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can, of course, inflict pain on people at whim. But this would be called 'spite' unless it were inflicted as a consequence of a breach of rules on the part of the sufferer. Similarly a person in authority might give a person ÂŁ5 as a consequence of his breaking a rule. But unless this were regarded as painful or at least unpleasant for the recipient it could not be counted as a case of 'punishment'. In other words at least three criteria of (i) intentional infliction of pain (ii) by someone in authority (iii) on a person as a consequence of a breach of rules on his part, must be satisfied if we are to call something a case of 'punishment'. There are, as is usual in such cases, examples that can be produced which do not satisfy all criteria. For instance there is a colloquialism which is used about boxers taking a lot of punishment from their opponents, in which only the first condition is present. But this is a metaphorical use which is peripheral to the central use of the term.
1583:
further, or in the successful pursuit of questionable ends. These benefactors of humanity sacrificed their fellows to appease mythical gods and tortured them to save their souls from a mythical hell, broke and bound the feet of children to promote their eventual marriageability, beat slow schoolchildren to promote learning and respect for teachers, subjected the sick to leeches to rid them of excess blood, and put suspects to the rack and the thumbscrew in the service of truth. They schooled themselves to feel no pity—to renounce human compassion in the service of a higher end. The deliberate doing of harm in the mistaken belief that it promotes some greater good is the essence of tragedy. We would do well to ask whether the goods we seek in harming offenders are worthwhile, and whether the means we choose will indeed secure them.
1606:
people suggest that the ability to make intentional choices should instead be treasured as a source of possibilities of betterment, citing that complex cognition would have been an evolutionarily useless waste of energy if it led to justifications of fixed actions and no change as simple inability to understand arguments would have been the most thrifty protection from being misled by them if arguments were for social manipulation, and reject condemnation of people who intentionally did bad things. Punishment can be effective in stopping undesirable employee behaviors such as tardiness, absenteeism or substandard work performance. However, punishment does not necessarily cause an employee to demonstrate a desirable behavior.
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of the prisoner's being. But these are only the minimum harms, suffered by the least vulnerable inmates in the best-run prisons. Most prisons are run badly, and in some, conditions are more squalid than in the worst of slums. In the
District of Columbia jail, for example, inmates must wash their clothes and sheets in cell toilets because the laundry machines are broken. Vermin and insects infest the building, in which air vents are clogged with decades' accumulation of dust and grime. But even inmates in prisons where conditions are sanitary must still face the numbing boredom and emptiness of prison life—a vast desert of wasted days in which little in the way of meaningful activity is possible.
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1452:. The more heinous crimes such as murders have the lowest levels of recidivism and hence are the least likely offences to be subject to incapacitative effects. Antisocial behaviour and the like display high levels of recidivism and hence are the kind of crimes most susceptible to incapacitative effects. It is shown by life-course studies that long sentences for burglaries amongst offenders in their late teens and early twenties fail to incapacitate when the natural reduction in offending due to ageing is taken into account: the longer the sentence, in these cases, the less the incapacitative effect.
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as whether the sentence for murder is 40 years or life, most people still know the rough outlines such as the punishments for armed robbery or forcible rape being more severe than the punishments for driving too fast or misparking a car. These criminologists therefore argue that lack of deterring effect of increasing the sentences for already severely punished crimes say nothing about the significance of the existence of punishment as a deterring factor.
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relationship between the overall payoff and the employment of costly punishment. Individuals who achieve the highest total payoffs generally avoid using costly punishment. This indicates that employing costly punishment in cooperative games may be disadvantageous and suggests that it may have evolved for purposes other than promoting cooperation.
1470:, in which the goal is to try to rebalance any unjust advantage gained by ensuring that the offender also suffers a loss. Sometimes viewed as a way of "getting even" with a wrongdoer—the suffering of the wrongdoer is seen as a desired goal in itself, even if it has no restorative benefits for the victim. One reason
1411:
criminologists argue that the use of statistics to gauge the efficiency of crime fighting methods are a danger of creating a reward hack that makes the least efficient criminal justice systems appear to be best at fighting crime, and that the appearance of deterrence being ineffective may be an example of this.
