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there were no simple answers to the question of modern psychosurgery's clinical effectiveness; studies suggested improvements in symptoms following surgery but it was impossible to establish the extent to which other factors contributed to this improvement. Research into the effects of psychosurgery has not been able to overcome a number of methodological problems, including the problems associated with non-standardised diagnoses and outcome measurements, the small numbers treated at any one centre, and
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who have not responded to other forms of treatment, and the evidence that some patients see improvement in their symptoms following surgery. There remain however problems concerning the rationale, indications and efficacy of psychosurgery, and the results of the operation raise questions of "identity, spirit, relationships, integrity and human flourishing".
405:) started a programme of stereotactic cingulotomy for the treatment of drug addiction. About 85 people, all under the age of 35, were operated on annually. In the Soviet Union, leucotomies were used for the treatment of schizophrenia in the 1940s, but the practice was prohibited by the Ministry of Health in 1950.
160:. Lesions are made by radiation, thermo-coagulation, freezing or cutting. About a third of patients show significant improvement in their symptoms after operation. Advances in surgical technique have greatly reduced the incidence of death and serious damage from psychosurgery; the remaining risks include
366:
In the 1980s there were 10–20 operations a year in
Australia and New Zealand. The number had decreased to one or two a year by the 1990s. In Victoria, there were no operations between 2001 and 2006, but between 2007 and 2012 the Victoria Psychosurgery Review Board dealt with 12 applications, all them
599:
Psychosurgery has a controversial history, and despite modifications, still raises serious questions about benefit, risks, and the adequacy with which consent is obtained. Its continued use is defended by references to the "therapeutic imperative" to do something in the case of psychiatric patients
590:
in 1970. The
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research in 1977 endorsed the continued limited use of psychosurgical procedures. Since then, a few facilities in some countries, such as the US, have continued to use psychosurgery on small numbers of
237:
in the UK, and developed in the US by H.T. Ballantine Jr. In recent decades it has been the most commonly used psychosurgical procedure in the US. The target site is the anterior cingulate cortex; the operation disconnects the thalamic and posterior frontal regions and damages the anterior cingulate
491:
which allowed unhealthy thoughts to circulate continuously in their brains. Moniz hoped that by surgically interrupting pathways in their brain he could encourage new healthier synaptic connections. In
November 1935, under Moniz's direction, surgeon Pedro Almeida Lima drilled a series of holes on
568:
more accurately, and experiments were done with alternatives to cutting instruments such as radiation. Psychosurgery nevertheless went into rapid decline in the 1950s, due to the introduction of new drugs and a growing awareness of the long-term damage caused by the operations, as well as doubts
536:
to render the patient unconscious and could be performed in mental hospitals lacking surgical facilities. Such was
Freeman's zeal that he began to travel around the nation in his own personal van, which he called his "lobotomobile", demonstrating the procedure in psychiatric hospitals. Freeman's
301:
Success rates for anterior capsulotomy, anterior cingulotomy, subcaudate tractotomy, and limbic leucotomy in treating depression and OCD have been reported as between 25 and 70 percent. The quality of outcome data is poor and the Royal
College of Psychiatrists in their 2000 report concluded that
120:
to Moniz in 1949, the use of psychosurgery declined during the 1950s. By the 1970s the standard
Freeman-Watts type of operation was very rare, but other forms of psychosurgery, although used on a much smaller scale, survived. Some countries have abandoned psychosurgery altogether; in others, for
313:
A 2012 follow-up study of eight depressed patients who underwent anterior capsulotomy in
Vancouver, Canada, classified five of them as responders at two to three years after surgery. Results on neuropsychological testing were unchanged or improved, although there were isolated deficits and one
382:
In the early 2000s in Spain about 24 psychosurgical operations (capsulotomy, cingulotomy, subcaudate tractotomy, and hypothalamotomy) a year were being performed. OCD was the most common diagnosis, but psychosurgery was also being used in the treatment of anxiety and schizophrenia, and other
348:
India had an extensive psychosurgery programme until the 1980s, using it to treat addiction, and aggressive behaviour in adults and children, as well as depression and OCD. Cingulotomy and capsulotomy for depression and OCD continue to be used, for example at the BSES MG Hospital in Mumbai.
375:
In the 20-year period 1971–1991 the
Committee on Psychosurgery in the Netherlands and Belgium oversaw 79 operations. Since 2000 there has been only one centre in Belgium performing psychosurgery, carrying out about 8 or 9 operations a year (some capsulotomies and some DBS), mostly for OCD.
540:
The 1940s saw a rapid expansion of psychosurgery, in spite of the fact that it involved a significant risk of death and severe personality changes. By the end of the decade, up to 5000 psychosurgical operations were being carried out annually in the US. In 1949, Moniz was awarded the
519:
in 1936, first using Moniz's method but then devised a method of their own in which the connections between the prefrontal lobes and deeper structures in the brain were severed by making a sweeping cut through a burr hole on either side of the skull. They called their new operation a
527:
Freeman went on to develop a new form of lobotomy which could be dispensed without the need for a neurosurgeon. He hammered an ice pick-like instrument, an orbitoclast, through the eye socket and swept through the frontal lobes. The transorbital or "ice pick" lobotomy was done under
309:
Modern techniques have greatly reduced the risks of psychosurgery, although risks of adverse effects still remain. Whilst the risk of death or vascular injury has become extremely small, there remains a risk of seizures, fatigue, and personality changes following operation.
