396:
have a greater effect on the surrounding components due to individual components carrying a larger load. This results in the larger load from the failing component having to be redistributed in larger quantities across the system, making it more likely for additional components not directly affected by the disturbance to fail, igniting costly and dangerous cascading failures. These initial disturbances causing blackouts are all the more unexpected and unavoidable due to actions of the power suppliers to prevent obvious disturbances (cutting back trees, separating lines in windy areas, replacing aging components etc.). The complexity of most power grids often makes the initial cause of a blackout extremely hard to identify.
339:
40:
1602:
163:
2181:
171:
529:
241:
275:
resilience of the network over time, which is only corrected after a major failure occurs. In a 2003 publication, Carreras and co-authors claimed that reducing the likelihood of small outages only increases the likelihood of larger ones. In that case, the short-term economic benefit of keeping the individual customer happy increases the likelihood of large-scale blackouts.
286:", the process of restoring electricity after a system-wide power loss. The hearing's purpose was for Congress to learn about what the backup plans are in the electric utility industry in the case that the electric grid is damaged. Threats to the electrical grid include cyberattacks, solar storms, and severe weather, among others. For example, the "
377:
Conversely, a system past the critical point will experience too many blackouts leading to system-wide upgrades moving it back below the critical point. The term critical point of the system is used here in the sense of statistical physics and nonlinear dynamics, representing the point where a system undergoes a
153:
for backup and also a socket for connecting a generator during extended periods of outage. During a power outage, there is a disruption in the supply of electricity, resulting in a loss of power to homes, businesses, and other facilities. Power outages can occur for various reasons, including severe
329:
utilities will establish localized 'power islands' which are then progressively coupled together. To maintain supply frequencies within tolerable limits during this process, demand must be reconnected at the same pace that generation is restored, requiring close coordination between power stations,
439:
proposed a mathematical model for the behavior of electrical distribution systems. This model has become known as the OPA model, a reference to the names of the authors' institutions. OPA is a cascading failure model. Other cascading failure models include
Manchester, Hidden failure, CASCADE, and
395:
relationship is seen in both historical data and model systems. The practice of operating these systems much closer to their maximum capacity leads to magnified effects of random, unavoidable disturbances due to aging, weather, human interaction etc. While near the critical point, these failures
298:
Computer systems and other electronic devices containing logic circuitry are susceptible to data loss or hardware damage that can be caused by the sudden loss of power. These can include data networking equipment, video projectors, alarm systems as well as computers. To protect computer systems
274:
Modern power systems are designed to be resistant to this sort of cascading failure, but it may be unavoidable (see below). Moreover, since there is no short-term economic benefit to preventing rare large-scale failures, researchers have expressed concern that there is a tendency to erode the
376:
While blackout frequency has been shown to be reduced by operating it further from its critical point, it generally is not economically feasible, causing providers to increase the average load over time or upgrade less often resulting in the grid moving itself closer to its critical point.
303:
or 'UPS' can provide a constant flow of electricity if a primary power supply becomes unavailable for a short period of time. To protect against surges (events where voltages increase for a few seconds), which can damage hardware when power is restored, a special device called a
475:
In addition to the finding of each mitigation strategy having a cost-benefit relationship with regards to frequency of small and large blackouts, the total number of blackout events was not significantly reduced by any of the above-mentioned mitigation measures.
373:. These systems exhibit unavoidable disturbances of all sizes, up to the size of the entire system. This phenomenon has been attributed to steadily increasing demand/load, the economics of running a power company, and the limits of modern engineering.
