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disability. People that lose a limb first have to deal with the emotional result of losing that limb. Regardless of the reasons for amputation, whether due to traumatic causes or as a consequence of illness, emotional shock exists. It may have a smaller or larger amplitude depending on a variety of factors such as patient age, medical culture, medical cause, etc. As a result of amputation, the research participants' reports were loaded with drama. The first emotional response to amputation was one of despair, a severe sense of self-collapse, something almost unbearable. Emotional factors are just a small part of looking at social implications. Many people who lose a limb may have lots of anxiety surrounding prosthetics and their limbs. After surgery, for an extended period of time, the interviewed patients from the
National Library of Medicine noticed the appearance and increase of anxiety. A lot of negative thoughts invaded their minds. Projections about the future were grim, marked by sadness, helplessness, and even despair. Existential uncertainty, lack of control, and further anticipated losses in one's life due to amputation were the primary causes of anxiety and consequently ruminations and insomnia. From losing a leg and getting a prosthetics there were also many factors that can happen including anger and regret. The amputation of a limb is associated not only with physical loss and change in body image but also with an abrupt severing in one's sense of continuity. For participants with amputation as a result of physical trauma the event is often experienced as a transgression and can lead to frustration and anger.
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Alignment Method (CATCAM) socket, later to evolve into the
Sabolich Socket. He followed the direction of Ivan Long and Ossur Christensen as they developed alternatives to the quadrilateral socket, which in turn followed the open ended plug socket, created from wood. The advancement was due to the difference in the socket to patient contact model. Prior to this, sockets were made in the shape of a square shape with no specialized containment for muscular tissue. New designs thus help to lock in the bony anatomy, locking it into place and distributing the weight evenly over the existing limb as well as the musculature of the patient. Ischial containment is well known and used today by many prosthetist to help in patient care. Variations of the ischial containment socket thus exists and each socket is tailored to the specific needs of the patient. Others who contributed to socket development and changes over the years include Tim Staats, Chris Hoyt, and Frank Gottschalk. Gottschalk disputed the efficacy of the CAT-CAM socket- insisting the surgical procedure done by the amputation surgeon was most important to prepare the amputee for good use of a prosthesis of any type socket design.
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because of the underlying meaning of disabilities. It tells amputees that there is a right and wrong way to move and walk and that if amputees are adapted to the surrounding environment by their own means, then that is the wrong way. Along with that underlying meaning of disabilities, many people designing for disabilities are not actually disabled. “Design for disability" from these experiences, takes disability as the object - with the feeling from non-disabled designers that they have properly learned about their job from their own simulation of the experience. The simulation is misleading and does a disservice to disabled people - so the design that flows from this is highly problematic. Engaging in disability design should be… with, ideally, team members who have the relevant disability and are part of communities that matter to the research. This leads to people, who do not know what the day-to-day personal experiences are, designing materials that do not meet the needs or hinder the needs of people with actual disabilities.
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object, or for gesticulation in social interaction. According to scientific data a third of the upper limb amputees worldwide use a passive prosthetic hand. Body
Powered or cable-operated limbs work by attaching a harness and cable around the opposite shoulder of the damaged arm. A recent body-powered approach has explored the utilization of the user's breathing to power and control the prosthetic hand to help eliminate actuation cable and harness. The third category of available prosthetic devices comprises myoelectric arms. This particular class of devices distinguishes itself from the previous ones due to the inclusion of a battery system. This battery serves the dual purpose of providing energy for both actuation and sensing components. While actuation predominantly relies on motor or pneumatic systems, a variety of solutions have been explored for capturing muscle activity, including techniques such as
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opening/closing of the fingers. A prosthesis of this type utilizes the residual neuromuscular system of the human body to control the functions of an electric powered prosthetic hand, wrist, elbow or foot. This is different from an electric switch prosthesis, which requires straps and/or cables actuated by body movements to actuate or operate switches that control the movements of the prosthesis. There is no clear evidence concluding that myoelectric upper extremity prostheses function better than body-powered prostheses. Advantages to using a myoelectric upper extremity prosthesis include the potential for improvement in cosmetic appeal (this type of prosthesis may have a more natural look), may be better for light everyday activities, and may be beneficial for people experiencing
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shape and stiffness of the foot and needs to match the subject's build in order to produce a normal gait pattern. Andrysek (2010) found 16 different types of feet, with greatly varying results concerning durability and biomechanics. The main problem found in current feet is durability, endurance ranging from 16 to 32 months These results are for adults and will probably be worse for children due to higher activity levels and scale effects. Evidence comparing different types of feet and ankle prosthetic devices is not strong enough to determine if one mechanism of ankle/foot is superior to another. When deciding on a device, the cost of the device, a person's functional need, and the availability of a particular device should be considered.
2021:, has been made possible. Such prosthetics, including artificial hands, can now be designed to simulate the appearance of real hands, complete with freckles, veins, hair, fingerprints and even tattoos. Custom-made cosmeses are generally more expensive (costing thousands of U.S. dollars, depending on the level of detail), while standard cosmeses come premade in a variety of sizes, although they are often not as realistic as their custom-made counterparts. Another option is the custom-made silicone cover, which can be made to match a person's skin tone but not details such as freckles or wrinkles. Cosmeses are attached to the body in any number of ways, using an adhesive, suction, form-fitting, stretchable skin, or a skin sleeve.
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legs, in which actuators directly drive the joints, and semi-active legs, which use small amounts of energy and a small actuator to change the mechanical properties of the leg but do not inject net positive energy into gait. Specific examples include The emPOWER from BionX, the
Proprio Foot from Ossur, and the Elan Foot from Endolite. Various research groups have also experimented with robotic legs over the last decade. Central issues being researched include designing the behavior of the device during stance and swing phases, recognizing the current ambulation task, and various mechanical design problems such as robustness, weight, battery-life/efficiency, and noise-level. However, scientists from
1317:. The residual limb either directly fits into a socket on the prosthetic, or—more commonly today—a liner is used that then is fixed to the socket either by vacuum (suction sockets) or a pin lock. Liners are soft and by that, they can create a far better suction fit than hard sockets. Silicone liners can be obtained in standard sizes, mostly with a circular (round) cross section, but for any other residual limb shape, custom liners can be made. The socket is custom made to fit the residual limb and to distribute the forces of the artificial limb across the area of the residual limb (rather than just one small spot), which helps reduce wear on the residual limb.
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taking a plaster cast of the residual limb or, more commonly today, of the liner worn over their residual limb, and then making a mold from the plaster cast. The commonly used compound is called
Plaster of Paris. In recent years, various digital shape capture systems have been developed which can be input directly to a computer allowing for a more sophisticated design. In general, the shape capturing process begins with the digital acquisition of three-dimensional (3D) geometric data from the amputee's residual limb. Data are acquired with either a probe, laser scanner, structured light scanner, or a photographic-based 3D scanning system.
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1476:, led by Jacob George. The group of researchers implanted electrodes into the patient's arm to map out several sensory precepts. They would then stimulate each electrode to figure out how each sensory precept was triggered, then proceed to map the sensory information onto the prosthetic. This would allow the researchers to get a good approximation of the same kind of information that the patient would receive from their natural hand. Unfortunately, the arm is too expensive for the average user to acquire, however, Jacob mentioned that insurance companies could cover the costs of the prosthetic.
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1058:, made at the beginning of the 16th century. The first confirmed use of a prosthetic device, however, is from 950 to 710 BC. In 2000, research pathologists discovered a mummy from this period buried in the Egyptian necropolis near ancient Thebes that possessed an artificial big toe. This toe, consisting of wood and leather, exhibited evidence of use. When reproduced by bio-mechanical engineers in 2011, researchers discovered that this ancient prosthetic enabled its wearer to walk both barefoot and in Egyptian style sandals. Previously, the earliest discovered prosthetic was an artificial
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a rehabilitation physiotherapist (called physical therapist in
America) will help teach a new prosthetic user to walk with a leg prosthesis. To do so, the physical therapist may provide verbal instructions and may also help guide the person using touch or tactile cues. This may be done in a clinic or home. There is some research suggesting that such training in the home may be more successful if the treatment includes the use of a treadmill. Using a treadmill, along with the physical therapy treatment, helps the person to experience many of the challenges of walking with a prosthesis.
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their life. Not all amputees will wear a prosthesis. In a 2011 national survey of
Australian amputees, Limbs 4 Life found that 7 percent of amputees do not wear a prosthesis, and in another Australian hospital study, this number was closer to 20 percent. Many people report being uncomfortable in prostheses and not wanting to wear them, even reporting that wearing a prosthetic is more cumbersome than not having one at all. These debates are natural among the prosthetic community and help us shed light on the issues that they are facing.
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daily living. This involves inserting a small permanent magnet into the distal end of the residual bone of subjects with upper limb amputations. When a subject rotates the residual arm, the magnet will rotate with the residual bone, causing a change in magnetic field distribution. EEG (electroencephalogram) signals, detected using small flat metal discs attached to the scalp, essentially decoding human brain activity used for physical movement, is used to control the robotic limbs. This allows the user to control the part directly.
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the prosthesis feel and look more natural. An improved version was released in 1995 by the name
Intelligent Prosthesis Plus. Blatchford released another prosthesis, the Adaptive Prosthesis, in 1998. The Adaptive Prosthesis utilized hydraulic controls, pneumatic controls, and a microprocessor to provide the amputee with a gait that was more responsive to changes in walking speed. Cost analysis reveals that a sophisticated above-knee prosthesis will be about $ 1 million in 45 years, given only annual cost of living adjustments.
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removing plaster to the positive model, or virtually by manipulating the computerized model in the software. Lastly, the fabrication of the prosthetic socket begins once the model has been rectified and finalized. The prosthetists would wrap the positive model with a semi-molten plastic sheet or carbon fiber coated with epoxy resin to construct the prosthetic socket. For the computerized model, it can be 3D printed using a various of material with different flexibility and mechanical strength.
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to these changes accordingly. It also enables the amputees to walk downstairs with a step-over-step approach, rather than the one step at a time approach used with mechanical knees. There is some research suggesting that people with microprocessor-controlled prostheses report greater satisfaction and improvement in functionality, residual limb health, and safety. People may be able to perform everyday activities at greater speeds, even while multitasking, and reduce their risk of falls.
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The percent that the patient pays varies on the type of insurance plan, as well as the limb requested by the patient. In the United
Kingdom, much of Europe, Australia and New Zealand the entire cost of prosthetic limbs is met by state funding or statutory insurance. For example, in Australia prostheses are fully funded by state schemes in the case of amputation due to disease, and by workers compensation or traffic injury insurance in the case of most traumatic amputations. The
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range and fluidity of movements available to amputees, making tasks like grasping objects or walking naturally much more feasible. Integration with AI is also on the forefront to the prosthetic design. AI-enabled prosthetic limbs can learn and adapt to the user's habits and preferences over time, ensuring optimal functionality. By analyzing the user's gait, grip, and other movements, these smart limbs can make real-time adjustments, providing smoother and more natural motions.
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trans-femoral amputees. The function of the good prosthetic knee joint is to mimic the function of the normal knee, such as providing structural support and stability during stance phase but able to flex in a controllable manner during swing phase. Hence it allows users to have a smooth and energy efficient gait and minimize the impact of amputation. The prosthetic knee is connected to the prosthetic foot by the shank, which is usually made of an aluminum or graphite tube.
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760:, transfemoral prosthesis, knee disarticulation, transtibial prosthesis, Syme's amputation, foot, partial foot, and toe. The two main subcategories of lower extremity prosthetic devices are trans-tibial (any amputation transecting the tibia bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a tibial deficiency) and trans-femoral (any amputation transecting the femur bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a femoral deficiency).
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Other terminal devices include the V2P Prehensor, a versatile robust gripper that allows customers to modify aspects of it, Texas Assist
Devices (with a whole assortment of tools) and TRS that offers a range of terminal devices for sports. Cable harnesses can be built using aircraft steel cables, ball hinges, and self-lubricating cable sheaths. Some prosthetics have been designed specifically for use in salt water.
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between residual limb skin and socket or liner. Pressure then is higher, which can be painful. Air pockets can allow sweat to accumulate that can soften the skin. Ultimately, this is a frequent cause for itchy skin rashes. Over time, this can lead to breakdown of the skin. On the other hand, a very tight fit may excessively increase the interface pressures that may also lead to skin breakdown after prolonged use.
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2063:. The recent field of Assistive Technology for Cognition concerns the development of technologies to augment human cognition. Scheduling devices such as Neuropage remind users with memory impairments when to perform certain activities, such as visiting the doctor. Micro-prompting devices such as PEAT, AbleLink and Guide have been used to aid users with memory and executive function problems perform
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to the complexities in movement associated with the knee. In newer and more improved designs, hydraulics, carbon fiber, mechanical linkages, motors, computer microprocessors, and innovative combinations of these technologies are employed to give more control to the user. In the prosthetics industry, a trans-femoral prosthetic leg is often referred to as an "AK" or above the knee prosthesis.
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the signal gets integrated and once it exceeds a certain threshold, the prosthetic limb control signal is triggered which is why inherently, all myoelectric controls lag. Conversely, cable control is immediate and physical, and through that offers a certain degree of direct force feedback that myoelectric control does not. Computers are also used extensively in the manufacturing of limbs.
1294:, have allowed artificial limbs to be stronger and lighter, limiting the amount of extra energy necessary to operate the limb. This is especially important for trans-femoral amputees. Additional materials have allowed artificial limbs to look much more realistic, which is important to trans-radial and transhumeral amputees because they are more likely to have the artificial limb exposed.
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University of Technology, The Netherlands, showed that the development of mechanical prosthetic hands has been neglected during the past decades. The study showed that the pinch force level of most current mechanical hands is too low for practical use. The best tested hand was a prosthetic hand developed around 1945. In 2017 however, a research has been started with bionic hands by
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alleviated with a sensory prosthesis; unrealistic expectations of research subjects testing new devices. How prosthetics come to be and testing of the usability of the device is a major concern in the medical world. Although many positives come when a new prosthetic design is announced, how the device got to where it is leads to some questioning the ethics of prosthetics.
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2000 to $ 5000 for therapy during the first year or two of living as an amputee. Once the patient is strong and comfortable with their new limb, they will not be required to go to therapy anymore. Throughout one's life, it is projected that a typical amputee will go through $ 1.4 million worth of treatment, including surgeries, prosthetics, as well as therapies.
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difficult to achieve the level of control necessary to perform precise movements. When connecting the sense of touch from a mechanical hand directly to the brain, prosthetics can restore the function of the amputated limb in an almost natural-feeling way." He presented the first Myoelectric prosthetic hand with sensory feedback at the
1525:. A few open-hardware 3-D printable bionic hands have also become available. Some companies are also producing robotic hands with integrated forearm, for fitting unto a patient's upper arm and in 2020, at the Italian Institute of Technology (IIT), another robotic hand with integrated forearm (Soft Hand Pro) was developed.
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angle and the displacement of the foot in respect to the socket can be changed after fitting. In developing countries prosthesis mostly are non-modular, in order to reduce cost. When considering children modularity of angle and height is important because of their average growth of 1.9 cm annually.
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Miranda, Robbin A.; Casebeer, William D.; Hein, Amy M.; Judy, Jack W.; Krotkov, Eric P.; Laabs, Tracy L.; Manzo, Justin E.; Pankratz, Kent G.; Pratt, Gill A.; Sanchez, Justin C.; Weber, Douglas J.; Wheeler, Tracey L.; Ling, Geoffrey S.F. (April 2015). "DARPA-funded efforts in the development of novel
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There are also many ethical concerns about how the prosthetics are made and produced. A wide range of ethical issues arise in connection with experiments and clinical usage of sensory prostheses: animal experimentation; informed consent, for instance, in patients with a locked-in syndrome that may be
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writes, "Creatures use tools, ornaments, and appliances to augment their bodily capacities. Are their bodies lacking something, which they need to replace with artificial or substitute organs?...Or conversely, should prostheses be understood, in terms of aesthetic reorganization and proliferation, as
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The Icelandic company Össur has also created a robotic transtibial leg with motorized ankle that moves through algorithms and sensors that automatically adjust the angle of the foot during different points in its wearer's stride. Also there are brain-controlled bionic legs that allow an individual to
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uses the electrical tension generated every time a muscle contracts, as information. This tension can be captured from voluntarily contracted muscles by electrodes applied on the skin to control the movements of the prosthesis, such as elbow flexion/extension, wrist supination/pronation (rotation) or
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The main advantage of a microprocessor-controlled prosthesis is a closer approximation to an amputee's natural gait. Some allow amputees to walk near walking speed or run. Variations in speed are also possible and are taken into account by sensors and communicated to the microprocessor, which adjusts
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A hook does not match a normal human hand for appearance or overall versatility, but its material tolerances can exceed and surpass the normal human hand for mechanical stress (one can even use a hook to slice open boxes or as a hammer whereas the same is not possible with a normal hand), for thermal
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The first microprocessor-controlled prosthetic knees became available in the early 1990s. The Intelligent Prosthesis was the first commercially available microprocessor-controlled prosthetic knee. It was released by Chas. A. Blatchford & Sons, Ltd., of Great Britain, in 1993 and made walking with
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Prostheses are manufactured and fit by clinical prosthetists. Prosthetists are healthcare professionals responsible for making, fitting, and adjusting prostheses and for lower limb prostheses will assess both gait and prosthetic alignment. Once a prosthesis has been fit and adjusted by a prosthetist,
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The introduction of the Seattle Foot (Seattle Limb Systems) in 1981 revolutionized the field, bringing the concept of an Energy Storing Prosthetic Foot (ESPF) to the fore. Other companies soon followed suit, and before long, there were multiple models of energy storing prostheses on the market. Each
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are major commercial hook providers. Mechanical hands are sold by Hosmer and Otto Bock as well; the Becker Hand is still manufactured by the Becker family. Prosthetic hands may be fitted with standard stock or custom-made cosmetic looking silicone gloves. But regular work gloves may be worn as well.
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Prosthetic hands are available in both voluntary opening and voluntary closing versions and because of their more complex mechanics and cosmetic glove covering require a relatively large activation force, which, depending on the type of harness used, may be uncomfortable. A recent study by the Delft
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More modern "prehensors" called GRIPS utilize voluntary closing systems. The differences are significant. Users of voluntary opening systems rely on elastic bands or springs for gripping force, while users of voluntary closing systems rely on their own body power and energy to create gripping force.
