern Svanaviken it is 2.05 mm/a. This means the lake is being slowly tilted and the southeastern shores drowned.
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Mass changes of ice sheets can be monitored by measuring changes in the ice surface height, the deformation of the ground below and the changes in the gravity field over the ice sheet. Thus
592:, which is sensitive to all mass on the surface and within the Earth, is affected by the redistribution of ice/melted water on the surface of the Earth and the flow of mantle rocks within.
549:
in
Finland, which is large (90 x 30 km) and oriented perpendicularly to the former ice margin, originally drained through an outlet in the middle of the lake near Nunnanlahti to Lake
302:. In addition, post-glacial rebound has caused numerous significant changes to coastlines and landscapes over the last several thousand years, and the effects continue to be significant.
666:. This shows that the stress due to postglacial rebound had played an important role at deglacial time, but has gradually relaxed so that tectonic stress has become more dominant today.
493:
To form the ice sheets of the last Ice Age, water from the oceans evaporated, condensed as snow and was deposited as ice in high latitudes. Thus global sea level fell during glaciation.
83:), the deformation of the Earth's crust in response to changes in ice mass distribution. The direct raising effects of post-glacial rebound are readily apparent in parts of Northern
1533:
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and paleo-oceanography. Ice thickness histories are traditionally deduced from the three types of information: First, the sea level data at stable sites far away from the centers of
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Mitrovica, J. X., Davis, J. L. & Shapiro, I. I., 1994. A spectral formal- ism for computing three–dimensional deformations due to surface loads. J. geophys. Res., 99, 70577073.
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Wu, P., and W. R. Peltier. Glacial isostatic adjustment and the free–air gravity anomaly as a constraint on deep mantle viscosity. Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 74, 377449, 1983.
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denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice- and ocean-covered regions, and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation.
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need the permission of the owner of the (former) water area. The landowner of the shore may redeem the new land at market price. Usually the owner of the water area is the
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earth model. The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as
Mitrovica & Peltier, Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi. In its simplest form, the SLE reads
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came up with a theory that the rise of land was connected with the ice age that had been first discovered in 1837. The theory was accepted after investigations by
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Hughes, T. (1998). "Tutorial on Strategies for using isostatic adjustments in models that reconstruct ice sheets during the last deglaciation". In Wu, P. (ed.).
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variations associated with the PGR. The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888, when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean
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is an example of post-glacial rebound after the last Ice Age. Little to no tide helped to form its layer-cake look. Isostatic rebound is still underway here.
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satellite mission. The change in long-wavelength components of Earth's gravity field also perturbs the orbital motion of satellites and has been detected by
2500:
Wu, P. (1996). "Changes in orientation of near-surface stress field as constraints to mantle viscosity and horizontal stress differences in Eastern Canada".
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retreated, the removal of this weight led to slow (and still ongoing) uplift or rebound of the land and the return flow of mantle material back under the
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give an estimate of how much water entered the oceans or equivalently how much ice was locked up at glacial maximum. Secondly, the location and dates of
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The situation in North America is less certain; this is due to the sparse distribution of GPS stations in northern Canada, which is rather inaccessible.
4170:
2800:"Mantle viscosity inferences from joint inversion of Pleistocene deglaciation-induced changes in geopotential with a new SLR analysis and Polar Wander"
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2279:"Tilting of Lake Pielinen, eastern Finland – an example of extreme transgressions and regressions caused by differential post-glacial isostatic uplift"
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352:, making the present day villages on the west coast set back unexpectedly far from the shore. These effects are quite dramatic at the village of
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Platzman , G. W., 1971. Ocean tides. In Lectures in Applied Mathematics, 14, part 2, pp. 239292, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI.
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the maximum (typically north) recede and the opposite (southern) shores sink. This causes the formation of new rapids and rivers. For example,
760:, the dynamical processes in Earth, and the thermal state and thermal evolution of Earth. However viscosity is difficult to observe because
3252:
Mitrovica, J. X. & Peltier, W. R., 1991. On postglacial geoid subsidence over the equatorial ocean. J. geophys. Res., 96, 20,05320,071.
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decreasing rate. Today, typical uplift rates are of the order of 1 cm/year or less. In northern Europe, this is clearly shown by the
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The fall in sea level also affects the circulation of ocean currents and thus has important impact on climate during the glacial maximum.
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has caused mountain glaciers and the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica to melt and global sea level to rise. Therefore, monitoring
678:. The situation in northern Europe today is complicated by the current tectonic activities nearby and by coastal loading and weakening.
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242:, and changes in global sea level. Understanding postglacial rebound is also important to our ability to monitor recent global change.
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van der Wal, W.; et al. (2010). "Sea levels and uplift rate from composite rheology in glacial isostatic adjustment modeling".
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The uplift has taken place in two distinct stages. The initial uplift following deglaciation was almost immediate due to the
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Milne, G.; Shennan, I. (2013). "Isostasy: Glaciation-Induced Sea-Level Change". In Elias, Scott A.; Mock, Cary J. (eds.).
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response of the crust as the ice load was removed. After this elastic phase, uplift proceeded by slow viscous flow at an
19:
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Peltier, W. R. (2004). "Global glacial isostasy and the surface of the ice age earth: the ICE-5G (VM2) Model and GRACE".
1871:
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Kaufmann, G.; K. Lambeck (2002). "Glacial isostatic adjustment and the radial viscosity profile from inverse modeling".
