964:, he states the problem of universals is chiefly understood as being concerned with entities and not the linguistic aspect of naming a universal. He says that Platonists believe that our ability to form general conceptions of things is incomprehensible unless universals exist outside of the mind, whereas nominalists believe that such ideas are 'empty verbalism'. Quine himself does not propose to resolve this particular debate. What he does say however is that certain types of 'discourse' presuppose universals: nominalists therefore must give these up. Quine's approach is therefore more an epistemological one, i.e. what can be known, rather than a metaphysical one, i.e. what is real.
662:
being out there in the real world, but also the problem of them being purely constructs of the mind in that universals are simply the mind thinking of particulars in an abstract, universal way. His assumption focuses on the problems that language create. Boethius maintained that the structure of language corresponds to the structure of things and that language creates what he regarded as philosophical babble of confused and contradictory accounts of the nature of things. To illustrate his view, suppose that although the mind cannot think of 2 or 4 as an odd number, as this would be a false representation, it can think of an even number that is neither 2 nor 4.
22:
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831:. Mill wrote, "The formation of a concept does not consist in separating the attributes which are said to compose it from all other attributes of the same object and enabling us to conceive those attributes, disjoined from any others. We neither conceive them, nor think them, nor cognize them in any way, as a thing apart, but solely as forming, in combination with numerous other attributes, the idea of an individual object".
130:
733:
766:, but rather he found that regarding them as real was contradictory in some sense. An early work has Ockham stating that 'no thing outside the soul is universal, either through itself or through anything real or rational added on, no matter how it is considered or understood'. Nevertheless, his position did shift away from an outright opposition to accommodating them in his later works such as the
3513:
1316:
415:
649:"I shall omit to speak about genera and species, as to whether they subsist (in the nature of things) or in mere conceptions only; whether also if subsistent, they are bodies or incorporeal, and whether they are separate from, or in, sensibles, and subsist about these, for such a treatise is most profound, and requires another more extensive investigation".
762:(1285–1347) wrote extensively on this topic. He argued strongly that universals are a product of abstract human thought. According to Ockham, universals are just words or concepts (at best) that only exist in the mind and have no real place in the external world. His opposition to universals was not based on his
718:, as Boethius had done. Scotus was interested in how the mind forms universals, and he believed this to be 'caused by the intellect'. This intellect acts on the basis that the nature of, say, 'humanity' that is found in other humans and also that the quality is attributable to other individual humans.
1205:
Realists tend to argue that universals must be posited as distinct entities in order to account for various phenomena. A common realist argument said to be found in Plato's writings, is that universals are required for certain general words to have meaning and for the sentences in which they occur to
908:
From every point of view, the overwhelming and portentous character ascribed to universal conceptions is surprising. Why, from Plato and
Aristotle, philosophers should have vied with each other in scorn of the knowledge of the particular and in adoration of that of the general, is hard to understand,
838:
But, though meaning them only as part of a larger agglomeration, we have the power of fixing our attention on them, to the neglect of the other attributes with which we think them combined. While the concentration of attention lasts, if it is sufficiently intense, we may be temporarily unconscious of
1059:
school conceives of universals as perceptible eternal entities, existing independently of our minds. Nyāya postulates the existence of universals based on our experience of a common characteristic among particulars. Thus, the meaning of a word is understood as a particular further characterized by a
929:
There are at least three ways in which a realist might try to answer James' challenge of explaining the reason why universal conceptions are more lofty than those of particulars: the moral–political answer, the mathematical–scientific answer, and the anti-paradoxical answer. Each has contemporary or
885:
the way that a universal would, that fact is a universal. "If I have learned a formula in gibberish which in any way jogs my memory so as to enable me in each single case to act as though I had a general idea, what possible utility is there in distinguishing between such a gibberish... and an idea?"
599:
is a singular. The philosopher distinguished highest genera like animal and species like man but he maintained that both are predicated of individual men. This was considered part of an approach to the principle of things, which adheres to the criterion that what is most universal is also most real.
855:
In other words, we may be "temporarily unconscious" of whether an image is white, black, yellow or purple and concentrate our attention on the fact that it is a man and on just those attributes necessary to identify it as a man (but not as any particular one). It may then have the significance of a
661:
His solution to this problem was to state that the mind is able to separate in thought what is not necessarily separable in reality. He cites the human mind's ability to abstract from concrete particulars as an instance of this. This, according to
Boethius, avoids the problem of Platonic universals
657:
and particularity. However, he also says that universals can't also be of the mind since a mental construct of a quality is an abstraction and understanding of something outside of the mind. He concludes that either this representation is a true understanding of the quality, in which case we revert
652:
Boethius, in his commentaries on the aforementioned translation, says that a universal, if it were to exist, has to apply to several particulars entirely. He also specifies that they apply simultaneously at once and not in a temporal succession. He reasons that they cannot be mind-independent, i.e.
1303:
is a position that is meshed between realism and nominalism. Conceptualists believe that universals can indeed be real, but only existing as concepts within the mind. Conceptualists argue that the "concept" of universals are not mere "inventions but are reflections of similarities among particular
608:
and future. Its universal, its oakness, is a part of it. A biologist can study oak trees and learn about oakness and more generally the intelligible order within the sensible world. Accordingly, Aristotle was more confident than Plato about coming to know the sensible world; he was a prototypical
1210:
is a musician" for instance. The realist may claim that this sentence is only meaningful and expresses a truth because there is an individual, Djivan
Gasparyan, who possesses a certain quality: musicianship. Therefore, it is assumed that the property is a universal which is distinct from the
1139:) is the rejection of extreme realism. This position establishes the view of a universal as being that of the quality within a thing and every other thing individual to it; (the view that universals are real entities, but their existence is dependent on the particulars that exemplify them).