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and myoelectric components in prosthetic design. These limbs utilize sensors to detect electrical signals from the user's residual muscles. The signals are then converted into motions, allowing users to control their prosthetic limbs using their own muscle contractions. This has greatly improved the
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There are many steps in the evolution of prosthetic design trends that are moving forward with time. Many design trends point to lighter, more durable, and flexible materials like carbon fiber, silicone, and advanced polymers. These not only make the prosthetic limb lighter and more durable but also
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A transfemoral prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing above the knee. Transfemoral amputees can have a very difficult time regaining normal movement. In general, a transfemoral amputee must use approximately 80% more energy to walk than a person with two whole legs. This is due
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A passive device can be static, meaning the device has no movable parts, or it can be adjustable, meaning its configuration can be adjusted (e.g. adjustable hand opening). Despite the absence of active grasping, passive devices are very useful in bimanual tasks that require fixation or support of an
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are used at varying levels of amputation: forequarter, shoulder disarticulation, transhumeral prosthesis, elbow disarticulation, transradial prosthesis, wrist disarticulation, full hand, partial hand, finger, partial finger. A transradial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces an arm missing
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A microprocessor is used to interpret and analyze signals from knee-angle sensors and moment sensors. The microprocessor receives signals from its sensors to determine the type of motion being employed by the amputee. Most microprocessor controlled knee-joints are powered by a battery housed inside
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After shape capture, the second phase of the socket production is called rectification, which is the process of modifying the model of the residual limb by adding volume to bony prominence and potential pressure points and remove volume from load bearing area. This can be done manually by adding or
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started the Revolutionizing Prosthetics program. According to DARPA, the goal of the $ 100 million program was to "develop an advanced electromechanical prosthetic upper limb with near-natural control that would dramatically enhance independence and quality of life for amputees." In 2014, the LUKE
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had a prosthetic hook for a hand. During the Middle Ages, prosthetics remained quite basic in form. Debilitated knights would be fitted with prosthetics so they could hold up a shield, grasp a lance or a sword, or stabilize a mounted warrior. Only the wealthy could afford anything that would assist
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Upper limb prostheses can be categorized in three main categories: Passive devices, Body Powered devices, and Externally Powered (myoelectric) devices. Passive devices can either be passive hands, mainly used for cosmetic purposes, or passive tools, mainly used for specific activities (e.g. leisure
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is a company that is developing open-source robotic prosthetic hands. They utilize 3D printing to manufacture the devices and low-cost 3D scanners to fit them onto the residual limb of a specific patient. Open Bionics' use of 3D printing allows for more personalized designs, such as the "Hero Arm"
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Low-cost above-knee prostheses often provide only basic structural support with limited function. This function is often achieved with crude, non-articulating, unstable, or manually locking knee joints. A limited number of organizations, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC),
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Not only does the patient need to pay for their multiple prosthetic limbs, but they also need to pay for physical and occupational therapy that come along with adapting to living with an artificial limb. Unlike the reoccurring cost of the prosthetic limbs, the patient will typically only pay the $
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In the USA a typical prosthetic limb costs anywhere between $ 15,000 and $ 90,000, depending on the type of limb desired by the patient. With medical insurance, a patient will typically pay 10%–50% of the total cost of a prosthetic limb, while the insurance company will cover the rest of the cost.
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Further research in April 2019, there have been improvements towards prosthetic function and comfort of 3D-printed personalized wearable systems. Instead of manual integration after printing, integrating electronic sensors at the intersection between a prosthetic and the wearer's tissue can gather
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An approach that is very useful is called arm rotation which is common for unilateral amputees which is an amputation that affects only one side of the body; and also essential for bilateral amputees, a person who is missing or has had amputated either both arms or legs, to carry out activities of
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located inside the device, and processes feedback from the limb and actuator, e.g., position or force, and sends it to the controller. Examples include surface electrodes that detect electrical activity on the skin, needle electrodes implanted in muscle, or solid-state electrode arrays with nerves
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In addition to new materials, the use of electronics has become very common in artificial limbs. Myoelectric limbs, which control the limbs by converting muscle movements to electrical signals, have become much more common than cable operated limbs. Myoelectric signals are picked up by electrodes,
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In most cases, the prosthetist begins by taking a plaster cast of the patient's affected limb. Lightweight, high-strength thermoplastics are custom-formed to this model of the patient. Cutting-edge materials such as carbon fiber, titanium and Kevlar provide strength and durability while making the
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that may make it a challenge to recover and use a prosthetic limb to regain mobility and independence. For people who have inadequate circulation and have lost a lower limb, there is insufficient evidence due to a lack of research, to inform them regarding their choice of prosthetic rehabilitation
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Carr et al. (1998) investigated amputations caused by landmines for Afghanistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia and Mozambique among children (<14 years), showing estimates of respectively 4.7, 0.19, 1.11 and 0.67 per 1000 children. Mohan (1986) indicated in India a total of 424,000 amputees
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with the aim of lowering the cost. A review study on a wide range of printed prosthetic hands found that 3D printing technology holds a promise for individualised prosthesis design, is cheaper than commercial prostheses available on the market, and is more expensive than mass production processes
1818:. As a result, when a patient thinks about moving the thumb of their missing hand, a small area of muscle on their chest will contract instead. By placing sensors over the reinnervated muscle, these contractions can be made to control the movement of an appropriate part of the robotic prosthesis.
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A device known as the controller is connected to the user's nerve and muscular systems and the device itself. It sends intention commands from the user to the actuators of the device and interprets feedback from the mechanical and biosensors to the user. The controller is also responsible for the
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One of the most important aspect of a prosthetic knee joint would be its stance-phase control mechanism. The function of stance-phase control is to prevent the leg from buckling when the limb is loaded during weight acceptance. This ensures the stability of the knee in order to support the single
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In case of a trans-femoral (above knee) amputation, there also is a need for a complex connector providing articulation, allowing flexion during swing-phase but not during stance. As its purpose is to replace the knee, the prosthetic knee joint is the most critical component of the prosthesis for
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Providing contact to the ground, the foot provides shock absorption and stability during stance. Additionally it influences gait biomechanics by its shape and stiffness. This is because the trajectory of the center of pressure (COP) and the angle of the ground reaction forces is determined by the
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in Italy, implanted electrodes into an amputee's arm, which gave the patient sensory feedback and allowed for real time control of the prosthetic. With wires linked to nerves in his upper arm, the Danish patient was able to handle objects and instantly receive a sense of touch through the special
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Voluntary closing users can generate prehension forces equivalent to the normal hand, up to or exceeding one hundred pounds. Voluntary closing GRIPS require constant tension to grip, like a human hand, and in that property, they do come closer to matching human hand performance. Voluntary opening
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Optimal socket fit between the residual limb and socket is critical to the function and usage of the entire prosthesis. If the fit between the residual limb and socket attachment is too loose, this will reduce the area of contact between the residual limb and socket or liner, and increase pockets
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The production of a prosthetic socket begins with capturing the geometry of the residual limb, this process is called shape capture. The goal of this process is to create an accurate representation of the residual limb, which is critical to achieve good socket fit. The custom socket is created by
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There are also many debates among the prosthetic community about whether they should wear prosthetics at all. This is sparked by whether prosthetics help in day-to-day living or make it harder. Many people have adapted to their loss of limb making it work for them and do not need a prosthesis in
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This also fairly simple solution comprises a plaster socket with a bamboo or PVC pipe at the bottom, optionally attached to a prosthetic foot. This solution prevents contractures because the knee is moved through its full RoM. The David Werner Collection, an online database for the assistance of
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The main goal of a robotic prosthesis is to provide active actuation during gait to improve the biomechanics of gait, including, among other things, stability, symmetry, or energy expenditure for amputees. There are several powered prosthetic legs currently on the market, including fully powered
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This part creates distance and support between the knee-joint and the foot (in case of an upper-leg prosthesis) or between the socket and the foot. The type of connectors that are used between the shank and the knee/foot determines whether the prosthesis is modular or not. Modular means that the
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An additional difference exists in the biofeedback created that allows the user to "feel" what is being held. Voluntary opening systems once engaged provide the holding force so that they operate like a passive vice at the end of the arm. No gripping feedback is provided once the hook has closed
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Current body-powered arms contain sockets that are built from hard epoxy or carbon fiber. These sockets or "interfaces" can be made more comfortable by lining them with a softer, compressible foam material that provides padding for the bone prominences. A self-suspending or supra-condylar socket
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and C.W. Radcliff helped to develop the quadrilateral socket by developing a jig fitting system for amputations above the knee. Socket technology for lower extremity limbs saw a further revolution during the 1980s when John Sabolich C.P.O., invented the Contoured Adducted Trochanteric-Controlled
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A key feature of prosthetics and prosthetic design is the idea of “designing for disabilities.” This might sound like a good idea in which people with disabilities can participate in equitable design but this is unfortunately not true. The idea of designing for disabilities is first problematic
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A recent study showed that by stimulating the median and ulnar nerves, according to the information provided by the artificial sensors from a hand prosthesis, physiologically appropriate (near-natural) sensory information could be provided to an amputee. This feedback enabled the participant to
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allow it to mimic the look and feel of natural skin, providing users with a more comfortable and natural experience. This new technology helps prosthetic users blend in with people with normal ligaments to reduce the stigmatism for people who wear prosthetics. Another trend points towards using
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6,000 and $ 8,000, while transfemoral (above the knee amputation) and transhumeral prosthetics (above the elbow amputation) cost approximately twice as much with a range of $ 10,000 to $ 15,000 and can sometimes reach costs of $ 35,000. The cost of an artificial limb often recurs, while a limb
2178:, and has been ruled eligible to qualify for any future Olympics. He qualified for the 2011 World Championship in South Korea and reached the semi-final where he ended last timewise, he was 14th in the first round, his personal best at 400m would have given him 5th place in the finals. At the
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because his transtibial prosthesis limbs were said to give him an unfair advantage over runners who had ankles. One researcher found that his limbs used twenty-five percent less energy than those of a non-disabled runner moving at the same speed. This ruling was overturned on appeal, with the
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Robots can be used to generate objective measures of patient's impairment and therapy outcome, assist in diagnosis, customize therapies based on patient's motor abilities, and assure compliance with treatment regimens and maintain patient's records. It is shown in many studies that there is a
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has been working for several years on a non-invasive and affordable solution to this feedback problem. He considers that: "Prosthetic limbs that can be controlled with thought hold great promise for the amputee, but without sensorial feedback from the signals returning to the brain, it can be
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A transtibial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing below the knee. A transtibial amputee is usually able to regain normal movement more readily than someone with a transfemoral amputation, due in large part to retaining the knee, which allows for easier movement. Lower
618:
A person's prosthesis should be designed and assembled according to the person's appearance and functional needs. For instance, a person may need a transradial prosthesis, but the person needs to choose between an aesthetic functional device, a myoelectric device, a body-powered device, or an
2725:
Prosthetics play a vital role in how a person perceives themselves and how other people perceive them. The ability to conceal such use enabled participants to ward off social stigmatization that in turn enabled their social integration and the reduction of emotional problems surrounding such
2700:
argues that every artifact recreates and extends the body. Chairs supplement the skeleton, tools append the hands, clothing augments the skin. In Scarry's thinking, "furniture and houses are neither more nor less interior to the human body than the food it absorbs, nor are they fundamentally
2648:
This hand-held pole with leather support band or platform for the limb is one of the simplest and cheapest solutions found. It serves well as a short-term solution, but is prone to rapid contracture formation if the limb is not stretched daily through a series of range-of motion (RoM) sets.
1561:
The two main subcategories of lower extremity prosthetic devices are trans-tibial (any amputation transecting the tibia bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a tibial deficiency), and trans-femoral (any amputation transecting the femur bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a femoral
1557:
Lower-extremity prosthetics describes artificially replaced limbs located at the hip level or lower. Concerning all ages Ephraim et al. (2003) found a worldwide estimate of all-cause lower-extremity amputations of 2.0–5.9 per 10,000 inhabitants. For birth prevalence rates of congenital limb
1157:
Henry Heather Bigg, and his son Henry Robert Heather Bigg, won the Queen's command to provide "surgical appliances" to wounded soldiers after Crimea War. They developed arms that allowed a double arm amputee to crochet, and a hand that felt natural to others based on ivory, felt and
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limb support task of stance phase and provides a smooth transition to the swing phase. Stance phase control can be achieved in several ways including the mechanical locks, relative alignment of prosthetic components, weight activated friction control, and polycentric mechanisms.
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stability (one can use a hook to grip items from boiling water, to turn meat on a grill, to hold a match until it has burned down completely) and for chemical hazards (as a metal hook withstands acids or lye, and does not react to solvents like a prosthetic glove or human skin).
1162:
At the end of World War II, the NAS (National Academy of Sciences) began to advocate better research and development of prosthetics. Through government funding, a research and development program was developed within the Army, Navy, Air Force, and the Veterans Administration.
1874:
in 2010. Early in 2013, Max Ortiz Catalan and Rickard Brånemark of the Chalmers University of Technology, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital in Sweden, succeeded in making the first robotic arm which is mind-controlled and can be permanently attached to the body (using
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has become the first commercially available hand prosthesis with five individually powered digits. The hand also possesses a manually rotatable thumb which is operated passively by the user and allows the hand to grip in precision, power, and key grip modes.
1738:
3941:
Micarelli, I; Paine, R; Giostra, C; Tafuri, MA; Profico, A; Boggioni, M; Di Vincenzo, F; Massani, D; Papini, A; Manzi, G (31 December 2018). "Survival to amputation in pre-antibiotic era: a case study from a Longobard necropolis (6th-8th centuries AD)".
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Nagaraja, Vikranth H.; Moulic, Soikat Ghosh; D’souza, Jennifer V.; Limesh, M.; Walters, Peter; Bergmann, Jeroen H. M. (December 2022). "A Novel Respiratory Control and Actuation System for Upper-Limb Prosthesis Users: Clinical Evaluation Study".
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Highsmith, M. Jason; Kahle, Jason T.; Bongiorni, Dennis R.; Sutton, Bryce S.; Groer, Shirley; Kaufman, Kenton R. (December 2010). "Safety, Energy Efficiency, and Cost Efficacy of the C-Leg for Transfemoral Amputees: A Review of the Literature".
1195:
In 2019, a project under AT2030 was launched in which bespoke sockets are made using a thermoplastic, rather than through a plaster cast. This is faster to do and significantly less expensive. The sockets were called Amparo Confidence sockets.
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Ten radiocarbon dates on the prosthesis, human bones and wood pieces from the same grave suggest the most probable age of the burial is about 300–200 BC (68% confidence interval), thus introducing the oldest functional leg prosthesis known to
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Monolimbs are non-modular prostheses and thus require more experienced prosthetist for correct fitting, because alignment can barely be changed after production. However, their durability on average is better than low-cost modular solutions.
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1985:
to the titanium bolt and an abutment is attached to the titanium bolt. The abutment extends out of the stump and the (removable) artificial limb is then attached to the abutment. Some of the benefits of this method include the following:
7315:"Hawking, Pistorius open London's Paralympics: Wheelchair-bound physicist Stephen Hawking challenged athletes to 'look to the stars' as he helped open a record-setting Paralympics Games that will run for 11 days in near sold-out venues"
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significant improvement in upper limb motor function after stroke using robotics for upper limb rehabilitation. In order for a robotic prosthetic limb to work, it must have several components to integrate it into the body's function:
1089:, estimated that the man had lived sometime between the 6th and 8th centuries AD. Materials found near the man's body suggest that the knife prosthesis was attached with a leather strap, which he repeatedly tightened with his teeth.
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deficiency). In the prosthetic industry, a trans-tibial prosthetic leg is often referred to as a "BK" or below the knee prosthesis while the trans-femoral prosthetic leg is often referred to as an "AK" or above the knee prosthesis.
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Raspopovic, Stanisa; Capogrosso, Marco; Petrini, Francesco Maria; Bonizzato, Marco; Rigosa, Jacopo; Di Pino, Giovanni; et al. (5 February 2014). "Restoring Natural Sensory Feedback in Real-Time Bidirectional Hand Prostheses".
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pain. When compared to a body-powered prosthesis, a myoelectric prosthesis may not be as durable, may have a longer training time, may require more adjustments, may need more maintenance, and does not provide feedback to the user.
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Kuiken TA, Miller LA, Lipschutz RD, Lock BA, Stubblefield K, Marasco PD, Zhou P, Dumanian GA (February 3, 2007). "Targeted reinnervation for enhanced prosthetic arm function in a woman with a proximal amputation: a case study".
2100:, there has been consideration given to using advanced prostheses to replace healthy body parts with artificial mechanisms and systems to improve function. The morality and desirability of such technologies are being debated by
2713:, a professor of architecture, continues this line of thinking about how architecture supplements our natural capabilities, and argues that "a blurring of identity is produced by all prostheses." Some of this work relies on
1949:
Most prostheses are attached to the exterior of the body in a non-permanent way. The stump and socket method can cause significant pain in the amputee, which is why the direct bone attachment has been explored extensively.
2518:
model utilized some variation of a compressible heel. The heel is compressed during initial ground contact, storing energy which is then returned during the latter phase of ground contact to help propel the body forward.
1100:
An Italian surgeon recorded the existence of an amputee who had an arm that allowed him to remove his hat, open his purse, and sign his name. Improvement in amputation surgery and prosthetic design came at the hands of
1898:
announced in September 2013 that they have developed a robotic leg that translates neural impulses from the user's thigh muscles into movement, which is the first prosthetic leg to do so. It is currently in testing.
2000:
The main disadvantage of this method is that amputees with the direct bone attachment cannot have large impacts on the limb, such as those experienced during jogging, because of the potential for the bone to break.
5179:
Hruby, Laura A.; Sturma, Agnes; Mayer, Johannes A.; Pittermann, Anna; Salminger, Stefan; Aszmann, Oskar C. (November 2017). "Algorithm for bionic hand reconstruction in patients with global brachial plexopathies".
1125: – Prosthesis made of a wooden shank and socket, a steel knee joint and an articulated foot that was controlled by catgut tendons from the knee to the ankle. Came to be known as "Anglesey Leg" or "Selpho Leg".
768:
extremity prosthetics describe artificially replaced limbs located at the hip level or lower. In the prosthetics industry, a trans-tibial prosthetic leg is often referred to as a "BK" or below the knee prosthesis.
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2043:, language, and memory. No neurocognitive prostheses are currently available but the development of implantable neurocognitive brain-computer interfaces has been proposed to help treat conditions such as
2187:
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is a recent artificial limb that has taken advantage of these more advanced processors. The arm allows movement in five axes and allows the arm to be programmed for a more customized feel. Recently the
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Prior to the 1980s, foot prostheses merely restored basic walking capabilities. These early devices can be characterized by a simple artificial attachment connecting one's residual limb to the ground.
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of everyday use. In addition, if the socket has fit issues, the socket must be replaced within several months from the onset of pain. If height is an issue, components such as pylons can be changed.
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5900:. World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering: XVIII International Conference on Medical and Biological Engineering and XI International Conference on Medical Physics. Nice, France.
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design is useful for those with short to mid-range below elbow absence. Longer limbs may require the use of a locking roll-on type inner liner or more complex harnessing to help augment suspension.
1746:
Brain control of 3D prosthetic arm movement (hitting targets). This movie was recorded when the participant controlled the 3D movement of a prosthetic arm to hit physical targets in a research lab.
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Two types of body-powered systems exist, voluntary opening "pull to open" and voluntary closing "pull to close". Virtually all "split hook" prostheses operate with a voluntary opening type system.
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movement, typically employing electrodes or other suitable tools. Subsequently, these acquired signals are converted into gripping patterns or postures that the artificial hand will then execute.
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Legro, MW; Reiber, G; del Aguila, M; Ajax, MJ; Boone, DA; Larsen, JA; Smith, DG; Sangeorzan, B (July 1999). "Issues of importance reported by persons with lower limb amputations and prostheses".
942:. It was likely made of bitumen paste that was covered with a thin layer of gold. The Egyptians were also early pioneers of foot prosthetics, as shown by the wooden toe found on a body from the
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Gottschalk, Frank A.; Kourosh, Sohrab; Stills, Melvin; McClellan, Bruce; Roberts, Jim (October 1989). "Does Socket Configuration Influence the Position of the Femur in Above-Knee Amputation?".
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One notable prosthesis was that belonging to an Italian man, who scientists estimate replaced his amputated right hand with a knife. Scientists investigating the skeleton, which was found in a
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Mamalis, AG; Ramsden, JJ; Grabchenko, AI; Lytvynov, LA; Filipenko, VA; Lavrynenko, SN (2006). "A novel concept for the manufacture of individual sapphire-metallic hip joint endoprostheses".