987:
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Imprisonment means, at minimum, the loss of liberty and autonomy, as well as many material comforts, personal security, and access to heterosexual relations. These deprivations, according to
Gresham Sykes (who first identified them) "together dealt 'a profound hurt' that went to 'the very foundations
1091:
are examples of positive punishment, while removing an offending student's recess or play privileges are examples of negative punishment. The definition requires that punishment is only determined after the fact by the reduction in behavior; if the offending behavior of the subject does not decrease,
2085:
Unpleasantness inflicted without authority is revenge, and if whimsical, is spite.... There is no conceptual connection between punishment, or deterrence, or reform, for people can be punished without being prevented from repeating the offence, and without being made better. And it is also a further
2035:
Punishment... involves the intentional infliction of pain or of something unpleasant on someone who has committed a breach of rules... by someone who is in authority, who has a right to act in this way. Otherwise, it would be impossible to distinguish 'punishment' from 'revenge'. People in authority
1918:
The search for a precise definition of punishment that exercised some philosophers (for discussion and references see Scheid 1980) is likely to prove futile: but we can say that legal punishment involves the imposition of something that is intended to be burdensome or painful, on a supposed offender
1406:
Some criminologists state that the number of people convicted for crime does not decrease as a result of more severe punishment and conclude that deterrence is ineffective. Other criminologists object to said conclusion, citing that while most people do not know the exact severity of punishment such
1402:
Two reasons given to justify punishment is that it is a measure to prevent people from committing an offence - deterring previous offenders from re-offending, and preventing those who may be contemplating an offence they have not committed from actually committing it. This punishment is intended to
2174:
H.R. 2179, the
Securities Fraud Deterrence and Investor Restitution Act of 2003 Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Capital Markets, Insurance, and Government Sponsored Enterprises of the Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, First Session, June
1958:
Punishment describes the imposition by some authority of a deprivation—usually painful—on a person who has violated a law, rule, or other norm. When the violation is of the criminal law of society there is a formal process of accusation and proof followed by imposition of a sentence by a designated
1769:
H. Grotius of the Rights of War and Peace: In Three
Volumes: In Which Are Explain'd the Laws and Claims of Nature and Nations, and the Principal Points That Relate Either to Publick Government, or the Conduct of Private Life: Together with the Author's Own Notes: Done into English by Several Hands:
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We ought not to impose such harm on anyone unless we have a very good reason for doing so. This remark may seem trivially true, but the history of humankind is littered with examples of the deliberate infliction of harm by well-intentioned persons in the vain pursuit of ends which that harm did not
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issues. That punishment of individuals with certain characteristics (including but, in principle, not restricted to mental abilities) selects against those characteristics, making evolution of any mental abilities considered to be the basis for penal responsibility impossible in populations subject
2039:
In so far as the different 'theories' of punishment are answers to questions about the meaning of 'punishment', only the retributive theory is a possible one. There is no conceptual connection between 'punishment' and notions like those of 'deterrence', 'prevention' and 'reform'. For people can be
1992:
Punishment under law... is the authorized imposition of deprivations—of freedom or privacy or other goods to which the person otherwise has a right, or the imposition of special burdens—because the person has been found guilty of some criminal violation, typically (though not invariably) involving
2228:
Because punishment is both painful and guilt producing, its application calls for a justification. In
Western culture, four basic justifications have been given: retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation. The history of formal punitive systems is one of a gradual transition from
1557:
A unified theory of punishment brings together multiple penal purposes—such as retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation—in a single, coherent framework. Instead of punishment requiring we choose between them, unified theorists argue that they work together as part of some wider goal such as the
1766:
Grotius, Hugo (1715). "H. Grotius of the Rights of War and Peace: In Three
Volumes: in which are Explain'd the Laws and Claims of Nature and Nations, and the Principal Points that Relate Either to Publick Government, Or the Conduct of Private Life: Together with the Author's Own Notes: Done Into
1605:
There are critics of punishment who argue that punishment aimed at intentional actions forces people to suppress their ability to act on intent. Advocates of this viewpoint argue that such suppression of intention causes the harmful behaviors to remain, making punishment counterproductive. These
1536:
Punishment can serve as a means for society to publicly express denunciation of an action as being criminal. Besides educating people regarding what is not acceptable behavior, it serves the dual function of preventing vigilante justice by acknowledging public anger, while concurrently deterring
1078:
category. Operant conditioning refers to learning with either punishment (often confused as negative reinforcement) or a reward that serves as a positive reinforcement of the lesson to be learned. In psychology, punishment is the reduction of a behavior via application of an unpleasant stimulus
1444:
Incapacitation as a justification of punishment refers to the offender's ability to commit further offences being removed. Imprisonment separates offenders from the community, for example, Australia was a dumping ground for early
British criminals. This was their way of removing or reducing the
1135:
However, other evolutionary biologists have argued against punishment to favour cooperation. Dreber et al. demonstrate that while the availability of costly punishment can enhance cooperative behavior, it does not improve the group's average payoff. Additionally, there is a significant negative
912:
If only some of the conditions included in the definition of punishment are present, descriptions other than "punishment" may be considered more accurate. Inflicting something negative, or unpleasant, on a person or animal, without authority or not on the basis of a breach of rules is typically
1410:
Some criminologists argue that increasing the sentences for crimes can cause criminal investigators to give higher priority to said crimes so that a higher percentage of those committing them are convicted for them, causing statistics to give a false appearance of such crimes increasing. These
1548:
problems with the notion that a feeling for punishment as a social signal system evolved if punishment was not effective. The critics argue that some individuals spending time and energy and taking risks in punishing others, and the possible loss of the punished group members, would have been
1508:
role in a process with their offenders who are encouraged to take responsibility for their actions, "to repair the harm they've done—by apologizing, returning stolen money, or community service." The restorative justice approach aims to help the offender want to avoid future offences.
877:
or informally in other kinds of social settings such as within a family. Negative or unpleasant impositions that are not authorized or that are administered without a breach of rules are not considered to be punishment as defined here. The study and practice of the punishment of
1993:
harm to the innocent. (The classical formulation, conspicuous in Hobbes, for example, defines punishment by reference to imposing pain rather than to deprivations.) This definition, although imperfect because of its brevity, does allow us to bring out several essential points.
925:" during a fight. In other situations, breaking a rule may be rewarded, and so receiving such a reward naturally does not constitute punishment. Finally the condition of breaking (or breaching) the rules must be satisfied for consequences to be considered punishment.
1733:
The salvation of all men strictly examined: and the endless punishment of those who die impenitent : argued and defended against the objections and reasonings of the late Rev. Doctor
Chauncy, of Boston ; in his book entitled "The Salvation of all Men,"
1100:, though an aversion that does not decrease behavior is not considered punishment in psychology. Additionally, "aversive stimulus" is a label behaviorists generally apply to negative reinforcers (as in avoidance learning), rather than the punishers.