1060:
universal. For example, the meaning of the term 'cow' refers to a particular cow characterized by the universal of 'cowness'. Nyāya holds that although universals are apprehended differently from particulars, they are not separate, given their inherence in the particulars.
880:
theories have at first sight an air of paradox and levity very unbecoming to a bishop". He includes among these paradoxical doctrines
Berkeley's denial of "the possibility of forming the simplest general conception". He wrote that if there is some mental fact that works
740:
The opposing view to realism is one called nominalism, which at its strongest maintains that universals are verbal constructs and that they do not inhere in objects or pre-exist them. Therefore, universals in this view are something which are peculiar to
1079:
characterizes universals as referents for words. The fundamental difference between Bhāṭṭa Mīmaṃsā's and Nyāya is that Bhāṭṭa Mīmaṃsa rejects the Nyāya understanding of the universals' relation of inherence to the particulars. The Hindu philosopher
1092:
Buddhist ontology regards the world as consisting of momentary particulars and mentally constructed universals. In contrast to the realist schools of Indian philosophy, Buddhist logicians put forward a positive theory of nominalism, known as the
510:
about the latter. For Plato it was not possible to have knowledge of anything that could change or was particular, since knowledge had to be forever unfailing and general. For that reason, the world of the forms is the real world, like
2374:, Routledge, 2014, pp. 84–85: " have often been presented as the first nominalists, rejecting the existence of universal concepts altogether. ... For Chrysippus there are no universal entities, whether they be conceived as substantial
909:
seeing that the more adorable knowledge ought to be that of the more adorable things and that the things of worth are all concretes and singulars. The only value of universal characters is that they help us, by reasoning, to know new
1100:
The apoha theory identifies particulars through double negation, not requiring for a general shared essence between terms. For instance, the term 'cow' can be understood as referring to every entity of its exclusion class 'non-cow'.
795:
The parts are diverse and independent of each other. They are, however, only parts in their identical relation to each other, or insofar as they, taken together, constitute the whole. But this togetherness is the opposite of the
787:
discussed the relation of universals and particulars throughout his works. Hegel posited that both exist in a dialectical relationship to one another; that is, one exists only in relation and in reference to the other.
948:(1948), where he describes how the acceptance of "the fateful doctrine of nominalism" was "the crucial event in the history of Western culture; from this flowed those acts which issue now in modern decadence".
1030:
can't be understood without the
Platonic view that "mathematical truth is absolute, external and eternal, and not based on man-made criteria ... mathematical objects have a timeless existence of their own..."
653:
they do not have a real existence, because a quality cannot be both one thing and common to many particulars in such a way that it forms part of a particular's substance, as it would then be partaking of
975:
put forward the idea that realism is the best response to certain logical paradoxes to which nominalism leads ("Nominalism and
Conceptualism as Predicative Second Order Theories of Predication",
658:
to the earlier problem faced by those who believe universals are real; or, if the mental abstractions were not a true understanding, then 'what is understood otherwise than the thing is false'.
2307:
1182:
The school of realism makes the claim that universals are real and that they exist distinctly, apart from the particulars that instantiate them. Two major forms of metaphysical realism are
1084:
argues that if inherence is different from the terms of the relation, it would continuously require another common relation, and if the inherence is non-different, it would be superfluous.
1256:, and its principle of simplicity—nominalism is preferable, since it posits fewer entities. Different variants and versions of nominalism have been endorsed or defended by many, including
564:
and related disciplines and therefore much of his thinking concerns living beings and their properties. The nature of universals in
Aristotle's philosophy therefore hinges on his view of
1249:. One with a nominalist view claims that we predicate the same property of/to multiple entities, but argues that the entities only share a name and do not have a real quality in common.
1128:
in this sense, are the causal explanation behind the notion of what things exactly are; (the view that universals are real entities existing independent of particulars).
999:
has been one of the leading realists in the twentieth century, and has used a concept of universals to build a naturalistic and scientifically realist ontology. In both
2541:
Spade, Paul
Vincent. (1994, ed., transl.), "Five Texts on the Mediaeval Problem of Universals: Porphyry, Boethius, Abelard, Duns Scotus, Ockham", Hackett Pub Co Inc.
2488:"Conceptualism." The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Simon Blackburn. Oxford University Press, 1996. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 8 April 2008.
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according to the structure of thought, he proposed that the categorical analysis be directed upon the structure of the natural world. He used the principle of
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of the thing to create the individual. As a result of his realist position, he argued strongly against both nominalism and conceptualism, arguing instead for
2746:
67:, in efforts to define the mental connections a human makes when they understand a property such as shape or color to be the same in nonidentical objects.
872:, developed his own views on the problem of universals in the course of a review of an edition of the writings of George Berkeley. Peirce begins with the
904:. Though James certainly agreed with Peirce and against Berkeley that general ideas exist as a psychological fact, he was a nominalist in his ontology:
106:, are universal properties of the two daughters. Many properties can be universal: being human, red, male or female, liquid or solid, big or small, etc.
3322:
1007:(1989), Armstrong describes the relative merits of a number of nominalist theories which appeal either to "natural classes" (a view he ascribes to
839:
any of the other attributes and may really, for a brief interval, have nothing present to our mind but the attributes constituent of the concept.
676:
Boethius mostly stayed close to
Aristotle in his thinking about universals. Realism's biggest proponents in the Middle Ages, however, came to be
543:
3008:
1225:
Nominalists assert that only individuals or particulars exist and deny that universals are real (i.e. that they exist as entities or beings;
1202:, on the other hand, is the view that universals are real entities, but their existence is dependent on the particulars that exemplify them.
981:, vol. 21 (1980)). It is noted that in a sense Cocchiarella has adopted Platonism for anti-Platonic reasons. Plato, as seen in the dialogue
752:(1050–1125) was an early, prominent proponent of this view. His particular view was that universals are little more than vocal utterances (
582:, where he established that universal terms are involved in a relation of predication if some facts expressed by ordinary sentences hold.