486:
who was responsible for introducing the operation into mainstream psychiatric practice. He also coined the term psychosurgery. Moniz developed a theory that people with mental illnesses, particularly "obsessive and melancholic cases", had a disorder of the
394:, Dundee. The patients have diagnoses of depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and anxiety. Ablative psychosurgery was not performed in England between the late 1990s and 2009, although a couple of hospitals have been experimenting with DBS. In 2010,
244:
was developed in Sweden, where it became the most frequently used procedure. It is also used in
Scotland and Canada. The aim of the operation is to disconnect the orbitofrontal cortex and thalamic nuclei by inducing a lesion in the anterior limb of
339:
are used in the treatment of drug and alcohol dependence. Psychosurgery is also used in the treatment of schizophrenia, depression, and other mental disorders. Psychosurgery is not regulated in China, and its use has been criticised in the West.
577:
During the 1960s and 1970s, psychosurgery became the subject of increasing public concern and debate, culminating in the US with congressional hearings. Particularly controversial in the United States was the work of
Harvard neurosurgeon
255:
was the most commonly used form of psychosurgery in the UK from the 1960s to the 1990s. It targets the lower medial quadrant of the frontal lobes, severing connections between the limbic system and supra-orbital part of the frontal lobe.
504:(cutting of the white matter). After twenty operations, they published an account of their work. The reception was generally not friendly but a few psychiatrists, notably in Italy and the US, were inspired to experiment for themselves.
458:. There have also been archaeological finds in South America, while in Europe trepanation was carried out in classical and medieval times. The first systematic attempt at psychosurgery is commonly attributed to the Swiss psychiatrist
1396:
Gao, G.D.; Wang, X; He, S; Li, W; Wang, Q; Liang, Q; Zhao, Y; Hou, F; Chen, L (2003). "Clinical study for alleviating opiate drug psychological dependence by a method of ablating the nucleus accumbens with stereotactic surgery".
357:
In Japan the first lobotomy was performed in 1939 and the operation was used extensively in mental hospitals. However, psychosurgery fell into disrepute in the 1970s, partly due to its use on children with behavioural problems.
1352:
Wu HM, Wang XL, Chang CW, Li N, Gao L, Geng N, Ma JH, Zhao W, Gao G (2010). "Preliminary findings in ablating the nucleus accumbens using stereotactic surgery for alleviating psychological dependence on alcohol".
500:. After a few operations using ethanol, Moniz and Almeida Lima changed their technique and cut out small cores of brain tissue. They designed an instrument which they called a leucotome and called the operation a
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patients. In the US and other Western countries, the number of operations has further declined over the past 30 years, a period during which there had been no major advances in ablative psychosurgery.
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Medvedev, S. V.; Anichkov, A. D.; Polykov, Y. I. (2003). "Physiological mechanisms of the effectiveness of bilateral stereotactic cingulotomy against strong psychological dependence in drug addicts".
1146:
Price, B.H.; Baral, I; Cosgrove, GR; Rauch, SL; Nierenberg, AA; Jenike, MA; Cassem, EH (2001). "Improvement in severe self-mutilation following limbic leucotomy: a series of five consecutive cases".
454:(or trephining)—the practice of drilling holes in the skull—has been found in a skull from a Neolithic burial site in France, dated to about 5100 BC although it was also used to treat
466:. He presented the results at the Berlin Medical Congress and published a report, but the response was hostile and he did no further operations. Early in the 20th century, Russian neurologist
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In France about five people a year were undergoing psychosurgery in the early 1980s. In 2005 the Health Authority recommended the use of ablative psychosurgery and DBS for OCD.
2188:
Casey, B. P. (March 2015). "The surgical elimination of violence? Conflicting attitudes towards technology and science during the psychosurgery controversy of the 1970s".
462:. In December 1888 Burckhardt operated on the brains of six patients (one of whom died a few days after the operation) at the Préfargier Asylum, cutting out a piece of
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In the UK between the late 1990s and 2009 there were just two centres using psychosurgery: a few stereotactic anterior capsulotomies are performed every year at the
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586:, who carried out amygdalotomies in the hope of reducing violence and "pathologic aggression" in patients with temporal lobe seizures and wrote a book entitled
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for many years, underwent a stereotactic anterior capsulotomy at the University of Wales Hospital in Cardiff in 1999. She died of pneumonia three weeks later.
1181:
Fountas, K.N.; Smith, J.R.; Lee, G.P. (2007). "Bilateral stereotactic amygdalotomy for self-mutilation disorder: a case report and review of the literature".
2938:
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Heller, A. C.; Amar, Arun P.; Liu, Charles Y.; Apuzzo, Michael L. J. (2006). "Surgery of the mind and mood: a mosaic of issues in time and evolution".
227:—all connected by fibre pathways and thought to play a part in the regulation of emotion. There is no international consensus on the best target site.
157:
542:
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Beginning in the 1940s various new techniques were designed in the hope of reducing the adverse effects of the operation. These techniques included
2325:
306:. Controlled studies are very few in number and there have been no placebo-controlled studies. There are no systematic reviews or meta-analyses.
2143:
Swayze II (1995). "Frontal leucotomy and related psychosurgical procedures in the era before antipsychotics (1935–54): an historical overview".
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Sachdev, P.; Chen, X. (2009). "Neurosurgical treatment of mood disorders: traditional psychosurgery and the advent of deep brain stimulation".