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Fit – athletic/active amputees, or those with bony residua, may require a carefully detailed socket fit; less-active patients may be comfortable with a 'total contact' fit and gel liner
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This solution is built using a bicycle seat post up side down as foot, generating flexibility and (length) adjustability. It is a very cheap solution, using locally available materials.
839:
Partial foot amputations (Pirogoff, Talo-Navicular and Calcaneo-cuboid (Chopart), Tarso-metatarsal (Lisfranc), Trans-metatarsal, Metatarsal-phalangeal, Ray amputations, toe amputations).
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Hafner B. J.; Sanders J. E.; Czerniecki J. M.; Ferguson J. (2002). "Transtibial energy-storage-and-return prosthetic devices: A review of energy concepts and a proposed nomenclature".
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However, some have some significant drawbacks that impair its use. They can be susceptible to water damage and thus great care must be taken to ensure that the prosthesis remains dry.
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A plan for a low-cost artificial leg, designed by Sébastien Dubois, was featured at the 2007 International Design Exhibition and award show in Copenhagen, Denmark, where it won the
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Hip disarticulations – This usually refers to when an amputee or congenitally challenged patient has either an amputation or anomaly at or in close proximity to the hip joint.
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Highsmith, M. Jason; Andrews, Casey R.; Millman, Claire; Fuller, Ashley; Kahle, Jason T.; Klenow, Tyler D.; Lewis, Katherine L.; Bradley, Rachel C.; Orriola, John J. (2016-09-16).
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as part of an inter-disciplinary team consisting of physiatrists, prosthetists, nurses, physical therapists, and occupational therapists. Prostheses can be created by hand or with
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Carey, Stephanie L.; Lura, Derek J.; Highsmith, M. Jason; CP.; FAAOP. (2015). "Differences in myoelectric and body-powered upper-limb prostheses: Systematic literature review".
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Ephraim, P. L.; Dillingham, T. R.; Sector, M; Pezzin, L. E.; MacKenzie, E. J. (2003). "Epidemiology of limb loss and congenital limb deficiency: A review of the literature".
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Nonetheless, there are certain elements of socket and foot mechanics that are invaluable for the athlete, and these are the focus of today's high-tech prosthetics companies:
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Kannenberg, Andreas; Zacharias, Britta; Pröbsting, Eva (2014). "Benefits of microprocessor-controlled prosthetic knees to limited community ambulators: Systematic review".
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Unlike neuromotor prostheses, neurocognitive prostheses would sense or modulate neural function in order to physically reconstitute or augment cognitive processes such as
1718:
The USSR was the first to develop a myoelectric arm in 1958, while the first myoelectric arm became commercial in 1964 by the Central Prosthetic Research Institute of the
7314:
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Phoengsongkhro, S., Tangpornprasert, P., Yotnuengnit, P. et al. Development of four-bar polycentric knee joint with stance-phase knee flexion. Sci Rep 13, 22809 (2023).
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and foot prosthesis with a fixed position, adjustable harness, and knee lock control. The functionality of his advancements showed how future prosthetics could develop.
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such as injection molding. The same study also found that evidence on the functionality, durability and user acceptance of 3D printed hand prostheses is still lacking.
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create devices for developing countries. Their device which is manufactured by CR Equipments is a single-axis, manually operated locking polymer prosthetic knee joint.
2701:
different from such sophisticated prosthetics as artificial lungs, eyes and kidneys. The consumption of manufactured things turns the body inside out, opening it up
1837:, the Pentagon's research division, is working to make even more advancements in this area. Their desire is to create an artificial limb that ties directly into the
1653:'s Rheo Knee, released in 2005, the Power Knee by Ossur, introduced in 2006, the Plié Knee from Freedom Innovations and DAW Industries' Self Learning Knee (SLK).
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In the USA an estimate was found of 32,500 children (<21 years) had a major paediatric amputation, with 5,525 new cases each year, of which 3,315 congenital.
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To mimic the knee's functionality during gait, microprocessor-controlled knee joints have been developed that control the flexion of the knee. Some examples are
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4179:
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There are multiple factors to consider when designing a transtibial prosthesis. Manufacturers must make choices about their priorities regarding these factors.
5121:
Smit, G; Bongers, RM; Van der Sluis, CK; Plettenburg, DH (2012). "Efficiency of voluntary opening hand and hook prosthetic devices: 24 years of development?".
2637:(23,500 annually), of which 10.3% had an onset of disability below the age of 14, amounting to a total of about 43,700 limb deficient children in India alone.
1092:
During the Renaissance, prosthetics developed with the use of iron, steel, copper, and wood. Functional prosthetics began to make an appearance in the 1500s.
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938:. Circa 3000-2800 BC, the earliest archaeological evidence of prosthetics is found in ancient Iran, where an eye prosthetic is found buried with a woman in
3747:"Archaeological and palaeopathological study on the third/second century BC grave from Turfan, China: Individual health history and regional implications"
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Rosenfeld, Amnon; Dvorachek, Michael; Rotstein, Ilan (July 2000). "Bronze Single Crown-like Prosthetic Restorations of Teeth from the Late Roman Period".
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Wheeled prostheses have also been used extensively in the rehabilitation of injured domestic animals, including dogs, cats, pigs, rabbits, and turtles.
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7105:
Warwick K, Gasson M, Hutt B, Goodhew I, Kyberd P, Andrews B, Teddy P, Shad A (2003). "The Application of Implant Technology for Cybernetic Systems".
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2593:". The group employs collaborators and volunteers to advance Prosthetics technology while attempting to lower the costs of these necessary devices.
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Burck, James M.; Bigelow, John D.; Harshbarger, Stuart D. (2011). "Revolutionizing Prosthetics: Systems Engineering Challenges and Opportunities".
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743:, Sonomyography, Myokinetic, and others. These methods function by detecting the minute electrical currents generated by contracted muscles during
3890:"Arms and Armor—Common Misconceptions and Frequently Asked Questions | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History"
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that can pass into and out of the cylinder, thus regulating the extension and compression of a piston connected to the upper section of the knee.
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1405:
Wrist units are either screw-on connectors featuring the UNF 1/2-20 thread (USA) or quick-release connector, of which there are different models.
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1958:
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It is an endoskeletal modular lower limb from India, which uses thermoplastic parts. Its main advantages are the small weight and adaptability.
4566:"How artificial limb is made – Background, Raw materials, The manufacturing process of artificial limb, Physical therapy, Quality control"
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5434:
Jian, Yuancheng; Winter, DA; Ishac, MG; Gilchrist, L (1993). "Trajectory of the body COG and COP during initiation and termination of gait".
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The socket serves as an interface between the residuum and the prosthesis, ideally allowing comfortable weight-bearing, movement control and
1518:
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Advancements in the processors used in myoelectric arms have allowed developers to make gains in fine-tuned control of the prosthetic. The
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new prosthesis lighter. More sophisticated prostheses are equipped with advanced electronics, providing additional stability and control.
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5333:
Mak, A. F.; Zhang, M; Boone, D. A. (2001). "State-of-the-art research in lower-limb prosthetic biomechanics-socket interface: A review".
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5017:"With a new prosthetic, researchers have managed to restore the sense of touch for a Denmark man who lost his left hand nine years ago."
1923:
has developed artificial nerves system that will help prosthetic limbs feel. This synthetic nerve system enables prosthetic limbs sense
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5511:
2521:
Since then, the foot prosthetics industry has been dominated by steady, small improvements in performance, comfort, and marketability.
2217:
Energy storage and return – storage of energy acquired through ground contact and utilization of that stored energy for propulsion
2143:
1829:
on the chest, rather than motor nerves rerouted to muscle. Recently, robotic limbs have improved in their ability to take signals from
1799:
mimics the actions of a muscle in producing force and movement. Examples include a motor that aids or replaces original muscle tissue.
1726:. The Myoelectric prosthesis are expensive requires regular maintenance, sensitive to sweat and moisture affecting sensor performance.
5636:
R. Stewart and A. Staros, "Selection and application of knee mechanisms," Bulletin of Prosthetics Research, vol. 18, pp. 90-158, 1972.
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Li, Xiao; Wagner, Mayke; Wu, Xiaohong; Tarasov, Pavel; Zhang, Yongbin; Schmidt, Arno; Goslar, Tomasz; Gresky, Julia (21 March 2013).
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Andrysek, Jan (December 2010). "Lower-limb prosthetic technologies in the developing world: A review of literature from 1994–2010".
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3537:. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (2nd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby Year Book. pp. 389, 413, 429, 479, 501, 535, 885.
3209:"Electromyogram pattern recognition for control of powered upper-limb prostheses: State of the art and challenges for clinical use"
197:
4202:
Johannes, Matthew S.; Bigelow, John D.; Burck, James M.; Harshbarger, Stuart D.; Kozlowski, Matthew V.; Van Doren, Thomas (2011).
1600:. Socket problems, such as discomfort and skin breakdown, are rated among the most important issues faced by lower-limb amputees.
619:
activity specific device. The person's future goals and economical capabilities may help them choose between one or more devices.
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8750:
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625:
include intra-oral and extra-oral prostheses. Extra-oral prostheses are further divided into hemifacial, auricular (ear), nasal,
6124:
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1956:
is a method of attaching the artificial limb to the body by a prosthetic implant. This method is also sometimes referred to as
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Knee disarticulations – This usually refers to an amputation through the knee disarticulating the femur from the tibia.
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2081:
1054:
made to hold his shield so that he could return to battle. A famous and quite refined historical prosthetic arm was that of
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2154:
information such as pressure across wearer's tissue, that can help improve further iteration of these types of prosthetic.
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which incorporates the users favourite colours, textures, and even aesthetics to look like superheroes or characters from
2285:
Transradial (below the elbow amputation) and transtibial prostheses (below the knee amputation) typically cost between US
2171:
appellate court stating that the overall set of advantages and disadvantages of Pistorius' limbs had not been considered.
1821:
A variant of this technique is called targeted sensory reinnervation (TSR). This procedure is similar to TMR, except that
1138: – Improved upon the Selpho leg. Added an anterior spring and concealed tendons to simulate natural-looking movement.
9060:
6466:
Liacouras, Peter C.; Sahajwalla, Divya; Beachler, Mark D.; Sleeman, Todd; Ho, Vincent B.; Lichtenberger, John P. (2017).
1993:
The ability to wear the prosthetic for an extended period of time; with the stump and socket method this is not possible.
1895:
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or vocational). An extensive overview and classification of passive devices can be found in a literature review by Maat
8954:
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3542:
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389:
352:
5943:"A Russian Bioelectric-Controlled Prosthesis: Report of a Research Team from the Rehabilitation Institute of Montreal"
1902:
Hugh Herr, head of the biomechatronics group at MIT's Media Lab developed a robotic transtibial leg (PowerFoot BiOM).
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7444:
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6555:
5050:
4618:"Influences and trends of various shape-capture methods on outcomes in trans-tibial prosthetics: A systematic review"
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2147:
750:
In the prosthetics industry, a trans-radial prosthetic arm is often referred to as a "BE" or below elbow prosthesis.
493:
8122:
A systematic review of randomised controlled trials assessing effectiveness of prosthetic and orthotic interventions
6151:"Design and development of a novel 3D-printed non-metallic self-locking prosthetic arm for a forequarter amputation"
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2621:
2009:
Cosmetic prosthesis has long been used to disguise injuries and disfigurements. With advances in modern technology,
8652:
7591:
Krebs, D. E.; Edelstein, J. E.; Thornby, M. A. (1991). "Prosthetic management of children with limb deficiencies".
3914:
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515:
379:
217:
114:
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Few low-cost solutions have been created specially for children. Examples of low-cost prosthetic devices include:
2104:, other ethicists, and others in general. Body parts such as legs, arms, hands, feet, and others can be replaced.
1388:
Current technology allows body-powered arms to weigh around one-half to one-third of what a myoelectric arm does.
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9055:
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8134:
6759:
6603:
Windrich, Michael; Grimmer, Martin; Christ, Oliver; Rinderknecht, Stephan; Beckerle, Philipp (19 December 2016).
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Voluntary opening split hook systems are simple, convenient, light, robust, versatile and relatively affordable.
17:
7996:
7548:
ten Kate, Jelle; Smit, Gerwin; Breedveld, Paul (2 February 2017). "3D-printed upper limb prostheses: a review".
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1021:
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8913:
7897:"Psychological Consequences in Patients With Amputation of a Limb. An Interpretative-Phenomenological Analysis"
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5645:
M. Greene, "Four bar linkage knee analysis," Prosthetics and Orthotics International, vol. 37, pp. 15-24, 1983.
3067:"Reimagining Prosthetic Control: A Novel Body-Powered Prosthetic System for Simultaneous Control and Actuation"
2131:
was able to mimic the actions of Warwick's own arm and provide a form of touch feedback again via the implant.
1313:
Most modern artificial limbs are attached to the residual limb (stump) of the amputee by belts and cuffs or by
726:
384:
236:
6424:
1981:
The method works by inserting a titanium bolt into the bone at the end of the stump. After several months the
1421:
split hook users are limited to forces their rubber or springs can generate which usually is below 20 pounds.
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7790:
Lupton and Miller (1992). "Streamlining: The Aesthetics of Waste" in Taylor, M. and Preston, J. (eds.) 2006.
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192:
167:
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7175:"Wearable system interfaces: How can electronic sensors be integrated into improved 3D printed prosthetics?"
2942:"How artificial limb is made – material, manufacture, making, used, parts, components, structure, procedure"
1290:
Over the years, there have been advancements in artificial limbs. New plastics and other materials, such as
803:
Lower extremity prostheses are often categorized by the level of amputation or after the name of a surgeon:
9189:
9025:
8822:
8115:
6412:
4799:"Developments in the trans-tibial prosthetic socket fitting process: a review of past and present research"
4093:
Artificial Limbs and the Amputations which Afford the Most Appropriate Stumps in Civil and Military Surgery
2093:
patients have special limbs and devices to aid in the participation of sports and recreational activities.
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313:
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Bogue, Robert (21 August 2009). "Exoskeletons and robotic prosthetics: a review of recent developments".
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Prosthetic are made lightweight for better convenience for the amputee. Some of these materials include:
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323:
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31:
602:(CAD), a software interface that helps creators design and analyze the creation with computer-generated
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Ribeiro, Danielle; Cimino, Stephanie R.; Mayo, Amanda L.; Ratto, Matt; Hitzig, Sander L. (2019-08-16).
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3478:"Prosthetic rehabilitation for older dysvascular people following a unilateral transfemoral amputation"
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The research of robotic legs has made some advancement over time, allowing exact movement and control.
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85:
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the consequence of an inventiveness that functions beyond and perhaps in defiance of pragmatic need?"
2691:
A number of theorists have explored the meaning and implications of prosthetic extension of the body.
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7895:
Roșca, Andra Cătălina; Baciu, Cosmin Constantin; Burtăverde, Vlad; Mateizer, Alexandru (2021-05-26).
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Disabled village children: A guide for community health workers, rehabilitation workers, and families
6733:
1259:
A prosthesis is a functional replacement for an amputated or congenitally malformed or missing limb.
333:
127:
109:
7078:
Anomaly, Jonny (2012). "Beyond Humanity? The Ethics of Biomedical Enhancement – by Allen Buchanan".
4295:
2150:
expected in 2017. The price offered at retail by Mobius Bionics is expected to be around $ 100,000.
1469:
artificial hand that was created by Silvestro Micera and researchers both in Switzerland and Italy.
989:
8989:
8964:
7401:
6468:"Using computed tomography and 3D printing to construct custom prosthetics attachments and devices"
5510:
Hofstad, Cheriel J; van der Linde, Harmen; van Limbeek, Jacques; Postema, Klaas (26 January 2004).
2915:"Prosthetic implants – Prosthetic limbs and body parts – Plastic surgery – Services A-Z – Services"
2894:
2590:
2182:
in London, Pistorius became the first amputee runner to compete at an Olympic Games. He ran in the
1667:
The sensory signals computed by the microprocessor are used to control the resistance generated by
1453:. This technology allows amputee patients to handle prosthetic hand systems in a more natural way.
1230:
212:
7054:
2107:
The first experiment with a healthy individual appears to have been that by the British scientist
2076:
1055:
9103:
9050:
9045:
8974:
6710:"An artificial nerve system gives prosthetic devices and robots a sense of touch | Stanford News"
6251:
6229:
2191:
2175:
1779:
detect signals from the user's nervous or muscular systems. It then relays this information to a
1442:
622:
466:
8048:
Edelstein, J. E. Prosthetic feet. State of the Art. Physical Therapy 68(12) Dec 1988: 1874–1881.
3329:
Clemente, Francesco; Ianniciello, Valerio; Gherardini, Marta; Cipriani, Christian (2019-07-17).
3162:"Mechanical design and performance specifications of anthropomorphic prosthetic hands: A review"
2174:
Pistorius did not qualify for the South African team for the Olympics, but went on to sweep the
9086:
8979:
5866:
4290:
4218:
2757:
2146:. Clinical trials began in 2008, with FDA approval in 2014 and commercial manufacturing by the
2060:
2048:
1785:
1457:
effectively modulate the grasping force of the prosthesis with no visual or auditory feedback.
1363:
Formation of plastic parts of the artificial limb – Different methods are used, including
1144: – Created prosthetic with a suction socket, polycentric knee, and multi-articulated foot.
1051:
1035:
788:
552:
456:
6687:
6208:
3623:
1297:
1229:
that "translates signals from a person's muscles to perform complex tasks," according to FDA.
1066:
44:
8677:
8044:'Biomechanics of running: from faulty movement patterns come injury.' Sports Injury Bulletin.
7174:
4777:
3142:
2834:
1657:
1002:
689:
599:
202:
5156:
Robitzski, Dan (May 2017) . "Disabled Hands Successfully Replaced with Bionic Prosthetics".
4909:"State-of-the-art research in lower-limb prosthetic biomechanics-socket interface: a review"
2085:
Sgt. Jerrod Fields works out at the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Chula Vista, California.
9174:
9010:
8994:
8959:
8893:
8051:
6680:"Stanford researchers create artificial nerve system for robots – Xinhua | English.news.cn"
3754:
3706:
3342:
3275:
3108:
2965:
2612:
2586:
2557:
2504:
2286:
2220:
Energy absorption – minimizing the effect of high impact on the musculoskeletal system
2179:
2167:
2097:
1769:
1070:
997:
943:
685:
607:
254:
162:
90:
6973:
5912:
4947:
3424:"Gait Training Interventions for Lower Extremity Amputees: A Systematic Literature Review"
3065:
Nagaraja, Vikranth H.; da Ponte Lopes, Jhonatan; Bergmann, Jeroen H. M. (September 2022).