2472:
Campbell, Keith; Franklin, James; Ehring, Douglas (August 26, 2023). "Donald Cary
Williams". In Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.).
707:. That is to say, Scotus believed that such properties as 'redness' and 'roundness' exist in reality and are mind-independent entities.
490:'s philosophy, particularly in their attempt to explain the nature and status of forms. These philosophers explored the problem through
3392:
803:
2417:
Reformation of Reason in Arabic Philosophy: from the Realism of Plato and Aristotle to the Nominalism of Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Khaldun
2739:
1015:
volumes as "particularism"). He gives a number of reasons to reject all of these, but also dismisses a number of realist accounts.
684:. Aquinas argued that both the essence of a thing and its existence were clearly distinct; in this regard he is also Aristotelian.
457:
3337:
687:
Duns Scotus argues that in a thing there is no real distinction between the essence and the existence; instead, there is only a
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1011:), concepts, resemblance relations or predicates, and also discusses non-realist "trope" accounts (which he describes in the
1879:
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1885:
1252:
Nominalists often argue this view by claiming that nominalism can account for all the relevant phenomena, and therefore—by
502:
Plato believed that there was a sharp distinction between the world of perceivable objects and the world of universals or
3071:
2732:
2692:
591:, he maintained that the concept of "universal" is apt to be predicated of many and that singular is not. For instance,
2410:
Isla'h al-'Aql fi al-Falsafah al-'Arabiyyah: Min waqi'iyyat Aflatun wa Aristo Ila Ismiyyat Ibn Taymiyyah wa Ibn Khaldun
977:
691:. Scotus believed that universals exist only inside the things that they exemplify, and that they "contract" with the
470:
Philosophers agree that human beings can talk and think about universals, but disagree on whether universals exist in
2040:
1600:
1560:
1535:
828:
987:, was willing to accept a certain amount of paradox with his forms. Cocchiarella adopts the forms to avoid paradox.
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things themselves." For example, the concept of 'man' ultimately reflects a similarity amongst Socrates and Kant.
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48:
beyond those objects? And if a property exists separately from objects, what is the nature of that existence?"
3186:
2643:
1696:
Studies on Plato, Aristotle and Proclus: The Collected Essays on Ancient Philosophy of John Cleary, Volume 15
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482:
The problem of universals is considered a central issue in traditional metaphysics and can be traced back to
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1450:
920:
846:
2528:
1740:
Logic, Theology and Poetry in Boethius, Anselm, Abelard, and Alan of Lille: Words in the Absence of Things
1720:
834:
However, he then proceeds to state that Berkeley's position is factually wrong by stating the following:
450:
210:
3485:
3362:
2576:
1721:"Porphyry, Introduction (or Isagoge) to the logical Categories of Aristotle (1853) vol. 2. pp.609-633"
1081:
3543:
1382:
1027:
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that what he called "thirdness", the more general facts about the world, are extra-mental realities.
654:
2989:
2811:
2786:
2473:
1668:
Five Texts on the Mediaeval Problem of Universals: Porphyry, Boethius, Abelard, Duns Scotus, Ockham
901:
827:
discussed the problem of universals in the course of a book that eviscerated the philosophy of Sir
573:
491:
387:
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2763:
2661:
1527:
1377:
944:
399:
362:
87:
2478:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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2405:
1805:
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960:
addressed the problem of universals throughout his career. In his paper, 'On Universals', from
865:
639:
578:
443:
113:
2032:
1947:
1893:
1845:
548:
Plato's student Aristotle disagreed with his tutor. Aristotle transformed Plato's forms into "
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75:
41:
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1177:
1161:
Beauty is a property that exists in an ideal form independently of any mind or description.
516:
512:
315:
249:
71:
2683:
2499:"conceptualism." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. . Encyclopedia.com. 12 Mar. 2019 <
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tree. This is a member of a species and it has much in common with other oak trees, past,
21:
8:
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1520:
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614:
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is the objection to both positions. Anti-realism is divided into two subcategories; (1)
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285:
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3419:
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3141:
3121:
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2413:إصلاح العقل في الفلسفة العربية: من واقعية أفلاطون وأرسطو إلى اسمية ابن تيمية وابن خلدون
2005:
1997:
1369:, a fallacy of ambiguity when an abstraction is treated as if it were a physical entity
1340:
1167:
Beauty is a property constructed in the mind, so exists only in descriptions of things.
688:
587:
531:
431:
367:
229:
51:
The problem of universals relates to various inquiries closely related to metaphysics,
549:
44:
an object has in common with other objects, such as color and shape, be considered to
3517:
3440:
3407:
3387:
3357:
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2036:
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1953:
1919:
1908:
1809:
1798:
1796:
Noone, Timothy B. (2003). "Universals and Individuation". In Williams, Thomas (ed.).
1743:
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419:
382:
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2009:
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2138:
2098:
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1989:
1253:
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1207:
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is the view that universals are real entities existing independent of particulars.
1183:
1136:
1113:
824:
671:
618:
520:
503:
357:
189:
175:
534:, who said "I've seen Plato's cups and table, but not his cupness and tableness."
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The Species Problem: Biological Species, Ontology, and the Metaphysics of Biology
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1289:
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Taking "beauty" as example, each of these positions will state the following:
770:(albeit in a modified way that would not classify him as a complete realist).
203:
3532:
3382:
3237:
3181:
3136:
3016:
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Moreland, JP. (2001). "Universals." Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press.
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182:
121:
2027:
The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics
1048:. Universals are postulated as referents for the meanings of general terms.