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who, during the mid-1930s, developed the operation known as leucotomy. The practice was enthusiastically taken up in the United States by the
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Venezuela has three centres performing psychosurgery. Capsulotomies, cingulotomies and amygdalotomies are used to treat OCD and aggression.
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Gillet, G. (2007). "Psychosurgery and neuroimplantation: changing what is deep within a person". In Ashcroft, R. E.; et al. (eds.).
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about its efficacy. By the 1970s, the standard or transorbital lobotomy had been replaced with other forms of psychosurgical operations.
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282:, was developed as a treatment for aggression by Hideki Narabayashi in 1961 and is still used occasionally, for example at the
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Psychosurgery is a collaboration between psychiatrists and neurosurgeons. During the operation, which is carried out under a
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D'Astous, M.; et al. (2013). "Bilateral anterior capsulotomy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: long-term follow-up".
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Although there had been earlier attempts to treat psychiatric disorders with brain surgery, it was Portuguese neurologist
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Robison, RA; Taghva A; Liu CY; Apuzzo ML (2012). "Surgery of the mind, mood and conscious state: an idea in evolution".
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patient was left with long-term frontal psychobehavioral changes and fatigue. One patient, aged 75, was left mute and
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Moniz, E. (1956). "How I succeeded in performing the prefrontal leukotomy". In Sackler, A. M.; et al. (eds.).
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is destroyed or removed. The most common types of psychosurgery in current or recent use are anterior capsulotomy,
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94:. The first significant foray into psychosurgery in the 20th century was conducted by the Portuguese neurologist
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1930:"A psychosurgical chapter in the history of cerebral localization: the six cases of Gottlieb Burkhardt"
1784:"Evaluation of bilateral cingulotomy and anterior capsulotomy for the treatment of aggressive behavior"
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640:. She was left with permanent mental incapacity as a result of the procedure, unable to speak or walk.
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Tooth, G. C. & Newton, M. P. (1961). Leucotomy in England and Wales, 1942–54 (Report). London:
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116:, although the operation was called leucotomy in the United Kingdom. In spite of the award of the
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Mashour, G.A.; Walker, E.E.; Martuza, R.L. (2005). "Psychosurgery: past, present and future".
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who devised what became the standard prefrontal procedure and named their operative technique
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Johnson, J. (2009). "A dark history: memories of lobotomy in the new era of psychosurgery".
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example the US and the UK, it is only used in a few centres on small numbers of people with
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in Bristol performed an anterior cingulotomy on a woman who had previously undergone DBS.
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1097:"Anterior capsulotomy for refractory OCD: First case as per the core group guidelines"
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Currently, interest in the neurosurgical treatment of mental illness is shifting from
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2326:"Rosemary Kennedy: The Tragic Story of Why JFK's Sister Disappeared from Public View"
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In Canada, anterior capsulotomies are used in the treatment of depression and OCD.
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has a psychosurgery program. Operations are also performed at a few other centres.
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is a combination of subcaudate tractotomy and anterior cingulotomy. It was used at
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224:
83:
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Berrios, G.E. (1997). "The origins of psychosurgery: Shaw, Burckhardt and Moniz".
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All the forms of psychosurgery in use today (or used in recent years) target the
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2456:- in-depth essay exploring the propagation of the Frances Farmer lobotomy legend
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1736:"Massachusetts General Hospital Functional and Stereotactic Neurosurgery Center"
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Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes
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In Mexico, psychosurgery is used in the treatment of anorexia and aggression.
3587:
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Stewart, D. G.; Davis, K. L. (2008). "Images in psychiatry: the lobotomist".
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In the US, psychosurgery was taken up and zealously promoted by neurologist
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Wainrib, S. (6 December 2006). "Psychiatrie; vers le nouveau 'sujet toc'".
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operated on three patients with mental illness, with discouraging results.
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The great physiodynamic therapies in psychiatry: an historical reappraisal
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86:. Psychosurgery has always been a controversial medical field. The modern
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1932:. In Code, Christopher; Wallesch, C.-W.; Joanette, Y.; Roch, A. (eds.).
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A history of psychiatry: from the era of the asylum to the age of prozac
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Lichterman, B. L. (1993). "On the history of psychosurgery in Russia".
1972:"Gottlieb Burckhardt and Egas Moniz – two beginnings of psychosurgery"
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183:(DBS) where the aim is to stimulate areas of the brain with implanted
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1563:"La neurochirurgie fonctionnelle d'affections psychiatriques sévères"
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1565:[Functional neurosurgery of severe psychiatric conditions]
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612:(1963–1999), Scottish child star and singer who had suffered from
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164:, incontinence, decreased drive and initiative, weight gain, and
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Psychosurgery Board annual report 2011/12. Melbourne, Australia
626:: Polish violin prodigy who died at 26 following psychosurgery.
565:
335:
In China, psychosurgical operations which make a lesion in the
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129:(OCD). In some countries it is also used in the treatment of
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patients included 19 children, one of whom was 4 years old.
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psychosurgery (where the aim is to destroy brain tissue) to
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Feinstein A (1997). "Psychosurgery and the child prodigy".
603:
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to destroy small areas of subcortical white matter in the
2696:
Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists
1443:. In A.M. Lozano, P.L. Gildenberg and R.R. Tasker (eds.)
