156:
176:
47:
2575:
422:
520:. Absolute salinities on this scale are expressed as a mass fraction, in grams per kilogram of solution. Salinities on this scale are determined by combining electrical conductivity measurements with other information that can account for regional changes in the composition of seawater. They can also be determined by making direct density measurements.
352:
these forms are difficult to measure with high accuracy, and in any case complete chemical analysis is not practical when analyzing multiple samples. Different practical definitions of salinity result from different attempts to account for these problems, to different levels of precision, while still remaining reasonably easy to use.
543:
and chemists often define salinity in terms of mass of salt per unit volume, expressed in units of mg/L or g/L. It is implied, although often not stated, that this value applies accurately only at some reference temperature because solution volume varies with temperature. Values presented in this way
527:
On the global scale, it is extremely likely that human-caused climate change has contributed to observed surface and subsurface salinity changes since the 1950s, and projections of surface salinity changes throughout the 21st century indicate that fresh ocean regions will continue to get fresher and
523:
A sample of seawater from most locations with a chlorinity of 19.37 ppt will have a
Knudsen salinity of 35.00 ppt, a PSS-78 practical salinity of about 35.0, and a TEOS-10 absolute salinity of about 35.2 g/kg. The electrical conductivity of this water at a temperature of 15 °C is
741:
water salinities may range anywhere from 0.5 to greater than 300 ‰. The important characteristic is that these waters tend to vary in salinity over some biologically meaningful range seasonally or on some other roughly comparable time scale. Put simply, these are bodies of water with quite variable
834:
Not only is salinity a driver of ocean circulation, but changes in ocean circulation also affect salinity, particularly in the subpolar North
Atlantic where from 1990 to 2010 increased contributions of Greenland meltwater were counteracted by increased northward transport of salty Atlantic waters.
436:
The NASA Aquarius instrument aboard
Argentina's SAC-D satellite is designed to measure global sea surface salinity. This movie shows salinity patterns as measured by Aquarius from December 2011 through December 2012. Red colors represent areas of high salinity, while blue shades represent areas of
311:
which dissolve into ions. The concentration of dissolved chloride ions is sometimes referred to as chlorinity. Operationally, dissolved matter is defined as that which can pass through a very fine filter (historically a filter with a pore size of 0.45 μm, but later usually 0.2 μm). Salinity can be
555:
A river or lake water with a salinity of around 70 mg/L will typically have a specific conductivity at 25 °C of between 80 and 130 μS/cm. The actual ratio depends on the ions present. The actual conductivity usually changes by about 2% per degree
Celsius, so the measured conductivity at 5 °C
319:
Seawater typically has a mass salinity of around 35 g/kg, although lower values are typical near coasts where rivers enter the ocean. Rivers and lakes can have a wide range of salinities, from less than 0.01 g/kg to a few g/kg, although there are many places where higher salinities are found. The
351:
Measurement and definition difficulties arise because natural waters contain a complex mixture of many different elements from different sources (not all from dissolved salts) in different molecular forms. The chemical properties of some of these forms depend on temperature and pressure. Many of
363:
is created). For many purposes this sum can be limited to a set of eight major ions in natural waters, although for seawater at highest precision an additional seven minor ions are also included. The major ions dominate the inorganic composition of most (but by no means all) natural waters.
425:
424:
429:
428:
423:
430:
1348:; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S.S.; Edwards, T.L.; Golledge, N.R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R.E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.).
563:. Sometimes density at a specific temperature is used as a proxy for salinity. At other times an empirical salinity/density relationship developed for a particular body of water is used to estimate the salinity of samples from a measured density.
531:
Salinity is serving as a tracer of different masses. Surface water is pulled in to replace the sinking water, which in turn eventually becomes cold and salty enough to sink. Salinity distribution contributes to shape the oceanic circulation.
1303:
Culkin, F.; Smith, N. D. (1980). "Determination of the
Concentration of Potassium Chloride Solution Having the Same Electrical Conductivity, at 15C and Infinite Frequency, as Standard Seawater of Salinity 35.0000‰ (Chlorinity 19.37394‰)".