506:(eidos): one can only have mere opinions about the former, but one can have
40:
that has inspired a range of philosophical topics and disputes: "Should the
16:
Philosophical question of whether properties exist and, if so, what they are
3455:
3297:
3242:
2915:
2569:
Cocchiarella, Nino (1975). "Logical Atomism, Nominalism, and Modal Logic",
1142:
818:
565:
377:
196:
56:
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2455:""Nelson Goodman: The Calculus of Individuals in its different versions""
1285:
1269:
1056:
938:
The moral or political response is given by the conservative philosopher
877:
873:
749:
710:
Furthermore, Duns Scotus wrote about this problem in his own commentary (
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309:
273:
37:
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3302:
2953:
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2719:
2001:
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869:
610:
515:, while the sensible world is only imperfectly or partially real, like
372:
341:
2724:
129:
3445:
3317:
2579:(2005). "The Open Question Argument: What It Isn't; and What It Is",
2344:(Winter 2017 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
1852:(Winter 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
1457:(Winter 2017 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
1045:
742:
692:
530:
One of the first nominalist critiques of Plato's realism was that of
527:
are mental artifacts, differs sharply with modern forms of idealism.
507:
487:
90:
property of cup holders. Further, if two daughters can be considered
78:
found in two or more entities. As an example, if all cup holders are
64:
45:
2388:
1993:
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Indian philosophers raise the problem of universals in relation to
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635:
557:
426:
291:
234:
156:
25:
1190:), meaning "'universals before things'" and Aristotelian realism (
1164:
Beauty is a property that exists only when beautiful things exist.
3101:
2882:
2877:
1591:. Translated by Guy Davenport. Bolinas: Grey Fox Press. pp.
1387:
1064:
643:
605:
553:
471:
151:
146:
2638:
Rodriguez-Pereyra, Gonzalo (2008). "Nominalism in Metaphysics",
1910:
Watch on the right: conservative intellectuals in the Reagan era
1620:. Dordrecht: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 14.
1067:
puts forward six conditions for identifying genuine universals.
3424:
3031:
2500:
2439:
Resemblance Nominalism: A Solution to the Problem of Universals
1477:
Resemblance Nominalism: A Solution to the Problem of Universals
1356:
244:
3252:
1109:
There are many philosophical positions regarding universals.
1094:
1052:
910:
483:
60:
52:
2624:
Price, H. H. (1953). "Universals and Resemblance", Ch. 1 of
2589:
Lewis, David (1983). "New Work for a Theory of Universals",
2536:
The Problem of Universals from Boethius to John of Salisbury
2172:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 133–134.
2097:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 132–133.
1643:
The Problem of Universals from Boethius to John of Salisbury
2585:
The Open Question Argument: What it Isn’t; and What it Is 1
2523:
Klima, Gyula (2008). "The Medieval Problem of Universals",
1372:
961:
2706:
The Problem of Universals in Antiquity and the Middle Ages
1670:. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing. pp. x.
601:
2649:
Russell, Bertrand (1912). "The World of Universals," in
2607:, Michael J. Loux (ed.), N.Y.: Routledge, pp. 3–13.
2603:
Loux, Michael J. (2001). "The Problem of Universals" in
2610:
MacLeod, M. & Rubenstein, E. (2006). "Universals",
2242:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 137.
2207:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 136.
2137:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 135.
2062:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 132.
2471:
1869:
Peirce, C.S. (1871), Review: Fraser's Edition of the
1829:
Salisbury, John of (1929). Webb, Clemens C.I. (ed.).
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1063:
Not every term, however, corresponds to a universal.
1039:
773:
2667:
Williams, D. C. (1953). "On the Elements of Being",
1311:
634:
The problem was introduced to the medieval world by
1410:
2389:"Chrysippus (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)"
2024:
1907:
1479:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 214.
1435:
1097:theory, which denies the existence of universals.
2701:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on Universals
2512:
1905:
1474:
3530:
1980:Quine, W. V. (September 1947). "On Universals".
1693:
1348:, an object that exists outside physical reality
2631:Quine, W. V. O. (1961). "On What There is," in
1945:
1742:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 9–10.
2126:
2124:
2122:
1844:Panaccio, Claude; Spade, Paul Vincent (2015).
1229:). The term "nominalism" comes from the Latin
556:of individual things. Whereas Plato idealized
544:Aristotelian realist philosophy of mathematics
2740:
2419:]. Beirut: Center for Arab Unity Studies.
2287:Herbert Hochberg, "Nominalism and Idealism,"
1843:
1233:("name"). Four major forms of nominalism are
1070:
451:
2335:
1939:
1899:
1615:
1211:particular individual who has the property.
2303:
2301:
2119:
2031:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.
2747:
2733:
2482:
1880:Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce
804:Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences
458:
444:
2336:Orilia, Francesco; Swoyer, Chris (2017).
1828:
1694:Berchman, Robert; Finamore, John (2013).
1584:
745:and language. The French philosopher and
2598:Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction
2434:
2404:
2298:
1526:. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp.
1416:
731:
20:
2754:
2658:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2640:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2612:The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2560:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2525:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2475:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2437:""Review of Gonzalo Rodriguez-Pereyra,
2342:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2271:
2269:
2267:
2235:
2200:
2165:
2130:
2090:
2055:
2022:
1952:. Transaction Publishers. p. 112.
1850:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1804:. Cambridge University Press. pp.
1783:Quaestiones in librum Porphyrii Isagoge
1737:
1640:
1455:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1005:Universals: An Opinionated Introduction
3531:
2714:Nominalism, Realism, and Conceptualism
2283:
2281:
1906:J. David Hoeveler (15 February 1991).
1800:The Cambridge Companion to Duns Scotus
1618:Formal Ontology and Conceptual Realism
1517:
1087:
791:He stated the following on the issue:
721:
624:
2728:
2614:, J. Fieser & B. Dowden (eds.). (
2430:
2428:
2426:
2400:
2398:
2361:(MacLeod & Rubenstein, 2006, §1b)
2308:Nominalism, Realism, Conceptualism –
1979:
1795:
1689:
1687:
1665:
1575:MacLeod & Rubenstein (2006), §1b.