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Mitrovica, J.X.; W.R. Peltier (1993). "Present-day secular variations in zonal harmonics of the Earth's geopotential".
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The changing gravity field can be detected by repeated land measurements with absolute gravimeters and recently by the
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and the thermal evolution of the Earth. It also gives insight into past ice sheet history, which is important to
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603:. This change in the topography of Earth's surface affects the long-wavelength components of the gravity field.
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Woodward, R. S., 1888. On the form and position of mean sea level. United States Geol. Survey Bull., 48, 87170.
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https://www.maanmittauslaitos.fi/ajankohtaista/vesijatto-mita-mokkeilijan-olisi-hyva-tietaa-erikoisesta-sanasta
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network called BIFROST. Results of GPS data show a peak rate of about 11 mm/year in the north part of the
1925:"Postglacial variations in the level of the sea: implications for climate dynamics and solid-earth geophysics"
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Farrell, W. E., 1973. Earth tides, ocean tides and tidal loading. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A, 274, 253259.
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sediments imply a similar event in prehistoric times. Other pronounced effects can be seen on the island of
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726:
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Yoder, C. F.; et al. (1983). "J2-dot from Lageos and the non-tidal acceleration of earth rotation".
379:
2537:"Induced stresses and fault potential in Eastern Canada due to a realistic load: a preliminary analysis"
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and the mass balance of ice sheets and glaciers allows people to understand more about global warming.
642:
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745:(i.e., the flow) of the mantle, and the ice loading and unloading histories on the surface of Earth.
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1674: – Global deglaciation starting about 19,000 years ago and accelerating about 15,000 years ago
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adjustment also plays an important role in understanding recent global warming and climate change.
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588:, and as they move around, they exert a gravitational pull on other masses towards them. Thus, the
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The Coordinating Committee On Great Lakes Basic Hydraulic and Hydrologic Data (November 2001).
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is former seabed or archipelago: illustrated are sea levels immediately after the last ice age.
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Jull, M.; D. McKenzie (1996). "The effect of deglaciation on mantle melting beneath Iceland".
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1770:"Continuous GPS measurements of postglacial adjustment in Fennoscandia. 1. Geodetic results"
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2683:"A method of combining ICESat and GRACE satellite data to constrain Antarctic mass balance"
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2015:
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3008:"The uppermost mantle seismic velocity and viscosity structure of central West Antarctica"
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Recent rise in sea levels has been monitored by tide gauges and satellite altimetry (e.g.
481:, but this uplift rate decreases away and becomes negative outside the former ice margin.
8:
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Spada G. & Stocchi, P., 2006. The Sea Level Equation, Theory and Numerical Examples.
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material back to the glaciated area causes the overall shape of the Earth to become less
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PĂĄsse, Tore (1998). "Lake-tilting, a method for estimation of glacio-isostatic uplift".
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2019:
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2086:"Late Weichselian and Holocene shore displacement history of the Baltic Sea in Finland"
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2751:"Observed rapid bedrock uplift in Amundsen Sea Embayment promotes ice-sheet stability"
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382:, selected as a "type area" illustrating the effects of post-glacial rebound and the
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Garai, J. (2003). "Post glacial rebounds measure the viscosity of the lithosphere".
340:, Sweden, which has little topographic relief due to the presence of the very level
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1981:
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about 20,000 years ago. The enormous weight of this ice caused the surface of the
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2148:"England is sinking while Scotland rises above sea levels, according to new study"
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that allowed the migration of people and animals during the last glacial maximum.
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3344:"Glacial and Postglacial Geologic History of Isle Royale National Park, Michigan"
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1691: – Physical quantity that expresses internal forces in a continuous material
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Karato, S., S; P. Wu (1993). "Rheology of the upper mantle : a synthesis".
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1872:"Observation of glacial isostatic adjustment in "stable" North America with GPS"
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Today, more than 6000 years after the last deglaciation terminated, the flow of
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De Geer, Gerard (1924). "Post-Algonkian Oscillations of Land in Feunoscandia".
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The speed and amount of postglacial rebound is determined by two factors: the
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of the mantle, it will take many thousands of years for the land to reach an
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3294:"Sea-level change, glacial rebound and mantle viscosity for northern Europe"
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confirms that land uplift becomes subsidence outside the former ice margin.
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are felt globally far from the locations of current and former ice sheets.
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in West Antarctica, but likely not to a sufficient degree to arrest it.
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The present-day uplift motion in northern Europe is also monitored by a
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3377:. Geodetic Survey Division of Natural Resources Canada. Archived from
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1985:
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Sella, G.F.; Stein, S.; Dixon, T.H.; Craymer, M.; et al. (2007).
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is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth's center of mass, and
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During deglaciation, the melted ice water returns to the oceans, thus
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59:) is the rise of land masses after the removal of the huge weight of
25:
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de Geer, Gerard (1910). "Quaternary Sen-bottoms in Western Sweden".
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1869:
553:. The change of tilt caused Pielinen to burst through the Uimaharju
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2045:"Pleistocene deglaciation and the earth's rotation: a new analysis"
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of the landowners of the shores, a collective holding corporation.
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inhabitants were known to subsist on substantial coastal fishing.
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material to flow away from the loaded region. At the end of each
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1680:, also known as marine terrace – Emergent coastal landform
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71:. Post-glacial rebound and isostatic depression are phases of
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3372:"Apparent Vertical Movement Over the Great Lakes – Revisited"
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317:, but uplift eventually cut it off and led to its becoming a
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585:
557:
at the southwestern end of the lake, creating a new river (
438:
Map of Post Glacial Rebound effects upon the land-level of
398:
321:
140:
2227:
1719:. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 452–459.