427:
441:
The term 'salinity' is, for oceanographers, usually associated with one of a set of specific measurement techniques. As the dominant techniques evolve, so do different descriptions of salinity. Salinities were largely measured using
294:
Salinity in rivers, lakes, and the ocean is conceptually simple, but technically challenging to define and measure precisely. Conceptually the salinity is the quantity of dissolved salt content of the water. Salts are compounds like
1769:
Holliday, N. Penny; Bersch, Manfred; Berx, Barbara; Chafik, Léon; Cunningham, Stuart; Florindo-López, Cristian; Hátún, Hjálmar; Johns, William; Josey, Simon A.; Larsen, Karin
Margretha H.; Mulet, Sandrine (2020-01-29).
823:, where density changes due to both salinity changes and temperature changes at the surface of the ocean produce changes in buoyancy, which cause the sinking and rising of water masses.
831:
is such that a possible cause of reduced circulation is the production of stratified oceans. In such cases, it is more difficult to subduct water through the thermohaline circulation.
426:
343:. A bottled seawater product known as IAPSO Standard Seawater is used by oceanographers to standardize their measurements with enough precision to meet this requirement.
757:
Salinity is an ecological factor of considerable importance, influencing the types of organisms that live in a body of water. As well, salinity influences the kinds of
1606:
Dukhovskoy, D.S.; Myers, P.G.; Platov, G.; Timmermans, M.L.; Curry, B.; Proshutinsky, A.; Bamber, J.L.; Chassignet, E.; Hu, X.; Lee, C.M.; Somavilla, R. (2016).
827:
are thought to contribute to global changes in carbon dioxide as more saline waters are less soluble to carbon dioxide. In addition, during glacial periods, the
1357:
Climate Change 2021: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
548:, or "reference conductivity", as a proxy for salinity. This measurement may be corrected for temperature effects, and is usually expressed in units of
726:
if salinity does not vary much over time (essentially constant). The table on the right, modified from Por (1972), follows the "Venice system" (1959).
466:. The chlorinity was then multiplied by a factor to account for all other constituents. The resulting 'Knudsen salinities' are expressed in units of
1574:
1163:
497:) is sometimes added to PSS-78 measurement values. The addition of PSU as a unit after the value is "formally incorrect and strongly discouraged".
2158:
339:, however, are often concerned with precision and intercomparability of measurements by different researchers, at different times, to almost five
331:
Whatever pore size is used in the definition, the resulting salinity value of a given sample of natural water will not vary by more than a few
1023:
2098:
407:
range of most natural waters, may also be included for some purposes (e.g., when salinity/density relationships are being investigated).
1663:
Dukhovskoy, D.S.; Yashayaev, I.; Proshutinsky, A.; Bamber, J.L.; Bashmachnikov, I.L.; Chassignet, E.P.; Lee, M.; Tedstone, A.J. (2019).
912:
355:
For practical reasons salinity is usually related to the sum of masses of a subset of these dissolved chemical constituents (so-called
2464:
1956:
240:). It is usually measured in g/L or g/kg (grams of salt per liter/kilogram of water; the latter is dimensionless and equal to ‰).
142:
1394:"Geographical differences in the relationship between total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity in South African rivers"
17:
2011:
2178:
2173:
1929:
1189:
2070:
1722:"The North Atlantic Current and its volume and freshwater transports in the subpolar North Atlantic, time period 1993–2016"
115:
2459:
2620:
2329:
1376:
835:
However, North
Atlantic waters have become fresher since the mid-2010s due to increased Greenland meltwater flux.
2419:
2389:
2359:
770:
2133:
1118:
2600:
800:
Salts are expensive to remove from water, and salt content is an important factor in water use, factoring into
1905:
1874:
2409:
2233:
2193:
1149:
The international thermodynamic equation of seawater – 2010: Calculation and use of thermodynamic properties
1550:"Stennis Space Center Salinity Drifter Project. A Collaborative Project with Hancock High School, Kiln, MS"
1253:
Unesco (1981). The
Practical Salinity Scale 1978 and the International Equation of State of Seawater 1980.
135:
2334:
1937:
1772:"Ocean circulation causes the largest freshening event for 120 years in eastern subpolar North Atlantic"
1607:
2615:
2474:
2241:
1588:
1491:
Venice system (1959). The final resolution of the symposium on the classification of brackish waters.