1634:"Monitoring the use of the Mental Health Act in 2009/10"
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1504:"A brief note on the history of psychosurgery in Japan"
1145:
2377:"Rose Williams, 86, Sister And the Muse of Playwright"
1761:"El ISSSTE es pionero en psicocirugía contra anorexia"
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Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
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In China, brain surgery is pushed on the mentally ill
847:
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Taiwanese Society of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
2400:
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Textbook of stereotactic and functional neurosurgery
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564:. Stereotactic techniques made it possible to place
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In Russia in 1998 the Institute of the Human Brain (
293:(DBS) should be classed as a form of psychosurgery.
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American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
1928:Whitaker, H. A.; Stemmer, B.; Joanette, Y. (1996).
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2034:
1933:
1832:Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry
1502:Nudeshima, Jiro; Taira, Takaomi (September 2017).
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2068:(4th ed.). Thomson Wadsworth. Archived from
1475:Fujikura, I. (1993). "History of psychosurgery".
318:for a month following surgery and then developed
90:begins in the 1880s under the Swiss psychiatrist
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2235:. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. pp. 811–817.
1885:
1767:(in Spanish). 17 September 2004. Archived from
1305:"Bilateral anterior capsulotomy for depression"
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636:'s most famous patient and sister of President
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677:History of psychosurgery in the United Kingdom
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2676:Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia
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2351:"Frequently Asked Questions About Lobotomies"
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823:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p.
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16:Neurosurgical treatment of mental disorders
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2631:American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology
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2062:Durand, V. Mark; Barlow, David H. (2006).
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926:"Present status of psychosurgery in Spain"
862:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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515:. They started a psychosurgery program at
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1441:History of stereotactic surgery in India
1399:Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery
1183:Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery
1094:
889:. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists
848:Freeman, Walter; James W. Watts (1942).
199:, which involves structures such as the
2432:New England Journal of Medicine article
2265:"Inquest told of star's suicide threat"
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1782:Jiménez-Ponce, F.; et al. (2011).
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2865:Neurological conditions and disorders
2636:American Neuropsychiatric Association
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2022:. New York: Hoeber. pp. 131–137.
2017:
2004:
1571:Comité Consultatif National d'Ethique
1457:Neurosurgery at the BSES MG Hospital
1303:Hurwitz, T. A.; et al. (2012).
870:
2686:National Institute of Mental Health
2450:documentary on modern psychosurgery
1940:. Hove: Psychology Press. pp.
1008:
892:
13:
3471:Obligatory Dangerousness Criterion
2671:Hong Kong College of Psychiatrists
2646:Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse
1607:"Brain pacemaker lifts depression"
1261:"Neurosurgery for mental disorder"
1066:10.1227/01.NEU.0000240227.72514.27
924:Barcia, J.A.; et al. (2007).
14:
3620:
2425:
2065:Essentials of Abnormal Psychology
1875:"Las Obsesiones se peuden operar"
1265:Advances in Psychiatric Treatment
1259:Christmas D; et al. (2004).
743:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.09.002
3226:Intervertebral disc annuloplasty
3080:Intracranial pressure monitoring
2914:
2904:
2661:European Psychiatric Association
2641:American Psychiatric Association
2233:Principles of Health Care Ethics
1936:Classic Cases in Neuropsychology
1632:Care Quality Commission (2010).
1324:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.11080189
1029:Neurosurgery for mental disorder
887:Neurosurgery for mental disorder
885:Neurosurgery working group 2000
660:'s youngest patients, author of
426:
408:
296:
266:London in the 1990s and also at
72:neurosurgery for mental disorder
3609:Physical psychiatric treatments
2915:
2666:Global Initiative on Psychiatry
2515:Child and adolescent psychiatry
2394:
2365:
2343:
2318:
2275:
2257:
2224:
2181:
2127:His Majesty's Stationery Office
2083:
2026:
1920:
1866:
1775:
1753:
1728:
1650:
1625:
1599:
1584:
1555:
1544:
1495:
1468:
1450:
1433:
1389:
1345:
1217:
1174:
1139:
1088:
190:
2882:Psychiatric survivors movement
2772:Psychiatric survivors movement
2742:Controversies about psychiatry
2701:Royal College of Psychiatrists
2489:
2454:"Shedding Light on Shadowland"
2444:Brain surgery to cure the mind
2145:American Journal of Psychiatry
2104:10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08020174
2092:American Journal of Psychiatry
1148:Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
841:
477:
415:Massachusetts General Hospital
289:There is debate about whether
268:Massachusetts General Hospital
26:For the Tourniquet album, see
1:
3364:Mini–mental state examination
2767:Political abuse of psychiatry
2716:World Psychiatric Association
2651:Chinese Society of Psychiatry
1873:Chiappe, G. (30 March 2010).
974:Current Opinion in Psychiatry
942:10.1016/S1130-1473(07)70274-9
697:
325:
127:obsessive-compulsive disorder
3117:Multiple subpial transection
1639:. p. 93. Archived from
1573:. 2002-04-25. Archived from
1367:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.02.019
1031:. Edinburgh: Scottish Office
986:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32831c8475
517:George Washington University
388:University Hospital of Wales
7:
3132:Anterior temporal lobectomy
2353:. NPR.org. 16 November 2005
2241:10.1002/9780470510544.ch109
1989:10.1163/22977953-0620102004
670:
403:Russian Academy of Sciences
10:
3625:
2681:Indian Psychiatric Society
2404:; Charles Fleming (2008).