998:
In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow:
3103:"Om Skandinaviens nivåförändringar under qvartärperioden"
2674:
794:
769:, where seismic velocity is used as a proxy observable.
713:
474:
213:
data obtained by the BIFROST GPS network; for example in
210:
2680:
159:, which reached up to three kilometres thick during the
1749:
Searching for eustasy in deglacial sea-level histories.
1448:
is the sea–level Green's function (dependent upon the
505:), or between Taiwan, the Indonesian islands and Asia (
825:, that sea levels were falling. On the initiative of
645:
that occurred in mid-continental US in the year 1811.
2832:
2234:
Mitrovica, J.X.; G.A. Milne & J.L. Davis (2001).
2049:
Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society
2004:"Can deglaciation trigger earthquakes in N. America?"
1963:
1957:
1641:
1614:
1594:
1541:
1494:
1474:
1454:
1399:
1379:
1352:
1325:
1305:
1281:
1257:
1007:
981:
961:
941:
903:
633:
State of stress, intraplate earthquakes and volcanism
2791:
1488:
viscoelastic load–deformation coefficients - LDCs),
837:
of old shorelines in Scandinavia published in 1890.
3085:
Dynamics of the Ice Age Earth: A Modern Perspective
3005:
2964:
2277:Seppä, H.; M. Tikkanen & J.-P. Mäkiaho (2012).
772:Ice thickness histories are useful in the study of
511:
land bridge also existed between Siberia and Alaska
3292:Lambeck, K.; C. Smither; P. Johnston (July 1998).
2999:
2838:
2569:
2236:"Glacial isostatic adjustment on a rotating earth"
1997:
1995:
1654:
1627:
1600:
1576:
1527:
1480:
1460:
1440:
1385:
1373:are the densities of ice and water, respectively,
1365:
1338:
1311:
1287:
1263:
1240:
987:
967:
947:
924:
853:
821:Before the eighteenth century, it was thought, in
3246:
3087:. Switzerland: Trans Tech Publ. pp. 271–322.
1865:
1863:
1861:
24:rising areas, and because of the collapse of the
4147:
3405:As Alaska Glaciers Melt, It’s Land That’s Rising
2528:
2311:"Jääkausi päättyy, Pielinen syntyy - joensuu.fi"
1763:
1761:
1759:
1757:
3163:Geologiska Föreningen i Stockholm Förhandlingar
3136:Geologiska Föreningen i Stockholm Förhandlingar
3108:Geologiska Föreningen i Stockholm Förhandlingar
2970:
2919:
2575:
2534:
2450:
2170:
2083:
2036:
1992:
1810:"e_Opin oppikirjat: eMaantieto: Maankohoaminen"
1741:
1708:
466:in southern England and south-western Ireland.
3918:Withrow Moraine and Jameson Lake Drumlin Field
3255:
2913:
2681:Wahr, J.; D. Wingham & C. Bentley (2000).
2433:"GFZ Potsdam, Department 1: The GRACE Mission"
1915:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1858:
3465:
3264:
3050:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
2741:
2042:
2001:
1754:
3041:
2877:
1714:
527:
413:" is a peninsula, with inland names such as
324:in about the 12th century, at the time when
3912:Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area
3479:
3076:
2386:"Ice sheet in peril? Gravity to the rescue"
1904:
3472:
3458:
3348:Geological Survey Professional Paper 754-A
3341:
3237:
2797:
2204:
2202:
884:gravitational potential of the sea surface
245:
127:due to glaciation and post-glacial rebound
4171:Events in the geological history of Earth
3332:
3317:
2883:
2868:
2823:
2774:
2706:
2560:
2294:
2261:
2114:
2068:
2027:
1948:
1895:
1793:
1767:
1751:Quaternary Science Reviews. 27:2292–2302.
363:As a result of post-glacial rebound, the
171:to deform and warp downward, forcing the
107:, the effects of post-glacial rebound on
3219:
3210:
2798:Vermeersen, L.L.A.; et al. (1998).
2122:"Oulunsalon kirkon seudun paikannimistö"
685:
433:
258:
249:
118:
31:
18:
16:Rise of land masses after glacial period
3228:
3160:
3133:
3097:
3047:
2493:
2199:
2084:Tikkanen, Matti; Oksanen, Juha (2002).
1919:
1747:Milne, G.A., and J.X. Mitrovica (2008)
1588:term (i.e. the ocean–averaged value of
1528:{\displaystyle I=I(\theta ,\lambda ,t)}
367:is predicted to eventually close up at
298:are among the common signatures of the
4148:
3846:Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail
3810:Chippewa Moraine State Recreation Area
3082:
3070:10.1146/annurev.earth.32.082503.144359
2666:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2610:
2414:
3453:
3326:
3006:O'Donnell, J.P.; et al. (2017).
2456:
2425:
2339:
2102:from the original on October 20, 2017
1768:Johansson, J.M.; et al. (2002).