381:; in this case the transition from a steady reliable grid with few cascading failures to a very sporadic unreliable grid with common cascading failures. Near the critical point the relationship between blackout frequency and size follows a
467:
Combination of increasing critical number and max load of lines – Shown to have no significant effect on either size of blackout. The resulting minor reduction in the frequency of blackouts is projected to not be worth the cost of the
316:
Restoring power after a wide-area outage can be difficult, as power stations need to be brought back online. Normally, this is done with the help of power from the rest of the grid. In the total absence of grid power, a so-called
452:
The effects of trying to mitigate cascading failures near the critical point in an economically feasible fashion are often shown to not be beneficial and often even detrimental. Four mitigation methods have been tested using the
444:– Crucitti–Latora–Marchiori (CLM) model, showing that both models exhibit similar phase transitions in the average network damage (load shed/demand in OPA, path damage in CLM), with respect to transmission capacity.
197:
in an electrical power supply. The term brownout comes from the dimming experienced by incandescent lighting when the voltage sags. Brownouts can cause poor performance of equipment or even incorrect operation.
211:
occur when demand for electricity exceeds supply, and allow some customers to receive power at the required voltage at the expense of other customers who get no power at all. They are a common occurrence in
204:
tripping are particularly difficult to recover from quickly. Outages may last from a few minutes to a few weeks depending on the nature of the blackout and the configuration of the electrical network.
200:
A blackout is the total loss of power to a wider area and of long duration. It is the most severe form of power outage that can occur. Blackouts which result from or result in
779:
279:
252:, the power generation and the electrical load (demand) must be very close to equal every second to avoid overloading of network components, which can severely damage them.
290:" was caused when overgrown trees touched high-voltage power lines. Around 55 million people in the U.S. and Canada lost power, and restoring it cost around $ 6 billion.
220:
of 2000–2001, when government deregulation destabilized the wholesale electricity market. Blackouts are also used as a public safety measure, such as to prevent a
461:
Increase critical number of failures causing cascading blackouts – Shown to decrease the frequency of smaller blackouts but increase that of larger blackouts.
399:
Leaders are dismissive of system theories that conclude that blackouts are inevitable, but do agree that the basic operation of the grid must be changed. The
1265:
675:
1227:
Nedic, Dusko P.; Dobson, Ian; Kirschen, Daniel S.; Carreras, Benjamin A.; Lynch, Vickie E. (2006). "Criticality in a cascading failure blackout model".
895:
805:
1453:
263:
Under certain conditions, a network component shutting down can cause current fluctuations in neighboring segments of the network leading to a
244:
Tree limbs creating a short circuit in power lines during a storm. This typically results in a power outage in the area supplied by these lines
1186:
Dobson, I.; Carreras, B. A.; Lynch, V. E.; Newman, D. E. (2001). "An initial model for complex dynamics in electric power system blackouts".
913:
471:
Increase the excess power available to the grid – Shown to decrease the frequency of smaller blackouts but increase that of larger blackouts.
2126:
1339:
Cupac, V.; Lizier, J.T.; Prokopenko, M. (2013). "Comparing dynamics of cascading failures between network-centric and power flow models".
1169:
750:
325:
the power grid into operation. The means of doing so will depend greatly on local circumstances and operational policies, but typically
464:
Increase individual power line max load – Shown to increase the frequency of smaller blackouts and decrease that of larger blackouts.
810:. 35th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS'02), January 7–10, 2002. Big Island, Hawaii. Archived from
216:, and may be scheduled in advance or occur without warning. They have also occurred in developed countries, for example in the
834:
1203:
1025:
728:
111:
125:
Power failures are particularly critical at sites where the environment and public safety are at risk. Institutions such as
2184:
1601:
154:
weather conditions (such as storms, hurricanes, or snowstorms), equipment failure, grid overload, or planned maintenance.