481:
measurements to estimate the ionic content of seawater led to the development of the scale called the
2246:
359:), rather than to the unknown mass of salts that gave rise to this composition (an exception is when
313:
808:. Increases in salinity have been observed in lakes and rivers in the United States, due to common
2605:
2163:
2063:
957:
820:
509:
1608:"Greenland freshwater pathways in the sub-Arctic Seas from model experiments with passive tracers"
2434:
2374:
2301:
2143:
859:
545:
478:
128:
2291:
2286:
2251:
1425:
Por, F. D. (1972). "Hydrobiological notes on the high-salinity waters of the Sinai
Peninsula".
325:
1665:"Role of Greenland freshwater anomaly in the recent freshening of the subpolar North Atlantic"
2610:
978:
854:
785:
plants. Organisms (mostly bacteria) that can live in very salty conditions are classified as
513:
105:
1267:
1045:
Eilers, J. M.; Sullivan, T. J.; Hurley, K. C. (1990). "The most dilute lake in the world?".
508:) was introduced, advocating absolute salinity as a replacement for practical salinity, and
179:
International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans (IAPSO) standard seawater.
2500:
2311:
1892:
1783:
1733:
1676:
1619:
1514:
1434:
1313:
1218:
1092:
1349:
8:
2414:
2399:
2354:
2153:
2056:
559:
Direct density measurements are also used to estimate salinities, particularly in highly
369:
360:
340:
1896:
1787:
1737:
1680:
1623:
1518:
1438:
1317:
1222:
1096:
1083:
Anati, D. A. (1999). "The salinity of hypersaline brines: concepts and misconceptions".
2540:
2505:
2449:
2369:
2344:
2113:
2093:
1879:
1812:
1771:
1751:
1697:
1664:
1645:
1589:"Hopes To Hold The Salt, And Instead Break Out Beet Juice And Beer To Keep Roads Clear"
1530:
1450:
1236:
1157:
1062:
745:
Highly saline water, from which salts crystallize (or are about to), is referred to as
467:
308:
1840:
2579:
2364:
2261:
2108:
1817:
1799:
1755:
1702:
1568:
1372:
1185:
304:
300:
168:
1454:
1240:
1207:"Limnological applications of the Thermodynamic Equation of Seawater 2010 (TEOS-10)"
1066:
2495:
2454:
2439:
2339:
2319:
1900:
1855:
1807:
1791:
1741:
1692:
1684:
1635:
1627:
1522:
1442:
1405:
1364:
1363:. Cambridge, UK and New York, New York, US: Cambridge University Press: 1211–1362.
1321:
1226:
1100:
1054:
1004:
225:
189:
100:
1993:
1649:
2530:
2404:
2118:
1549:
813:
296:
2625:
2555:
2535:
2525:
2520:
2510:
2490:
2429:
2324:
2256:
2198:
2183:
2128:
1795:
1152:. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO (English). pp. 196pp.
902:
801:
579:
549:
447:
384:
252:
64:
1957:"Early Determination of Salinity: from Ancient Concepts to Challenger Results"
1859:
1368:
434:
2594:
2213:
2138:
1803:
1345:
1325:
962:
952:
892:
887:
824:
268:
237:
1468:
1231:
1206:
2560:
2444:
2394:
2266:
2223:
2018:(equations and algorithms to calculate fundamental properties of sea water)
1821:
1706:
1505:
Dahl, E. (1956). "Ecological salinity boundaries in poikilohaline waters".
967:
897:
847:
793:
specifically. An organism that can withstand a wide range of salinities is
786:
584:
400:
392:
336:
275:
233:
155:
69:
1268:
Background papers and supporting data on the Practical Salinity Scale 1978
761:
that will grow either in a water body, or on land fed by a water (or by a
175:
2550:
2545:
2469:
2424:
2384:
2281:
2188:
1746:
1721:
1688:
1631:
1410:
1393:
1024:"Key Physical Variables in the Ocean: Temperature, Salinity, and Density"
942:
925:
882:
869:
828:
762:
574:
560:
540:
485:(PSS-78). Salinities measured using PSS-78 do not have units. The suffix
256:
164:
59:
46:
2515:
2379:
2079:
1534:
1446:
1104:
1058:
930:
805:
794:
463:
388:
248:
110:
1392:
van Niekerk, Harold; Silberbauer, Michael; Maluleke, Mmaphefo (2014).
416:
316:, i.e. the mass of the dissolved material in a unit mass of solution.