840:
2145:
488:
425:"the brook of the Sound". (Compare
99:. However, through the processes of
3852:Ice Age National Scientific Reserve
3015:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2887:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2396:from the original on 14 August 2017
1697:- The opposite of isostatic rebound
348:settlement area to recede from the
13:
3397:
2623:from the original on 20 April 2018
2613:"Warming Seas, Melting Ice Sheets"
2562:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1996.tb01546.x
2499:
2364:10.1111/j.1502-3885.1998.tb00868.x
2283:Estonian Journal of Earth Sciences
2070:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1984.tb01920.x
1725:10.1016/B978-0-444-53643-3.00135-7
1717:Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science
1684:Physical impacts of climate change
1393:is the reference surface gravity,
584:Ice, water, and mantle rocks have
344:. The rising land has caused the
14:
4182:
3840:Horicon Marsh State Wildlife Area
3415:
3298:Geophysical Journal International
2541:Geophysical Journal International
2321:from the original on 30 June 2017
2241:Geophysical Journal International
617:
4130:
4129:
3785:Origin of the Oak Ridges Moraine
3319:10.1046/j.1365-246x.1998.00541.x
2737:– via www.telegraph.co.uk.
2263:10.1046/j.1365-246x.2001.01550.x
2178:"Observed Radial Rates from GPS"
1535:is the ice thickness variation,
1441:{\displaystyle G_{s}=G_{s}(h,k)}
579:
521:sea level in the ocean increases
3199:
3181:
3154:
3127:
3091:
2841:Journal of Geophysical Research
2725:. 30 March 2016. Archived from
2715:
2687:Journal of Geophysical Research
2649:from the original on 2017-08-31
2635:
2604:
2578:Journal of Geophysical Research
2408:
2378:
2333:
2303:
2270:
2188:from the original on 2012-08-19
2182:BIFROST Associated GPS Networks
2146:Gray, Louise (7 October 2009).
2139:
2077:
1966:Journal of Geophysical Research
1840:"Maa kohoaa ja maisema muuttuu"
1774:Journal of Geophysical Research
854:Formulation: sea-level equation
732:
3848:, Idaho, Oregon and Washington
3428:GRACE Gravity Mission from GPZ
3189:"Alluvion comes as a surprise"
2611:Garner, Rob (25 August 2015).
2535:Wu, P.; H.S. Hasegawa (1996).
1832:
1802:
1577:{\displaystyle S^{E}=S^{E}(t)}
1571:
1565:
1522:
1504:
1435:
1423:
1029:
1011:
882:which is required to keep the
752:is important in understanding
676:New Madrid earthquakes of 1811
371:in more than 2,000 years. The
1:
4092:Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal
1701:
3513:Glacial history of Minnesota
2942:10.1126/science.260.5109.771
2804:Geophysical Research Letters
2502:Geophysical Research Letters
2124:(in Finnish). Archived from
2043:Wu, P.; W.R.Peltier (1984).
2008:Geophysical Research Letters
2002:Wu, P.; P. Johnston (2000).
1876:Geophysical Research Letters
1816:(in Finnish). Archived from
1655:{\displaystyle \otimes _{o}}
1628:{\displaystyle \otimes _{i}}
1230:
1178:
816:
727:marine ice sheet instability
332:. Marine seashells found in
230:study of mantle convection,
123:Changes in the elevation of
77:glacial isostatic adjustment
7:
3876:Kettle Moraine State Forest
3779:Lion's Head Provincial Park
1665:
637:According to the theory of
561:) that runs to the sea via
496:The ice sheets at the last
380:World Natural Heritage Site
313:was formerly an arm of the
114:
10:
4187:
4022:Penultimate Glacial Period
3749:Big Rock (glacial erratic)
3035:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.05.016
2907:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.07.011
995:is vertical displacement.
224:
190:area. Due to the extreme
4125:
4087:Late Glacial Interstadial
3994:
3968:
3937:
3866:, Minnesota and Wisconsin
3800:
3743:Arrowhead Provincial Park
3735:
3719:
3660:
3609:
3568:
3561:
3518:List of prehistoric lakes
3485:
3175:10.1080/11035892409442370
3148:10.1080/11035891009442325
3121:10.1080/11035898809444216
2993:10.1016/j.jog.2010.01.006
1844:e-Opin kustantama e-kirja
1366:{\displaystyle \rho _{w}}
1339:{\displaystyle \rho _{i}}
955:is the sea–level change,
629:repeatedly through time.
528:Horizontal crustal motion
356:, for example, where the
4042:Holocene glacial retreat
3834:Glacial Lakes State Park
3773:Foothills Erratics Train
2584:(B10): 21, 815–21, 828.
1672:Holocene glacial retreat
1288:{\displaystyle \lambda }
886:constant for a specific
384:holocene glacial retreat
4082:Bølling–Allerød warming
3822:Devil's Lake State Park
3791:Ovayok Territorial Park
3480:Continental glaciations
3342:King Huber, N. (1973).
3027:2017E&PSL.472...38O
2899:2006E&PSL.249..368W
2776:10.1126/science.aao1447
2296:10.3176/earth.2012.3.02
1386:{\displaystyle \gamma }
1264:{\displaystyle \theta }
539:
246:Vertical crustal motion
3924:Yosemite National Park
3828:Glacial Lake Wisconsin
3767:Eskers Provincial Park
3755:Cypress Hills (Canada)
3553:Timeline of glaciation
2973:Journal of Geodynamics
1656:
1629:
1602:
1578:
1529:
1482:
1462:
1442:
1387:
1367:
1340:
1313:
1289:
1265:
1242:
989:
969:
949:
926:
925:{\displaystyle S=N-U,}
454:, glaciation affected
447:
268:
256:
128:
45:
36:This layered beach at
29:
28:around the ice sheets.