1814:
rerouted such that they reinnervate a small region of a large, intact muscle, such as the
8:
9143:
8662:
6345:"Restoration of Whole Body Movement: Toward a Noninvasive Brain-Machine Interface System"
3607:
1916:
1668:
1086:
779:(dysvascularity). This condition is often associated with many other medical conditions (
725:
An example of two upper-extremity prosthetics, one body-powered (right arm), and another
573:
488:
137:
6787:"Recycling shampoo bottles to make prosthetic limbs becomes retired hairdresser's dream"
6392:
6031:
4730:"A preliminary investigation into the development of 3-D printing of prosthetic sockets"
4381:
3758:
3710:
3346:
3279:
3112:
9076:
8898:
8626:
8157:
7931:
7896:
7825:
7707:"Design of monolimb using finite element modelling and statistics-based Taguchi method"
7573:
6946:
6921:
6902:
6867:"3D printing for developing patient specific cosmetic prosthetics at the point of care"
6631:
6604:
6502:
6467:
6369:
6344:
6320:
6296:"Modeling of Prosthetic Limb Rotation Control by Sensing Rotation of Residual Arm Bone"
6295:
6186:
6081:
5959:
5942:
5791:
5747:
5618:
5599:
5539:
5489:
5205:
5103:
4999:
4889:
4834:
4765:
4705:
4672:
4653:
4565:
4363:
4263:
3838:
3510:
3477:
3448:
3423:
3373:
3330:
3306:
3263:
3244:
3124:
3042:
3017:
2941:
2282:, which is being rolled out nationally between 2017 and 2020 also pays for prostheses.
2112:
2036:
1850:
1751:
1473:
776:
660:
626:
582:, is an artificial device that replaces a missing body part, which may be lost through
449:
70:
7725:
7022:
6995:
6128:
6099:
6069:
5311:
5165:
3826:
2990:"4: Prosthetic Management: Overview, Methods, and Materials | O&P Virtual Library"
1132: – A new method of ankle amputation that did not involve amputating at the thigh.
939:
9199:
9030:
8933:
8883:
8694:
8066:
8030:
7971:
7936:
7918:
7872:
7864:
7795:
7759:
7737:
7729:
7672:
7608:
7604:
7565:
7355:
7122:
7091:
7058:
7027:
6951:
6906:
6894:
6886:
6636:
6507:
6489:
6393:"Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago First to Develop Thought Controlled Robotic Leg"
6374:
6325:
6252:"Mind-controlled permanently-attached prosthetic arm could revolutionize prosthetics"
6190:
6178:
6170:
6073:
6023:
5987:
5964:
5923:
5849:
5783:
5739:
5620:
Evaluation and Design of a Globally Applicable Rear-locking Prosthetic Knee Mechanism
5591:
5583:
5544:
5481:
5447:
5420:
5369:
5342:
5315:
5276:
5197:
5138:
5095:
5003:
4991:
4953:
4928:
4920:
4893:
4881:
4873:
4826:
4818:
4757:
4749:
4710:
4692:
4657:
4645:
4637:
4355:
4155:
4142:
4047:
4043:
3959:
3889:
3857:
3830:
3770:
3629:
3584:
3574:
3548:
3538:
3515:
3497:
3453:
3401:
3378:
3360:
3311:
3293:
3236:
3228:
3189:
3181:
3128:
3047:
2529:
2166:, the "Blade Runner" of South Africa, was briefly ruled ineligible to compete in the
1546:
1368:
1263:
are responsible for the prescription, design, and management of a prosthetic device.
1017:
Iron prosthetic hand believed to have been owned by Götz von Berlichingen (1480–1562)
1013:
959:
926:. The earliest recorded mention of eye prosthetics is from the Egyptian story of the
915:
784:
775:
In the United Kingdom, 75% of lower limb amputations are performed due to inadequate
675:
671:
642:
634:
630:
603:
590:). Prostheses are intended to restore the normal functions of the missing body part.
289:
249:
132:
8056:
7577:
7376:
6085:
5795:
5493:
5209:
5107:
4838:
4367:
4267:
4170:
Pike, Alvin (May/June 1999). "The New High Tech Prostheses". InMotion Magazine 9 (3)
3842:
3535:
Atlas of limb prosthetics : surgical, prosthetic, and rehabilitation principles
3248:
1935:
Prosthetics are being made from recycled plastic bottles and lids around the world.
9123:
9118:
9015:
8928:
8672:
8348:
8279:
7963:
7926:
7908:
7856:
7817:
7721:
7600:
7557:
7347:
7114:
7087:
7050:
7017:
7007:
6941:
6933:
6878:
6626:
6616:
6605:"Active lower limb prosthetics: a systematic review of design issues and solutions"
6497:
6479:
6364:
6356:
6315:
6307:
6162:
6065:
5954:
5841:
5775:
5751:
5731:
5603:
5575:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5473:
5443:
5416:
5307:
5189:
5161:
5130:
5087:
4983:
4865:
4810:
4769:
4741:
4700:
4684:
4629:
4595:
4351:
4347:
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4255:
4138:
4039:
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3714:
3505:
3493:
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3435:
3368:
3350:
3301:
3283:
3220:
3173:
3116:
3078:
3037:
3029:
2799:
2030:
1982:
1971:
1953:
1944:
1876:
1815:
1627:
1581:
1472:
In July 2019, this technology was expanded on even further by researchers from the
1450:
1147:
819:
740:
425:
420:
284:
157:
7692:
7561:
7293:"Oscar Pistorius, South African 4×400m relay team finish 8th as Bahamas wins gold"
7221:
4869:
4728:
Herbert, Nicholas; Simpson, David; Spence, William D.; Ion, William (March 2005).
4107:
1102:
8832:
8297:
8110:
7967:
7652:
7485:
7012:
5779:
5706:
5661:
5477:
5091:
4987:
4539:
3813:
Finch, Jacqueline (February 2011). "The ancient origins of prosthetic medicine".
3766:
2881:
2779:
2773:
2763:
2692:
2163:
2116:
1975:
1780:
1672:
1572:
1434:
and biofeedback so that the user can feel how much force that they are applying.
1357:
sheet around the model – This is then used to test the fit of the prosthetic
1059:
1043:
962:
have also been found, but their use could have been more aesthetic than medical.
829:
757:
583:
259:
7118:
3120:
3016:
Maat, Bartjan; Smit, Gerwin; Plettenburg, Dick; Breedveld, Paul (1 March 2017).
2989:
9081:
8689:
8554:
8464:
8412:
8269:
7955:
7706:
7240:
Oscar Pistorius makes Olympic history in 400 meters, and moves on to semi-final
6882:
5984:
Powered Upper Limb Prostheses: Control, Implementation and Clinical Application
5234:
UK woman can ride bike for first time with 'world's most lifelike bionic hand'
4688:
4259:
3746:
3683:
3208:
3161:
3160:
Belter, Joseph T.; Segil, Jacob L.; Dollar, Aaron M.; Weir, Richard F. (2013).
2785:
2561:
2135:
2101:
2089:
In addition to the standard artificial limb for everyday use, many amputees or
2052:
1838:
1723:
1597:
1558:
deficiency they found an estimate between 3.5 and 7.1 cases per 10,000 births.
1484:
Terminal devices contain a range of hooks, prehensors, hands or other devices.
1364:
1222:
1074:
1047:
708:
681:
646:
461:
435:
318:
7913:
6937:
6814:"Canberra family turning bottle caps into plastic hands and arms for children"
6621:
6484:
6360:
5845:
5735:
5579:
5512:"Prescription of prosthetic ankle-foot mechanisms after lower limb amputation"
5134:
4814:
4745:
4323:
4005:
3224:
3177:
3083:
3066:
2717:'s earlier characterization of man's relation to objects as one of extension.
2658:
disabled village children, displays manuals of production of these solutions.
2528:, it is possible to manufacture a single product without having to have metal
1656:
The idea was originally developed by Kelly James, a Canadian engineer, at the
1344:
Measurement of the body to determine the size required for the artificial limb
9168:
8918:
8684:
8489:
8479:
7922:
7868:
7860:
7733:
7499:"Robot arm startup taps 3-D printers in quest to make prosthetics affordable"
7467:
7359:
7319:
6890:
6493:
6311:
6174:
6166:
5913:"Pattern-recognition arm prosthesis: A historical perspective-a final report"
5587:
4924:
4877:
4822:
4753:
4696:
4641:
4633:
4599:
3774:
3588:
3501:
3364:
3297:
3232:
3185:
3033:
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2829:
2714:
2697:
2291:
2108:
1822:
1504:
1446:
1354:
1006:
970:
919:
656:
274:
122:
8116:
I have one of the most advanced prosthetic arms in the world – and I hate it
8029:. United States of America: Charles C Thomas Publisher, Ltd. pp. 3–31.
7812:
Wigley, Mark (1991). "Prosthetic Theory: The Disciplining of Architecture".
7340:"How To Get A Story Wrong: Technoableism, Simulation, and Cyborg Resistance"
6996:"Is It Ethical to Use Enhancement Technologies to Make Us Better than Well?"
6866:
6150:
5563:
5193:
4908:
4798:
4729:
4617:
3552:
3439:
2491:
1587:
Symes – This is an ankle disarticulation while preserving the heel pad.
1310:
are often used to assist in the design and manufacture of artificial limbs.
9035:
8903:
8863:
8474:
8070:
7940:
7876:
7741:
7569:
7430:
7126:
7031:
6955:
6898:
6640:
6511:
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6329:
6182:
6077:
6027:
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5853:
5787:
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5548:
5485:
5373:
5346:
5319:
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5142:
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4995:
4932:
4885:
4830:
4761:
4714:
4649:
4359:
3963:
3834:
3718:
3519:
3457:
3382:
3315:
3240:
3193:
3051:
2594:
2500:
2124:
1765:
1719:
1712:
1696:
1291:
927:
923:
693:
394:
338:
264:
7612:
6839:
4434:"Dean Kamen's "Luke Arm" Prosthesis Receives FDA Approval - IEEE Spectrum"
4204:"An Overview of the Developmental Process for the Modular Prosthetic Limb"
4051:
2495:
Low-cost above-knee prosthetic limbs: ICRC Knee (left) and LC Knee (right)
1970:
are prosthetic joint implants which remain wholly inside the body such as
9113:
8559:
8484:
8385:
8247:
8232:
8126:
5927:
5654:
5407:
Stark, Gerald (2005). "Perspectives on How and Why Feet are Prescribed".
3792:
2824:
2814:
2710:
2626:
2616:
2569:
2565:
2536:
2525:
2307:
1855:
1830:
1803:
1761:
1509:
1430:
around the object being held. Voluntary closing systems provide directly
1374:
1275:
1260:
1204:
1184:
780:
430:
7351:
6580:"Elan – Carbon, Feet, Hydraulic – Endolite USA – Lower Limb Prosthetics"
6579:
4540:"Custom Prosthetics, Artificial Limbs LI, NY | Progressive O&P"
4091:
3649:
2574:
2223:
Ground compliance – stability independent of terrain type and angle
9108:
8621:
8607:
8529:
8402:
8353:
8227:
8179:
8171:
8165:
7829:
5898:
Microcontroller system for myoelectric prosthesis with sensory feedback
5562:
Andrysek, Jan; Naumann, Stephen; Cleghorn, William L. (December 2004).
4515:"The Evolution of Prosthetic Limbs: Current Technological Advancements"
3982:"Archaeologists Find Ancient Knife-Hand Prosthesis on Medieval Warrior"
3955:
3264:"Controlling Upper Limb Prostheses Using Sonomyography (SMG): A Review"
2508:
2316:
Table. List of knee joint technologies based on the literature review.
2139:
2090:
1776:
1551:
1438:
1337:
Artificial limbs are typically manufactured using the following steps:
1218:
1129:
1069:
is also reported to have had an iron hand, as is, in the 17th century,
974:
947:
918:
circa 3000 BCE, with the earliest evidence of prosthetics appearing in
591:
587:
412:
55:
5509:
5222:
3573:(2nd ed.). Sweden: Centre for Partial Foot Amputees. p. 21.
3355:
3288:
8908:
8501:
8380:
8217:
6760:"These researchers are turning plastic bottles into prosthetic limbs"
6149:
Binedell, Trevor; Meng, Eugene; Subburaj, Karupppasamy (2020-08-25).
5256:
A helping hand: EU researchers develop bionic hand that imitates life
4180:
One small step for an amputee and a giant leap for Amparo and GDI Hub
3915:"This Medieval Italian Man Replaced His Amputated Hand With a Weapon"
3328:
2809:
2769:
2128:
2120:
2040:
1859:
1646:
1534:
1082:
966:
664:
269:
7821:
7160:"DARPA's Mind-Controlled Arm Prosthesis Preps for Commercial Launch"
4972:
2503:. It would be able to create an energy-return prosthetic leg for US
1105:. Among his inventions was an above-knee device that was a kneeling
756:
provide replacements at varying levels of amputation. These include
9040:
8509:
8429:
8264:
8197:
6100:"Blogs: TR Editors' blog: Patients Test an Advanced Prosthetic Arm"
5120:
2014:
2010:
1796:
1784:
growing through them. One type of these biosensors are employed in
1565:
Other, less prevalent lower extremity cases include the following:
951:
638:
536:
38:
8766:
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health
8052:
Gailey, Robert. The Biomechanics of Amputee Running. October 2002.
7541:
6465:
5568:
IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering
4616:
Suyi Yang, Eddie; Aslani, Navid; McGarry, Anthony (October 2019).
3331:"Development of an Embedded Myokinetic Prosthetic Hand Controller"
2895:"Prosthetic implant provides realistic wrist movement to amputees"
1756:
Powered exoskeleton § Current products (powered exoskeletons)
1709:
XVIII World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering
721:
8719:
8444:
8390:
8336:
8326:
8212:
6602:
3011:
3009:
2804:
1924:
1871:
1811:
1512:
gripping the myoelectric prosthetic arm of a United States Marine
1314:
1307:
1247:
1106:
955:
906:
399:
75:
8092:
Can modern prosthetics actually help reclaim the sense of touch?
7445:"ICRC: Trans-Femoral Prosthesis – Manufacturing Guidelines"
7142:"Dean Kamen's "Luke Arm" Prosthesis Readies for Clinical Trials"
6274:"Trials imminent for implantable thought-controlled robotic arm"
4797:
Sewell, P.; Noroozi, S.; Vinney, J.; Andrews, S. (August 2000).
4585:
4128:
1833:
and translate those signals into motion in the artificial limb.
965:
An early mention of a prosthetic comes from the Greek historian
813:
Ankle disarticulation (more commonly known as Syme's amputation)
674:
which may be either single or bilateral, full breast devices or
8459:
8434:
8375:
8368:
8363:
8358:
8302:
8242:
8222:
6913:
5868:
International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering
4201:
2819:
2541:
2056:
2044:
1870:
Proto 1. Besides the Proto 1, the university also finished the
1807:
1280:
1009:. This is "the oldest functional leg prosthesis known to date".
978:
799:
Types of prosthesis used for replacing joints in the human body
711:
prostheses include both upper- and lower-extremity prostheses.
653:
7756:
The State of Architecture at the Beginning of the 21st Century
7527:
6230:"World premiere of muscle and nerve controlled arm prosthesis"
6009:"Robotic Assistance For Upper Extremity Training After Stroke"
5872:"World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering"
3143:"Oxford researchers develop breathing-powered prosthetic hand"
3064:
3006:
2232:
Suspension – how the socket will join and fit to the limb
1938:
1095:
8576:
8539:
8519:
8469:
8449:
8439:
8395:
8341:
8331:
8317:
8274:
8202:
8104:
What is prosthesis, prosthetic limb and its various component
7371:
7369:
5764:
5297:
5033:"Artificial hand offering immediate touch response a success"
4460:"Winner: The Revolution Will Be Prosthetized - IEEE Spectrum"
3672:"A Brief Review of the History of Amputations and Prostheses"
3421:
2860:
2545:
1834:
1650:
1213:
935:
931:
7954:
Hansson, Sven Ove (2015), Clausen, Jens; Levy, Neil (eds.),
7894:
7223:
Oscar Pistorius makes Olympic history in 400m at London 2012
5721:
5717:
5715:
4108:"Normal Shape-Normal Alignment (NSNA) Above-Knee Prosthesis"
3015:
1802:
Targeted muscle reinnervation (TMR) is a technique in which
1350:
Creation of a model of the liner worn over the residual limb
1050:, whose right hand was cut off while campaigning and had an
8544:
8534:
8524:
8454:
8307:
8289:
8207:
8192:
8187:
6533:
4464:
4438:
3940:
3622:
Pine, Keith R.; Sloan, Brian H.; Jacobs, Robert J. (2015).
3097:
2115:
was interfaced directly into Warwick's nervous system. The
1826:
566:
7671:(1st ed.). Palo Alto, CA, USA: Hesperian Foundation.
7366:
6752:
6293:
5178:
5076:"Efficiency of Voluntary Closing Hand and Hook Prostheses"
4796:
3696:
2686:
1927:, feel the sense of touch and respond to the environment.
1408:
8549:
8514:
8421:
8259:
8254:
8237:
7244:
6970:"Enhancements, Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics"
6734:"Affordable prosthetics made from recycled plastic waste"
6054:
5712:
5359:
4122:
3669:
3018:"Passive prosthetic hands and tools: A literature review"
2241:
The buyer is also concerned with numerous other factors:
2018:
946:
circa 1000 BC. Another early textual mention is found in
744:
696:
procedures in cisgender men, and to build a new penis in
7104:
5433:
6342:
5561:
4727:
4336:
4280:
2782:(born 1986), South African former professional sprinter
2096:
Within science fiction, and, more recently, within the
1792:
monitoring and control of the movements of the device.
1270:
1039:
Artificial iron hand believed to date from 1560 to 1600
7778:
The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World
5564:"Design characteristics of pediatric prosthetic knees"
4851:
4615:
3213:
The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
3166:
The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
2970:
Department of Rehabilitation and Regenerative Medicine
2788:(1914–2002), WWII veteran, Academy Award-winning actor
2747:
2290:
typically needs to be replaced every 3–4 years due to
1671:
in the knee-joint. Small valves control the amount of
1308:
Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacturing
8756:
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
8086:
Afghan amputees tell their stories at Texas gathering
7962:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 785–797,
7590:
7547:
7200:"Oscar Pistorius makes history, leaves without medal"
6006:
5831:
4858:
Disability & Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology
4671:
Sharma, Hemant; Prabu, Dhanasekara (September 2013).
3159:
2966:"Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Treatment Team"
1996:
The ability for transfemoral amputees to drive a car.
1528:
1373:
Creation of metal parts of the artificial limb using
1119: – First non-locking below-knee (BK) prosthesis.
6148:
2606:
1722:, and distributed by the Hangar Limb Factory of the
930:
dated circa 3000 BC, which involves the left eye of
7695:. School of Industrial Design, Carleton University.
7550:
Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology
5911:Wirta, R. W.; Taylor, D. R.; Finley, F. R. (1978).
3402:"Getting an artificial leg up – Cathy Johnson"
2229:
Weight – maximizing comfort, balance and speed
2127:. The signals produced were detailed enough that a
1868:
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
1449:, developed an upper limb and hand prosthesis with
578:'addition, application, attachment'), or a
27:
Artificial device that replaces a missing body part
8059:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
7133:
5834:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
5810:"Amputees control bionic legs with their thoughts"
5724:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
5362:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
5335:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
5123:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
4913:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
4907:Mak, A. F.; Zhang, M.; Boone, D. A. (March 2001).
4734:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
3862:. London: S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington.
1320:
7754:Grosz, Elizabeth (2003). "Prosthetic Objects" in
5910:
3744:
2551:
1886:
1199:
1166:
9166:
8025:Murdoch, George; Wilson, A. Bennett Jr. (1997).
7098:
6865:Thomas, Daniel J.; Singh, Deepti (August 2020).