2023:
2131:
1446:
1095:
616:
560:
356:
1751:
400:
921:. Proceedings of Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, January 4–7, 2000, Maui, Hawaii. Archived from
2210:
1914:
1839:
1710:
1322:
591:
225:
178:
Power outages are categorized into three different phenomena, relating to the duration and effect of the outage:
44:
267:
of a larger section of the network. This may range from a building, to a block, to an entire city, to an entire
680:
670:
436:
229:
90:
There are many causes of power failures in an electricity network. Examples of these causes include faults at
2086:
2018:
2008:
1884:
1784:
1439:
428:
217:
24:
956:"Complex systems analysis of series of blackouts: Cascading failure, critical points, and self-organization"
338:
1939:
1899:
1476:
626:
490:
In 2015, one of the solutions proposed to reduce the impact of power outage was introduced by M. S. Saleh.
300:
2166:
2161:
1879:
1854:
1844:
1820:
1815:
1521:
1123:"Critical points and transitions in an electric power transmission model for cascading failure blackouts"
811:
640:
412:
326:
95:
1012:. 2015 International Conference on Smart Grid and Clean Energy Technologies (ICSGCE). pp. 195–200.
864:
2081:
1799:
1769:
1546:
690:
685:
416:
370:
287:
2136:
1625:
1586:
645:
1241:
2111:
1919:
1859:
1516:
596:
141:, which will automatically start up when electrical power is lost. Other critical systems, such as
103:
922:
836:
Dynamics, Criticality and Self-organization in a Model for
Blackouts in Power Transmission Systems
780:"Senate Hearing Examines Electric Industry's Ability to Restore Power after System-wide Blackouts"
2050:
2040:
2030:
665:
601:
432:
408:
322:
865:"Suppressing cascades in a self-organized-critical model with non-contiguous spread of failures"
2205:
1971:
1834:
1617:
1506:
1236:
190:
138:
1122:
2106:
1874:
1869:
1849:
761:
575:
555:
362:
150:
99:
1700:
1462:
1385:
1290:
1137:
967:
879:
842:. Hawaii International Conference on Systems Sciences, January 2002, Hawaii. Archived from
655:
228:), or to prevent wildfires around poorly maintained transmission lines (such as during the
213:
713:
What happens during a blackout – Consequences of a prolonged and wide-ranging power outage
8:
2071:
1904:
1804:
1779:
1732:
1541:
1531:
1496:
711:
Petermann, Thomas; Bradke, Harald; LĂĽllmann, Arne; Poetzsch, Maik; Riehm, Ulrich (2011).
660:
581:
260:
are used to automatically detect overloads and to disconnect circuits at risk of damage.
182:
A transient fault is a loss of power typically caused by a fault on a power line, e.g. a
1389:
1294:
1141:
971:
883:
440:
Branching. The OPA model was quantitatively compared with a complex networks model of a
39:
19:
This article is about accidental power failures. For intentionally engineered ones, see
1945:
1556:
1409:
1375:
1314:
1280:
1209:
1070:
1031:
650:
249:
2096:
1976:
1581:
1401:
1306:
1199:
1161:
1153:
1021:
985:
724:
480:
441:
388:
264:
257:
142:
115:
1074:
1035:
2045:
1986:
1690:
1685:
1662:
1571:
1511:
1413:
1393:
1348:
1318:
1298:
1246:
1213:
1191:
1145:
1062:
1013:
975:
887:
843:
716:
611:
606:
378:
253:
224:
from catching fire (for example, power was cut to several towns in response to the
208:
130:
80:
20:
1397:
1050:
1009:
Impact of clustering microgrids on their stability and resilience during blackouts
1006:
Saleh, M. S.; Althaibani, A.; Esa, Y.; Mhandi, Y.; Mohamed, A. A. (October 2015).
915:
Initial
Evidence for Self-Organized Criticality in Electric Power System Blackouts
2076:
2035:
2013:
1894:
1864:
1829:
1789:
1591:
1352:
1250:
1188:
Proceedings of the 34th Annual Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences
586:
411:
to coordinate the grid. Others advocate greater use of electronically controlled
305:
268:
119:
1017:
891:
2101:
2091:
1889:
1501:
1302:
1066:
954:
Dobson, Ian; Carreras, Benjamin A.; Lynch, Vickie E.; Newman, David E. (2007).