2349:
2296:
2148:
1941:
1662:
1640:
809:
790:
774:
766:
625:
471:
443:
244:
95:
1975:
1526:
324:
has a salinity of more than 200 g/kg. Precipitation typically has a
2168:
2103:
2030:
1343:
983:
947:
778:
455:
380:
321:
260:
243:
Salinity is an important factor in determining many aspects of the
90:
2203:
2031:"Equations and algorithms to calculate salinity of inland waters"
879:
In organisms generally, with particular emphasis on human health
782:
544:
are typically accurate to the order of 1%. Limnologists also use
505:
500:
In 2010 a new standard for the properties of seawater called the
459:
396:
332:
264:
722:
because their salinity is derived from the ocean and defined as
706:
Marine waters are those of the ocean, another term for which is
2218:
2208:
1933:
1921:
1605:
737:) in which the salinity variation is biologically significant.
451:
383:
are not usually included in descriptions of salinity. However,
376:
365:
1391:
2123:
2048:
758:
746:
589:
229:
74:
216:
195:
1841:"The practical salinity scale of 1978 and its antecedents"
1548:
Kalcic, Maria, Turowski, Mark; Hall, Callie (2010-12-22).
1906:
10.1175/1520-0485(1987)017<0543:sscu>2.0.co;2
1147:
210:
204:
1768:
1719:
714:
or waters have salinity in the range of 0.5 to 29 ‰ and
2271:
404:
387:
gas, which when dissolved is partially converted into
765:). A plant adapted to saline conditions is called a
729:
In contrast to homoiohaline environments are certain
403:, which usually appears as a neutral molecule in the
207:
192:
1145:
1044:
819:
The degree of salinity in oceans is a driver of the
213:
201:
446:-based techniques before the 1980s. Titration with
198:
718:from 36 to 40 ‰. These waters are all regarded as
626:Classification of water bodies based upon salinity
1720:Stendardo, I.; Rhein, M.; Steinfeldt, R. (2020).
2592:
1204:
516:. This standard includes a new scale called the
450:could be used to determine the concentration of
752:
710:. The salinity of euhaline seas is 30 to 35 ‰.
639:
2064:
1554:Stennis Space Center Salinity Drifter Project
1547:
136:
1883:(reprinted from its original publication in
1573:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1182:Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems, 3rd ed
1162:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
528:salty regions will continue to get saltier.
335:(%). Physical oceanographers working in the
263:, governs physical characteristics like the
1302:
556:might only be in the range of 50–80 μS/cm.
375:The concentrations of dissolved gases like
2071:
2057:
143:
129:
1904:
1811:
1745:
1696:
1639:
1409:
1230:
1021:
1504:
1350:"Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change"
1175:
1173:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1119:"Learn about salinity and water quality"
420:
174:
154:
1963:(History of the salinity determination)
1922:"Thermophysical properties of seawater"
1875:"Standard Seawater Comparisons updated"
1872:
1726:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
1669:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
1612:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
1284:Millero, F. J. (1993). "What is PSU?".
1283:
1078:
1076:
502:thermodynamic equation of seawater 2010
14:
2593:
1260:
1198:
1179:
975:General cases of solute concentration
2052:
1838:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1247:
1170:
1132:
1082:
1038:
1017:
1015:
1013:
825:Changes in the salinity of the oceans
27:Proportion of salt dissolved in water
1296:
1277:
1073:
518:reference composition salinity scale
1885:IEEE Journal of Oceanic engineering
1424:
1211:Limnology and Oceanography: Methods
1205:Pawlowicz, R.; Feistel, R. (2012).
844:Desalination for economic purposes
769:. A halophyte which is tolerant to
565:
535:
24:
2460:Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation
1932:page on seawater properties, with
1832:
1332:
1010:
278:of constant salinity is called an
25:
2637:
2330:Agricultural wastewater treatment
1976:"Practical Salinity Scale — 1978"
1914:
1873:Mantyla, Arnold W. (April 1987).
970:data on salinity of global oceans
699:
694:
689:
684:
679:
674:
669:
664:
659:
654:
649:
644:
632:
2574:
2573:
733:environments (which may also be
224:) is the saltiness or amount of
188:
45:
2390:Industrial wastewater treatment
2360:Decentralized wastewater system
1994:"Practical salinity calculator"
1762:
1713:
1656:
1599:
1581:
1541:
1498:
1485:
1469:"Salinity | Freshwater Inflows"
1461:
1418:
1385:
2078:
1887:, vol. OE5, n° 1, Jan. 1980).