5700:"Otto Bock C-leg: A review of its effectiveness"
5300:Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
4191:Changing Prosthetic Service Delivery with Amparo
2766:(1900–74), child survivor of industrial accident
1208:DARPA Revolutionizing Prosthetics - The LUKE Arm
1112:Other major improvements before the modern era:
6443:"Brain-Controlled Bionic Legs Are Finally Here"
5073:
3875:The Psychological Rehabilitation of the Amputee
3621:
3206:
2772:(1958–81), Canadian athlete, humanitarian, and
2720:
2652:
1962:(attaching an artificial limb to the bone), or
1240:
7628:"Pain and Rehabilitation from Landmine Injury"
6249:
4949:Myoelectric Prostheses with Sensorial Feedback
4854:"3D printing and amputation: a scoping review"
4118:(4): 9–14 – via O&P Virtual Library.
3262:Nazari, Vaheh; Zheng, Yong-Ping (2023-02-08).
1541:
8761:Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons
8592:
8142:
8024:
7705:Lee, Winson C. C.; Zhang, Ming (2005-08-01).
7236:
7214:
7197:
6993:
6922:"Techniques and devices to restore cognition"
6919:
6343:Contreras-Vidal José L.; et al. (2012).
5676:"Titanium and Sensors Replace Ahab's Peg Leg"
5459:
5457:
5387:
5385:
5383:
5332:
4966:
4906:
3793:"The Iron Hand of the Goetz von Berlichingen"
3532:
2936:
2934:
2754:Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey
984:
594:rehabilitation is primarily coordinated by a
516:
8027:A Primer on Amputations and Artificial Limbs
7956:"Ethical Implications of Sensory Prostheses"
6805:
6656:"Researchers Create Artificial Nerve System"
6016:Studies in Health Technology and Informatics
5827:
5825:
5823:
5692:
4782:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (
4673:"Plaster of Paris: Past, present and future"
4166:
4164:
4030:Romm, Sharon (July 1989). "Arms by Design".
3855:
2190:finals. He also competed in 5 events in the
1930:
1906:move his limbs with a wireless transmitter.
1225:became the first prosthetic arm approved by
698:female-to-male gender reassignment surgeries
610:as well as analysis and optimization tools.
586:, disease, or a condition present at birth (
7139:
6864:
6653:
6300:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
4945:
4677:Journal of Clinical Orthopaedics and Trauma
4670:
4588:Journal of Biological Physics and Chemistry
3894:The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
3603:"An Amazing Menagerie of Animal Prostheses"
3482:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
3261:
2532:, so the costs can be drastically reduced.
2013:, the creation of lifelike limbs made from
1939:Direct bone attachment and osseointegration
1096:Technology progress before the 20th century
1046:also recorded the tale of a Roman general,
981:captors and replaced it with a wooden one.
950:circa 1200 BC, involving the warrior queen
846:
9149:
8950:Augmentative and alternative communication
8599:
8585:
8156:
8149:
8135:
7625:
7468:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-49879-4
7434:, 5 July 2005. Retrieved 11 February 2007.
6972:. Practicalethics.ox.ac.uk. Archived from
6707:
5664:, DAW Industries. Retrieved 16 March 2008.
5454:
5380:
5051:"A Robot Hand Helps Amputees "Feel" Again"
3533:Bowker, John H.; Michael, John W. (2002).
2931:
2661:
2267:
2226:Rotation – ease of changing direction
1179:After the Second World War, a team at the
523:
509:
7930:
7912:
7323:. Reuters. 29 August 2012. Archived from
7290:
7055:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199587810.001.0001
7021:
7011:
6945:
6630:
6620:
6501:
6483:
6368:
6319:
5958:
5820:
5538:
5160:. Vol. 316, no. 5. p. 17.
5155:
4704:
4294:
4161:
3568:
3509:
3447:
3372:
3354:
3305:
3287:
3082:
3041:
2258:
2070:
1640:
7704:
7044:
5981:
5673:
5463:
4579:
4560:
4558:
4556:
4338:brain–computer interface technologies".
4070:inMotion: A Brief History of Prosthetics
3872:
3475:
2620:
2573:
2490:
2197:
2188:4 × 400 metres relay race
2080:
1990:Better muscle control of the prosthetic.
1733:
1545:
1503:
1462:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
1296:
1274:
1203:
1170:
1034:
1020:
1012:
996:
988:
905:
794:
720:
43:
8985:Disproportionality in special education
7953:
7845:"The social meanings of prosthesis use"
7077:
6155:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
5940:
5768:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
5519:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
5466:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
5080:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
4803:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
4622:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
4486:"The LUKE/DEKA advanced prosthetic arm"
3396:
3394:
3392:
3207:Scheme, Erik; Englehart, Kevin (2011).
3022:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
2760:was amputated at the Battle of Waterloo
2687:Cultural and social theory perspectives
2339:Four-bar with stance-phase knee flexion
1603:
1409:Voluntary opening and voluntary closing
977:who cut off his own foot to escape his
934:being plucked out and then restored by
670:Somato prostheses of the torso include
48:A man with a lower-extremity prosthesis
14:
9167:
7890:
7888:
7886:
7842:
7811:
7792:Intimus: Interior Design Theory Reader
7775:
7664:
7496:
7419:
7172:
6994:Caplan, Arthur; Elliott, Carl (2004).
6811:
6117:
3877:. Springfield, IL.: Charles C. Thomas.
3859:A Short History of the Canadian People
3476:Barr, Steven; Howe, Tracey E. (2018).
2892:
2322:Name of technology (country of origin)
2142:developed the "Luke arm", an advanced
1858:, invented in Edinburgh, Scotland, by
115:Individualized Education Program (IEP)
8580:
8130:
7526:. Openprosthetics.org. Archived from
6820:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
6793:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
6584:Endolite USA – Lower Limb Prosthetics
6294:Li, Guanglin; Kuiken, Todd A (2008).
6207:. Ric.org. 2007-05-01. Archived from
5632:
5630:
5505:
5503:
5406:
5048:
4611:
4609:
4553:
4509:
4507:
4505:
4428:
4426:
4424:
4309:
4244:"The revolution will be prosthetized"
3979:
3975:
3973:
3936:
3934:
3812:
3564:
3562:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3404:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
1729:
390:Disabled Peoples' International (DPI)
7337:
6784:
6271:
6048:
5947:Canadian Medical Association Journal
5895:
5616:
5409:Journal of Prosthetics and Orthotics
4241:
4131:Journal of Prosthetics and Orthotics
4112:Clinical Prosthetics & Orthotics
4105:
4099:
4029:
3887:
3389:
2280:National Disability Insurance Scheme
1909:
1383:
1271:Current technology and manufacturing
1254:
309:Social Security Disability Insurance
9092:Disability in children's literature
7883:
7291:Greenberg, Chris (10 August 2012),
6708:University, Stanford (2018-05-31).
6526:"Home – BionX Medical Technologies"
6413:Is This the Future of Robotic Legs?
5394:Prosthetics in Developing Countries
3944:Journal of Anthropological Sciences
2893:Nathan, Stuart (28 November 2018).
2748:Notable users of prosthetic devices
2729:
2119:, which contained around a hundred
2077:Powered exoskeleton § Research
1896:Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago
1479:
1460:In February 2013, researchers from
1279:Knee prosthesis manufactured using
1223:DEKA Research and Development Corp.
1175:An artificial limbs factory in 1941
1025:"Illustration of mechanical hand",
544:
24:
8955:Emotional or behavioral disability
7758:. pp. 96–97. The Monacelli Press.
7426:"Cost of Prosthetics Stirs Debate"
6785:Bell, Sarah Jane (21 April 2019).
5627:
5500:
4606:
4502:
4421:
4283:Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest
4211:Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest
4090:Bigg, Henry Robert Heather (1885)
4032:Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
3970:
3931:
3738:
3670:Vanderwerker, Earl E. Jr. (1976).
3559:
3464:
2643:
2157:
1529:Commercial providers and materials
1237:also participated in the program.
1235:U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs
1181:University of California, Berkeley
1154: – First aluminium prosthesis
703:
353:Ontario Disability Support Program
25:
9211:
8079:
7726:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.03.015
6553:
6232:. Sciencedaily.com. February 2013
5698:Martin, Craig W. (November 2003)
5655:"The SLK, The Self-Learning Knee"
5266:
5166:10.1038/scientificamerican0517-17
3912:
3699:Journal of Archaeological Science
2607:Low-cost prosthetics for children
2581:themed "Hero Arm" by Open Bionics
2148:Universal Instruments Corporation
1301:Manufacturing a prosthetic finger
910:Prosthetic toe from ancient Egypt
9148:
9139:
9138:
7997:"Not everyone uses a prosthesis"
7989:
7947:
7836:
7805:
7784:
7769:
7748:
7698:
7685:
7658:
7645:
7619:
7605:10.1097/01241398-199205000-00033
7584:
7516:
7490:
7472:
7460:
7437:
7394:
7331:
7307:
7284:
7255:
7230:
7198:Robert Klemko (10 August 2012),
7191:
7166:
7152:
7092:10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01964.x
7071:
7038:
6987:
6962:
6871:International Journal of Surgery
6858:
6832:
6778:
6726:
6701:
6672:
6647:
6596:
6572:
6547:
6518:
6459:
6435:
6425:"Transtibial Powered Prostheses"
6417:
6406:
6385:
6336:
6287:
6265:
6243:
6222:
6197:
6142:
6092:
6000:
5975:
5934:
5920:Bulletin of Prosthetics Research
5904:
5421:10.1097/00008526-200510001-00007
5397:. oandp.org Retrieved 2019-03-11
4143:10.1097/00008526-198910000-00009
4066:"A Brief History of Prosthetics"
4044:10.1097/00006534-198907000-00029
2625:Artificial limbs for a juvenile
2589:Prosthetics forum known as the "
2391:LIMBS International M1 knee (US)
1341:Measurement of the residual limb
1071:René-Robert Cavalier de la Salle
892:Carbon fiber reinforced polymers
633:. Intra-oral prostheses include
483:
482:
380:National Telecommuting Institute
7263:"Men's 400m – semi-finals"
7237:Bill Chappell (4 August 2012),
7173:Garner, Courtney (2019-04-05).
6395:. Medgadget.com. September 2013
5889:
5860:
5802:
5758:
5674:Marriott, Michel (2005-06-20).
5667:
5648:
5639:
5610:
5555:
5427:
5400:
5353:
5326:
5291:
5260:
5249:
5238:
5227:
5216:
5172:
5149:
5114:
5074:Smit G, Plettenburg DH (2010).
5067:
5042:
5026:
5010:
4939:
4900:
4845:
4790:
4721:
4664:
4532:
4478:
4452:
4396:
4374:
4340:Journal of Neuroscience Methods
4330:
4303:
4274:
4235:
4195:
4184:
4173:
4149:
4084:
4058:
4023:
3998:
3906:
3881:
3866:
3849:
3806:
3785:
3725:
3690:
3663:
3650:"No. 1705: A 3000-Year-Old Toe"
3642:
3615:
3595:
3526:
3415:
3322:
3255:
3200:
3153:
3135:
2416:Single-axis with automatic lock
1844:
1321:Production of prosthetic socket
914:Prosthetics originate from the
652:Prostheses of the neck include
8970:Disability and LGBT identities
8606:
7497:Nagata, Kazuaki (2015-05-10).
6920:Serruya MD, Kahana MJ (2008).
6007:Reinkensmeyer David J (2009).
5531:10.1002/14651858.CD003978.pub2
4976:Science Translational Medicine
4352:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2014.07.019
3494:10.1002/14651858.CD005260.pub4
3091:
3058:
2982:
2958:
2907:
2886:
2853:
2552:Open-source robotic prosthesis
2205:
1887:Robotic transtibial prostheses
1806:, which previously controlled
1685:
1649:'s C-leg, introduced in 1997,
1200:Upper extremity modern history
1167:Lower extremity modern history
385:Society for Disability Studies
237:Unlicensed assistive personnel
13:
1:
8782:Services for mental disorders
7843:Murray, Craig D. (May 2005).
7653:A Report on Amputees in India
7562:10.1080/17483107.2016.1253117
7402:"Funding for your prosthesis"
6812:Conway, Elle (26 June 2019).
6609:BioMedical Engineering OnLine
6250:Williams, Adam (2012-11-30).
6070:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60193-7
5312:10.1016/S0003-9993(02)04932-8
4870:10.1080/17483107.2019.1646825
4404:"Revolutionizing Prosthetics"
3827:10.1016/s0140-6736(11)60190-6
2841:
2669:
1866:Another neural prosthetic is
1621:
1445:, a researcher in bionics in
1360:Formation of permanent socket
1026:
1001:A wooden prosthetic leg from
8787:Services for disabled people
7968:10.1007/978-94-007-4707-4_46
7849:Journal of Health Psychology
7693:A victim assistance solution
7013:10.1371/journal.pmed.0010052
5780:10.3109/03093646.2010.520054
5617:Wyss, Dominik (2012-11-27).
5478:10.3109/03093646.2010.520060
5448:10.1016/0966-6362(93)90038-3
5092:10.3109/03093646.2010.486390
4988:10.1126/scitranslmed.3006820
4946:Rios Poveda, Alvaro (2002).
4242:Adee, Sally (January 2009).
4156:"Blatchford Company History"
4006:"The History of Prosthetics"
3767:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.05.010
2846:
2721:Negative social implications
2653:Bamboo, PVC or plaster limbs
2507:8.00, composed primarily of
2372:Single-axis with ext. assist
2350:Single-axis with manual lock
2272:
2024:
1523:Medical University of Vienna
1284:Computer Aided Manufacturing
1241:Design trends moving forward
567:
314:Supplemental Security Income
76:Ableism / Disablism
7:
9070:Arts, media, culture, sport
7377:"Cost of a Prosthetic Limb"
7338:Shew, Ashley (2022-03-16).
7119:10.1001/archneur.60.10.1369
7045:Buchanan, Allen E. (2011).
6127:. Darpa.mil. Archived from
4382:"The Pentagon's Bionic Arm"
4217:(3): 207–16. Archived from
3888:Breiding, Authors: Dirk H.
3873:Friedman, Lawrence (1978).
3625:Clinical Ocular Prosthetics
3121:10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3226697
2792:
2677:
2479:SATHI friction knee (India)
2435:None provided (New Zealand)
2301:
2144:nerve-controlled prosthetic
2004:
1825:are surgically rerouted to
1542:Lower-extremity prosthetics
1424:
1347:Fitting of a silicone liner
329:Disabled students allowance
324:Disability Living Allowance
32:Prosthesis (disambiguation)
10:
9216:
9097:Disability in horror films
8889:Activities of daily living
8017:
7780:. Oxford University Press.
7524:"Open Prosthetics Website"
7226:, BBC Sport, 4 August 2012
7140:Adee, Sarah (2008-02-01).
6883:10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.04.023
6272:Ford, Jason (2012-11-28).
5941:Sherman, E. David (1964).
5709:. WCB Evidence Based Group
4689:10.1016/j.jcot.2013.09.004
4260:10.1109/MSPEC.2009.4734314
3682:(5): 15–16. Archived from
2861:
2738:
2610:
2555:
2540:, an artificial limb from
2468:Wedgelock knee (Australia)
2305:
2074:
2065:activities of daily living
2028:
1942:
1810:on an amputated limb, are
1759:
1749:
1625:
1466:Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna
1391:
985:Wood and metal prosthetics
901:
875:Rubber (early prosthetics)
754:Lower-extremity prostheses
715:Upper-extremity prostheses
556:
188:Disability rights movement
36:
29:
9134:
9069:
9003:
8942:
8876:
8841:
8795:
8774:
8738:
8712:
8705:
8645:
8614:
8500:
8420:
8411:
8316:
8288:
8178:
8164:
7914:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.537493
7484:February 2, 2009, at the
6938:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.04.007
6622:10.1186/s12938-016-0284-9
6485:10.1186/s41205-017-0016-1
6361:10.1109/mpul.2011.2175635
6125:"Defense Sciences Office"
5846:10.1682/JRRD.2014.08.0192
5736:10.1682/JRRD.2014.05.0118
5580:10.1109/TNSRE.2004.838444
5135:10.1682/JRRD.2011.07.0125
4952:. Myoelectric Symposium.
4815:10.1080/03093640008726532
4746:10.1682/jrrd.2004.08.0134
4568:. Madehow.com. 1988-04-04
4384:. CBS News. 10 April 2009
4324:10.1108/01439910910980141
3569:Söderberg, Bengt (2001).
3428:Technology and Innovation
3225:10.1682/jrrd.2010.09.0177
3178:10.1682/jrrd.2011.10.0188
3084:10.3390/prosthesis4030032
2709:the culture of objects."
2482:Weight-activated friction
2471:Weight-activated friction
2460:Weight-activated friction
2361:Weight-activated friction
1931:Use of recycled materials
1921:Seoul National University
1591:
1550:A prosthetic leg worn by
1400:
969:, who tells the story of
807:Transfemoral (Above-knee)
334:Disabled Persons Railcard
8990:Sexuality and disability
8965:Disability and disasters
8877:Structural and assistive
7861:10.1177/1359105305051431
6312:10.1109/tbme.2008.923914
6167:10.1177/0309364620948290
5982:Muzumdar, Ashok (2004).
4634:10.1177/0309364619865424
4600:10.4024/30601.jbpc.06.03
4072:. November–December 2007
3751:Quaternary International
3571:Partial foot amputations
3034:10.1177/0309364617691622
2591:Open Prosthetics Project
2236:
1704:Prof. Alvaro Ríos Poveda
1499:
1487:
1231:Johns Hopkins University
872:Wood (early prosthetics)
847:Prosthetic raw materials
810:Transtibial (Below-knee)
613:
347:the Severely Handicapped
303:Socioeconomic assistance
213:Sexuality and disability
37:Not to be confused with
9104:Disability in the media
8975:Disability and religion
8914:Personal Care Assistant
8100:, Fayetteville Observer
8088:, Fayetteville Observer
7960:Handbook of Neuroethics
7901:Frontiers in Psychology
7776:Scarry, Elaine (1985).
7479:INDEX:2007 INDEX: AWARD
6472:3D Printing in Medicine
5194:10.3171/2016.6.JNS16154
5182:Journal of Neurosurgery
4748:(inactive 2024-06-26).
3440:10.21300/18.2-3.2016.99
2877:A Greek–English Lexicon
2662:Adjustable bicycle limb
2485:Limited data available
2438:Roto-molded single-axis
2347:ICRC knee (Switzerland)
2268:Cost and source freedom
2192:2012 Summer Paralympics
2176:2008 Summer Paralympics
1612:
1464:in Switzerland and the
1379:Assembly of entire limb
993:The Capua leg (replica)
623:Craniofacial prostheses
467:Disability in the media
9185:Biomedical engineering
9180:Biological engineering
9087:Disability in the arts
8980:Disability and poverty
8919:Physical accessibility
8158:Human regional anatomy
7665:Werner, David (1987).
7503:The Japan Times Online
4106:Long, Ivan A. (1985).
3719:10.1006/jasc.1999.0517
2630:
2585:There is currently an
2582:
2548:, costs about US$ 40.
2496:
2474:Technical development
2463:Technical development
2452:Technical development
2449:Six-bar with squatting
2342:Technical development
2259:Design for Prosthetics
2086:
2071:Prosthetic enhancement
2049:traumatic brain injury
1786:myoelectric prostheses
1747:
1692:myoelectric prosthesis
1641:Microprocessor control
1554:
1513:
1302:
1287:
1209:
1176:
1065:Around the same time,
1040:
1032:
1018:
1010:
994:
911:
842:Van Nes rotationplasty
800:
730:
457:Disability in the arts
275:Physical accessibility
49:
8678:driver rehabilitation
7714:Clinical Biomechanics
7635:Update in Anaesthesia
7107:Archives of Neurology
6205:"Proto 1 and Proto 2"
5896:Rios, Alvaro (1997).