4067:Quaternary glaciation
4002:Quaternary glaciation
3900:Mill Bluff State Park
3864:Interstate State Park
3678:Giant current ripples
3493:Cordilleran ice sheet
3352:National Park Service
2415:Japhet, John (2018).
1929:Reviews of Geophysics
1657:
1630:
1603:
1579:
1530:
1483:
1463:
1443:
1388:
1368:
1341:
1314:
1290:
1266:
1243:
990:
970:
950:
927:
748:The viscosity of the
686:Recent global warming
643:New Madrid earthquake
437:
262:
253:
122:
35:
22:
4077:Wisconsin glaciation
4032:Last Glacial Maximum
3548:Post-glacial rebound
3503:Last Glacial Maximum
3498:Laurentide ice sheet
2861:10.1029/2001JB000941
2825:10.1029/1998GL900150
2708:10.1029/2000JB900113
2029:10.1029/1999GL011070
1897:10.1029/2006GL027081
1795:10.1029/2001JB000400
1695:Isostatic depression
1639:
1612:
1592:
1539:
1492:
1472:
1452:
1397:
1377:
1350:
1323:
1303:
1279:
1255:
1005:
979:
959:
939:
901:
105:continental levering
69:isostatic depression
49:Post-glacial rebound
4062:Pre-Illinoian Stage
4027:Last Glacial Period
3816:Coteau des Prairies
3727:Greenland ice sheet
3441:BIFROST GPS results
3310:1998GeoJI.134..102L
3062:2004AREPS..32..111P
2985:2010JGeo...50...38V
2934:1993Sci...260..771K
2853:2002JGRB..107.2280K
2816:1998GeoRL..25.4261V
2767:2018Sci...360.1335B
2761:(6395): 1335–1339.
2699:2000JGR...10516279W
2693:(B7): 16279–16294.
2590:1996JGR...10121815J
2553:1996GeoJI.127..215W
2514:1996GeoRL..23.2263W
2471:1983Natur.303..757Y
2392:. 2 December 2010.
2356:1998Borea..27...69P
2254:2001GeoJI.147..562M
2061:1984GeoJ...76..753W
2020:2000GeoRL..27.1323W
1978:1993JGR....98.4509M
1941:1998RvGeo..36..603P
1888:2007GeoRL..34.2306S
1820:on October 12, 2015
1786:2002JGRB..107.2157J
870:that describes the
671:Mohr–Coulomb theory
133:last glacial period
67:, which had caused
65:last glacial period
4107:4.2 kiloyear event
4102:8.2 kiloyear event
4037:Mousterian Pluvial
3769:, British Columbia
3445:Harvard University
3433:2008-05-08 at the
2418:Physical Geography
1689:Stress (mechanics)
1652:
1625:
1598:
1574:
1525:
1478:
1458:
1438:
1383:
1363:
1336:
1309:
1285:
1261:
1238:
985:
965:
945:
922:
860:sea-level equation
841:Legal implications
767:seismic tomography
664:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
660:seafloor spreading
655:postglacial faults
614:satellite motion.
448:
421:"Sandy Cape", and
269:
257:
129:
46:
30:
4143:
4142:
4112:Piora Oscillation
4072:Sangamonian Stage
3933:
3932:
3715:
3714:
3711:
3710:
3195:on July 16, 2011.
2928:(5109): 771–778.
2810:(23): 4261–4264.
2598:10.1029/96jb01308
2522:10.1029/96GL02149
2508:(17): 2263–2266.
2465:(5920): 757–762.
1986:10.1029/92JB02700
1972:(B3): 4509–4526.
1950:10.1029/98RG02638
1734:978-0-444-53643-3
1601:{\displaystyle S}
1481:{\displaystyle k}
1461:{\displaystyle h}
1312:{\displaystyle t}
1233:
1201:
1181:
1149:
1093:
1050:
988:{\displaystyle U}
968:{\displaystyle N}
948:{\displaystyle S}
868:integral equation
801:) can be used to
786:terminal moraines
754:mantle convection
669:According to the
489:Global sea levels
458:but not southern
389:In several other
53:isostatic rebound
4178:
4133:
4132:
3733:
3732:
3658:
3657:
3642:Terminal moraine
3566:
3565:
3474:
3467:
3460:
3451:
3450:
3392:
3390:
3389:
3383:
3376:
3366:
3364:
3363:
3354:. Archived from
3338:
3336:
3323:
3321:
3283:
3268:
3262:
3259:
3253:
3250:
3244:
3241:
3235:
3232:
3226:
3223:
3217:
3214:
3208:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3191:. Archived from
3185:
3179:
3178:
3169:(3–4): 316–324.
3158:
3152:
3151:
3142:(5): 1139–1195.
3131:
3125:
3124:
3095:
3089:
3088:
3080:
3074:
3073:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3012:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2968:
2962:
2961:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2893:(3–4): 368–383.
2881:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2778:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2729:on 23 March 2018
2719:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2665:
2657:
2655:
2654:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2608:
2602:
2601:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2479:10.1038/303757a0
2454:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2444:
2435:. Archived from
2429:
2423:
2422:
2412:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2401:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2221:
2212:. Archived from
2206:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2193:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2154:. Archived from
2143:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2133:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2072:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2014:(9): 1323–1326.