2229:
familial and tribal authority to the authority of organized society. Although parents today retain much basic authority to discipline their children, physical beatings and other severe deprivations—once widely tolerated—may now be called child abuse
1429:
the culprit so that they will not commit the offence again. This is distinguished from deterrence, in that the goal here is to change the offender's attitude to what they have done, and make them come to see that their behavior was wrong.
1363:
A principle often mentioned with respect to the degree of punishment to be meted out is that the punishment should match the crime. One standard for measurement is the degree to which a crime affects others or society. Measurements of the
2040:
punished without being prevented from repeating the offence, and without being made any better. It is also a further question whether they themselves or anyone else is deterred from committing the offence by punishment. But 'punishment'
873:, or be the removal or denial of something pleasant or desirable. The individual may be a person, or even an animal. The authority may be either a group or a single person, and punishment may be carried out formally under a system of
1170:
In the case of more complex brains, the notion of evolution selecting for specific punishment of intentionally chosen breaches of rules and/or wrongdoers capable of intentional choices (for example, punishing
1445:
offenders ability to carry out certain crimes. The death penalty does this in a permanent (and irrevocable) way. In some societies, people who stole have been punished by having their hands amputated.
909:. The last could include such measures as isolation, in order to prevent the wrongdoer's having contact with potential victims, or the removal of a hand in order to make theft more difficult.
1155:
workers with mutations that makes them fertile laying eggs only when other honey bees are not observing them, and that the few that are caught in the act are killed. This is corroborated by
1448:
Crewe however, has pointed out that for incapacitation of an offender to work, it must be the case that the offender would have committed a crime had they not been restricted in this way.
3190:
Raworth, John (1644). Buchanan, David (ed.). "The
Historie of the Reformation of the Church of Scotland Containing Five Books, Together with Some Treatises Conducing to the History": 358.
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Some people think that punishment as a whole is unhelpful and even harmful to the people that it is used against. Detractors argue that punishment is simply wrong, of the same design as "
1394:
There are many possible reasons that might be given to justify or explain why someone ought to be punished; here follows a broad outline of typical, possibly conflicting, justifications.
1533:
Punishment can be explained by positive prevention theory to use the criminal justice system to teach people what are the social norms for what is correct, and acts as a reinforcement.
1184:
to such selective punishment. Certain scientists argue that this disproves the notion of humans having a biological feeling of intentional transgressions deserving to be punished.
1159:
proving that a few simple reactions well within mainstream views of the extremely limited intelligence of insects are sufficient to emulate the "political" behavior observed in
1403:
be sufficient that people would choose not to commit the crime rather than experience the punishment. The aim is to deter everyone in the community from committing offences.
3475:
2044:
involve 'retribution', for 'retribution' implies doing something to someone in return for what he has done.... Punishment, therefore, must be retributive—by definition.
966:
refers to punishments in which physical pain is intended to be inflicted upon the transgressor. Punishments may be judged as fair or unfair in terms of their degree of
890:; in this context, the punishment process is euphemistically called "correctional process". Research into punishment often includes similar research into prevention.
3058:
1038:
Various philosophers have presented definitions of punishment. Conditions commonly considered necessary properly to describe an action as punishment are that
2172:
Congress. House. Subcommittee on
Capital Markets, Insurance, United States. Committee on Financial Services. and Government Sponsored Enterprises (2003).
1147:
There are also arguments against the notion of punishment requiring intelligence, based on studies of punishment in very small-brained animals such as
771:
1747:
Bingham, Joseph (1712). "Volume 1 of A Scholastical History Of The Practice of the Church In Reference to the Administration of Baptism By Laymen".
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I, Lorge (1933). "The effect of the initial chances for right responses upon the efficacy of intensified reward and of intensified punishment".
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Especially applied to minor offenses, punishment may take the form of the offender "righting the wrong", or making restitution to the victim.
1959:
official, usually a judge. Informally, any organized group—most typically the family, in rearing children—may punish perceived wrongdoers.
3545:
1192:
Punishments are applied for various purposes, most generally, to encourage and enforce proper behavior as defined by society or family.
2208:
1938:
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Criminal activities typically give a benefit to the offender and a loss to the victim. Punishment has been justified as a measure of
815:
that is deemed undesirable. It is, however, possible to distinguish between various different understandings of what punishment is.
388:
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to the offense. Punishment can be an integral part of socialization, and punishing unwanted behavior is often part of a system of
3388:
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1319:), but sometimes they are general, with condemned sinners relegated to one or more chamber of Hell or to a level of suffering.
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future criminal activity by stigmatizing the offender. This is sometimes called the "Expressive Theory" of denunciation. The
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With the Addition of the Author's Life by the Translators: Dedicated to His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, Hugo Grotius
111:
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1626:
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M., A, Frankenhaeuser, Rissler (1970). "Effects of punishment on catecholamine release and efficiency of performance".
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Achieving a certain proportion of trust in the population can lead to self-governance without the need for punishment.
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the human (or other animal) to whom the loss is imposed should be deemed at least somewhat responsible for the offense.
738:
592:
1636:
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W, J.C, Furman, Masters (1980). "Affective consequences of social reinforcement, punishment, and neutral behavior".
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selected against if punishment served no function other than signals that could evolve to work by less risky means.
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the claim that punishment evolved as a strategy to deal with individuals capable of knowing what they are doing.