5245:Bebionic robotic hand
4519:premierprosthetic.com
3980:Killgrove, Kristina.
3856:Bryce, Geore (1887).
2868:Liddell, Henry George
2835:Whole brain emulation
2624:
2577:
2494:
2446:None provided (India)
2424:None provided (Nepal)
2383:Compliant polycentric
2380:DAV/Seattle knee (US)
2198:Design considerations
2186:semi-finals, and the
2084:
2075:Further information:
1762:Robotics § Touch
1760:Further information:
1745:
1658:University of Alberta
1549:
1507:
1300:
1278:
1207:
1174:
1056:Götz von Berlichingen
1038:
1024:
1016:
1003:Shengjindian cemetery
1000:
992:
909:
826:Hip disarticulation,
816:Knee disarticulation
798:
724:
600:computer-aided design
203:People-first language
181:Societal implications
47:
9011:Models of disability
8995:Youth and disability
8960:Invisible disability
8909:Orthotics and braces
8894:Assistive technology
8706:Rights, law, support
7344:Including Disability
7327:on 2 September 2012.
6764:World Economic Forum
5870:(17 December 2012).
5279:on 10 September 2015
5049:DelViscio, Jeffery.
4521:. September 28, 2023
3753:. 290–291: 335–343.
3652:. Uh.edu. 2004-08-01
2994:www.oandplibrary.org
2919:www.royalfree.nhs.uk
2613:open-source hardware
2558:Open-source hardware
2336:4BSF knee (Thailand)
2184:400 metres race
2180:2012 Summer Olympics
2168:2008 Summer Olympics
2123:, was placed in the
2098:scientific community
1983:bone attaches itself
1770:Open-source hardware
1604:Shank and connectors
1432:proportional control
878:Lightweight metals:
686:erectile dysfunction
270:Orthotics and braces
255:Assistive technology
30:For other uses, see
9190:Egyptian inventions
8663:Learning disability
7626:Carr, D.B. (1998).
7352:10.51357/id.vi1.169
7273:on 16 December 2012
6660:www.engineering.com
6276:. Theengineer.co.uk
5158:Scientific American
5055:Scientific American
4490:www.research.va.gov
4158:, Blatchford Group.
3795:. Karlofgermany.com
3759:2013QuInt.290..335L
3711:2000JArSc..27..641R
3608:Scientific American
3347:2019Senso..19.3137C
3280:2023Senso..23.1885N
3149:. 14 December 2022.
3113:2022IEEEA..10l8764N
2061:Alzheimer's disease
1917:Stanford University
1894:Researchers at the
1669:hydraulic cylinders
1087:Povegliano Veronese
1067:François de la Noue
758:hip disarticulation
588:congenital disorder
231:Personal assistance
138:Learning disability
9195:Iranian inventions
9077:Disability culture
9004:Disability studies
8899:Independent living
8627:Disability studies
8109:2022-07-18 at the
7655:. oandplibrary.org
7505:. Japantimes.co.jp
7381:Cost Helper Health
6846:. 19 February 2020
5705:2016-12-28 at the
5680:The New York Times
5660:2012-04-25 at the
5436:Gait & Posture
5391:Strait, E. (2006)
5039:, February 7, 2014
5023:, February 5, 2014
3956:10.4436/JASS.96001
2631:
2629:survivor 1961–1965
2583:
2497:
2457:Friction knee (US)
2402:JaipurKnee (India)
2369:POF/OTRC knee (US)
2364:Independent field
2353:Independent field
2087:
2037:executive function
1964:endo-exoprosthesis
1851:Boston Digital Arm
1752:Neural prosthetics
1748:
1730:Robotic prostheses
1555:
1514:
1474:University of Utah
1443:Álvaro Ríos Poveda
1303:
1288:
1210:
1177:
1041:
1033:
1019:
1011:
995:
912:
801:
731:
684:are used to treat
580:prosthetic implant
345:Assured Income for
50:
9162:
9161:
9031:Neuroqueer theory
8934:Web accessibility
8884:Accessible toilet
8872:
8871:
8725:Disability rights
8720:Ableism/disablism
8574:
8573:
8570:
8569:
8118:by Britt H. Young
8036:978-0-398-06801-1
7977:978-94-007-4707-4
7800:978-0-470-01570-4
7691:Cheng, V. (2004)
7651:Mohan, D. (1986)
7303:on 10 August 2012
7210:on 11 August 2012
7113:(10): 1369–1373.
6740:. 14 January 2019
6684:www.xinhuanet.com
6654:ENGINEERING.com.
6104:Technology Review
5993:978-3-540-40406-4
5953:(24): 1268–1270.
5730:(10): 1469–1496.
4959:978-1-55131-029-9
3913:Starr, Michelle.
3356:10.3390/s19143137
3289:10.3390/s23041885
3107:: 128764–128778.
2489:
2488:
2328:Highest level of
2325:Brief description
2254:Size availability
1910:Prosthesis design
1743:
1384:Body-powered arms
1369:injection molding
1255:Patient procedure
1217:Arm developed by
1152:Charles Desoutter
1005:, circa 300 BCE,
916:ancient Near East
718:below the elbow.
682:Penile prostheses
676:nipple prostheses
672:breast prostheses
635:dental prostheses
577:
565:
533:
532:
290:Web accessibility
250:Accessible toilet
133:Special education
71:Disability theory
64:Theory and models
16:(Redirected from
9207:
9152:
9151:
9142:
9141:
9124:Special Olympics
9016:Inspiration porn
8929:Universal design
8730:Pejorative terms
8710:
8709:
8673:Physical therapy
8601:
8594:
8587:
8578:
8577:
8418:
8417:
8349:Vertebral column
8151:
8144:
8137:
8128:
8127:
8074:
8040:
8011:
8010:
8008:
8007:
7993:
7987:
7986:
7985:
7984:
7951:
7945:
7944:
7934:
7916:
7892:
7881:
7880:
7840:
7834:
7833:
7809:
7803:
7788:
7782:
7781:
7773:
7767:
7752:
7746:
7745:
7711:
7702:
7696:
7689:
7683:
7682:
7662:
7656:
7649:
7643:
7642:
7632:
7623:
7617:
7616:
7593:Physical Therapy
7588:
7582:
7581:
7545:
7539:
7538:
7536:
7535:
7520:
7514:
7513:
7511:
7510:
7494:
7488:
7476:
7470:
7464:
7458:
7457:
7455:
7454:
7449:
7441:
7435:
7423:
7417:
7416:
7414:
7412:
7398:
7392:
7391:
7389:
7387:
7373:
7364:
7363:
7335:
7329:
7328:
7311:
7305:
7304:
7299:, archived from
7288:
7282:
7281:
7280:
7278:
7269:, archived from
7259:
7253:
7252:
7251:on 4 August 2012
7247:, archived from
7234:
7228:
7227:
7218:
7212:
7211:
7206:, archived from
7195:
7189:
7188:
7186:
7185:
7170:
7164:
7163:
7156:
7150:
7149:
7137:
7131:
7130:
7102:
7096:
7095:
7075:
7069:
7068:
7047:Beyond Humanity?
7042:
7036:
7035:
7025:
7015:
6991:
6985:
6984:
6982:
6981:
6966:
6960:
6959:
6949:
6917:
6911:
6910:
6862:
6856:
6855:
6853:
6851:
6840:"Envision Hands"
6836:
6830:
6829:
6827:
6825:
6809:
6803:
6802:
6800:
6798:
6782:
6776:
6775:
6773:
6771:
6766:. 4 October 2019
6756:
6750:
6749:
6747:
6745:
6738:MaterialDistrict
6730:
6724:
6723:
6721:
6720:
6705:
6699:
6698:
6696:
6695:
6686:. Archived from
6676:
6670:
6669:
6667:
6666:
6651:
6645:
6644:
6634:
6624:
6600:
6594:
6593:
6591:
6590:
6576:
6570:
6569:
6567:
6566:
6551:
6545:
6544:
6542:
6541:
6532:. Archived from
6530:www.bionxmed.com
6522:
6516:
6515:
6505:
6487:
6463:
6457:
6456:
6454:
6453:
6439:
6433:
6432:
6431:. MIT Media Lab.
6421:
6415:
6410:
6404:
6403:
6401:
6400:
6389:
6383:
6382:
6372:
6340:
6334:
6333:
6323:
6306:(9): 2134–2142.
6291:
6285:
6284:
6282:
6281:
6269:
6263:
6262:
6260:
6259:
6247:
6241:
6240:
6238:
6237:
6226:
6220:
6219:
6217:
6216:
6201:
6195:
6194:
6146:
6140:
6139:
6137:
6136:
6121:
6115:
6114:
6112:
6111:
6096:
6090:
6089:
6064:(9559): 371–80.
6052:
6046:
6045:
6043:
6042:
6036:
6030:. Archived from
6013:
6004:
5998:
5997:
5979:
5973:
5972:
5962:
5938:
5932:
5931:
5917:
5908:
5902:
5901:
5893:
5887:
5886:
5884:
5882:
5864:
5858:
5857:
5829:
5818:
5817:
5806:
5800:
5799:
5762:
5756:
5755:
5719:
5710:
5696:
5690:
5689:
5687:
5686:
5671:
5665:
5652:
5646:
5643:
5637:
5634:
5625:
5624:
5623:(Thesis thesis).
5614:
5608:
5607:
5559:
5553:
5552:
5542:
5516:
5507:
5498:
5497:
5461:
5452:
5451:
5431:
5425:
5424:
5404:
5398:
5389:
5378:
5377:
5357:
5351:
5350:
5330:
5324:
5323:
5295:
5289:
5288:
5286:
5284:
5275:. Archived from
5264:
5258:
5253:
5247:
5242:
5236:
5231:
5225:
5220:
5214:
5213:
5188:(5): 1163–1171.
5176:
5170:
5169:
5153:
5147:
5146:
5118:
5112:
5111:
5071:
5065:
5064:
5062:
5061:
5046:
5040:
5030:
5024:
5014:
5008:
5007:
4982:(222): 222ra19.
4970:
4964:
4963:
4943:
4937:
4936:
4904:
4898:
4897:
4849:
4843:
4842:
4794:
4788:
4787:
4781:
4773:
4725:
4719:
4718:
4708:
4668:
4662:
4661:
4613:
4604:
4603:
4583:
4577:
4576:
4574:
4573:
4562:
4551:
4550:
4548:
4547:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4526:
4511:
4500:
4499:
4497:
4496:
4482:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4472:
4456:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4446:
4430:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4400:
4394:
4393:
4391:
4389:
4378:
4372:
4371:
4334:
4328:
4327:
4312:Industrial Robot
4307:
4301:
4300:
4298:
4278:
4272:
4271:
4239:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4229:
4223:
4208:
4199:
4193:
4188:
4182:
4177:
4171:
4168:
4159:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4126:
4120:
4119:
4103:
4097:
4088:
4082:
4081:
4079:
4077:
4062:
4056:
4055:
4027:
4021:
4020:
4018:
4017:
4002:
3996:
3995:
3993:
3992:
3977:
3968:
3967:
3938:
3929:
3928:
3926:
3925:
3910:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3900:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3853:
3847:
3846:
3810:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3800:
3789:
3783:
3782:
3742:
3736:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3694:
3688:
3687:
3667:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3657:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3619:
3613:
3612:
3599:
3593:
3592:
3566:
3557:
3556:
3530:
3524:
3523:
3513:
3488:(10): CD005260.
3473:
3462:
3461:
3451:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3398:
3387:
3386:
3376:
3358:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3309:
3291:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3095:
3089:
3088:
3086:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3045:
3013:
3004:
3003:
3001:
3000:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2976:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2952:
2938:
2929:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2911:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2901:
2890:
2884:
2864:
2863:
2857:
2800:Artificial heart
2730:Ethical concerns
2319:
2318:
2031:Neuroprosthetics
1954:Osseointegration
1945:Osseointegration
1877:osseointegration
1816:pectoralis major
1744:
1711:, 1997, held in
1664:the prosthesis.
1628:Knee replacement
1582:knee replacement
1480:Terminal devices
1451:sensory feedback
1221:and his team at
1148:Marcel Desoutter
1031:
1028:
820:knee replacement
741:Electromyography
690:penile deformity
572:
570:
560:
558:
546:
525:
518:
511:
486:
485:
426:Paralympic Games
421:Special Olympics
285:Universal design
208:Pejorative terms
52:
51:
21:
9215:
9214:
9210:
9209:
9208:
9206:
9205:
9204:
9165:
9164:
9163:
9158:
9130:
9065:
8999:
8938:
8868:
8842:Activist groups
8837:
8791:
8770:
8734:
8701:
8641:
8610:
8605:
8575:
8566:
8496:
8407:
8312:
8284:
8174:
8160:
8155:
8111:Wayback Machine
8098:A hand for Rick
8082:
8077:
8037:
8020:
8015:
8014:
8005:
8003:
7995:
7994:
7990:
7982:
7980:
7978:
7952:
7948:
7893:
7884:
7841:
7837:
7822:10.2307/3171122
7810:
7806:
7794:. pp. 204–212.
7789:
7785:
7774:
7770:
7753:
7749:
7709:
7703:
7699:
7690:
7686:
7679:
7663:
7659:
7650:
7646:
7630:
7624:
7620:
7589:
7585:
7546:
7542:
7533:
7531:
7522:
7521:
7517:
7508:
7506:
7495:
7491:
7486:Wayback Machine
7477:
7473:
7465:
7461:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7443:
7442:
7438:
7424:
7420:
7410:
7408:
7400:
7399:
7395:
7385:
7383:
7375:
7374:
7367:
7336:
7332:
7313:
7312:
7308:
7297:Huffington Post
7289:
7285:
7276:
7274:
7261:
7260:
7256:
7235:
7231:
7220:
7219:
7215:
7196:
7192:
7183:
7181:
7171:
7167:
7158:
7157:
7153:
7138:
7134:
7103:
7099:
7076:
7072:
7065:
7043:
7039:
6992:
6988:
6979:
6977:
6968:
6967:
6963:
6926:Behav Brain Res
6918:
6914:
6863:
6859:
6849:
6847:
6838:
6837:
6833:
6823:
6821:
6810:
6806:
6796:
6794:
6783:
6779:
6769:
6767:
6758:
6757:
6753:
6743:
6741:
6732:
6731:
6727:
6718:
6716:
6706:
6702:
6693:
6691:
6690:on June 7, 2018
6678:
6677:
6673:
6664:
6662:
6652:
6648:
6601:
6597:
6588:
6586:
6578:
6577:
6573:
6564:
6562:
6552:
6548:
6539:
6537:
6524:
6523:
6519:
6464:
6460:
6451:
6449:
6447:Popular Science
6441:
6440:
6436:
6429:Biomechatronics
6423:
6422:
6418:
6411:
6407:
6398:
6396:
6391:
6390:
6386:
6341:
6337:
6292:
6288:
6279:
6277:
6270:
6266:
6257:
6255:
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6244:
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6098:
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6034:
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6001:
5994:
5980:
5976:
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5935:
5915:
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5890:
5880:
5878:
5865:
5861:
5830:
5821:
5808:
5807:
5803:
5763:
5759:
5720:
5713:
5707:Wayback Machine
5697:
5693:
5684:
5682:
5672:
5668:
5662:Wayback Machine
5653:
5649:
5644:
5640:
5635:
5628:
5615:
5611:
5560:
5556:
5525:(1): CD003978.
5514:
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5432:
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5401:
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5381:
5358:
5354:
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5327:
5296:
5292:
5282:
5280:
5265:
5261:
5254:
5250:
5243:
5239:
5232:
5228:
5223:3D bionic hands
5221:
5217:
5177:
5173:
5154:
5150:
5119:
5115:
5072:
5068:
5059:
5057:
5047:
5043:
5037:Channelnewsasia
5031:
5027:
5015:
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4971:
4967:
4960:
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4940:
4905:
4901:
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4791:
4775:
4774:
4726:
4722:
4669:
4665:
4614:
4607:
4584:
4580:
4571:
4569:
4564:
4563:
4554:
4545:
4543:
4542:. Progoandp.com
4538:
4537:
4533:
4524:
4522:
4513:
4512:
4503:
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4492:
4484:
4483:
4479:
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4468:
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4402:
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4385:
4380:
4379:
4375:
4335:
4331:
4308:
4304:
4296:10.1.1.685.6772
4279:
4275:
4240:
4236:
4227:
4225:
4221:
4206:
4200:
4196:
4189:
4185:
4178:
4174:
4169:
4162:
4154:
4150:
4127:
4123:
4104:
4100:
4089:
4085:
4075:
4073:
4064:
4063:
4059:
4028:
4024:
4015:
4013:
4004:
4003:
3999:
3990:
3988:
3978:
3971:
3950:(96): 185–200.
3939:
3932:
3923:
3921:
3911:
3907:
3898:
3896:
3886:
3882:
3871:
3867:
3854:
3850:
3821:(9765): 548–9.
3811:
3807:
3798:
3796:
3791:
3790:
3786:
3743:
3739:
3730:
3726:
3695:
3691:
3668:
3664:
3655:
3653:
3648:
3647:
3643:
3636:
3620:
3616:
3601:
3600:
3596:
3581:
3567:
3560:
3545:
3531:
3527:
3474:
3465:
3434:(2–3): 99–113.
3420:
3416:
3407:
3405:
3400:
3399:
3390:
3327:
3323:
3260:
3256:
3205:
3201:
3158:
3154:
3141:
3140:
3136:
3096:
3092:
3063:
3059:
3014:
3007:
2998:
2996:
2988:
2987:
2983:
2974:
2972:
2964:
2963:
2959:
2950:
2948:
2946:www.madehow.com
2940:
2939:
2932:
2923:
2921:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2899:
2897:
2891:
2887:
2882:Perseus Project
2858:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2795:
2780:Oscar Pistorius
2774:cancer research
2764:Marie Moentmann
2750:
2741:
2732:
2723:
2693:Elizabeth Grosz
2689:
2680:
2672:
2664:
2655:
2646:
2644:Pole and crutch
2619:
2609:
2572:
2554:
2413:LCKnee (Canada)
2358:ATLAS knee (UK)
2310:
2304:
2275:
2270:
2261:
2239:
2208:
2200:
2164:Oscar Pistorius
2162:In early 2008,
2160:
2158:Oscar Pistorius
2117:electrode array
2079:
2073:
2033:
2027:
2007:
1976:hip replacement
1947:
1941:
1933:
1912:
1889:
1847:
1831:the human brain
1781:microcontroller
1772:
1758:
1750:Main articles:
1734:
1732:
1688:
1673:hydraulic fluid
1643:
1630:
1624:
1615:
1606:
1594:
1573:hip replacement
1544:
1531:
1502:
1490:
1482:
1427:
1411:
1403:
1394:
1386:
1323:
1273:
1257:
1243:
1202:
1169:
1136:Benjamin Palmer
1098:
1078:in daily life.