2296:10.1177/0957154x9700802904
1906:10.1016/j.wneu.2012.03.005
1447:. Berlin: Springer, 155–68
786:10.1177/0957154X9700802905
470:and Estonian neurosurgeon
438:
434:
413:In the United States, the
284:Medical College of Georgia
144:methods, a small piece of
25:
18:
3544:
3523:
3489:
3463:
3422:
3351:Clinical prediction rules
3349:
3316:
3244:
3202:
3184:
3140:
3088:
3053:
3019:
3010:
2997:Decompressive craniectomy
2982:
2973:
2900:
2852:
2757:Electroconvulsive therapy
2752:Biopsychiatry controversy
2724:
2618:
2525:Cross-cultural psychiatry
2520:Cognitive neuropsychiatry
2497:
2202:10.1017/S0269889714000349
1521:10.3171/2017.6.FOCUS17255
1238:10.1007/s12376-009-0031-7
594:
534:electroconvulsive therapy
370:
362:Australia and New Zealand
304:positive publication bias
54:
40:
35:
2804:Psychiatric epidemiology
2799:Philosophy of psychiatry
2691:Philadelphia Association
2530:Developmental disability
1844:10.1136/jnnp-2012-303826
815:Shorter, Edward (1997).
550:William Beecher Scoville
441:History of psychosurgery
352:
343:
330:
264:Atkinson Morley Hospital
88:history of psychosurgery
19:Not to be confused with
3165:Amygdalohippocampectomy
2870:Psychiatric medications
1671:10.1023/A:1024945927301
1114:10.4103/0019-5545.86823
692:The Terminal Man (film)
80:neurosurgical treatment
3563:Mental health tribunal
3435:Involuntary commitment
3324:Electroencephalography
3293:Magnetoencephalography
2967:central nervous system
2839:Psychosomatic medicine
2575:Nutritional psychiatry
2535:Descriptive psychiatry
1477:Nippon Ishigaku Zasshi
731:Brain Research Reviews
588:Violence and the Brain
291:deep brain stimulation
181:deep brain stimulation
3604:Medical controversies
3492:medical interventions
3445:Outpatient commitment
3430:Involuntary treatment
3269:Pneumoencephalography
3110:Bilateral cingulotomy
3075:Suboccipital puncture
2762:Insulin shock therapy
2737:Clinical neuroscience
2656:Democratic Psychiatry
2510:Biological psychiatry
2408:. London: Vermilion.
2284:History of Psychiatry
2167:10.1176/ajp.152.4.505
2033:El-Hai, Jack (2005).
1970:Kotowicz, Z. (2005).
774:History of Psychiatry
562:bilateral cingulotomy
253:Subcaudate tractotomy
154:subcaudate tractotomy
133:and other disorders.
3490:Currently regulated
3450:Voluntary commitment
3278:Transcranial Doppler
3264:Cerebral angiography
3216:Spinal decompression
2875:by condition treated
2814:Psychiatric hospital
2809:Psychiatric genetics
2555:Geriatric psychiatry
2545:Emergency psychiatry
2505:Addiction psychiatry
2375:(7 September 1996).
1694:Acta Neurochirurgica
1278:10.1192/apt.10.3.189
1160:10.4088/JCP.v62n1202
573:1960s to the present
558:anterior capsulotomy
554:orbital undercutting
456:brain cranial trauma
278:, which targets the
242:Anterior capsulotomy
231:Anterior cingulotomy
221:orbitofrontal cortex
3510:Chemical castration
3274:Echoencephalography
3040:Thalamic stimulator
2732:Behavioral medicine
2590:Palliative medicine
2570:Military psychiatry
2550:Forensic psychiatry
1791:Cirugia y Cirujanos
1508:Neurosurgical Focus
1101:Indian J Psychiatry
909:Wall Street Journal
560:, and Hugh Cairn's
556:, Jean Talairach's
460:Gottlieb Burckhardt
446:Early psychosurgery
138:general anaesthetic
92:Gottlieb Burckhardt
3500:Psychoactive drugs
3359:Glasgow Coma Scale
3127:Corpus callosotomy
3056:Ventricular system
2834:Psychopharmacology
2565:Liaison psychiatry
2437:2010-05-29 at the
2271:. 8 December 1999.
2190:Science in Context
1706:10.1007/bf01401819
1462:2009-12-16 at the
648:Tennessee Williams
468:Vladimir Bekhterev
392:Ninewells Hospital
233:was first used by
3581:
3580:
3416:Mental health law
3382:
3381:
3180:
3179:
2928:
2927:
2860:Counseling topics
2794:Pentylenetetrazol
2560:Immuno-psychiatry
2415:978-0-09-192219-1
2048:978-0-471-23292-6
1951:978-0-86377-395-2
1411:10.1159/000075111
1195:10.1159/000098527
1095:Doshi PK (2011).