1448:
1206:be true or false. Take the sentence "
1194:), meaning "'universals in things'".
823:The 19th-century British philosopher
477:
2684:"The Medieval Problem of Universals"
2656:Swoyer, Chris (2000). "Properties",
2435:MacBride, Fraser (7 February 2004).
2275:MacLeod & Rubenstein (2006), §3.
2264:
2239:An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
2204:An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
2169:An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
2134:An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
2094:An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
2059:An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
1914:. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp.
1718:
1550:
1451:"The Medieval Problem of Universals"
1034:
783:The 19th-century German philosopher
2693:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2459:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2278:
1475:Rodriguez-Pereyra, Gonzalo (2002).
1421:. McGill-Queen's University Press.
864:The 19th-century American logician
665:
13:
2628:, Hutchinson's University Library.
2605:Metaphysics: Contemporary Readings
2591:Australasian Journal of Philosophy
2423:
2395:
2324:A Companion to Responses to Ockham
1946:Joseph Scotchie (1 January 1995).
1877:113(October):449-72, reprinted in
1780:
1684:
1553:Metaphysics: Contemporary Readings
1131:Aristotelian realism (also called
1040:Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika (Realist position)
978:Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic
774:Modern and contemporary philosophy
621:sort of realist about universals.
600:Consider for example a particular
128:
14:
3565:
2720:The Friesian School on Universals
2681:
2675:
1124:) is the view that universals or
1075:Like the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika school,
1013:Universals and Scientific Realism
1001:Universals and Scientific Realism
3511:
3499:
3393:Stratification of emotional life
2842:
2836:
2830:
1555:. London: Routledge. p. 3.
1499:Loux (1998), p. 20; (2001), p. 3
1314:
1295:
956:The noted American philosopher,
886:Peirce also held as a matter of
474:beyond mere thought and speech.
425:
413:
2491:
2465:
2447:
2381:
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2229:
2194:
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2016:
1973:
1863:
1837:
1822:
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1774:
1765:
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1731:
1712:
1659:
1634:
1609:
967:
523:, however, in denying that the
2708:with an annotated bibliography
2635:, 2nd/ed. N.Y: Harper and Row.
2558:Bacon, John (2008). "Tropes",
2513:References and further reading
2236:Perrett, Roy W. (2016-01-25).
2201:Perrett, Roy W. (2016-01-25).
2166:Perrett, Roy W. (2016-01-25).
2131:Perrett, Roy W. (2016-01-25).
2091:Perrett, Roy W. (2016-01-25).
2056:Perrett, Roy W. (2016-01-25).
1698:. Leiden: BRILL. p. 364.
1616:Cocchiarella, Nino B. (2007).
1578:
1569:
1544:
1511:
1502:
1493:
1468:
1:
2712:The Catholic Encyclopedia on
2340:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
1982:The Journal of Symbolic Logic
1886:Writings of Charles S. Peirce
1883:v. 8, paragraphs 7-38 and in
1848:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
1453:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
1214:
930:near-contemporary advocates.
785:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
699:, a medieval response to the
2633:From a Logical Point of View
2501:https://www.encyclopedia.com
1949:The vision of Richard Weaver
1645:. Leiden: BRILL. p. 2.
1104:
990:
921:The Principles of Psychology
847:The Principles of Psychology
844:as quoted in William James,
537:
36:is an ancient question from
7:
2985:Theological intellectualism
1762:On Being and Essence, Ch I.
1307:
995:The Australian philosopher
629:
211:Libri Quattuor Sententiarum
10:
3570:
3363:Principle of double effect
2660:, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (
2653:, Oxford University Press.
2651:The Problems of Philosophy
2642:, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (
2562:, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (
2527:, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (
2378:or in some other manner.".
1218:
1175:
1171:
1071:Mīmaṃsã (Realist position)
1028:foundations of mathematics
1018:
816:
725:
669:
568:. Instead of categorizing
541:
3494:
3433:
3230:
3007:
2977:
2939:
2896:
2858:
2851:
2828:
2762:
2596:Loux, Michael J. (1998).
2551:Armstrong, David (1989).
2534:Pinzani, Roberto (2018).
1785:. pp. q. 4 proemium.
1641:Pinzani, Roberto (2018).
1551:Loux, Michael J. (2001).
1518:Stamos, David N. (2003).
1383:Transcendental nominalism
933:
868:, known as the father of
859:
94:, the qualities of being
92:female offspring of Frank
2412:
2248:10.1017/cbo9781139033589
2213:10.1017/cbo9781139033589
2178:10.1017/cbo9781139033589
2143:10.1017/cbo9781139033589
2103:10.1017/cbo9781139033589
2068:10.1017/cbo9781139033589
1871:Works of George Berkeley
1771:Opus Oxoniense I iii 1-2
1738:Sweeney, Eileen (2016).
1588:Herakleitos and Diogenes
1404:
951:
913:about individual things.
902:learned about pragmatism
893:
778:
638:, by his translation of
497:
388:Protestant scholasticism
3549:Concepts in metaphysics
2990:Theological voluntarism
2626:Thinking and Experience
2023:Penrose, Roger (1989).
1666:Spade, Paul V. (1994).
1585:Davenport, Guy (1979).
1417:Moreland, J.P. (2001).
1378:Similarity (philosophy)
945:Ideas Have Consequences
812:
617:. Aristotle was a new,
560:, Aristotle emphasized
400:Protoscholastic writing
324:("Doctor Scholasticus")
282:("Doctor Invincibilis")
3554:Philosophical problems
3506:Catholicism portal
2326:, BRILL, 2016, p. 154.
2322:Christian Rode (ed.),
1891:Peirce Edition Project
1398:Fallacy of composition
1239:resemblance nominalism
927:
866:Charles Sanders Peirce
856:universal of manhood.