635:
332:
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Belief that an individual's ultimate punishment is being sent by God, the highest authority, to an existence in
1125:
921:
rather than punishment. In addition, the word "punishment" is used as a metaphor, as when a boxer experiences "
572:
552:
116:
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Lynch, James P.; Danner, Mona J.E. (1993). "Offense Seriousness Scaling: An Alternative to Scenario Methods".
733:
728:
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3476:"The Case against Punishment: Retribution, Crime Prevention, and the Law - 2004, Page III by Deirdre Golash"
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A Scholastical History of the Practice of the Church in Reference to the Administration of Baptism by Laymen
383:
174:
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reference | Frank E. Hagan | 2010 | Introduction to Criminology: Theories, Methods, and Criminal Behavior
1450:
Should the putative offender not be going to commit further crimes, then they have not been incapacitated
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20:
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question whether they themselves, or anyone else is deterred from committing the offence by punishment.
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272:
223:
96:
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The reasoning for punishment may be to condition a child to avoid self-endangerment, to impose social
3765:
3513:
2098:
Amis, S. (1773). "Association for the Prosecution of Felons (WEST BROMWICH)". The British Library: 5.
1812:
The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man: Mental and Social Condition of Savages
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799:, commonly, is the imposition of painful consequences upon an individual or group, meted out by an
690:
86:
2845:
Allen, Elizabeth, et al. (1975). "Against 'Sociobiology'". New York Review of Books 22 (Nov. 13).
1884:
Navy Department, United States (1940). "Compilation of Court-martial Orders, 1916-1937, 1940-41".
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have administered punishments is to diminish the perceived need for retaliatory "street justice",
3631:
1567:
1061:
577:
412:
218:
141:
1903:
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True Passive Obedience Restor'd in 1710. In a Dialogue Between a Country-man and a True Patriot
2014:
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reference | Anthony Walsh, Craig Hemmens | 2008 | Introduction to Criminology: A Text/Reader
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2146:
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3635:
3265:
K. M., Carlsmith (2006). "The roles of retribution and utility in determining punishment".
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2702:
2633:
2541:
2171:
1787:
Casper, Johann Ludwig (1864). "A Handbook of the practice of forensic medicine v. 3 1864".
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520:
464:
373:
267:
184:
91:
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C., Mungan, Murat (2019). "Salience and the severity versus the certainty of punishment".
8:
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1501:
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1254:, still apply quite rigid internal discipline, even with a judicial system of their own (
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71:
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reference | J. Mitchell Miller | 2009 | 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook
1526:
1216:, pupils and other trainees may be punished by their educators or instructors (mainly
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846:—under which the social group is governed. Punishment may be self-inflicted as with
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515:
368:
238:
2866:"Observational Learning in Octopus vulgaris." Graziano Fiorito, Pietro Scotto. 1992.
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164:
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3619:
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3222:
Falls, Margaret (April 1987). "Retribution, Reciprocity, and Respect for Persons".
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1946:
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804:
363:
309:
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Blackwood, William (1830). "The Southern Review. Vol. V. February and May, 1830".
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Fehr, Gätcher, Ernst, Simon (10 January 2002). "Altruistic punishment in humans".
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1977:
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1250:. Most hierarchical organizations, such as military and police forces, or even
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862:
459:
76:
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Dreber, Anna; Rand, David G.; Fudenberg, Drew; Nowak, Martin A. (March 2008).
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Punishment may also be applied on moral, especially religious, grounds, as in
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committed during their life. Sometimes these distinctions are specific, with
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Hester Prynne at the Stocks—an engraved illustration from an 1878 edition of
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615:
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357:
255:
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T.H., G.A., Clutton-brock, Parker (1995). "Punishment in animal societies".
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for a supposed crime, by a person or body who claims the authority to do so.
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There are a large number of different understandings of what punishment is.
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or compensation orders are examples of this sort of penalty. In models of
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1067:
870:
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169:
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G.T, Gwinn (1949). "The effects of punishment on acts motivated by fear".
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1070:, punishment has a more restrictive and technical definition. Along with
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1301:, a place believed to exist in the after-life, typically corresponds to
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2945:
2928:"An Economic Analysis of the Criminal Law as Preference-Shaping Policy"
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1576:
The Case against Punishment: Retribution, Crime Prevention, and the Law
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Church, R.M. (1963). "The varied effects of punishment on behavior".
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1270:
1212:; detainees risk further punishments for breaches of internal rules.
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Lippke, Richard (2001). "Criminal Offenders and Right Forfeiture".
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reference | Gennaro F. Vito, Jeffrey R. Maahs | 2015 | Criminology
2946:"Retribution, Crime Reduction and the Justification of Punishment"
2177:. Purdue University: Committee on Financial Services. p. 50.
1246:. Employees can still be subject to a contractual form of fine or
1242:, domestic and other servants were subject to punishment by their
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How the Body Shapes the Way We Think: A New View of Intelligence
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Punishments differ in their degree of severity, and may include
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432:
56:
3514:"Punishment in the workplace creates undesirable side effects"
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and violates the law or rules by which the group is governed.
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J. Robert Lilly, Francis T. Cullen, Richard A. Ball (2014).
2821:, Rolf Pfeifer, Josh Bongard, foreword by Rodney Brooks. 2006
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1176:
1172:
879:
854:
in the religious setting, but is most often a form of social
834:, to protect against future harms (in particular, those from
427:
208:
2059:
Kleining, John (October 1972). "R.S. Peters on Punishment".
1124:, leading evolutionary biologists to conclude that it is an
2885:
Lyman Julius Nash, Wisconsin (1919). "Wisconsin Statutes".