1999:
1990:
1989:
1961:
1955:
1954:
1952:
1917:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1867:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1765:
1752:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1712:
1661:
1659:
1658:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1626:
1624:
1623:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1583:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1564:
1563:
1551:
1550:
1534:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1467:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1439:
1422:
1421:
1409:
1408:
1392:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1372:
1370:
1369:
1364:
1362:
1361:
1345:
1343:
1342:
1337:
1335:
1334:
1318:
1316:
1315:
1310:
1294:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1270:
1268:
1267:
1262:
1247:
1245:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1215:
1214:
1204:
1202:
1197:
1196:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1172:
1163:
1162:
1152:
1150:
1145:
1144:
1135:
1130:
1129:
1114:
1113:
1104:
1103:
1094:
1089:
1088:
1079:
1071:
1070:
1061:
1060:
1051:
1046:
1045:
1036:
994:
992:
991:
986:
974:
972:
971:
966:
954:
952:
951:
946:
931:
929:
928:
923:
774:paleoclimatology
277:U-shaped valleys
89:Northern America
73:glacial isostasy
4186:
4185:
4181:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4176:
4175:
4146:
4145:
4144:
4139:
4121:
4007:Illinoian Stage
3990:
3981:Lambert Glacier
3964:
3950:Killary Harbour
3929:
3882:Lake Bonneville
3802:
3796:
3731:
3707:
3656:
3605:
3601:U-shaped valley
3591:Roche moutonnée
3557:
3523:Proglacial lake
3508:Canadian Shield
3481:
3478:
3435:Wayback Machine
3422:Glacial Rebound
3418:
3400:
3398:Further reading
3395:
3387:
3385:
3381:
3374:
3361:
3359:
3334:physics/0308002
3287:
3286:
3269:
3265:
3260:
3256:
3251:
3247:
3242:
3238:
3233:
3229:
3224:
3220:
3215:
3211:
3204:
3200:
3187:
3186:
3182:
3159:
3155:
3132:
3128:
3099:De Geer, Gerard
3096:
3092:
3081:
3077:
3046:
3042:
3010:
3004:
3000:
2969:
2965:
2918:
2914:
2882:
2878:
2837:
2833:
2796:
2792:
2746:
2742:
2732:
2730:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2679:
2675:
2659:
2658:
2652:
2650:
2643:"Archived copy"
2641:
2640:
2636:
2626:
2624:
2609:
2605:
2574:
2570:
2533:
2529:
2498:
2494:
2455:
2451:
2442:
2440:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2413:
2409:
2399:
2397:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2338:
2334:
2324:
2322:
2309:
2308:
2304:
2275:
2271:
2232:
2228:
2219:
2217:
2208:
2207:
2200:
2191:
2189:
2176:
2175:
2171:
2161:
2159:
2158:on 17 June 2012
2144:
2140:
2131:
2129:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2105:
2103:
2082:
2078:
2041:
2037:
2000:
1993:
1962:
1958:
1918:
1905:
1868:
1859:
1849:
1847:
1838:
1837:
1833:
1823:
1821:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1766:
1755:
1746:
1742:
1735:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1668:
1646:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1619:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1584:represents the
1559:
1555:
1546:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1536:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1473:
1470:
1469:
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1330:
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1210:
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1140:
1136:
1134:
1125:
1121:
1109:
1105:
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1095:
1084:
1080:
1078:
1066:
1062:
1056:
1052:
1041:
1037:
1035:
1006:
1003:
1002:
980:
977:
976:
960:
957:
956:
940:
937:
936:
902:
899:
898:
890:chronology and
856:
843:
831:Thomas Jamieson
819:
758:plate tectonics
735:
688:
639:plate tectonics
635:
620:
582:
542:
530:
498:glacial maximum
491:
479:Gulf of Bothnia
365:Gulf of Bothnia
328:was founded at
263:Much of modern
248:
232:plate tectonics
227:
161:glacial maximum
155:was covered by
137:northern Europe
117:
101:ocean siphoning
57:crustal rebound
17:
12:
11:
5:
4184:
4174:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4141:
4140:
4138:
4137:
4126:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4119:
4117:Little Ice Age
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3998:
3996:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3988:
3986:Ross Ice Shelf
3983:
3978:
3972:
3970:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3945:Hardangerfjord
3941:
3939:
3935:
3934:
3931:
3930:
3928:
3927:
3921:
3915:
3909:
3903:
3897:
3891:
3885:
3879:
3873:
3870:Kelleys Island
3867:
3861:
3855:
3849:
3843:
3837:
3831:
3825:
3819:
3818:, South Dakota
3813:
3806:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3788:
3782:
3776:
3770:
3764:
3758:
3757:, Saskatchewan
3752:
3746:
3739:
3737:
3730:
3729:
3723:
3721:
3717:
3716:
3713:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3664:
3662:
3655:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3613:
3611:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3581:Glacial striae
3578:
3572:
3570:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3489:
3487:
3483:
3482:
3477:
3476:
3469:
3462:
3454:
3448:
3447:
3438:
3425:
3417:
3416:External links
3414:
3413:
3412:
3410:New York Times
3399:
3396:
3394:
3393:
3367:
3339:
3324:
3304:(1): 102–144.
3288:
3285:
3284:
3263:
3254:
3245:
3236:
3227:
3218:
3209:
3198:
3180:
3153:
3126:
3115:(5): 366–379.
3111:(in Swedish).
3090:
3075:
3040:
2998:
2963:
2912:
2876:
2831:
2790:
2740:
2714:
2673:
2634:
2603:
2568:
2547:(1): 215–229.
2527:
2492:
2449:
2424:
2407:
2377:
2332:
2315:www.joensuu.fi
2302:
2289:(3): 149–161.
2269:
2248:(3): 562–578.