1111:
998:
629:
346:
289:
251:processes within it, and is a
13:
1:
2410:Rotating biological contactor
1146:IOC, SCOR, and IAPSO (2010).
991:
939:Salinity by geologic context
876:Salinity by biologic context
483:practical salinity scale 1978
753:Environmental considerations
253:thermodynamic state variable
7:
838:
410:
312:expressed in the form of a
77:(> 5% up to 26%–28% max)
10:
2642:
2475:Wastewater treatment plant
2242:Adsorbable organic halides
1839:Lewis, Edward Lyn (1982).
1796:10.1038/s41467-020-14474-y
1028:Nature Education Knowledge
414:
2569:
2483:
2310:
2247:Biochemical oxygen demand
2232:
2086:
2012:"Algorithms on sea water"
1860:10.1080/15210608209379432
1369:10.1017/9781009157896.011
821:world's ocean circulation
771:residual sodium carbonate
568:
247:of natural waters and of
2621:Water quality indicators
1473:www.freshwaterinflow.org
1326:10.1109/JOE.1980.1145443
958:Thermohaline circulation
510:conservative temperature
364:Exceptions include some
159:Annual mean sea surface
2435:Sewage sludge treatment
2375:Fecal sludge management
2335:API oil–water separator
2302:Wastewater surveillance
1493:Archo Oceanogr. Limnol.
1232:10.4319/lom.2012.10.853
860:Sodium adsorption ratio
546:electrical conductivity
495:practical salinity unit
479:electrical conductivity
228:dissolved in a body of
18:Practical salinity unit
2292:Total suspended solids
2287:Total dissolved solids
2252:Chemical oxygen demand
1495:, 11 (suppl): 243–248.
1180:Wetzel, R. G. (2001).
1085:Int. J. Salt Lake. Res
1022:Pawlowicz, R. (2013).
1005:World Ocean Atlas 2009
853:Desalination of soil:
438:
180:
172:
2601:Chemical oceanography
2159:Industrial wastewater
1776:Nature Communications
979:Osmotic concentration
916:responses to salinity
855:soil salinity control
773:salinity are called
514:potential temperature
512:as a replacement for
433:
417:Ocean § Salinity
395:, is often included.
368:and waters from some
328:of 20 mg/kg or less.
178:
158:
2501:Groundwater recharge
1747:10.1029/2020JC016065
1689:10.1029/2018JC014686
1632:10.1002/2015JC011290
1411:10.4314/wsa.v40i1.16
1272:Tech. Pap. Mar. Sci.
1255:Tech. Pap. Mar. Sci.
914:Arabidopsis thaliana
804:and suitability for
370:hydrothermal springs
2415:Secondary treatment
2400:Membrane bioreactor
2355:Constructed wetland
2154:Infiltration/Inflow
1897:1987JPO....17..543M
1788:2020NatCo..11..585H
1738:2020JGRC..12516065S
1681:2019JGRC..124.3333D
1624:2016JGRC..121..877D
1519:1956Oikos...7....1D
1439:1972MarBi..14..111P
1318:1980IJOE....5...22C
1306:IEEE J. Oceanic Eng
1223:2012LimOM..10..853P
1097:1999IJSLR...8...55A
866:Measuring salinity
814:other salt de-icers
361:artificial seawater
33:Part of a series on
2580:Category: Sewerage
2541:Septic drain field
2506:Infiltration basin
2450:Stabilization pond
2370:Facultative lagoon
2234:Quality indicators
2114:Blackwater (waste)
2094:Acid mine drainage
1880:J. Phys. Oceanogr.
1595:. 29 January 2018.
1447:10.1007/BF00373210
1184:. Academic Press.
1105:10.1007/bf02442137
1059:10.1007/BF00007827
468:parts per thousand
439:
341:significant digits
309:sodium bicarbonate
181:
173:
116:Bodies by salinity
2616:Coastal geography
2588:
2587:
2365:Extended aeration
2312:Treatment options
2262:Oxygen saturation
2109:Blackwater (coal)
2087:Sources and types
1944:library routines)
1191:978-0-12-744760-5
704:
703:
623:
622:
569:Water salinity
431:
357:solution salinity
305:potassium nitrate
301:magnesium sulfate
255:that, along with
169:World Ocean Atlas
153:
152:
16:(Redirected from
2633:
2577:
2576:
2496:Evaporation pond
2484:Disposal options
2455:Trickling filter
2440:Sewage treatment
2340:Carbon filtering
2320:Activated sludge
2073:
2066:
2059:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2042:
2041:
2026:
2024:
2023:
2007:
2005:
2004:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1952:
1950:
1949:
1910:
1908:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1845:
1826:
1825:
1815:
1766:
1760:
1759:
1749:
1717:
1711:
1710:
1700:
1675:(5): 3333–3360.