2835:
Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future
2243:"Incapacitation and just deserts as motives for punishment"
1833:
Lee Hansen, Marcus (1918). "Old Fort Snelling, 1819-1858".
1298:
1278:
949:
3447:. the University of California: S. H. Parker. p. 149.
1544:
Some critics of the education and denunciation model cite
1309:
suffering for each sin committed (see for example Plato's
1302:
874:
839:
2688:
978:
or behavioral modification which also includes rewards.
882:, particularly as it applies to imprisonment, is called
1886:
Compilation of Court-martial Orders, 1916-1937, 1940-41
1142:
997:
3554:
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Legal Punishment
2134:. Switzerland: Oxford University Press. pp. xiii.
1339:
Seriousness of a crime; punishment that fits the crime
1897:
1895:
3443:
Edgeworth, Edgeworth, Maria, Richard Lovell (1825).
3442:
3179:. Michigan State University: William Blackwood: 871.
3104:
Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Criminology
3074:
Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Criminology
3047:
Criminological Theories: Introduction and Evaluation
1971:
1969:
1967:
1776:. D. Brown..., T. Ward..., and W. Meares, 1715: 524.
3445:
Works of Maria Edgeworth: Practical education. 1825
1541:was a method for carrying out public denunciation.
1042:
it is imposed by an authority (single or multiple),
3549:. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 653.
3342:"Theory, Sources, and Limitations of Criminal Law"
3116:
2401:
2241:J.M.,K.M, P.H., Darley, Catsman, Robinson (2000).
1892:
1383:
16:Imposition of an undesirable or unpleasant outcome
3102:Crewe, D. (2021). "Punitiveness and Resentment".
2884:
2597:Mary Stohr; Anthony Walsh; Craig Hemmens (2008).
2215:. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Archived from
2145:Mary Stohr; Anthony Walsh; Craig Hemmens (2008).
1964:
1945:. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Archived from
1083:punishment") or removal of a pleasant stimulus ("
3742:
3072:Crewe, D (2021). "Punitiveness and Resentment".
1092:it is not considered punishment. There is some
3362:Criminological Theory: Context and Consequences
3086:
1883:
1789:A Handbook of the Practice of Forensic Medicine
1372:is generally considered to be a crime of "high
1045:it involves some loss to the supposed offender,
3117:Sir William Draper, Junius (1772). "Lettres".
2393:
2240:
2138:
1837:. State Historical Society of Iowa, 1918: 124.
1736:, C. Ewer and T. Bedlington, 1824, p. 157
3389:"Thom Brooks on Unified Theory of Punishment"
3296:. The British Library: S. Popping. p. 8.
3059:"What's the Best Way to Discipline My Child?"
2754:Battu, Balaraju; Rahwan, Talal (2023-01-21).
2623:
2399:
2054:
2052:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1512:
765:
3686:
3563:
3457:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2674:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2582:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2455:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2385:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2336:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2279:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1425:Some punishment includes work to reform and
2974:
2753:
2209:"Justification for punishment (Punishment)"
1570:". Critics argue that punishment is simply
3089:An Introduction to Life-Course Criminology
2875:Aliens of the deep sea, documentary. 2011.
2531:
2408:(7th revised ed.). Cengage Learning.
2202:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2049:
1998:
1832:
1622:Capital and corporal punishment in Judaism
1601:Destructiveness to thinking and betterment
811:—as a deterrent to a particular action or
772:
758:
3600:
3470:
3468:
3267:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
3170:
2904:Doing Justice – The Choice of Punishments
2856:Twelve misunderstandings of kin selection
2795:
2730:
2353:International Review of Law and Economics
1868:
1120:; it has been observed in all species of
3728:"The Moral Permissibility of Punishment"
3511:
2132:Punishment, Communication, and Community
2058:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1516:
1326:
1322:
1273:with a religious police (as in a strict
1017:
1004:
996:
985:
861:The unpleasant imposition may include a
783:
3291:
3189:
2934:, Feb 1990, Vol. 1, Kenneth Dau-Schmidt
2206:
2191:
1936:
1765:
1746:
1730:
1574:. Professor Deirdre Golash, author of
1187:
3743:
3609:
3465:
2496:
2428:
2404:Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials
2061:British Journal of Educational Studies
2019:British Journal of Educational Studies
2013:
1976:Hugo, Adam Bedau (February 19, 2010).
1902:Hugo, Adam Bedau (February 19, 2010).
1786:
1642:List of people executed for witchcraft
1285:) or (though not a true theocracy) by
1175:for murder while not punishing lethal
893:Justifications for punishment include
3264:
3221:
3101:
3071:
2943:
2293:
1924:
1632:List of methods of capital punishment
1292:
1269:(which is voluntary) or imposed in a
3630:
3585:"Is restorative justice punishment?"
3582:
3512:Milbourn, Gene Jr. (November 1996).
2129:
2097:
1975:
1901:
1853:"Is restorative justice punishment?"
1850:
1143:Examples against sociobiological use
3733:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3719:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3407:
2977:Journal of Quantitative Criminology
2968:
2207:McAnany, Patrick D. (August 2010).
1982:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1937:McAnany, Patrick D. (August 2010).
1908:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1627:List of capital crimes in the Torah
1103:
1048:it is in response to an offense and
822:(in particular, in the contexts of
13:
3645:The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
3410:Journal of Experimental Psychology
3327:"A New Kind of Criminal Justice",
2887:Legislative Reference Bureau, 1919
2472:Journal of Experimental Psychology
2350:
1368:of a crime have been developed. A
14:
3777:
3706:
3131:
3087:Carlson, C.; Sarnecki, J (2015).