834:978-0-471-15749-6
687:Elliot Valenstein
582:and psychiatrist
511:and neurosurgeon
396:Frenchay Hospital
337:nucleus accumbens
100:neuropsychiatrist
65:
64:
3616:
3409:
3402:
3395:
3386:
3385:
3308:Microneurography
3194:Meningeal biopsy
3093:
3058:
3028:
3017:
3016:
2955:
2948:
2941:
2932:
2931:
2918:
2917:
2908:
2779:Imaging genetics
2484:
2477:
2470:
2461:
2460:
2420:
2419:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2369:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2337:
2332:. 15 August 2016
2322:
2316:
2315:
2279:
2273:
2272:
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2255:
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2228:
2222:
2221:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2160:
2140:
2131:
2130:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2077:
2059:
2053:
2052:
2040:
2030:
2024:
2023:
2015:
2002:
2001:
1991:
1967:
1956:
1955:
1939:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1817:
1811:
1805:. Archived from
1788:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1738:. Archived from
1732:
1726:
1725:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1659:Human Physiology
1654:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1638:
1629:
1623:
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1620:
1618:
1603:
1597:
1596:
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1568:
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1553:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1523:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1472:
1466:
1454:
1448:
1439:P.K. Doshi 2009
1437:
1431:
1430:
1393:
1387:
1386:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1340:
1334:. Archived from
1309:
1300:
1291:
1290:
1280:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1226:Medicine Studies
1221:
1215:
1214:
1178:
1172:
1171:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1126:
1116:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1049:
1032:
1025:
1006:
1005:
969:
954:
953:
921:
912:
903:N. Zamiska 2007
901:
890:
883:
868:
867:
861:
853:
845:
839:
838:
822:
812:
806:
805:
769:
763:
762:
726:
630:Rosemary Kennedy
530:local anesthesia
260:Limbic leucotomy
247:internal capsule
158:limbic leucotomy
84:mental disorders
58:edit on Wikidata
50:
33:
32:
3624:
3623:
3619:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3584:
3583:
3582:
3577:
3568:Judicial review
3540:
3519:
3485:
3476:Duty to protect
3459:
3418:
3413:
3383:
3378:
3345:
3341:Polysomnography
3329:Lumbar puncture
3312:
3240:
3198:
3176:
3148:Pituitary gland
3136:
3122:Hemispherectomy
3089:
3084:
3070:Ventriculostomy
3054:
3049:
3026:globus pallidus
3020:
3006:
2978:
2969:
2959:
2929:
2924:
2896:
2892:Psychotherapies
2848:
2829:Psycho-oncology
2789:Neurophysiology
2747:Anti-psychiatry
2720:
2614:
2585:Neuropsychiatry
2540:Eating disorder
2493:
2488:
2439:Wayback Machine
2428:
2423:
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2399:
2395:
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2186:
2182:
2158:10.1.1.455.9708
2141:
2134:
2123:
2119:
2088:
2084:
2075:
2073:
2060:
2056:
2049:
2031:
2027:
2016:
2005:
1982:(1–2): 77–101.
1968:
1959:
1952:
1925:
1921:
1900:(5–6): 662–86.
1894:World Neurosurg
1890:
1886:
1871:
1867:
1838:(11): 1208–13.
1828:
1824:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1786:
1780:
1776:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1745:
1743:
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1686:
1655:
1651:
1643:
1636:
1630:
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1616:
1614:
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1600:
1589:
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1577:
1566:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1545:
1500:
1496:
1473:
1469:
1464:Wayback Machine
1455:
1451:
1438:
1434:
1405:(1–4): 96–104.
1394:
1390:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1307:
1301:
1294:
1257:
1253:
1222:
1218:
1189:(2–3): 121–28.
1179:
1175:
1144:
1140:
1093:
1089:
1050:
1035:
1026:
1009:
970:
957:
922:
915:
902:
893:
884:
871:
855:
854:
846:
842:
835:
813:
809:
770:
766:
727:
704:
700:
682:Wylie McKissock
673:
638:John F. Kennedy
606:
597:
575:
480:
464:cerebral cortex
448:
443:
437:
429:
411:
373:
364:
355:
346:
333:
328:
299:
225:cingulate gyrus
193:
70:, also called
61:
46:
31:
24:
21:psychic surgery
17:
12:
11:
5:
3622:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3579:
3578:
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3487:
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3461:
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3458:
3457:
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3404:
3397:
3389:
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3181:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3168:
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3157:
3156:
3155:
3153:Hypophysectomy
3144:
3142:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3096:
3094:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3065:Cerebral shunt
3061:
3059:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3031:
3029:
3014:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2988:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2965:involving the
2958:
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2935:
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2898:
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2847:
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2824:Psychoanalysis
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2739:
2734:
2728:
2726:
2725:Related topics
2722:
2721:
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2648:
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2633:
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2622:
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2613:
2612:
2610:Telepsychiatry
2607:
2605:Sleep medicine
2602:
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2499:
2498:Subspecialties
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2426:External links
2424:
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2381:New York Times
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2151:(4): 505–515.
2132:
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2047:
2037:The Lobotomist
2025:
2003:
1957:
1950:
1919:
1884:
1865:
1822:
1774:
1771:on 2010-04-26.
1752:
1727:
1684:
1665:(4): 492–497.
1649:
1646:on 2011-07-20.
1624:
1613:. 27 June 2005
1598:
1583:
1580:on 2011-07-20.
1554:
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1494:
1467:
1449:
1432:
1388:
1355:Neurosci. Lett
1344:
1341:on 2013-06-05.
1292:
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1173:
1154:(12): 925–32.
1138:
1087:
1060:(4): 720–740.