1660:
1654:
1653:
1643:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1572:
1564:
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1502:
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1465:
1459:
1458:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1413:
1389:
1383:
1382:
1354:
1344:Fox-Kemper, B.;
1341:
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1300:
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1080:
1071:
1070:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1019:
1008:
1002:
926:Stenohaline fish
634:Thalassic series
630:
566:
536:Lakes and rivers
432:
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
212:
209:
206:
203:
200:
197:
194:
167:. Data from the
145:
138:
131:
101:Hypersaline lake
49:
30:
29:
21:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2630:
2606:Aquatic ecology
2591:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2565:
2531:Reclaimed water
2479:
2405:Reverse osmosis
2306:
2228:
2194:Reverse osmosis
2119:Boiler blowdown
2082:
2077:
2039:
2037:
2029:
2021:
2019:
2010:
2002:
2000:
1998:salinometry.com
1992:
1984:
1982:
1980:salinometry.com
1974:
1966:
1964:
1961:salinometry.com
1955:
1947:
1945:
1920:
1917:
1864:
1862:
1843:
1835:
1833:Further reading
1830:
1829:
1767:
1763:
1718:
1714:
1661:
1657:
1604:
1600:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1566:
1565:
1559:
1557:
1546:
1542:
1527:10.2307/3564981
1503:
1499:
1490:
1486:
1477:
1475:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1423:
1419:
1390:
1386:
1379:
1352:
1342:
1333:
1301:
1297:
1282:
1278:
1266:Unesco (1981).
1265:
1261:
1252:
1248:
1217:(11): 853–867.
1203:
1199:
1192:
1178:
1171:
1155:
1154:
1144:
1133:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1081:
1074:
1043:
1039:
1020:
1011:
1007:. nodc.noaa.gov
1003:
999:
994:
931:Euryhaline fish
841:
755:
716:metahaline seas
628:
538:
421:
419:
413:
399:in the form of
349:
297:sodium chloride
292:
282:, or sometimes
191:
187:
149:
120:
82:Bodies of water
73:
68:
63:
54:Salinity levels
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2639:
2629:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2582:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2556:Surface runoff
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2536:Sanitary sewer
2533:
2528:
2526:Marine outfall
2523:
2521:Marine dumping
2518:
2513:
2511:Injection well
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2491:Combined sewer
2487:
2485:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2430:Settling basin
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2325:Aerated lagoon
2322:
2316:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2257:Coliform index
2254:
2249:
2244:
2238:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2227:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2199:Sanitary sewer
2196:
2191:
2186:
2184:Produced water
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2129:Combined sewer
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2090:
2088:
2084:
2083:
2076:
2075:
2068:
2061:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2027:
2008:
1990:
1972:
1953:
1916:
1915:External links
1913:
1912:
1911:
1891:(4): 543–548.
1870:
1854:(4): 350–357.
1848:Marine Geodesy
1834:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1761:
1712:
1655:
1618:(1): 877–907.
1598:
1580:
1540:
1497:
1484:
1460:
1433:(2): 111–119.
1427:Marine Biology
1417:
1384:
1377:
1331:
1295:
1276:
1259:
1246:
1197:
1190:
1169:
1131:
1110:
1072:
1037:
1009:
996:
995:
993:
990:
989:
988:
987:
986:
981:
973:
972:
971:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
937:
936:
935:
934:
933:
928:
920:
919:
918:
907:
906:
905:
903:Salt poisoning
900:
895:
890:
885:
874:
873:
872:
864:
863:
862:
857:
851:
840:
837:
754:
751:
702:
701:
697:
696:
692:
691:
687:
686:
682:
681:
677:
676:
672:
671:
667:
666:
662:
661:
657:
656:
652:
651:
647:
646:
642:
641:
637:
636:
627:
624:
621:
620:
617:
614:
611:
607:
606:
603:
600:
597:
593:
592:
587:
582:
580:Brackish water
577:
571:
570:
537:
534:
448:silver nitrate
412:
409:
385:carbon dioxide
348:
345:
291:
288:
271:of the water.