2469:
1904:"Punishment, Crime and the State"
1805:
1637:List of people burned as heretics
1552:
1433:
1414:
3502:, Kurt Fischer, Christina Hinton
2756:"Cooperation without punishment"
2017:(1966). "Ethics and Education".
1055:
1033:
936:, deprivations of privileges or
117:Risk & actuarial criminology
40:
3505:
3493:
3436:
3401:
3381:
3366:
3354:
3334:
3321:
3300:
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3110:
3095:
3080:
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3039:
3030:
3021:
3012:
3003:
2950:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
2937:
2921:
2909:
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2878:
2869:
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2848:
2839:
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2525:
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2422:
2344:
2287:
2234:
2165:
2123:
2091:
1647:Religion and capital punishment
1384:Possible reasons for punishment
1179:) is subject to criticism from
1108:Punishment is sometimes called
1877:
1851:Gade, Christian B. N. (2020).
1826:
1799:
1780:
1759:
1740:
1724:
1485:
1455:
1163:. The authors argue that this
1126:evolutionarily stable strategy
1087:punishment"). Extra chores or
981:
1:
3589:Conflict Resolution Quarterly
3531:
2073:10.1080/00071005.1972.9973352
1857:Conflict Resolution Quarterly
1397:
1128:, selected because it favors
1022:Punishment of an offender in
886:, or, often in modern texts,
3612:Journal of Social Philosophy
1717:
1561:
1196:are punished judicially, by
7:
3691:. Hants, England: Ashgate.
3134:"Punishment as retribution"
2906:, A Vonhirsch, 1976, p. 220
1609:
21:Punishment (disambiguation)
10:
3782:
3689:Punishment and retribution
3662:10.4135/9781412965811.n263
3279:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.06.007
2780:10.1038/s41598-023-28372-y
2600:Corrections: A Text/Reader
2443:10.1037/0012-1649.16.2.100
2365:10.1016/j.irle.2019.01.002
2148:Corrections: A Text/Reader
1795:. New Sydenham Society: 2.
1731:Edwards, Jonathan (1824),
1587:Golash also writes about
1513:Education and denunciation
1489:
1459:
1437:
1418:
1387:
1352:
1342:
1059:
852:mortification of the flesh
803:—in contexts ranging from
788:The old village stocks in
97:Expressive function of law
18:
3500:Mind, Brain and Education
3331:, October 25, 2009, p. 6.
2854:Dawkins, Richard (1979).
1440:Incapacitation (penology)
1421:Rehabilitation (penology)
3583:Gade, Christian (2020).
3045:Ronald L. Akers (2013).
2431:Developmental Psychology
1679:Extrajudicial punishment
1525:(early 16th century) in
993:is a feature of prisons.
87:Differential association
3636:"Retribution for Crime"
3624:10.1111/0047-2786.00080
3568:. New York: Routledge.
3546:Encyclopædia Britannica
2259:10.1023/A:1005552203727
2015:Peters, Richard Stanley
1767:English..., Volume 2".
1568:two wrongs make a right
1062:Punishment (psychology)
838:), and to maintain the
142:Symbolic interactionism
3203:Cite journal requires
2691:"Winners don't punish"
2400:Diana Kendall (2009).
2247:Law and Human Behavior
2130:Duff, Anthony (2001).
2111:Cite journal requires
1978:"Theory of Punishment"
1598:
1585:
1558:protection of rights.
1530:
1335:
1027:
1015:
1002:
994:
793:
790:Chapeltown, Lancashire
3687:Zaibert, Leo (2006).
3648:. Thousand Oaks, CA:
3564:Brooks, Thom (2012).
1808:"Laws. In J. Lubbock"
1755:. Knaplock, 1712: 25.
1695:Nulla poena sine lege
1593:
1580:
1520:
1366:degree of seriousness
1330:
1323:History and rationale
1117:moralistic aggression
1074:it belongs under the
1021:
1008:
1000:
989:
787:
646:Biosocial criminology
353:Uniform Crime Reports
62:Biosocial criminology
3656:. pp. 429–431.
3310:. La-articles.org.uk
3292:Popping, S. (1710).
2944:David, Wood (2002).
2499:Psychological Review
1188:Scope of application
1157:computer simulations
1151:. There is proof of
1130:cooperative behavior
1076:operant conditioning
948:, the infliction of
824:compulsory education
521:Solitary confinement
185:Alexandre Lacassagne
19:For other uses, see
3173:The Southern Review
3138:Theory and Decision
3132:D, Wittman (1974).
2831:Friedrich Nietzsche
2772:2023NatSR..13.1213B
2715:10.1038/nature06723
2707:2008Natur.452..348D
2638:2002Natur.415..137F
2603:. Sage. p. 3.
2546:1995Natur.373..209C
2296:Psychopharmacologia
2151:. Sage. p. 2.
1806:J, Lubbock (1882).
1659:Corporal punishment
1502:restorative justice
1492:Restorative justice
1468:retributive justice
1462:Retributive justice
1345:Retributive justice
1206:custodial sentences
1202:corporal punishment
963:Corporal punishment
828:military discipline
711:Radical criminology
72:Collective efficacy
3540:"Punishment"
3236:10.1007/BF00142639
3224:Law and Philosophy
3150:10.1007/BF00136647
3061:. 5 November 2018.