807:
Examining
Criticality of Blackouts in Power System Models with Cascading Events
1366:
Motter, Adilson E. (2004). "Cascade
Control and Defense in Complex Networks".
1195:
1098:. Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. 2014. Archived from
415:(HVDC) firebreaks to prevent disturbances from cascading across AC lines in a
2199:
2121:
1909:
1794:
1774:
1705:
1695:
1652:
1536:
1491:
1157:
1007:
549:
543:
534:
201:
183:
107:
91:
1099:
720:
2141:
2116:
1950:
1764:
1566:
1405:
1310:
1165:
989:
146:
1966:
1934:
1727:
1715:
1635:
1561:
1551:
1481:
1380:
1285:
565:
318:
283:
186:
or flashover. Power is automatically restored once the fault is cleared.
1929:
1924:
1737:
1720:
1576:
1431:
621:
404:
366:
1149:
980:
955:
162:
1645:
1640:
1526:
1486:
392:
382:
333:
170:
31:
1759:
715:. Berlin: Office of Technology Assessment at the German Bundestag.
221:
126:
84:
1680:
1670:
1121:
Carreras, B. A.; Lynch, V. E.; Dobson, I.; Newman, D. E. (2002).
912:
Carreras, B. A.; Newman, D. E.; Dobson, I.; Poole, A. B. (2000).
749:
Carreras, B. A.; Lynch, V. E.; Newman, D. E.; Dobson, I. (2003).
528:
293:
240:
1675:
710:
570:
498:
Utilities are measured on three specific performance measures:
134:
1229:
International
Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems
751:"Blackout Mitigation Assessment in Power Transmission Systems"
514:
508:
502:
343:
1341:
International
Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems
1630:
1226:
391:
becomes much more common close to this critical point. The
311:
235:
194:
30:"Power cut" redirects here. For the 2012 Punjabi film, see
804:
Dobson, I.; Chen, J.; Thorp, J.; Carreras, B.; Newman, D.
1185:
1120:
953:
911:
833:
Carreras, B. A.; Lynch, V. E.; Dobson, I.; Newman, D. E.
748:
43:
Vehicle lights provided the only illumination during the
1130:
1005:
960:
431:(ORNL), Power System Engineering Research Center of the
1263:
758:
36th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
447:
1338:
832:
949:
947:
945:
943:
524:
1266:"TModel for cascading failures in complex networks"
905:
803:
334:Blackout inevitability and electric sustainability
940:
407:features such as power control devices employing
145:, are also required to have emergency power. The
2197:
1264:Crucitti, P.; Latora, V.; Marchiori, M. (2004).
676:February 13–17, 2021 North American winter storm
280:Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources
479:A complex network-based model to control large
137:will usually have backup power sources such as
862:
294:Protecting computer systems from power outages
149:of a telephone exchange usually has arrays of
1447:
515:Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index
493:
350:
330:transmission and distribution organizations.
308:that absorbs the excess voltage can be used.
509:Customer Average Interruption Duration Index
1096:"Power Systems Engineering Research Center"
282:held a hearing in October 2018 to examine "
1454:
1440:
1359:
503:System Average Interruption Duration Index
1379:
1284:
1240:
979:
777:
744:
742:
740:
342:Comparison of duration of power outages (
1461:
858:
856:
337:
312:Restoring power after a wide-area outage
239:
236:Protecting the power system from outages
169:
161:
38:
1179:
1048:
826:
797:
2198:
1365:
1001:
999:
737:
1435:
853:
863:Hoffmann, H.; Payton, D. W. (2014).
778:Kovaleski, Dave (October 15, 2018).
448:Mitigation of power outage frequency
1175:from the original on March 5, 2016.
1114:
996:
901:from the original on March 4, 2016.