151:
150:
148:
147:
140:
133:
125:
122:
121:
119:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
87:
84:
83:
79:
78:
65:Brackish water
56:
55:
51:
50:
42:
41:
39:Water salinity
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2638:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2581:
2572:
2571:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2482:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2420:Sedimentation
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
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2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2309:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2231:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2214:Sewage sludge
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2139:Cooling water
2137:
2135:
2134:Cooling tower
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2099:Ballast water
2097:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2074:
2069:
2067:
2062:
2060:
2055:
2054:
2051:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2017:
2013:
2009:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1918:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1837:
1836:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1765:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1716:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1602:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1576:
1570:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1501:
1494:
1488:
1474:
1470:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1380:
1378:9781009157896
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1347:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1299:
1291:
1287:
1280:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1256:
1250:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1201:
1193:
1187:
1183:
1176:
1174:
1165:
1159:
1151:
1150:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1120:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1079:
1077:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1047:Hydrobiologia
1041:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1006:
1001:
997:
985:
982:
980:
977:
976:
974:
969:
966:
964:
963:Paleosalinity
961:
959:
956:
954:
953:Soil salinity
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
940:
938:
932:
929:
927:
924:
923:
921:
917:
915:
911:
910:
908:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
893:Hypernatremia
891:
889:
888:Fluid balance
886:
884:
881:
880:
878:
877:
875:
871:
868:
867:
865:
861:
858:
856:
852:
849:
846:
845:
843:
842:
836:
832:
830:
826:
822:
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
798:
796:
792:
788:
787:extremophiles
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
750:
748:
743:
740:
739:Poikilohaline
736:
732:
731:poikilohaline
727:
725:
721:
717:
713:
712:Brackish seas
709:
708:euhaline seas
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
665:mixoeuhaline
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
635:
631:
618:
615:
612:
609:
608:
604:
601:
598:
595:
594:
591:
588:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
572:
567:
564:
562:
557:
553:
551:
547:
542:
533:
529:
525:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
498:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
475:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
454:ions (mainly
453:
449:
445:
437:low salinity.
435:
418:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
371:
367:
362:
358:
353:
344:
342:
338:
337:abyssal ocean
334:
329:
327:
323:
317:
315:
314:mass fraction
310:
306:
302:
298:
287:
285:
281:
277:
272:
270:
269:heat capacity
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
241:
239:
238:soil salinity
235:
231:
227:
221:
185:
177:
170:
166:
162:
157:
146:
141:
139:
134:
132:
127:
126:
124:
123:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
88:
86:
85:
81:
80:
76:
71:
66:
61:
58:
57:
53:
52:
48:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
32:
31:
19:
2611:Oceanography
2561:Vacuum sewer
2445:Sewer mining
2395:Ion exchange
2345:Chlorination
2276:
2267:Heavy metals
2224:Urban runoff
2164:Ion exchange
2144:Fecal sludge
2038:. Retrieved
2034:
2020:. Retrieved
2015:
2001:. Retrieved
1997:
1983:. Retrieved
1979:
1965:. Retrieved
1960:
1946:. Retrieved
1925:
1888:
1884:
1878:
1863:. Retrieved
1851:
1847:
1779:
1775:
1764:
1729:
1725:
1715:
1672:
1668:
1658:
1615:
1611:
1601:
1593:www.wbur.org
1592:
1583:
1558:. Retrieved
1553:
1543:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1492:
1487:
1476:. Retrieved
1472:
1463:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1401:
1397:
1387:
1360:
1356:
1346:Hewitt, H.T.
1312:(1): 22–23.
1309:
1305:
1298:
1289:
1286:Oceanography
1285:
1279:
1271:
1262:
1254:
1249:
1214:
1210:
1200:
1181:
1148:
1122:. Retrieved
1113:
1091:(1): 55–70.
1088:
1084:
1050:
1046:
1040:
1031:
1027:
1000:
968:CORA dataset
913:
898:Hyponatremia
883:Electrolytes
848:Desalination
833:
818:
799:
756:
744:
738:
734:
730:
728:
724:homoiohaline
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
705:
695:oligohaline
645:hyperhaline
633:
585:Saline water
561:saline lakes
558:
554:
541:Limnologists
539:
530:
526:
524:42.9 mS/cm.