2989:10.1007/BF01064464
2760:Scientific Reports
2308:10.1007/BF00403809
1835:Mid-America Series
1617:Capital punishment
1531:
1504:, victims take an
1336:
1332:U.S. incarceration
1293:Hell as punishment
1096:of punishment and
1028:
1016:
1012:The Scarlet Letter
1003:
1001:A modern jail cell
995:
794:
3761:Social philosophy
3602:10.1002/crq.21293
3575:978-0-415-85051-3
3119:Letters of Junius
2918:, Larry J. Siegel
2701:(7185): 348–351.
2632:(6868): 137–140.
2610:978-1-4129-3773-3
2540:(6511): 209–216.
2415:978-0-495-59862-6
2184:978-0-16-070942-5
2158:978-1-4129-3773-3
1870:10.1002/crq.21293
1820:10.1037/13470-010
1674:Discipline (BDSM)
1498:Community service
1316:The Divine Comedy
848:self-flagellation
842:—and respect for
782:
781:
528:
527:
465:Prisoners' rights
369:Positivist school
3773:
3766:Criminal justice
3737:
3723:
3702:
3683:
3627:
3606:
3604:
3579:
3559:Etymology Online
3550:
3542:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3520:
3509:
3503:
3497:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3487:
3478:. Archived from
3472:
3463:
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3456:
3448:
3440:
3434:
3433:
3422:10.1037/h0062431
3405:
3399:
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3144:(3–4): 209–237.
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2932:Duke Law Journal
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2587:
2581:
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2554:10.1038/373209a0
2529:
2523:
2522:
2511:10.1037/h0046499
2494:
2488:
2487:
2484:10.1037/h0070228
2467:
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1996:
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1701:Preventive state
1390:Criminal justice
1260:canonical courts
1234:Child discipline
1104:In socio-biology
913:considered only
805:child discipline
774:
767:
760:
407:
406:
364:Crime statistics
290:
44:
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25:
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1343:Main articles:
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972:proportionality
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641:Anthropological
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343:Critical theory
328:
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300:State-corporate
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211:
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195:Archibald Reiss
190:Cesare Lombroso
180:Michel Foucault
160:
159:Major theorists
152:
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127:Social learning
112:Rational choice
102:Labeling theory
82:Criminalization
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3707:External links
3705:
3704:
3703:
3698:978-0754623892
3697:
3684:
3671:978-1412965804
3670:
3654:Cato Institute
3640:Hamowy, Ronald
3628:
3607:
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2302:(5): 378–390.
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1656:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1602:
1599:
1563:
1560:
1554:
1553:Unified theory
1551:
1514:
1511:
1490:Main article:
1487:
1484:
1460:Main article:
1457:
1454:
1438:Main article:
1435:
1434:Incapacitation
1432:
1419:Main article:
1416:
1415:Rehabilitation
1413:
1399:
1396:
1385:
1382:
1349:Eye for an eye
1340:
1337:
1324:
1321:
1294:
1291:
1189:
1186:
1144:
1141:
1122:social animals
1105:
1102:
1066:Introduced by
1060:Main article:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1035:
1032:
983:
980:
942:incarcerations
907:incapacitation
903:rehabilitation
780:
779:
777:
776:
769:
762:
754:
751:
750:
747:
746:
741:
736:
731:
725:
722:
721:
718:
717:
714:
713:
708:
703:
698:
696:Organizational
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
632:
629:
628:
625:
624:
621:
620:
619:
618:
613:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
539:
536:
535:
532:
531:
526:
525:
524:
523:
518:
513:
508:
506:Transformative
503:
498:
490:
489:
482:
481:
480:
479:
474:
472:Rehabilitation
469:
468:
467:
462:
460:Prisoner abuse
452:
451:
450:
445:
440:
430:
425:
423:Incapacitation
420:
415:
405:
400:
399:
396:
395:
392:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
329:
326:
325:
322:
321:
318:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
259:
258:
248:
247:
246:
241:
233:
232:
231:
226:
221:
212:
206:
205:
202:
201:
198:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
165:Émile Durkheim
161:
158:
157:
154:
153:
150:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
122:Social control
119:
114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
77:Crime analysis
74:
69:
67:Broken windows
64:
59:
53:
50:
49:
46:
45:
37:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3778:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3735:
3734:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3720:
3715:
3711:
3710:
3700:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3646:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3581:
3577:
3571:
3567:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3548:
3547:
3541:
3536:
3535:
3515:
3508:
3501:
3496:
3482:on 2019-05-18
3481:
3477:
3471:
3469:
3460:
3454:
3446:
3439:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3416:(2): 260–69.
3415:
3411:
3404:
3390:
3384:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3363:
3357:
3343:
3337:
3330:
3324:
3309:
3308:"restitution"
3303:
3295:
3288:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3261:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3218:
3210:
3197:
3186:
3178:
3174:
3167:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3128:
3120:
3113:
3105:
3098:
3090:
3083:
3075:
3068:
3060:
3054:
3048:
3042:
3033:
3024:
3015:
3006:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2983:(3): 309–22.
2982:
2978:
2971:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2940:
2933:
2929:
2924:
2917:
2912:
2905:
2900:
2892:
2888:
2881:
2872:
2863:
2857:
2851:
2842:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2820:
2815:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2742:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2677:
2671:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2620:
2612:
2606:
2602:
2601:
2593:
2585:
2579:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2528:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2493:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2466:
2458:
2452:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2425:
2417:
2411:
2406:
2405:
2396:
2388:
2382:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2339:
2333:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2290:
2282:
2276:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2237:
2230:
2219:on 2017-10-19
2218:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2186:
2180:
2176:
2168:
2160:
2154:
2150:
2149:
2141:
2133:
2126:
2118:
2105:
2094:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2067:(3): 259–69.