1044:Pliny the Elder
1029:
987:
958:. Roman bronze
940:Shahr-i Shōkhta
904:
849:
836:Hemi-pelvictomy
830:hip replacement
706:
704:Limb prostheses
647:dental implants
616:
584:physical trauma
529:
498:
472:
471:
452:
442:
441:
440:
415:
405:
404:
375:
374:
358:
357:
349:
346:
304:
296:
295:
294:
260:Assisted living
232:
224:
223:
222:
182:
174:
173:
172:
152:
144:
143:
142:
105:
97:
96:
95:
65:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Prosthetic limb
15:
12:
11:
5:
9213:
9203:
9202:
9197:
9192:
9187:
9182:
9177:
9160:
9159:
9157:
9156:
9146:
9135:
9132:
9131:
9129:
9128:
9127:
9126:
9121:
9116:
9106:
9101:
9100:
9099:
9094:
9084:
9082:Disability art
9079:
9073:
9071:
9067:
9066:
9064:
9063:
9058:
9053:
9048:
9043:
9038:
9033:
9028:
9023:
9018:
9013:
9007:
9005:
9001:
9000:
8998:
8997:
8992:
8987:
8982:
8977:
8972:
8967:
8962:
8957:
8952:
8946:
8944:
8940:
8939:
8937:
8936:
8931:
8926:
8921:
8916:
8911:
8906:
8901:
8896:
8891:
8886:
8880:
8878:
8874:
8873:
8870:
8869:
8867:
8866:
8861:
8856:
8851:
8845:
8843:
8839:
8838:
8836:
8835:
8830:
8825:
8820:
8815:
8810:
8805:
8799:
8797:
8793:
8792:
8790:
8789:
8784:
8778:
8776:
8772:
8771:
8769:
8768:
8763:
8758:
8753:
8748:
8742:
8740:
8736:
8735:
8733:
8732:
8727:
8722:
8716:
8714:
8707:
8703:
8702:
8700:
8699:
8698:
8697:
8692:
8682:
8681:
8680:
8670:
8665:
8660:
8655:
8649:
8647:
8643:
8642:
8640:
8639:
8634:
8629:
8624:
8618:
8616:
8612:
8611:
8604:
8603:
8596:
8589:
8581:
8572:
8571:
8568:
8567:
8565:
8564:
8563:
8562:
8557:
8552:
8547:
8542:
8532:
8527:
8522:
8517:
8512:
8506:
8504:
8498:
8497:
8495:
8494:
8493:
8492:
8487:
8482:
8477:
8472:
8467:
8462:
8452:
8447:
8442:
8437:
8432:
8426:
8424:
8415:
8409:
8408:
8406:
8405:
8400:
8399:
8398:
8393:
8388:
8378:
8373:
8372:
8371:
8366:
8356:
8351:
8346:
8345:
8344:
8339:
8334:
8323:
8321:
8314:
8313:
8311:
8310:
8305:
8300:
8294:
8292:
8286:
8285:
8283:
8282:
8277:
8272:
8267:
8262:
8257:
8252:
8251:
8250:
8245:
8240:
8235:
8230:
8225:
8220:
8215:
8210:
8205:
8200:
8190:
8184:
8182:
8176:
8175:
8170:
8168:
8162:
8161:
8154:
8153:
8146:
8139:
8131:
8125:
8124:
8119:
8113:
8101:
8095:
8094:, PBS Newshour
8089:
8081:
8080:External links
8078:
8076:
8075:
8054:
8049:
8046:
8041:
8035:
8021:
8019:
8016:
8013:
8012:
7988:
7976:
7946:
7882:
7855:(3): 425–441.
7835:
7804:
7783:
7768:
7747:
7720:(7): 759–766.
7697:
7684:
7677:
7657:
7644:
7618:
7599:(12): 920–34.
7583:
7556:(3): 300–314.
7540:
7515:
7489:
7471:
7459:
7436:
7418:
7393:
7365:
7330:
7306:
7283:
7267:london2012.com
7254:
7229:
7213:
7190:
7179:SciTech Europa
7165:
7151:
7132:
7097:
7086:(7): 391–392.
7070:
7063:
7037:
6986:
6961:
6912:
6857:
6831:
6804:
6777:
6751:
6725:
6700:
6671:
6646:
6595:
6571:
6556:"PROPRIO FOOT"
6546:
6517:
6458:
6434:
6416:
6405:
6384:
6335:
6286:
6264:
6242:
6221:
6196:
6141:
6116:
6091:
6047:
5999:
5992:
5974:
5933:
5903:
5888:
5859:
5840:(3): 247–262.
5819:
5816:. 20 May 2015.
5801:
5774:(4): 362–377.
5757:
5711:
5691:
5666:
5647:
5638:
5626:
5609:
5574:(4): 369–378.
5554:
5499:
5472:(4): 378–398.
5453:
5426:
5399:
5379:
5352:
5325:
5290:
5273:cityviewnc.com
5267:Onken, Sarah.
5259:
5248:
5237:
5226:
5215:
5171:
5148:
5129:(4): 523–534.
5113:
5086:(4): 411–427.
5066:
5041:
5025:
5009:
4965:
4958:
4938:
4919:(2): 161–174.
4899:
4864:(2): 221–240.
4844:
4789:
4740:(2): 141–146.
4720:
4683:(3): 107–109.
4663:
4628:(5): 540–555.
4605:
4594:(3): 113–117.
4578:
4552:
4531:
4501:
4477:
4451:
4420:
4395:
4373:
4329:
4318:(5): 421–427.
4302:
4273:
4234:
4194:
4183:
4172:
4160:
4148:
4121:
4098:
4083:
4057:
4022:
3997:
3969:
3930:
3905:
3880:
3865:
3848:
3805:
3784:
3737:
3724:
3705:(7): 641–644.
3689:
3686:on 2007-10-14.
3662:
3641:
3634:
3614:
3594:
3580:978-9163107566
3579:
3558:
3544:978-0892032754
3543:
3525:
3463:
3414:
3388:
3321:
3254:
3219:(6): 643–659.
3199:
3152:
3134:
3090:
3077:(3): 394–413.
3057:
3005:
2981:
2957:
2930:
2906:
2885:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2790:
2789:
2786:Harold Russell
2783:
2777:
2767:
2761:
2749:
2746:
2740:
2737:
2731:
2728:
2722:
2719:
2688:
2685:
2679:
2676:
2671:
2668:
2663:
2660:
2654:
2651:
2645:
2642:
2608:
2605:
2562:Modular design
2553:
2550:
2487:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2454:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2428:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2388:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2355:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2344:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2333:
2332:
2326:
2323:
2303:
2300:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2255:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2207:
2204:
2199:
2196:
2159:
2156:
2111:. In 2002, an
2102:transhumanists
2072:
2069:
2053:cerebral palsy
2029:Main article:
2026:
2023:
2006:
2003:
1998:
1997:
1994:
1991:
1968:Endoprosthesis
1943:Main article:
1940:
1937:
1932:
1929:
1911:
1908:
1888:
1885:
1846:
1843:
1839:nervous system
1823:sensory nerves
1731:
1728:
1687:
1684:
1642:
1639:
1626:Main article:
1623:
1620:
1614:
1611:
1605:
1602:
1598:proprioception
1593:
1590:
1589:
1588:
1585:
1576:
1543:
1540:
1530:
1527:
1501:
1498:
1489:
1486:
1481:
1478:
1426:
1423:
1410:
1407:
1402:
1399:
1393:
1390:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1377:
1371:
1365:vacuum forming
1361:
1358:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1322:
1319:
1272:
1269:
1256:
1253:
1242:
1239:
1201:
1198:
1168:
1165:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1145:
1142:Dubois Parmlee
1139:
1133:
1126:
1120:
1117:Pieter Verduyn
1097:
1094:
1075:Henri de Tonti
1060:leg from Capua
1048:Marcus Sergius
986:
983:
903:
900:
896:
895:
894:
893:
887:
886:
885:
882:
876:
873:
870:
869:
868:
865:
862:
859:
848:
845:
844:
843:
840:
837:
834:
824:
814:
811:
808:
781:co-morbidities
705:
702:
667:replacements,
615:
612:
531:
530:
528:
527:
520:
513:
505:
502:
501:
500:
499:
497:
496:
491:
479:
474:
473:
470:
469:
464:
462:Disability art
459:
453:
448:
447:
444:
443:
439:
438:
436:Invictus Games
433:
428:
423:
417:
416:
411:
410:
407:
406:
403:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
376:
373:
372:
369:
365:
364:
363:
360:
359:
356:
355:
350:
343:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
319:Ticket to Work
316:
311:
305:
302:
301:
298:
297:
293:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
246:
245:
244:
233:
230:
229:
226:
225:
221:
220:
218:Women's health
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
184:
183:
180:
179:
176:
175:
171:
170:
165:
160:
154:
153:
150:
149:
146:
145:
141:
140:
135:
130:
128:Special school
125:
119:
118:
117:
112:
106:
103:
102:
99:
98:
94:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
67:
66:
63:
62:
59:
58:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9212:
9201:
9198:
9196:
9193:
9191:
9188:
9186:
9183:
9181:
9178:
9176:
9173:
9172:
9170:
9155:
9147:
9145:
9137:
9136:
9133:
9125:
9122:
9120:
9117:
9115:
9112:
9111:
9110:
9107:
9105:
9102:
9098:
9095:
9093:
9090:
9089:
9088:
9085:
9083:
9080:
9078:
9075:
9074:
9072:
9068:
9062:
9059:
9057:
9054:
9052:
9049:
9047:
9044:
9042:
9039:
9037:
9034:
9032:
9029:
9027:
9024:
9022:
9019:
9017:
9014:
9012:
9009:
9008:
9006:
9002:
8996:
8993:
8991:
8988:
8986:
8983:
8981:
8978:
8976:
8973:
8971:
8968:
8966:
8963:
8961:
8958:
8956:
8953:
8951:
8948:
8947:
8945:
8943:Social issues
8941:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8920:
8917:
8915:
8912:
8910:
8907:
8905:
8902:
8900:
8897:
8895:
8892:
8890:
8887:
8885:
8882:
8881:
8879:
8875:
8865:
8862:
8860:
8857:
8855:
8852:
8850:
8847:
8846:
8844:
8840:
8834:
8831:
8829:
8826:
8824:
8821:
8819:
8816:
8814:
8811:
8809:
8806:
8804:
8801:
8800:
8798:
8794:
8788:
8785:
8783:
8780:
8779:
8777:
8773:
8767:
8764:
8762:
8759:
8757:
8754:
8752:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8743:
8741:
8737:
8731:
8728:
8726:
8723:
8721:
8718:
8717:
8715:
8711:
8708:
8704:
8696:
8693:
8691:
8688:
8687:
8686:
8685:Special needs
8683:
8679:
8676:
8675:
8674:
8671:
8669:
8668:Mainstreaming
8666:
8664:
8661:
8659:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8650:
8648:
8644:
8638:
8635:
8633:
8632:Medical model
8630:
8628:
8625:
8623:
8620:
8619:
8617:
8613:
8609:
8602:
8597:
8595:
8590:
8588:
8583:
8582:
8579:
8561:
8558:
8556:
8553:
8551:
8548:
8546:
8543:
8541:
8538:
8537:
8536:
8533:
8531:
8528:
8526:
8523:
8521:
8518:
8516:
8513:
8511:
8508:
8507:
8505:
8503:
8499:
8491:
8488:
8486:
8483:
8481:
8478:
8476:
8473:
8471:
8468:
8466:
8463:
8461:
8458:
8457:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8446:
8443:
8441:
8438:
8436:
8433:
8431:
8428:
8427:
8425:
8423:
8419:
8416:
8414:
8410:
8404:
8401:
8397:
8394:
8392:
8389:
8387:
8384:
8383:
8382:
8379:
8377:
8374:
8370:
8367:
8365:
8362:
8361:
8360:
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8355:
8352:
8350:
8347:
8343:
8340:
8338:
8335:
8333:
8330:
8329:
8328:
8325:
8324:
8322:
8319:
8315:
8309:
8306:
8304:
8301:
8299:
8296:
8295:
8293:
8291:
8287:
8281:
8278:
8276:
8273:
8271:
8268:
8266:
8263:
8261:
8258:
8256:
8253:
8249:
8246:
8244:
8241:
8239:
8236:
8234:
8231:
8229:
8226:
8224:
8221:
8219:
8216:
8214:
8211:
8209:
8206:
8204:
8201:
8199:
8196:
8195:
8194:
8191:
8189:
8186:
8185:
8183:
8181:
8177:
8173:
8169:
8167:
8163:
8159:
8152:
8147:
8145:
8140:
8138:
8133:
8132:
8129:
8123:
8120:
8117:
8114:
8112:
8108:
8105:
8102:
8099:
8096:
8093:
8090:
8087:
8084:
8083:
8072:
8068:
8064:
8060:
8055:
8053:
8050:
8047:
8045:
8042:
8038:
8032:
8028:
8023:
8022:
8002:
7998:
7992:
7979:
7973:
7969:
7965:
7961:
7957:
7950:
7942:
7938:
7933:
7928:
7924:
7920:
7915:
7910:
7906:
7902:
7898:
7891:
7889:
7887:
7878:
7874:
7870:
7866:
7862:
7858:
7854:
7850:
7846:
7839:
7831:
7827:
7823:
7819:
7815:
7808:
7801:
7797:
7793:
7787:
7779:
7772:
7765:
7761:
7757:
7751:
7743:
7739:
7735:
7731:
7727:
7723:
7719:
7715:
7708:
7701:
7694:
7688:
7680:
7678:0-942364-06-6
7674:
7670:
7669:
7661:
7654:
7648:
7640:
7636:
7629:
7622:
7614:
7610:
7606:
7602:
7598:
7594:
7587:
7579:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7559:
7555:
7551:
7544:
7530:on 2006-10-04
7529:
7525:
7519:
7504:
7500:
7493:
7487:
7483:
7480:
7475:
7469:
7463:
7446:
7440:
7433:
7432:
7427:
7422:
7407:
7403:
7397:
7382:
7378:
7372:
7370:
7361:
7357:
7353:
7349:
7345:
7341:
7334:
7326:
7322:
7321:
7320:Yahoo! Sports
7316:
7310:
7302:
7298:
7294:
7287:
7272:
7268:
7264:
7258:
7250:
7246:
7242:
7241:
7233:
7225:
7224:
7217:
7209:
7205:
7201:
7194:
7180:
7176:
7169:
7161:
7155:
7147:
7146:IEEE Spectrum
7143:
7136:
7128:
7124:
7120:
7116:
7112:
7108:
7101:
7093:
7089:
7085:
7081:
7074:
7066:
7064:9780199587810
7060:
7056:
7052:
7048:
7041:
7033:
7029:
7024:
7019:
7014:
7009:
7005:
7001:
7000:PLOS Medicine
6997:
6990:
6976:on 2016-12-28
6975:
6971:
6965:
6957:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6939:
6935:
6932:(2): 149–65.
6931:
6927:
6923:
6916:
6908:
6904:
6900:
6896:
6892:
6888:
6884:
6880:
6876:
6872:
6868:
6861:
6845:
6841:
6835:
6819:
6815:
6808:
6792:
6788:
6781:
6765:
6761:
6755:
6739:
6735:
6729:
6715:
6714:Stanford News
6711:
6704:
6689:
6685:
6681:
6675:
6661:
6657:
6650:
6642:
6638:
6633:
6628:
6623:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6599:
6585:
6581:
6575:
6561:
6560:www.ossur.com
6557:
6550:
6536:on 2017-12-03
6535:
6531:
6527:
6521:
6513:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6495:
6491:
6486:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6469:
6462:
6448:
6444:
6438:
6430:
6426:
6420:
6414:
6409:
6394:
6388:
6380:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6354:
6350:
6346:
6339:
6331:
6327:
6322:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6290:
6275:
6268:
6253:
6246:
6231:
6225:
6211:on 2011-07-27
6210:
6206:
6200:
6192:
6188:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6168:
6164:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6145:
6131:on 2009-04-26
6130:
6126:
6120:
6105:
6101:
6095:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6051:
6037:on 2016-12-28
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6010:
6003:
5995:
5989:
5985:
5978:
5970:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5937:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5914:
5907:
5899:
5892:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5863:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5828:
5826:
5824:
5815:
5811:
5805:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5761:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5733:
5729:
5725:
5718:
5716:
5708:
5704:
5701:
5695:
5681:
5677:
5670:
5663:
5659:
5656:
5651:
5642:
5633:
5631:
5622:
5621:
5613:
5605:
5601:
5597:
5593:
5589:
5585:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5558:
5550:
5546:
5541:
5536:
5532:
5528:
5524:
5520:
5513:
5506:
5504:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5460:
5458:
5449:
5445:
5441:
5437:
5430:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5403:
5396:
5395:
5388:
5386:
5384:
5375:
5371:
5368:(3): 155–63.
5367:
5363:
5356:
5348:
5344:
5341:(2): 161–74.
5340:
5336:
5329:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5306:(5): 747–61.
5305:
5301:
5294:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5263:
5257:
5252:
5246:
5241:
5235:
5230:
5224:
5219:
5211:
5207:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5175:
5167:
5163:
5159:
5152:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5117:
5109:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5070:
5056:
5052:
5045:
5038:
5034:
5029:
5022:
5018:
5013:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4969:
4961:
4955:
4951:
4950:
4942:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4910:
4903:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4848:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4809:(2): 97–107.
4808:
4804:
4800:
4793:
4785:
4779:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4724:
4716:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4667:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4612:
4610:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4582:
4567:
4561:
4559:
4557:
4541:
4535:
4520:
4516:
4510:
4508:
4506:
4491:
4487:
4481:
4467:
4466:
4461:
4455:
4441:
4440:
4435:
4429:
4427:
4425:
4409:
4405:
4399:
4383:
4377:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4333:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4306:
4297:
4292:
4289:(3): 186–97.
4288:
4284:
4277:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4248:IEEE Spectrum
4245:
4238:
4224:on 2017-09-19
4220:
4216:
4212:
4205:
4198:
4192:
4187:
4181:
4176:
4167:
4165:
4157:
4152:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4125:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4102:
4095:
4094:
4087:
4071:
4067:
4061:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4038:(1): 158–63.
4037:
4033:
4026:
4011:
4007:
4001:
3987:
3983:
3976:
3974:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3937:
3935:
3920:
3916:
3909:
3895:
3891:
3884:
3876:
3869:
3861:
3860:
3852:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3809:
3794:
3788:
3781:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3741:
3734:
3733:The Histories
3728:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3693:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3666:
3651:
3645:
3637:
3635:9783319190570
3631:
3627:
3626:
3618:
3611:. March 2013.