522:
517:
501:
499:
494:
490:
486:
482:
476:
462:) to give a
440:
401:silicic acid
393:bicarbonates
374:
356:
354:
350:
330:
318:
293:
283:
279:
276:contour line
273:
242:
234:saline water
183:
182:
160:
70:Saline water
62:(< 0.05%)
38:
2551:Storm drain
2546:Sewage farm
2470:Vermifilter
2425:Septic tank
2385:Imhoff tank
2282:Temperature
2189:Return flow
2179:Papermaking
2045:(dead link)
2016:code10.info
1926:web.mit.edu
1513:(1): 1–21.
943:Fresh water
870:Salinometer
829:hydrography
816:in runoff.
763:groundwater
685:mesohaline
675:polyhaline
655:metahaline
640:> 300 ‰
613:0.5 – 30 ‰
610:< 0.5 ‰
596:< 0.05%
575:Fresh water
477:The use of
347:Composition
290:Definitions
257:temperature
165:World Ocean
60:Fresh water
2595:Categories
2516:Irrigation
2380:Filtration
2080:Wastewater
2040:2024-08-25
2035:eos.ubc.ca
2022:2024-08-25
2003:2024-08-25
1985:2024-08-25
1967:2024-08-25
1948:2024-08-25
1865:2024-08-25
1782:(1): 585.
1560:2011-06-16
1478:2020-10-25
1404:(1): 133.
992:References
909:In plants
806:irrigation
802:potability
795:euryhaline
791:halophiles
742:salinity.
619:> 50 ‰
616:30 – 50 ‰
599:0.05 – 3%
493:(denoting
464:chlorinity
415:See also:
389:carbonates
249:biological
236:(see also
111:Brine pool
2350:Clarifier
2297:Turbidity
2149:Greywater
1942:Excel VBA
1804:2041-1723
1756:225238073
1641:1912/7922
1158:cite book
810:road salt
775:glasswort
767:halophyte
735:thalassic
720:thalassic
444:titration
366:pit lakes
280:isohaline
245:chemistry
232:, called
96:Salt lake
67:(0.05–3%)
2277:Salinity
2169:Leachate
2104:Bathroom
1822:31996687
1707:31341755
1569:cite web
1455:86601297
1398:Water SA
1292:(3): 67.
1241:93210746
1067:30279782
1034:(4): 13.
984:Tonicity
948:Seawater
922:In fish
850:of water
839:See also
779:saltwort
650:60–80 ‰
605:> 5%
470:(ppt or
456:chlorine
411:Seawater
381:nitrogen
322:Dead Sea
261:pressure
184:Salinity
163:for the
161:salinity
106:Salt pan
91:Seawater
2204:Septage
1893:Bibcode
1813:6989661
1784:Bibcode
1734:Bibcode
1698:6618073
1677:Bibcode
1620:Bibcode
1535:3564981
1515:Bibcode
1435:Bibcode
1314:Bibcode
1219:Bibcode
1124:21 July
1093:Bibcode
1053:: 1–6.
783:barilla
602:3 – 5%
506:TEOS-10
460:bromine
397:Silicon
333:percent
284:isohale
265:density
2578:
2219:Toilet
2209:Sewage
2174:Manure
1934:Matlab
1820:
1810:
1802:
1754:
1705:
1695:
1650:603982
1648:
1556:. NTRS
1533:
1453:
1375:
1239:
1188:
1065:
759:plants
700:0.5 ‰
452:halide
377:oxygen
307:, and
72:(3–5%)
2626:Salts
2124:Brine
1844:(PDF)
1752:S2CID
1732:(9).
1646:S2CID
1531:JSTOR
1507:Oikos
1451:S2CID
1353:(PDF)
1237:S2CID
1063:S2CID
789:, or
747:brine
680:18 ‰
670:30 ‰
660:40 ‰
590:Brine
550:μS/cm
230:water
171:2009.
75:Brine
2465:UASB
1940:and
1818:PMID
1800:ISSN
1703:PMID
1575:link
1373:ISBN
1361:2021
1310:OE-5
1274:, 37
1257:, 36
1186:ISBN
1164:link
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