361:It has been argued on the basis of
13:
2132:Renewable energy commercialization
617:Self-organized criticality control
561:Critical infrastructure protection
357:Self-organized criticality control
14:
2222:
1424:
401:Electric Power Research Institute
16:Loss of electric power to an area
2180:
2179:
1600:
527:
1332:
1257:
1220:
1088:
1042:
592:List of energy storage projects
371:self-organized critical systems
226:Merrimack Valley gas explosions
45:2009 Ecuador electricity crisis
771:
704:
681:New York City blackout of 1977
671:2019 California power shutoffs
487:was proposed by A. E. Motter.
437:University of Alaska Fairbanks
230:2019 California power shutoffs
1:
2127:Renewable Energy Certificates
2087:Cost of electricity by source
2009:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
1885:High-voltage shore connection
1398:10.1103/PhysRevLett.93.098701
697:
429:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
218:California electricity crisis
25:Power Outage (disambiguation)
2142:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
1940:Transmission system operator
1900:Mains electricity by country
1477:Automatic generation control
1353:10.1016/j.ijepes.2013.01.017
1251:10.1016/j.ijepes.2006.03.006
872:Chaos, Solitons and Fractals
627:Uninterruptible power supply
485:using local information only
422:
301:uninterruptible power supply
299:against this, the use of an
7:
2167:List of electricity sectors
2162:Electric energy consumption
1880:High-voltage direct current
1855:Electric power transmission
1845:Electric power distribution
1522:Energy return on investment
1018:10.1109/ICSGCE.2015.7454295
892:10.1016/j.chaos.2014.06.011
641:List of major power outages
520:
413:high-voltage direct current
365:and computer modeling that
96:electric transmission lines
10:
2227:
2082:Carbon offsets and credits
1800:Three-phase electric power
1303:10.1103/PhysRevE.69.045104
1067:10.1109/MSPEC.2004.1318179
691:Northeast blackout of 2003
686:Northeast blackout of 1965
494:Key performance indicators
354:
351:Self-organized criticality
288:Northeast Blackout of 2003
29:
18:
2175:
2150:
2137:Renewable Energy Payments
2060:
1997:
1959:
1813:
1750:
1661:
1626:Fossil fuel power station
1616:
1609:
1598:
1469:
1196:10.1109/HICSS.2001.926274
646:2019 Venezuelan blackouts
321:needs to be performed to
1920:Single-wire earth return
1860:Electrical busbar system
1517:Energy demand management
760:. Hawaii. Archived from
597:Outage management system
427:In 2002, researchers at
157:
2051:Residual-current device
2041:Power system protection
2031:Generator interlock kit
1368:Physical Review Letters
1051:"The Unruly Power Grid"
1049:Fairley, Peter (2004).
666:2011 Southwest blackout
602:Proactive cyber defence
433:University of Wisconsin
131:sewage treatment plants
2211:Electric power quality
1835:Distributed generation
1507:Electric power quality
347:
245:
175:
167:
102:or other parts of the
48:
23:. For other uses, see
2107:Fossil fuel phase-out
1875:Electricity retailing
1870:Electrical substation
1850:Electric power system
814:on September 12, 2003
721:10.5445/IR/1000103292
576:Electromagnetic pulse
556:Coronal mass ejection
511:, measured in minutes
505:, measured in minutes
403:champions the use of
355:Further information:
341:
250:power supply networks
243:
173:
165:
83:network supply to an
79:) is the loss of the
42:
1463:Electricity delivery
784:Daily Energy Insider
656:2012 India blackouts
214:developing countries
2072:Availability factor
2024:Sulfur hexafluoride
1905:Overhead power line
1805:Virtual power plant
1780:Induction generator
1733:Sustainable biofuel
1542:Home energy storage
1532:Grid energy storage
1497:Droop speed control
1390:2004PhRvL..93i8701M
1295:2004PhRvE..69d5104C
1142:2002Chaos..12..985C
972:2007Chaos..17b6103D
884:2014CSF....67...87H
849:on August 21, 2003.