1033:
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669:
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658:Walter Freeman
651:
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634:Walter Freeman
627:
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509:Walter Freeman
479:
476:
472:Ludvig Puusepp
447:
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103:Walter Freeman
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28:Psycho Surgery
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3146:
3145:
3143:
3139:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3100:Psychosurgery
3098:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3087:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
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3027:
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3018:
3015:
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3009:
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2990:
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2933:
2921:
2913:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2902:
2899:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2887:Psychiatrists
2885:
2883:
2880:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2851:
2845:
2844:Psychosurgery
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
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2627:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:Organizations
2617:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2600:Psychotherapy
2598:
2596:
2595:Pain medicine
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
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2576:
2573:
2571:
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2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2496:
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2473:
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2452:
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2445:
2442:
2440:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2417:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2402:Dully, Howard
2397:
2382:
2378:
2374:
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2352:
2346:
2331:
2327:
2321:
2313:
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2305:
2301:
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2290:(29): 55–60.
2289:
2285:
2278:
2270:
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2260:
2252:
2250:9780470027134
2246:
2242:
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2207:
2203:
2199:
2196:(1): 99–129.
2195:
2191:
2184:
2176:
2172:
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2164:
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2154:
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2146:
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2137:
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2121:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2098:(4): 457–58.
2097:
2093:
2086:
2072:on 2007-10-20
2071:
2067:
2066:
2058:
2050:
2044:
2039:
2038:
2029:
2021:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1953:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1937:
1931:
1926:For example,
1923:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1881:(in Spanish).
1880:
1876:
1869:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1826:
1812:on 2016-03-03
1808:
1804:
1800:
1797:(2): 107–13.
1796:
1792:
1785:
1778:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1756:
1742:on 2010-08-29
1741:
1737:
1731:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
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1660:
1653:
1642:
1635:
1628:
1612:
1608:
1602:
1594:
1587:
1576:
1572:
1569:(in French).
1564:
1558:
1552:
1547:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1498:
1490:
1486:
1483:(2): 217–22.
1482:
1478:
1471:
1465:
1461:
1458:
1453:
1446:
1442:
1436:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1392:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1348:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1318:(2): 176–82.
1317:
1313:
1306:
1299:
1297:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1271:(3): 189–99.
1270:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1232:(4): 367–78.
1231:
1227:
1220:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1177:
1169:
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1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1107:(3): 270–73.
1106:
1102:
1098:
1091:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1048:
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1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1030:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
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999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
968:
966:
964:
962:
960:
951:
947:
943:
939:
936:(4): 301–11.
935:
931:
927:
920:
918:
910:
906:
900:
898:
896:
888:
882:
880:
878:
876:
874:
865:
859:
851:
850:Psychosurgery
844:
836:
830:
826:
821:
820:
811:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
780:(29): 61–82.
779:
775:
768:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
737:(3): 409–18.
736:
732:
725:
723:
721:
719:
717:
715:
713:
711:
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707:
702:
693:
690:
688:
685:
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664:
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652:
649:
645:
644:Rose Williams
642:
639:
635:
631:
628:
625:
622:
619:
615:
611:
610:Lena Zavaroni
608:
607:
601:
592:
589:
585:
581:
570:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
546:
544:
538:
535:
531:
525:
523:
518:
514:
510:
505:
503:
499:
498:frontal lobes
495:
490:
485:
475:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
442:
432:
427:South America
424:
421:
418:
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409:North America
406:
404:
399:
397:
393:
389:
384:
380:
377:
368:
359:
350:
341:
338:
323:
321:
317:
311:
307:
305:
297:Effectiveness
294:
292:
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281:
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276:
271:
269:
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261:
257:
254:
250:
248:
243:
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218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
197:limbic system
188:
186:
182:
178:
173:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
134:
132:
131:schizophrenia
128:
124:
119:
115:
111:
108:
104:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
68:Psychosurgery
59:
53:
49:
45:
43:
39:
36:Psychosurgery
34:
29:
22:
3594:Neurosurgery
3573:Human rights
3531:Kendra's Law
3514:
3374:CHADS2 score
3334:CSF tap test
3254:Neuroimaging
3208:spinal canal
3172:Brain biopsy
3099:
3002:Cranioplasty
2976:Neurosurgery
2843:
2819:Psychiatrist
2784:Neuroimaging
2405:
2396:
2384:. Retrieved
2380:
2367:
2355:. Retrieved
2345:
2334:. Retrieved
2329:
2320:
2287:
2283:
2277:
2268:
2259:
2232:
2226:
2193:
2189:
2183:
2148:
2144:
2120:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2074:. Retrieved
2070:the original
2064:
2057:
2036:
2028:
2019:
1979:
1975:
1935:
1922:
1897:
1893:
1887:
1879:El Universal
1878:
1868:
1835:
1831:
1825:
1814:. Retrieved
1807:the original
1794:
1790:
1777:
1769:the original
1764:
1755:
1744:. Retrieved
1740:the original
1730:
1700:(1–4): 1–4.
1697:
1693:
1687:
1662:
1658:
1652:
1641:the original
1627:
1615:. Retrieved
1610:
1601:
1592:
1586:
1575:the original
1557:
1546:
1511:
1507:
1497:
1480:
1476:
1470:
1452:
1444:
1435:
1402:
1398:
1391:
1361:(2): 77–81.
1358:
1354:
1347:
1336:the original
1315:
1311:
1268:
1264:
1254:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1186:
1182:
1176:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1104:
1100:
1090:
1057:
1054:Neurosurgery
1053:
1028:
980:(1): 25–31.
977:
973:
933:
930:Neurocirugía
929:
911:, 2 November
908:
886:
852:. Baltimore.