853:
810:
737:
432:Catholicism portal
300:("Doctor Universalis")
133:
29:
3518:Philosophy portal
3333:Infused righteousness
2669:Review of Metaphysics
2406:Marzouki, Abou Yaareb
2310:Catholic Encyclopedia
1875:North American Review
1833:. Oxford. p. 92.
1449:Klima, Gyula (2017).
1367:Reification (fallacy)
1362:Philosophical realism
1331:Abstract and concrete
997:David Malet Armstrong
906:
836:
793:
735:
595:is a universal while
552:", the blueprints or
420:Philosophy portal
394:Problem of universals
312:("Doctor Seraphicus")
132:
34:problem of universals
28:teaching his students
24:
3466:Doctor of the Church
3348:Ontological argument
2581:Philosophical Issues
2546:Contemporary studies
1235:predicate nominalism
1227:universalia post res
1200:Aristotelian realism
1192:universalia in rebus
1188:universalia ante res
1178:Metaphysical realism
316:Anselm of Canterbury
270:("Doctor Angelicus")
250:John Scotus Eriugena
86:may be considered a
3293:Divine illumination
2949:Augustinian realism
2817:Theological virtues
2756:Catholic philosophy
1889:v. 2, pp. 462-486.
1846:"William of Ockham"
1352:Object (philosophy)
1346:Non-physical entity
1122:exaggerated realism
1088:Buddhist Nominalism
728:Medieval nominalism
722:Medieval nominalism
625:Medieval philosophy
318:("Doctor Marianus")
294:("The Commentator")
276:("Doctor Subtilis")
3461:Islamic philosophy
3415:Trademark argument
3308:Formal distinction
3258:Augustinian values
2931:Analytical Thomism
2911:Christian humanism
2600:, N.Y.: Routledge.
2518:Historical studies
1725:www.tertullian.org
1341:Constructor theory
1026:contends that the
738:
689:formal distinction
532:Diogenes of Sinope
478:Ancient philosophy
368:Islamic philosophy
288:("Doctor Eximius")
230:Augustine of Hippo
134:
30:
3526:
3525:
3441:Catholic theology
3388:Seven deadly sins
3358:Peripatetic axiom
3268:Cartesian dualism
3003:
3002:
2969:Scotistic realism
2926:Neo-scholasticism
2555:, Westview Press.
2295:(2), pp. 213–234.
2257:978-0-521-85356-9
2222:978-0-521-85356-9
2187:978-0-521-85356-9
2152:978-0-521-85356-9
2112:978-0-521-85356-9
2077:978-0-521-85356-9
1959:978-1-56000-212-3
1925:978-0-299-12810-4
1815:978-0-521-63563-9
1749:978-1-349-73540-2
1705:978-90-04-23323-2
1652:978-90-04-37114-9
1627:978-1-4020-6203-2
1508:Loux (2001), p. 4
1486:978-0-19-924377-8
1393:Ubuntu philosophy
1322:Philosophy portal
1266:William of Ockham
1035:Indian philosophy
973:Nino Cocchiarella
940:Richard M. Weaver
876:that "Berkeley's
760:William of Ockham
736:William of Ockham
613:and a founder of
588:On Interpretation
468:
467:
383:Neo-scholasticism
363:Catholic theology
280:William of Ockham
59:, as far back as
3561:
3544:Substance theory
3516:
3515:
3514:
3504:
3503:
3328:Homo unius libri
3273:Cogito, ergo sum
3263:Cardinal virtues
2964:Moderate realism
2856:
2855:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2839:
2834:
2833:
2772:Cardinal virtues
2749:
2742:
2735:
2726:
2725:
2697:
2688:Zalta, Edward N.
2538:, Leiden: Brill.
2507:
2506:
2495:
2489:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2441:" – ndpr.nd.edu"
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1913:
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1834:
1831:Metalogicon 2.17
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1319:
1318:
1317:
1243:trope nominalism
1208:Djivan Gasparyan
1196:Platonic realism
1184:Platonic realism
1137:moderate realism
1114:Platonic realism
925:
851:
829:William Hamilton
825:John Stuart Mill
808:
714:) on Porphyry's
672:Medieval realism
666:Medieval realism
521:Platonic realism
460:
453:
446:
430:
429:
418:
417:
416:
358:Franciscan Order
286:Francisco Suárez
190:Summa Grammatica
176:Summa Theologica
109:
108:
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3498:
3490:
3451:Aristotelianism
3429:
3278:Dehellenization
3226:
2999:
2995:Foundationalism
2973:
2935:
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2812:Social teaching
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2017:
1994:10.2307/2267212
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1174:
1118:extreme realism
1107:
1090:
1082:Kumārila Bhaṭṭa
1073:
1042:
1037:
1021:
1009:Anthony Quinton
993:
970:
954:
936:
926:
918:William James,
917:
896:
862:
852:
843:
821:
815:
809:
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781:
776:
764:eponymous Razor
743:human cognition
730:
724:
697:Scotist realism
674:
668:
632:
627:
546:
540:
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480:
464:
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353:Dominican Order
348:Aristotelianism
336:
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298:Albertus Magnus
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255:
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217:
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70:Universals are
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3353:Pascal's wager
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3313:Guardian angel
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2868:Augustinianism
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2777:Divine command
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2682:Klima, Gyula.