661:2003 Italy blackout
634:Major power outages
582:Energy conservation
151:lead–acid batteries
1946:Transmission tower
1557:Nameplate capacity
1328:on April 24, 2017.
1279:(4 Pt 2): 045104.
651:2019 Java blackout
481:cascading failures
348:
246:
176:
168:
139:standby generators
49:
2193:
2192:
2097:Environmental tax
1977:Cascading failure
1746:
1745:
1582:Utility frequency
1273:Physical Review E
1205:978-0-7695-0981-5
1150:10.1063/1.1505810
1027:978-1-4673-8732-3
981:10.1063/1.2737822
928:on March 29, 2003
767:on April 1, 2011.
730:978-3-7322-9329-2
442:cascading failure
435:(PSerc), and the
389:Cascading failure
265:cascading failure
254:Protective relays
209:Rolling blackouts
143:telecommunication
112:cascading failure
2218:
2183:
2182:
2092:Energy subsidies
2046:Protective relay
1987:Rolling blackout
1614:
1613:
1604:
1572:Power-flow study
1512:Electrical fault
1456:
1449:
1442:
1433:
1432:
1418:
1417:
1383:
1381:cond-mat/0401074
1363:
1357:
1356:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1321:. Archived from
1288:
1286:cond-mat/0309141
1270:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1244:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1127:
1118:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1102:on June 12, 2015
1092:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1003:
994:
993:
983:
951:
938:
937:
935:
933:
927:
920:
909:
903:
902:
900:
869:
860:
851:
850:
848:
841:
830:
824:
823:
821:
819:
801:
795:
794:
792:
790:
775:
769:
768:
766:
755:
746:
735:
734:
708:
612:Rolling blackout
607:Renewable energy
537:
532:
531:
457:blackout model:
409:advanced sensors
379:phase transition
81:electrical power
21:rolling blackout
2226:
2225:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2171:
2155:
2153:
2146:
2077:Capacity factor
2065:
2063:
2056:
2036:Numerical relay
2014:Circuit breaker
2002:
2000:
1993:
1955:
1895:Load management
1865:Electrical grid
1830:Demand response
1823:
1818:
1809:
1790:Microgeneration
1742:
1657:
1605:
1596:
1592:Vehicle-to-grid
1465:
1460:
1429:
1427:
1422:
1421:
1364:
1360:
1337:
1333:
1325:
1268:
1262:
1258:
1242:10.1.1.375.2146
1225:
1221:
1206:
1190:. p. 710.
1184:
1180:
1172:
1125:
1119:
1115:
1105:
1103:
1094:
1093:
1089:
1079:
1077:
1047:
1043:
1028:
1004:
997:
952:
941:
931:
929:
925:
918:
910:
906:
898:
867:
861:
854:
846:
839:
831:
827:
817:
815:
802:
798:
788:
786:
776:
772:
764:
753:
747:
738:
731:
709:
705:
700:
695:
631:
587:Internet outage
533:
526:
523:
496:
468:implementation.
450:
425:
363:historical data
359:
353:
336:
314:
306:surge protector
296:
269:electrical grid
238:
174:Transient fault
160:
120:circuit breaker
55:(also called a
35:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2224:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2187:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2164:
2158:
2156:
2152:Statistics and
2151:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2102:Feed-in tariff
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2068:
2066:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2054:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2011:
2005:
2003:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1890:Interconnector
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1840:Dynamic demand
1837:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1770:Combined cycle
1767:
1762:
1756:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1667:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1655:
1650:
1649:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1622:
1620:
1611:
1607:
1606:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1547:Load-following
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1502:Electric power
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1466:
1459:
1458:
1451:
1444:
1436:
1426:
1425:External links
1423:
1420:
1419:
1358:
1331:
1256:
1219:
1204:
1178:
1136:(4): 985–994.