2226:
2198:
2169:
2138:
2113:
2076:
2055:(3): 753–792.
2035:
1991:
1956:
1935:(4): 603–689.
1903:
1857:
1831:
1801:
1753:
1740:
1733:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1698:
1692:
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1681:
1675:
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1664:
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1618:
1597:
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1521:
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1497:
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1428:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1407:
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1360:
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1333:
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1308:
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1260:
1249:
1248:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1213:
1209:
1200:
1195:
1191:
1185:
1180:
1176:
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1167:
1161:
1157:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1098:
1092:
1087:
1083:
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1069:
1065:
1059:
1055:
1049:
1044:
1040:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
984:
964:
944:
933:
932:
921:
918:
915:
912:
909:
906:
866:) is a linear
855:
852:
848:partition unit
842:
839:
835:Gerard De Geer
827:Anders Celsius
818:
815:
734:
731:
703:TOPEX/Poseidon
696:sea level rise
692:global warming
687:
684:
634:
631:
625:vertical datum
619:
618:Vertical datum
616:
581:
578:
563:Lake Pyhäselkä
541:
538:
529:
526:
490:
487:
417:"Birch Rock",
247:
244:
226:
223:
180:glacial period
116:
113:
81:glacioisostasy
38:Bathurst Inlet
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4183:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4161:Geomorphology
4159:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4136:
4128:
4127:
4124:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4097:Younger Dryas
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3967:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3942:
3940:
3936:
3925:
3922:
3919:
3916:
3913:
3910:
3907:
3904:
3901:
3898:
3895:
3894:Lake Missoula
3892:
3889:
3888:Lake Lahontan
3886:
3883:
3880:
3877:
3874:
3871:
3868:
3865:
3862:
3859:
3858:Ice Age Trail
3856:
3853:
3850:
3847:
3844:
3841:
3838:
3835:
3832:
3829:
3826:
3823:
3820:
3817:
3814:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3799:
3792:
3789:
3786:
3783:
3780:
3777:
3774:
3771:
3768:
3765:
3762:
3761:Eramosa River
3759:
3756:
3753:
3750:
3747:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3738:
3734:
3728:
3725:
3724:
3722:
3720:North America
3718:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3659:
3653:
3652:Veiki moraine
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3637:Rogen moraine
3635:
3633:
3632:Pulju moraine
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3622:Erratic block
3620:
3618:
3615:
3614:
3612:
3608:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3596:Tunnel valley
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3567:
3564:
3560:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3484:
3475:
3470:
3468:
3463:
3461:
3456:
3455:
3452:
3446:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3432:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3411:
3408:May 17, 2009
3407:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3384:on 2012-12-07
3380:
3373:
3368:
3358:on 2011-03-17
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3290:
3289:
3281:
3277:
3276:88-548-0384-7
3273:
3267:
3258:
3249:
3240:
3231:
3222:
3213:
3207:
3202:
3194:
3190:
3184:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3157:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3109:
3104:
3100:
3094:
3086:
3079:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3009:
3002:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2880:
2871:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2847:(B11): 2280.
2846:
2842:
2835:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2786:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2744:
2728:
2724:
2723:"Environment"
2718:
2709:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2669:
2663:
2648:
2644:
2638:
2622:
2618:
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2607:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
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2579:
2572:
2563:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
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2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2496:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2453:
2439:on 2008-05-08
2438:
2434:
2428:
2421:. p. 14.
2420:
2419:
2411:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2381:
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2369:
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2357:
2353:
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2320:
2316:
2312:
2306:
2297:
2292:
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2284:
2280:
2273:
2264:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2230:
2216:on 2012-12-24
2215:
2211:
2205:
2203:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2173:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2142:
2128:on 2008-02-21
2127:
2123:
2117:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2080:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2039:
2030:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1996:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1960:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1921:Peltier, W.R.
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1908:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1882:(2): L02306.
1881:
1877:
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1501:
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1418:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1401:
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1306:
1298:
1282:
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1258:
1235:
1226:
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1217:
1211:
1207:
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1174:
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1118:
1115:
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1096:
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1075:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1047:
1042:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1008:
1001:
1000:
999:
996:
982:
962:
942:
919:
916:
913:
910:
907:
904:
897:
896:
895:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
851:
849:
838:
836:
832:
828:
824:
814:
812:
807:
806:years or so.
804:
800:
796:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
770:
768:
763:
759:
755:
751:
746:
744:
740:
730:
728:
722:
719:
715:
711:
706:
704:
699:
697:
693:
683:
679:
677:
672:
667:
665:
661:
656:
652:
646:
644:
640:
630:
627:
626:
615:
613:
609:
604:
602:
598:
593:
591:
590:gravity field
587:
580:Gravity field
577:
575:
570:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
547:Lake Pielinen
537:
534:
525:
522:
517:
514:
512:
508:
504:
499:
494:
486:
482:
480:
476:
471:
467:
465:
461:
457:
453:
452:Great Britain
445:
444:British Isles
441:
436:
432:
430:
427:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
401:(formerly at
400:
396:
392:
387:
385:
381:
378:
374:
370:
366:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
342:Stora Alvaret
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
320:
316:
312:
308:
303:
301:
297:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
266:
261:
252:
243:
241:
237:
233:
222:
218:
216:
212:
208:
207:exponentially
204:
199:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
145:North America
142:
138:
134:
126:
125:Lake Superior
121:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
51:(also called
50:
43:
39:
34:
27:
21:
4047:Oldest Dryas
4017:Interstadial
4012:Interglacial
3995:Time periods
3926:, California
3920:, Washington
3661:Glacifluvial
3610:Depositional
3547:
3533:Lake Chicago
3528:Lake Agassiz
3403:
3386:. Retrieved
3379:the original
3360:. Retrieved
3356:the original
3347:
3301:
3297:
3266:
3257:
3248:
3239:
3230:
3221:
3212:
3201:
3193:the original
3183:
3166:
3162:
3156:
3139:
3135:
3129:
3112:
3106:
3093:
3084:
3078:
3053:
3049:
3043:
3018:
3014:
3001:
2979:(1): 38–48.