3610:
3609:
3604:
3598:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3576:
3572:
3565:
3563:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3540:
3536:
3529:
3521:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3459:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3418:
3403:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3384:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3325:
3317:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3258:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3156:
3148:
3144:
3138:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3094:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3061:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3012:
3010:
2995:
2991:
2985:
2971:
2967:
2961:
2947:
2943:
2937:
2935:
2920:
2916:
2910:
2896:
2889:
2883:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2872:Scott, Robert
2869:
2865:
2856:
2852:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2830:Transhumanism
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2787:
2784:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:(1768–1854),
2755:
2752:
2751:
2745:
2736:
2727:
2718:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2699:
2698:Elaine Scarry
2694:
2684:
2675:
2667:
2659:
2650:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2614:
2604:
2601:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2519:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2493:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2389:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2334:
2331:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2309:
2299:
2295:
2293:
2292:wear and tear
2288:
2283:
2281:
2265:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2211:
2203:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2169:
2165:
2155:
2151:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2109:Kevin Warwick
2105:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2092:
2083:
2078:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2032:
2022:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2002:
1995:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1959:exoprosthesis
1955:
1951:
1946:
1936:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1907:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1892:
1884:
1880:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1798:
1793:
1789:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1757:
1753:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1701:
1698:
1693:
1683:
1680:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1659:
1654:
1652:
1648:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1619:
1610:
1601:
1599:
1586:
1584:
1583:
1577:
1575:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1553:
1548:
1539:
1536:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1511:
1506:
1497:
1493:
1485:
1477:
1475:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1447:Latin America
1444:
1440:
1437:In 1997, the
1435:
1433:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1406:
1398:
1389:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1355:thermoplastic
1353:Formation of
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1318:
1316:
1311:
1309:
1299:
1295:
1293:
1285:
1282:
1277:
1268:
1264:
1262:
1252:
1249:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1206:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1186:
1182:
1173:
1164:
1156:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1103:Ambroise Paré
1093:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1037:
1023:
1015:
1008:
1007:Turpan Museum
1004:
999:
991:
982:
980:
976:
972:
971:Hegesistratus
968:
963:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
920:ancient Egypt
917:
908:
899:
891:
890:
888:
883:
880:
879:
877:
874:
871:
866:
863:
861:Polypropylene
860:
857:
856:
854:
853:
852:
841:
838:
835:
833:
831:
825:
823:
821:
815:
812:
809:
806:
805:
804:
797:
793:
790:
789:heart disease
786:
782:
778:
773:
769:
765:
761:
759:
755:
751:
748:
746:
742:
737:
728:
723:
719:
716:
712:
710:
701:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
677:
673:
668:
666:
662:
658:
655:
650:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
611:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
575:
569:
563:
554:
553:Ancient Greek
550:
542:
538:
526:
521:
519:
514:
512:
507:
506:
504:
503:
495:
492:
490:
481:
480:
478:
477:
476:
475:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
454:
451:
446:
445:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
418:
414:
409:
408:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
377:
371:Organizations
370:
367:
366:
362:
361:
354:
351:
348:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
306:
300:
299:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
247:
242:
238:
235:
234:
228:
227:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
198:Normalization
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
185:
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177:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
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136:
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131:
129:
126:
124:
123:Special needs
121:
120:
116:
113:
111:
110:Mainstreaming
108:
107:
101:
100:
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89:
87:
84:
82:
81:Medical model
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
68:
61:
60:
57:
54:
53:
46:
40:
33:
19:
9046:Anthropology
9036:Deaf studies
9026:Crip as verb
8923:
8904:Mobility aid
8864:Reach Canada
8637:Social model
8298:Adam's apple
8062:
8058:
8026:
8004:. Retrieved
8001:Limbs 4 life
8000:
7991:
7981:, retrieved
7959:
7949:
7904:
7900:
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7848:
7838:
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7813:
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7549:
7543:
7532:. Retrieved
7528:the original
7518:
7507:. Retrieved
7502:
7492:
7474:
7462:
7451:. Retrieved
7439:
7431:Boston Globe
7429:
7421:
7409:. Retrieved
7405:
7396:
7384:. Retrieved
7380:
7346:(1): 13–36.
7343:
7333:
7325:the original
7318:
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7301:the original
7296:
7286:
7275:, retrieved
7271:the original
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7249:the original
7239:
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7216:
7208:the original
7203:
7193:
7182:. Retrieved
7178:
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6974:the original
6964:
6929:
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6860:
6848:. Retrieved
6843:
6834:
6822:. Retrieved
6817:
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6795:. Retrieved
6790:
6780:
6768:. Retrieved
6763:
6754:
6742:. Retrieved
6737:
6728:
6717:. Retrieved
6713:
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6692:. Retrieved
6688:the original
6683:
6674:
6663:. Retrieved
6659:
6649:
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6598:
6587:. Retrieved
6583:
6574:
6563:. Retrieved
6559:
6549:
6538:. Retrieved
6534:the original
6529:
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6471:
6461:
6450:. Retrieved
6446:
6437:
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6397:. Retrieved
6387:
6355:(1): 34–37.
6352:
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6289:
6278:. Retrieved
6267:
6256:. Retrieved
6254:. Gizmag.com
6245:
6234:. Retrieved
6224:
6213:. Retrieved
6209:the original
6199:
6158:
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6144:
6133:. Retrieved
6129:the original
6119:
6108:. Retrieved
6106:. 2009-02-10
6103:
6094:
6061:
6057:
6050:
6039:. Retrieved
6032:the original
6019:
6015:
6002:
5986:. Springer.
5983:
5977:
5950:
5946:
5936:
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5906:
5897:
5891:
5879:. Retrieved
5875:
5862:
5837:
5833:
5813:
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5760:
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5694:
5683:. Retrieved
5679:
5669:
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5281:. Retrieved
5277:the original
5272:
5262:
5251:
5240:
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5185:
5181:
5174:
5157:
5151:
5126:
5122:
5116:
5083:
5079:
5069:
5058:. Retrieved
5054:
5044:
5036:
5028:
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4979:
4975:
4968:
4948:
4941:
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4778:cite journal
4737:
4733:
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4625:
4621:
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4587:
4581:
4570:. Retrieved
4544:. Retrieved
4534:
4523:. Retrieved
4518:
4493:. Retrieved
4489:
4480:
4469:. Retrieved
4463:
4454:
4443:. Retrieved
4437:
4411:. Retrieved
4407:
4398:
4386:. Retrieved
4376:
4343:
4339:
4332:
4315:
4311:
4305:
4286:
4282:
4276:
4251:
4247:
4237:
4226:. Retrieved
4219:the original
4214:
4210:
4197:
4186:
4175:
4151:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4115:
4111:
4101:
4092:
4086:
4074:. Retrieved
4069:
4060:
4035:
4031:
4025:
4014:. Retrieved
4012:. 2015-09-21
4009:
4000:
3989:. Retrieved
3985:
3947:
3943:
3922:. Retrieved
3919:ScienceAlert
3918:
3908:
3897:. Retrieved
3893:
3883:
3874:
3868:
3858:
3851:
3818:
3814:
3808:
3797:. Retrieved
3787:
3778:
3750:
3740:
3732:
3727:
3702:
3698:
3692:
3684:the original
3679:
3675:
3665:
3654:. Retrieved
3644:
3628:. Springer.
3624:
3617:
3606:
3597:
3570:
3534:
3528:
3485:
3481:
3431:
3427:
3417:
3406:. Retrieved
3341:(14): 3137.
3338:
3334:
3324:
3271:
3267:
3257:
3216:
3212:
3202:
3169:
3165:
3155:
3146:
3137:
3104:
3100:
3093:
3074:
3070:
3060:
3028:(1): 66–74.
3025:
3021:
2997:. Retrieved
2993:
2984:
2973:. Retrieved
2969:
2960:
2949:. Retrieved
2945:
2922:. Retrieved
2918:
2909:
2898:. Retrieved
2888:
2875:
2855:
2742:
2733:
2724:
2706:
2702:
2690:
2681:
2673:
2665:
2656:
2647:
2639:
2635:
2632:
2599:
2595:Open Bionics
2584:
2578:
2535:
2534:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2513:
2501:Index: Award
2498:
2329:
2315:
2311:
2296:
2284:
2276:
2262:
2240:
2209:
2201:
2173:
2161:
2152:
2133:
2125:median nerve
2106:
2095:
2088:
2034:
2008:
1999:
1980:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1934:
1913:
1904:
1901:
1893:
1890:
1881:
1865:
1848:
1845:Robotic arms
1820:
1804:motor nerves
1801:
1794:
1790:
1773:
1766:3-D printing
1717:
1713:Nice, France
1708:
1702:
1697:phantom limb
1691:
1689:
1681:
1677:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1644:
1635:
1631:
1616:
1607:
1595:
1579:
1570:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1532:
1515:
1494:
1491:
1483:
1471:
1459:
1455:
1436:
1428:
1419:
1415:
1412:
1404:
1395:
1387:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1312:
1304:
1292:carbon fiber
1289:
1265:
1261:Prosthetists
1258:
1244:
1211:
1194:
1190:
1178:
1161:
1111:
1099:
1091:
1085:cemetery in
1080:
1064:
1042:
964:
928:Eye of Horus
913:
897:
889:Composites:
867:Polyurethane
858:Polyethylene
850:
827:
817:
802:
792:approaches.
783:) including
774:
770:
766:
762:
753:
752:
749:
735:
732:
714:
713:
707:
694:phalloplasty
680:
669:
651:
621:
617:
608:3-D graphics
579:
548:
540:
534:
395:Visitability
339:Freedom Pass
279:
265:Mobility aid
163:Occupational
91:Other models
86:Social model
9175:Prosthetics
9119:Paralympics
9114:Deaflympics
8924:Prosthetics
8615:Main topics
8065:(1): 1–11.
6877:: 241–242.
6615:(S3): 140.
5415:: S18–S22.
4254:(1): 44–8.
4076:23 November
3731:Herodotus,
3274:(4): 1885.
3101:IEEE Access
2825:Robotic arm
2815:Cybernetics
2711:Mark Wigley
2627:thalidomide
2617:3D printing
2587:open-design
2570:Thingiverse
2566:3D printing
2537:Jaipur foot
2526:3D printers
2427:Single-axis
2308:3D printing
2251:Ease of use
2206:Performance
2194:in London.
2138:company of
1856:I-LIMB Hand
1686:Myoelectric
1533:Hosmer and
1519:Laura Hruby
1510:Owen Wilson
1375:die casting
1185:James Foort
1123:James Potts
1030: 1564
944:New Kingdom
777:circulation
727:myoelectric
657:substitutes
596:physiatrist
431:Deaflympics
280:Prosthetics
9169:Categories
9109:Parasports
8646:Approaches
8622:Disability
8608:Disability
8465:Fingernail
8006:2023-11-27
7983:2023-11-27
7907:: 537493.
7814:Assemblage
7764:1580931340
7534:2016-12-28
7509:2016-12-28
7453:2010-10-03
7411:28 January
7406:Limbs4life
7184:2019-05-06
7006:(3): e52.
6980:2016-12-28
6850:3 November
6824:3 November
6797:3 November
6770:3 November
6744:3 November
6719:2018-06-08
6694:2018-06-08
6665:2018-06-08
6589:2018-01-08
6565:2018-01-08
6540:2018-01-08
6452:2018-12-01
6399:2016-12-28
6349:IEEE Pulse
6280:2016-12-28
6258:2016-12-28
6236:2016-12-28
6215:2010-10-03
6135:2010-10-03
6110:2010-10-03
6041:2016-12-28
5685:2008-10-30
5060:2020-06-12
4572:2010-10-03
4546:2016-12-28
4525:2023-11-27
4495:2024-06-04
4471:2024-06-04
4445:2024-06-04
4228:2017-10-05
4016:2018-04-17
3991:2018-04-17
3924:2018-04-17
3899:2024-04-15
3815:The Lancet
3799:2009-11-03
3656:2013-03-13
3408:2010-10-03
3172:(5): 599.
3071:Prosthesis
2999:2017-10-24
2975:2019-02-24
2951:2017-10-24
2924:2019-01-30
2900:2019-01-30
2842:References
2670:Sathi Limb
2611:See also:
2556:See also:
2509:fiberglass
2306:See also:
2140:Dean Kamen
2121:electrodes
2091:congenital
1978:implants.
1812:surgically
1777:Biosensors
1622:Knee joint
1552:Ellie Cole
1219:Dean Kamen
1183:including
1130:James Syme
973:, a Greek
948:South Asia
855:Plastics:
828:(also see
818:(also see
729:(left arm)
692:, perform
688:, correct
665:esophageal
663:and upper
643:obturators
637:, such as
568:prósthesis
549:prostheses
541:prosthesis
489:Disability
413:Parasports
56:Disability
9056:Education
9051:Geography
8695:education
8658:Inclusion
8381:Genitalia
7923:1664-1078
7869:1359-1053
7734:0268-0033
7360:2817-6731
7204:USA Today
7080:Bioethics
6907:216047962
6891:1743-9159
6494:2365-6271
6191:221326246
6175:1746-1553
6161:: 94–99.
6022:: 25–39.
5588:1534-4320
5283:24 August
5269:"Dive In"
5021:USA Today
5004:206682721
4925:0748-7711
4894:201018681
4878:1748-3115
4823:0309-3646
4754:1938-1352
4697:0976-5662
4658:198999869
4642:1746-1553
4408:darpa.mil
4346:: 52–67.
4291:CiteSeerX
4137:(1): 94.
3775:1040-6182
3589:152577368
3502:1469-493X
3365:1424-8220
3298:1424-8220
3233:0748-7711
3186:0748-7711
3129:254339929
2862:πρόσθεσις
2847:Citations
2810:Capua Leg
2770:Terry Fox
2758:whose leg
2600:Star Wars
2579:Star Wars
2330:evidence
2273:High-cost
2245:Cosmetics
2129:robot arm
2041:attention
2025:Cognition
1860:David Gow
1647:Otto Bock
1535:Otto Bock
1439:Colombian
1212:In 2005,
1083:Longobard
1052:iron hand
967:Herodotus
745:upper arm
562:romanized
557:πρόσθεσις
193:Inclusion
104:Education
9200:Robotics
9144:Category
9061:Journals
9041:Eugenics
9021:Bodymind
8828:Students
8775:Services
8510:Buttocks
8430:Shoulder
8265:Mandible
8198:Forehead
8107:Archived
8071:11926321
7941:34122200
7877:15857872
7742:15963612
7641:(2): 91.
7578:38036558
7570:28152642
7482:Archived
7386:13 April
7277:4 August
7127:14568806
7032:15630464
6956:18539345
6899:32311524
6844:Envision
6818:ABC News
6791:ABC News
6641:28105948
6512:29782612
6478:(1): 8.
6379:22344949
6330:18713682
6183:32842869
6086:20041254
6078:17276777
6028:19592784
5969:14226106
5922:: 8–35.
5881:19 March
5854:26230500
5796:23608311
5788:20969495
5744:25856664
5703:Archived
5658:Archived
5596:15614992
5549:14974050
5494:27233705
5486:21083505
5442:: 9–22.
5374:10659798
5347:11392649
5320:12736892
5210:28143731
5202:28093018
5143:22773256
5108:22327910
5100:20849359
4996:24500407
4933:11392649
4886:31418306
4839:20147798
4831:11061196
4762:15944878
4715:26403547
4650:31364475
4368:14678623
4360:25107852
4268:34235585
4096:. London
3964:29717991
3843:42637892
3835:21341402
3553:54693136
3520:30350430
3458:28066520
3383:31319463
3316:36850483
3249:14883575
3241:21938652
3194:24013909
3147:BBC News
3052:28190380
2793:See also
2776:activist
2678:Monolimb
2405:Four-bar
2394:Four-bar
2302:Low-cost
2015:silicone
2011:cosmesis
2005:Cosmesis
1797:actuator
1425:Feedback
1286:software
1233:and the
1158:leather.
952:Vishpala
884:Aluminum
881:Titanium
864:Acrylics
785:diabetes
639:dentures
537:medicine
158:Physical
39:Orthotic
8796:Support
8555:Toenail
8445:Forearm
8391:Scrotum
8337:Midriff
8327:Abdomen
8320:(Trunk)
8270:Occiput
8213:Eyebrow
8018:Sources
7932:8189153
7830:3171122
7613:1946626
6947:3051349
6632:5249019
6554:Össur.
6503:5954798
6370:3357625
6321:3038244
5960:1927453
5814:Reuters
5752:5942534
5604:1860735
5540:8762647
4770:9385882
4706:3880430
4413:June 4,
4052:2660173
3755:Bibcode
3707:Bibcode
3511:6517199
3449:5218520
3374:6679265
3343:Bibcode
3335:Sensors
3307:9959820
3276:Bibcode
3268:Sensors
3109:Bibcode
3043:5810914
2880:at the
2805:Bionics
2739:Debates
2113:implant
1925:braille
1872:Proto 2
1808:muscles
1521:of the
1392:Sockets
1315:suction
1248:bionics
1107:peg leg
979:Spartan
975:diviner
956:Rigveda
954:in the
902:History
661:trachea
627:orbital
592:Amputee
576:
564::
551:; from
450:Culture
400:WeThe15
239: (
151:Therapy
8713:Rights
8690:school
8490:Little
8480:Middle
8460:Finger
8435:Axilla
8376:Pelvis
8369:Nipple
8364:Breast
8359:Thorax
8303:Throat
8280:Temple
8243:Tongue
8223:Eyelid
8069:
8033:
7974:
7939:
7929:
7921:
7875:
7867:
7828:
7798:
7762:
7740:
7732:
7675:
7611:
7576:
7568:
7358:
7125:
7061:
7030:
7023:539045
7020:
6954:
6944:
6905:
6897:
6889:
6639:
6629:
6510:
6500:
6492:
6377:
6367:
6328:
6318:
6189:
6181:
6173:
6084:
6076:
6058:Lancet
6026:
5990:
5967:
5957:
5928:365281
5926:
5852:
5794:
5786:
5750:
5742:
5602:
5594:
5586:
5547:
5537:
5492:
5484:
5372:
5345:
5318:
5208:
5200:
5141:
5106:
5098:
5002:
4994:
4956:
4931:
4923:
4892:
4884:
4876:
4837:
4829:
4821:
4768:
4760:
4752:
4713:
4703:
4695:
4656:
4648:
4640:
4366:
4358:
4293:
4266:
4050:
3986:Forbes
3962:
3841:
3833:
3773:
3735:. 9.37
3632:
3587:
3577:
3551:
3541:
3518:
3508:
3500:
3456:
3446:
3381:
3371:
3363:
3314:
3304:
3296:
3247:
3239:
3231:
3192:
3184:
3127:
3050:
3040:
2820:Cyborg
2568:, and
2542:Jaipur
2441:Field
2430:Field
2419:Field
2408:Field
2397:Field
2386:Field
2375:Field
2059:, and
2057:autism
2045:stroke
1768:, and
1592:Socket
1508:Actor
1441:Prof.
1401:Wrists
1281:WorkNC
1150:&
960:crowns
736:et.al.
654:larynx
645:, and
631:ocular
487:
368:Groups
168:Speech
9154:Lists
8859:MINDS
8540:Ankle
8520:Thigh
8475:Index
8470:Thumb
8450:Wrist
8440:Elbow
8413:Limbs
8396:Vulva
8386:Penis
8342:Navel
8332:Waist
8318:Torso
8275:Scalp
8248:Tooth
8233:Mouth
8203:Cheek
7826:JSTOR
7710:(PDF)
7631:(PDF)
7574:S2CID
7448:(PDF)
6903:S2CID
6187:S2CID
6082:S2CID
6035:(PDF)
6012:(PDF)
5916:(PDF)
5876:IFMBE
5792:S2CID
5748:S2CID
5600:S2CID
5515:(PDF)
5490:S2CID
5206:S2CID
5104:S2CID
5000:S2CID
4890:S2CID
4835:S2CID
4766:S2CID
4654:S2CID
4388:9 May
4364:S2CID
4264:S2CID
4222:(PDF)
4207:(PDF)
3839:S2CID
3780:date.
3245:S2CID
3125:S2CID
2715:Freud
2546:India
2530:molds
2524:With
2237:Other
1835:DARPA
1651:Ossur
1500:Hands
1488:Hooks
1214:DARPA
936:Thoth
932:Horus
614:Types
494:Lists
8833:CNIB
8818:SSDI
8813:Rail
8808:ODSP
8746:AODA
8560:Sole
8545:Heel
8535:Foot
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