1113:
1087:
1041:
1026:
995:
939:
904:
852:
825:
796:
770:
736:
729:
702:
701:
699:
696:
694:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
637:
630:
629:
624:
619:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
573:
568:
563:
558:
553:
546:
540:
539:
538:
522:
519:
518:
517:
512:
506:
495:
492:
473:
472:
469:
465:
462:
449:
446:
424:
421:
417:wide area grid
385:distribution.
352:
349:
335:
332:
313:
310:
295:
292:
237:
234:
206:
205:
202:power stations
198:
187:
159:
156:
92:power stations
69:power blackout
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2223:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2206:Power outages
2204:
2203:
2201:
2186:
2178:
2177:
2174:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2149:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2122:Pigouvian tax
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2059:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2019:Earth-leakage
2017:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2004:
1996:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1962:
1960:Failure modes
1958:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1910:Power station
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1795:Rankine cycle
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1775:Cooling tower
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1749:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1651:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1618:Non-renewable
1615:
1612:
1608:
1603:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1537:Grid strength
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1492:Demand factor
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1457:
1452:
1450:
1445:
1443:
1438:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1374:(9): 098701.
1373:
1369:
1362:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1267:
1260:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1182:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1124:
1117:
1101:
1097:
1091:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1055:IEEE Spectrum
1052:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1010:
1002:
1000:
991:
987:
982:
977:
973:
969:
966:(2): 026103.
965:
961:
957:
950:
948:
946:
944:
924:
917:
916:
908:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
866:
859:
857:
845:
838:
837:
829:
813:
809:
808:
800:
785:
781:
774:
763:
759:
752:
745:
743:
741:
732:
726:
722:
718:
714:
707:
703:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
636:
635:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
551:
550:Brittle Power
547:
545:
544:Energy crisis
542:
541:
536:
535:Energy portal
530:
525:
516:
513:
510:
507:
504:
501:
500:
499:
491:
488:
486:
482:
477:
470:
466:
463:
460:
459:
458:
456:
445:
443:
438:
434:
430:
420:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
397:
394:
390:
386:
384:
380:
374:
372:
368:
364:
358:
345:
340:
331:
328:
324:
320:
309:
307:
302:
291:
289:
285:
281:
276:
272:
270:
266:
261:
259:
255:
251:
242:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
210:
203:
199:
196:
193:is a drop in
192:
188:
185:
184:short circuit
181:
180:
179:
172:
164:
155:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
108:short circuit
105:
101:
97:
93:
88:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
65:power failure
62:
58:
54:
46:
41:
37:
33:
26:
22:
2117:Net metering
2064:and policies
1982:Power outage
1981:
1951:Utility pole
1915:Pumped hydro
1821:distribution
1816:Transmission
1765:Cogeneration
1567:Power factor
1428:
1371:
1367:
1361:
1344:
1340:
1334:
1323:the original
1276:
1272:
1259:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1187:
1181:
1133:
1129:
1116:
1104:. Retrieved
1100:the original
1090:
1078:. Retrieved
1061:(8): 22–27.
1058:
1054:
1044:
1008:
963:
959:
930:. Retrieved
923:the original
914:
907:
875:
871:
844:the original
835:
828:
816:. Retrieved
812:the original
806:
799:
787:. Retrieved
783:
773:
762:the original
757:
712:
706:
633:
632:
548:
497:
489:
484:
483:(blackouts)
478:
474:
454:
451:
426:
398:
387:
375:
360:
327:transmission
315:
297:
277:
273:
262:
247:
207:
177:
147:battery room
124:
104:distribution
94:, damage to
89:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
53:power outage
52:
50:
36:
2112:Load factor
1967:Black start
1935:Transformer
1636:Natural gas
1587:Variability
1562:Peak demand
1552:Merit order
1482:Backfeeding
1347:: 369–379.