2677:
2676:External links
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2370:John Sellars,
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1278:Nelson Goodman
1219:Main article:
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1168:
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1162:
1155:
1154:
1140:
1133:strong realism
1129:
1106:
1103:
1089:
1086:
1072:
1069:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1020:
1017:
992:
989:
969:
966:
958:W. V. O. Quine
953:
950:
935:
932:
915:
895:
892:
861:
858:
841:
814:
811:
801:G.W.F. Hegel,
798:
780:
777:
775:
772:
768:Summae Logicae
726:Main article:
723:
720:
678:Thomas Aquinas
670:Main article:
667:
664:
631:
628:
626:
623:
539:
536:
499:
496:
479:
476:
466:
465:
463:
462:
455:
448:
440:
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436:
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407:
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307:
306:("The Master")
301:
295:
289:
283:
277:
271:
268:Thomas Aquinas
264:
261:
260:
257:
256:
253:
252:
247:
245:Alcuin of York
242:
240:Pope Gregory I
237:
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226:
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207:
204:Opus Oxoniense
200:
193:
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15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3566:
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3542:
3540:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3519:
3509:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3496:
3493:
3487:
3486:Phenomenology
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
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3426:
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3413:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3383:Rota Fortunae
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3343:Occam's razor
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3323:Head of a pin
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
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3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
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3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3238:Actus Essendi
3236:
3235:
3233:
3229:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
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3185:
3183:
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3128:
3125:
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3115:
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3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3072:Chateaubriand
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
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3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3006:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2976:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2959:Conceptualism
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2942:
2938:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2873:Scholasticism
2871:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2857:
2854:
2850:
2823:
2822:Virtue ethics
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2807:Seven virtues
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
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2757:
2750:
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2727:
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2715:
2710:
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2702:
2699:
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2694:
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2679:
2670:
2666:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2648:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2627:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2577:Feldman, Fred
2575:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2554:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2533:
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2522:
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2504:
2502:
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2450:
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2367:
2358:
2343:
2339:
2332:
2325:
2319:
2313:
2311:
2304:
2302:
2294:
2291:, June 2013,
2290:
2284:
2282:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2259:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2240:
2232:
2224:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2197:
2189:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2170:
2162:
2154:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2114:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2087:
2079:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2060:
2052:
2044:
2042:9780198519737
2038:
2034:
2029:
2028:
2019:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1961:
1955:
1951:
1950:
1942:
1927:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1911:
1902:
1895:
1892:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1866:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1832:
1825:
1817:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1801:
1792:
1784:
1777:
1768:
1759:
1751:
1745:
1741:
1734:
1726:
1722:
1715:
1707:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1688:
1679:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1654:
1648:
1644:
1637:
1629:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1604:
1602:0-912516-35-6
1598:
1594:
1590:
1589:
1581:
1572:
1564:
1562:0-415-26108-2
1558:
1554:
1547:
1539:
1537:0-7391-0503-5
1533:
1529:
1524:
1523:
1514:
1505:
1496:
1488:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1456:
1452:
1445:
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1441:
1439:
1430:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1409:
1399:
1396:
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1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1336:Bundle theory
1334:
1332:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1312:
1305:
1302:
1301:Conceptualism
1296:Conceptualism
1293:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1274:Rudolf Carnap
1271:
1267:
1263:
1262:Ibn Taymiyyah
1259:
1255:
1254:Occam's razor
1250:
1248:
1247:conceptualism
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1212:
1209:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1158:
1152:
1151:Conceptualism
1148:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1116:(also called
1115:
1112:
1111:
1110:
1102:
1098:
1096:
1085:
1083:
1078:
1068:
1066:
1061:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1032:
1029:
1025:
1024:Roger Penrose
1016:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
988:
986:
985:
980:
979:
974:
965:
963:
959:
949:
947:
946:
941:
931:
923:
922:
914:
912:
905:
903:
900:
899:William James
891:
889:
884:
879:
875:
871:
867:
857:
849:
848:
840:
835:
832:
830:
826:
820:
806:
805:
797:
792:
789:
786:
771:
769:
765:
761:
757:
755:
751:
748:
744:
734:
729:
719:
717:
713:
708:
706:
702:
701:conceptualism
698:
694:
690:
685:
683:
679:
673:
663:
659:
656:
650:
647:
646:. It begins:
645:
641:
637:
622:
620:
616:
612:
607:
603:
598:
594:
590:
589:
583:
581:
580:
575:
571:
567:
566:natural kinds
563:
559:
555:
551:
550:formal causes
545:
535:
533:
528:
526:
525:eternal Forms
522:
518:
514:
509:
505:
495:
493:
489:
485:
475:
473:
461:
456:
454:
449:
447:
442:
441:
439:
438:
433:
428:
423:
421:
411:
410:
409:
408:
401:
398:
396:
395:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
343:
339:
338:
332:
331:
323:
322:Peter Abelard
320:
317:
314:
311:
308:
305:
304:Peter Lombard
302:
299:
296:
293:
290:
287:
284:
281:
278:
275:
272:
269:
266:
265:
259:
258:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
227:
221:
220:
213:
212:
208:
206:
205:
201:
199:
198:
197:Summa logicae
194:
192:
191:
187:
185:
184:
183:Cur Deus Homo
180:
178:
177:
173:
172:
166:
165:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
144:
138:
137:
131:
127:
126:
123:
122:Scholasticism
120:
119:
115:
111:
110:
107:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
82:in some way,
81:
77:
73:
68:
66:
62:
58:
54:
49:
47:
43:
39:
35:
27:
23:
19:
3456:Neoplatonism
3378:Ressentiment
3373:Quinque viae
3338:Memento mori
3298:Double truth
3243:Actus primus
3009:Philosophers
2940:
2916:Cartesianism
2713:
2691:
2668:
2657:
2650:
2639:
2632:
2625:
2611:
2604:
2597:
2590:
2580:
2570:
2559:
2552:
2535:
2524:
2498:
2493:
2484:
2474:
2467:
2458:
2449:
2438:
2416:
2409:
2383:
2371:
2366:
2357:
2346:. Retrieved
2341:
2338:"Properties"
2331:
2323:
2318:
2309:
2292:
2288:
2238:
2231:
2203:
2196:
2168:
2161:
2133:
2093:
2086:
2058:
2051:
2026:
2018:
1988:(3): 74–84.