849:
843:
818:
810:
777:
773:
767:
734:
730:
661:
654:Howard Dully
646:: Sister of
624:Josef Hassid
598:
587:
576:
547:
539:
526:
506:
481:
450:Evidence of
449:
430:
422:
419:
412:
400:
385:
381:
378:
374:
365:
356:
347:
334:
312:
308:
300:
288:
275:Amygdalotomy
273:
272:
259:
258:
252:
251:
241:
240:
230:
229:
213:hypothalamic
194:
191:Medical uses
174:
142:stereotactic
135:
107:neurosurgeon
75:
71:
67:
66:
3558:Court order
3536:Laura's Law
3298:Myelography
3204:Spinal cord
3160:Hippocampus
3045:Pallidotomy
3035:Thalamotomy
2448:BBC Radio 4
2406:My Lobotomy
2373:Gussow, Mel
1617:15 February
663:My Lobotomy
584:Frank Ervin
580:Vernon Mark
513:James Watts
478:1930s–1950s
383:disorders.
235:Hugh Cairns
205:hippocampus
150:cingulotomy
118:Nobel prize
3588:Categories
3505:Castration
3481:Automatism
3464:Principles
3455:Psychiatry
3439:by country
3317:Diagnostic
3221:Discectomy
2992:Craniotomy
2963:procedures
2961:Tests and
2491:Psychiatry
2336:2021-09-03
2076:2007-02-13
1816:2012-02-11
1765:La Cronica
1746:2010-05-03
1514:(3): E13.
698:References
618:depression
484:Egas Moniz
452:trepanning
326:By country
217:prefrontal
207:, certain
185:electrodes
172:problems.
140:and using
123:depression
96:Egas Moniz
78:), is the
3550:Tribunals
3303:Wada test
3288:Brain PET
3283:Brain MRI
3236:Rhizotomy
3231:Cordotomy
2580:Narcology
2153:CiteSeerX
2041:. Wiley.
1722:189764136
1530:1092-0684
1246:144488587
858:cite book
656:: One of
532:or using
502:leucotomy
367:for DBS.
170:affective
166:cognitive
3599:Lobotomy
3186:Meninges
3105:Lobotomy
3091:Cerebrum
3022:Thalamus
2435:Archived
2304:11619208
2269:BBC News
2218:25379245
2210:25832572
2112:18381916
1998:16201322
1976:Gesnerus
1914:22446082
1852:23733922
1803:21631970
1679:27264612
1611:BBC News
1593:Le Monde
1538:28859568
1489:11639762
1460:Archived
1427:45838805
1419:14742971
1383:35067411
1375:20156524
1332:22772665
1287:15286074
1211:71754991
1203:17228178
1168:11780871
1133:22135450
1082:22958424
1074:17038938
1002:30892980
994:19122531
950:17882337
802:22225524
794:11619209
759:10303872
751:15914249
671:See also
614:anorexia
522:lobotomy
489:synapses
320:dementia
316:akinetic
280:amygdala
238:region.
215:nuclei,
209:thalamic
201:amygdala
177:ablative
162:seizures
114:lobotomy
105:and the
3423:General
3259:Head CT
3246:Imaging
2920:Outline
2386:11 July
2357:11 July
2312:1561058
2175:7900928
1714:8122532
1124:3221188
666:(2007).
566:lesions
494:ethanol
435:History
48:D011612
3546:Courts
2910:Portal
2412:
2310:
2302:
2247:
2216:
2208:
2173:
2155:
2110:
2045:
1996:
1948:
1912:
1858:
1850:
1801:
1720:
1712:
1677:
1536:
1528:
1487:
1425:
1417:
1381:
1373:
1330:
1285:
1244:
1209:
1201:
1166:
1131:
1121:
1080:
1072:
1000:
992:
948:
831:
800:
792:
757:
749:
595:Ethics
371:Europe
223:, and
3141:Other
3012:Brain
2984:Skull
2853:Lists
2308:S2CID
2214:S2CID
1856:S2CID
1810:(PDF)
1787:(PDF)
1718:S2CID
1675:S2CID
1644:(PDF)
1637:(PDF)
1578:(PDF)
1567:(PDF)
1423:S2CID
1379:S2CID
1339:(PDF)
1308:(PDF)
1242:S2CID
1207:S2CID
1078:S2CID
998:S2CID
798:S2CID
755:S2CID
353:Japan
344:India
331:China
146:brain
56:[
3548:and
3524:Laws
3206:and
3024:and
2410:ISBN
2388:2010
2359:2010
2330:KQED
2300:PMID
2245:ISBN
2206:PMID
2171:PMID
2108:PMID
2043:ISBN
1994:PMID
1946:ISBN
1910:PMID
1860:2143
1848:PMID
1799:PMID
1710:PMID
1619:2023
1534:PMID
1526:ISSN
1485:PMID
1415:PMID
1371:PMID
1328:PMID
1283:PMID
1199:PMID
1164:PMID
1129:PMID
1070:PMID
990:PMID
946:PMID
864:link
829:ISBN
790:PMID
747:PMID
616:and
219:and
211:and
168:and
156:and
42:MeSH
2292:doi
2237:doi
2198:doi
2163:doi
2149:152
2100:doi
2096:165
1984:doi
1942:276
1902:doi
1840:doi
1702:doi
1698:125
1667:doi
1516:doi
1407:doi
1363:doi
1359:473
1320:doi
1273:doi
1234:doi
1191:doi
1156:doi
1119:PMC
1109:doi
1062:doi
982:doi
938:doi
825:225
782:doi
739:doi
552:'s
125:or
82:of
76:NMD
3590::
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