789:October 23,
566:Cyberattack
367:power grids
346:), in 2014.
344:SAIDI value
319:black start
284:black start
122:operation.
100:substations
2200:Categories
2154:production
1999:Protective
1930:Super grid
1925:Smart grid
1752:Generation
1686:Geothermal
1577:Repowering
1235:(9): 627.
932:August 17,
818:August 17,
698:References
622:Smart grid
405:smart grid
106:system, a
73:power loss
2062:Economics
1785:Micro CHP
1663:Renewable
1646:Petroleum
1641:Oil shale
1527:Grid code
1487:Base load
1237:CiteSeerX
1158:1054-1500
878:: 87–93.
423:OPA model
393:power-law
383:power-law
323:bootstrap
127:hospitals
61:power out
32:Power Cut
2185:Category
1972:Brownout
1760:AC power
1470:Concepts
1406:15447153
1311:15169056
1170:Archived
1166:12779622
1106:June 23,
1080:June 24,
1075:19389285
1036:25664994
990:17614690
896:Archived
521:See also
222:gas leak
191:brownout
166:Blackout
85:end user
77:blackout
57:powercut
2001:devices
1711:Thermal
1706:Osmotic
1701:Current
1681:Biomass
1671:Biofuel
1653:Nuclear
1610:Sources
1414:4856492
1386:Bibcode
1319:3824371
1291:Bibcode
1214:7708994
1138:Bibcode
968:Bibcode
880:Bibcode
195:voltage
75:, or a
1696:Marine
1676:Biogas
1412:
1404:
1317:
1309:
1239:
1212:
1202:
1164:
1156:
1073:
1034:
1024:
988:
727:
571:Dumsor
133:, and
2053:(GFI)
1942:(TSO)
1728:Solar
1716:Tidal
1691:Hydro
1410:S2CID
1376:arXiv
1326:(PDF)
1315:S2CID
1281:arXiv
1269:(PDF)
1210:S2CID
1173:(PDF)
1126:(PDF)
1071:S2CID
1032:S2CID
926:(PDF)
919:(PDF)
899:(PDF)
868:(PDF)
847:(PDF)
840:(PDF)
765:(PDF)
754:(PDF)
578:(EMP)
258:fuses
158:Types
135:mines
63:, a
1819:and
1738:Wind
1721:Wave
1631:Coal
1402:PMID
1307:PMID
1200:ISBN
1162:PMID
1154:ISSN
1108:2015
1082:2012
1022:ISBN
986:PMID
934:2003
820:2003
791:2018
725:ISBN
369:are
278:The
256:and
116:fuse
71:, a
67:, a
59:, a
1394:doi
1349:doi
1299:doi
1247:doi
1192:doi
1146:doi
1063:doi
1014:doi
976:doi
888:doi
717:doi
455:OPA
248:In
232:).
118:or
2202::
1408:.
1400:.
1392:.
1384:.
1372:93
1370:.
1345:49
1343:.
1313:.
1305:.
1297:.
1289:.
1277:69
1275:.
1271:.
1245:.
1233:28
1231:.
1208:.
1198:.
1168:.
1160:.
1152:.
1144:.
1134:12
1132:.
1128:.
1069:.
1059:41
1057:.
1053:.
1030:.
1020:.
998:^
984:.
974:.
964:17
962:.
958:.
942:^
894:.
886:.
876:67
874:.
870:.
855:^
782:.
756:.
739:^
723:.
419:.
271:.
189:A
129:,
114:,
110:,
98:,
87:.
51:A
1455:e
1448:t
1441:v
1416:.
1396::
1388::
1378::
1355:.
1351::
1301::
1293::
1283::
1253:.
1249::
1216:.
1194::
1148::
1140::
1110:.
1084:.
1065::
1038:.
1016::
992:.
978::
970::
936:.
890::
882::
822:.
793:.
733:.
719::
47:.
34:.
27:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