1985:
1981:
1975:
1963:. Retrieved
1948:
1941:
1929:. Retrieved
1909:
1901:
1890:
1884:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1865:
1854:. Retrieved
1849:
1839:
1830:
1824:
1799:
1791:
1782:
1776:
1767:
1758:
1739:
1733:
1724:
1714:
1695:
1667:
1661:
1642:
1636:
1617:
1611:
1587:
1580:
1571:
1552:
1546:
1521:
1513:
1504:
1495:
1476:
1470:
1459:. Retrieved
1454:
1418:
1412:
1299:
1251:
1230:
1226:
1224:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1181:
1156:
1143:Anti-realism
1132:
1121:
1117:
1108:
1099:
1091:
1074:
1062:
1050:
1043:
1022:
1012:
1004:
1000:
994:
982:
976:
971:
968:Cocchiarella
955:
943:
937:
928:
919:
907:
897:
882:
878:metaphysical
863:
854:
845:
837:
833:
822:
819:Psychologism
802:
794:
790:
782:
767:
758:
753:
739:
715:
711:
709:
686:
675:
660:
655:universality
651:
648:
633:
596:
592:
586:
585:In his work
584:
577:
569:
547:
529:
501:
481:
469:
393:
392:
378:Neoplatonism
340:
262:Philosophers
209:
202:
195:
188:
181:
174:
103:
99:
95:
91:
83:
79:
69:
57:epistemology
50:
33:
31:
18:
3476:Rationalism
3471:Renaissance
3403:Augustinian
3288:Disputation
3283:Differentia
3248:Actus purus
3152:Malebranche
3067:Bonaventure
2802:Personalism
2797:Natural law
2792:Probabilism
1286:H. H. Price
1282:David Lewis
1270:Ibn Khaldun
1003:(1978) and
883:in practice
874:observation
750:Roscellinus
712:Quaestiones
682:Duns Scotus
574:predication
492:predication
310:Bonaventure
274:Duns Scotus
169:Major works
84:circularity
38:metaphysics
3533:Categories
3481:Empiricism
3303:Evil demon
3077:Chesterton
2954:Nominalism
2941:Universals
2782:Just price
2671:, vol. 17.
2553:Universals
2348:2019-02-26
2289:Axiomathes
1856:2019-02-26
1719:Porphyry.
1677:087220250X
1461:2019-02-26
1428:0773522697
1419:Universals
1258:Chrysippus
1221:Nominalism
1215:Nominalism
1147:Nominalism
984:Parmenides
870:pragmatism
817:See also:
747:theologian
611:empiricist
579:Categories
542:See also:
373:Empiricism
342:Philosophy
224:Precursors
42:properties
3539:Cognition
3446:Platonism
3420:Univocity
3318:Haecceity
3197:Ratzinger
3162:Montaigne
3142:MacIntyre
3097:Dionysius
3092:Descartes
3052:Augustine
2906:Salamanca
2583:vol. 15.
1965:3 January
1931:3 January
1105:Positions
1057:Vaiśeṣika
1046:semantics
991:Armstrong
693:haecceity
615:induction
538:Aristotle
508:knowledge
488:Aristotle
100:offspring
88:universal
76:relations
72:qualities
65:Aristotle
3408:Irenaean
3398:Theodicy
3368:Quiddity
3231:Concepts
3157:Maritain
3127:Krasicki
3117:Gassendi
3107:Eriugena
3062:Boethius
3037:Anscombe
3027:Albertus
2921:Molinism
2888:Occamism
2860:Medieval
2787:Just war
2571:Synthese
2408:(1994).
2372:Stoicism
2010:23766882
1308:See also
1149:and (2)
916:—
888:ontology
842:—
799:—
640:Porphyry
636:Boethius
630:Boethius
619:moderate
558:geometry
554:essences
513:sunlight
292:Averroes
235:Boethius
157:Occamism
114:a series
112:Part of
104:of Frank
80:circular
26:Boethius
3434:Related
3222:Wojtyła
3202:Scheler
3147:Maistre
3137:Lombard
3122:Isidore
3102:Erasmus
3082:Clement
3047:Aquinas
3017:Abelard
2883:Scotism
2878:Thomism
2852:Schools
2690:(ed.).
2002:2267212
1388:Tianxia
1172:Realism
1077:Mīmaṃsã
1065:Udāyana
1019:Penrose
716:Isagoge
705:Abelard
644:Isagoge
606:present
597:Callias
519:. This
517:shadows
472:reality
335:Related
152:Scotism
147:Thomism
141:Schools
3425:Utopia
3217:Suárez
3207:Scotus
3192:Rahner
3182:Pascal
3172:Newman
3112:Ficino
3042:Anselm
3032:Alcuin
2898:Modern
2764:Ethics
2312:(1913)
2254:
2219:
2184:
2149:
2109:
2074:
2039:
2008:
2000:
1956:
1922:
1894:Eprint
1812:
1808:–129.
1746:
1702:
1674:
1649:
1624:
1599:
1559:
1534:
1483:
1425:
1357:Qualia
1288:, and
1245:, and
934:Weaver
924:(1890)
911:truths
860:Peirce
850:(1890)
807:(1830)
562:nature
102:, and
96:female
55:, and
3253:Aevum
3212:Stein
3177:Occam
3132:Llull
3057:Bacon
3022:Adler
2978:Other
2686:. In
2415:[
2006:S2CID
1998:JSTOR
1405:Notes
1231:nomen
1126:forms
1120:" or
1095:apoha
1053:Nyāya
952:Quine
894:James
796:part.
779:Hegel
754:voces
570:being
504:forms
498:Plato
484:Plato
61:Plato
53:logic
46:exist
3187:Pico
3167:More
3087:Cusa
2662:link
2644:link
2616:link
2564:link
2529:link
2503:>
2252:ISBN
2217:ISBN
2182:ISBN
2147:ISBN
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