2976:
2972:
2966:
2925:
2921:
2915:
2890:
2886:
2879:
2844:
2840:
2834:
2807:
2803:
2793:
2758:
2754:
2743:
2731:. Retrieved
2727:the original
2717:
2690:
2686:
2676:
2651:. Retrieved
2637:
2625:. Retrieved
2616:
2606:
2581:
2577:
2571:
2544:
2540:
2530:
2505:
2501:
2495:
2462:
2458:
2452:
2441:. Retrieved
2437:the original
2427:
2417:
2410:
2398:. Retrieved
2389:
2380:
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173:viscoelastic
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4166:Geodynamics
4057:Pleistocene
4052:Older Dryas
3914:, Wisconsin
3906:Oneida Lake
3902:, Wisconsin
3878:, Wisconsin
3860:, Wisconsin
3854:, Wisconsin
3842:, Wisconsin
3836:, Minnesota
3830:, Wisconsin
3824:, Wisconsin
3812:, Wisconsin
3698:Outwash fan
3693:Kettle hole
3586:Ribbon lake
3543:Teays River
3056:: 111–149.
2390:harvard.edu
790:equilibrium
651:lithosphere
574:Lake Sommen
567:Lake Saimaa
409:"island of
196:equilibrium
188:deglaciated
131:During the
63:during the
4156:Glaciology
4150:Categories
3976:Antarctica
3969:Antarctica
3955:Monte Rosa
3908:, New York
3688:Kame delta
3647:Till plain
3538:Lake Tight
3388:2012-02-18
3362:2012-02-18
3278:, 96 pp.,
2870:1885/92573
2653:2017-07-08
2443:2008-05-09
2220:2008-05-09
2192:2008-05-09
2132:2008-05-09
1702:References
1273:colatitude
880:bathymetry
778:glaciology
572:In Sweden
559:Pielisjoki
551:Höytiäinen
503:Doggerland
419:Santaniemi
350:Baltic Sea
330:its outlet
319:freshwater
315:Baltic Sea
296:striations
255:("After").
236:glaciology
157:ice sheets
153:Antarctica
135:, much of
97:Antarctica
61:ice sheets
26:forebulges
3896:, Montana
3793:, Nunavut
3787:, Ontario
3781:, Ontario
3775:, Alberta
3763:, Ontario
3751:, Alberta
3745:, Ontario
3569:Erosional
3562:Landforms
3437:, Potsdam
3021:: 38–49.
2372:140624110
2210:"BIFROST"
2152:Telegraph
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1617:⊗
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1508:θ
1381:γ
1355:ρ
1328:ρ
1319:is time,
1297:longitude
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1199:γ
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1091:γ
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1064:⊗
1048:γ
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1021:λ
1015:θ
914:−
876:sea level
872:sea-level
817:Discovery
811:isostatic
803:constrain
739:viscosity
507:Sundaland
415:Koivukari
407:Oulunsalo
326:Stockholm
192:viscosity
182:when the
149:Greenland
109:sea level
93:Patagonia
4135:Category
3960:Svalbard
3890:, Nevada
3668:Diluvium
3431:Archived
3101:(1890).
2950:17746109
2785:29930133
2662:cite web
2647:Archived
2621:Archived
2617:nasa.gov
2394:Archived
2319:Archived
2186:Archived
2162:10 April
2100:Archived
1923:(1998).
1850:July 12,
1824:July 12,
1814:Peda.net
1666:See also
1586:eustatic
809:Glacial
743:rheology
456:Scotland
442:and the
423:Salmioja
411:Oulujoki
358:Iron Age
346:Iron Age
281:drumlins
273:boulders
271:Erratic
184:glaciers
115:Overview
3938:Eurasia
3627:Moraine
3617:Drumlin
3486:General
3306:Bibcode
3282:, Roma.
3058:Bibcode
3023:Bibcode
2981:Bibcode
2958:8626640
2930:Bibcode
2922:Science
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2755:Science
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2487:4234466
2467:Bibcode
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2250:Bibcode
2098:(1–2).
2057:Bibcode
2016:Bibcode
1974:Bibcode
1937:Bibcode
1884:Bibcode
1782:Bibcode
690:Recent
662:at the
460:England
440:Ireland
373:Kvarken
369:Kvarken
311:Mälaren
309:, Lake
300:Ice Age
293:bedrock
265:Finland
225:Effects
215:Finland
203:elastic
198:level.
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3872:, Ohio
3803:States
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3280:Aracne
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935:where
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710:ICESat
612:LAGEOS
601:oblate
597:mantle
464:floods
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391:Nordic
377:UNESCO
307:Sweden
285:eskers
176:mantle
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3673:Esker
3576:Fjord
3443:from
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3375:(PDF)
3329:arXiv
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2733:3 May
2627:3 May
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2368:S2CID
2325:3 May
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718:GRACE
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