2066:
2062:
2055:
2053:
2045:
2043:
2032:
2028:
2025:(3): 267–68.
2024:
2020:
2016:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1994:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1960:
1949:on 2017-10-19
1948:
1944:
1940:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1920:
1909:
1905:
1898:
1896:
1887:
1880:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1845:
1836:
1829:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1802:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1775:
1771:
1762:
1754:
1750:
1743:
1735:
1727:
1723:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1696:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1607:
1597:
1592:
1590:
1584:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1559:
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1547:
1542:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1524:
1519:
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1507:
1503:
1499:
1493:
1483:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1463:
1453:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1431:
1428:
1422:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1395:
1391:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1356:
1350:
1346:
1333:
1329:
1320:
1318:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1281:or under the
1280:
1276:
1275:Islamic state
1272:
1268:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1256:court martial
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1228:, tutors and
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1140:
1137:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1112:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1072:reinforcement
1069:
1063:
1056:In psychology
1050:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1039:
1034:In philosophy
1031:
1025:
1020:
1014:
1013:
1007:
999:
992:
988:
979:
977:
973:
969:
965:
964:
959:
958:death penalty
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
926:
924:
920:
916:
910:
908:
904:
900:
896:
891:
889:
885:
881:
876:
872:
868:
864:
859:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
836:violent crime
833:
830:), to defend
829:
825:
821:
816:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
791:
786:
775:
770:
768:
763:
761:
756:
755:
753:
752:
745:
742:
740:
739:Organizations
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
726:
720:
719:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
697:
694:
692:
689:
687:
686:Environmental
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
633:
627:
626:
617:
614:
612:
609:
608:
606:
604:
603:Postmodernist
601:
599:
596:
594:
593:Neo-classical
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
568:Environmental
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
540:
534:
533:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
496:Participatory
494:
493:
492:
491:
487:
484:
483:
478:
475:
473:
470:
466:
463:
461:
458:
457:
456:
453:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
435:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
410:
409:
408:
403:
398:
397:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
359:
358:Crime mapping
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
330:
324:
323:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
305:Transnational
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
273:International
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
257:
254:
253:
252:
249:
245:
242:
240:
237:
236:
234:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
216:
214:
213:
210:
204:
203:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
162:
156:
155:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
63:
60:
58:
55:
54:
48:
47:
43:
39:
38:
35:
31:
28:
27:
22:
3731:
3717:
3714:"Punishment"
3688:
3644:
3618:(1): 78–89.
3615:
3611:
3592:
3588:
3565:
3544:
3519:November 21,
3517:. Retrieved
3507:
3499:
3495:
3484:. Retrieved
3480:the original
3444:
3438:
3413:
3409:
3403:
3392:. Retrieved
3383:
3376:
3368:
3361:
3356:
3345:. Retrieved
3336:
3328:
3323:
3312:. Retrieved
3302:
3293:
3287:
3270:
3266:
3260:
3230:(1): 25–51.
3227:
3223:
3217:
3196:cite journal
3185:
3176:
3172:
3166:
3141:
3137:
3127:
3118:
3112:
3106:(13): 64–91.
3103:
3097:
3088:
3082:
3076:(13): 64–91.
3073:
3067:
3053:
3046:
3041:
3032:
3023:
3014:
3005:
2980:
2976:
2970:
2953:
2949:
2939:
2931:
2923:
2915:
2911:
2903:
2899:
2893:: 2807–2808.
2890:
2886:
2880:
2871:
2862:
2855:
2850:
2841:
2834:
2826:
2818:
2814:
2763:
2759:
2749:
2698:
2694:
2684:
2670:cite journal
2629:
2625:
2619:
2599:
2592:
2578:cite journal
2537:
2533:
2527:
2502:
2498:
2492:
2475:
2471:
2465:
2451:cite journal
2434:
2430:
2424:
2403:
2395:
2381:cite journal
2356:
2352:
2346:
2332:cite journal
2299:
2295:
2289:
2275:cite journal
2250:
2246:
2236:
2227:
2221:. Retrieved
2217:the original
2212:
2173:
2167:
2147:
2140:
2131:
2125:
2104:cite journal
2093:
2084:
2064:
2060:
2041:
2034:
2022:
2018:
1991:
1985:. Retrieved
1981:
1957:
1951:. Retrieved
1947:the original
1942:
1939:"Punishment"
1917:
1911:. Retrieved
1907:
1885:
1879:
1860:
1856:
1834:
1828:
1811:
1801:
1792:
1788:
1782:
1773:
1768:
1761:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1732:
1726:
1693:
1689:Intimidation
1604:
1594:
1589:imprisonment
1586:
1581:
1575:
1565:
1556:
1546:evolutionary
1543:
1535:
1532:
1505:
1495:
1465:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1427:rehabilitate
1424:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1393:
1362:
1314:
1307:damned souls
1296:
1264:
1238:
1191:
1169:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1115:
1109:
1107:
1084:
1080:
1068:B.F. Skinner
1065:
1037:
1029:
1010:
961:
927:
922:
911:
892:
860:
817:
809:criminal law
796:
795:
691:Experimental
413:Denunciation
379:Quantitative
289:Public-order
244:White-collar
175:Enrico Ferri
170:Hans Eysenck
3756:Punishments
3377:Criminology
3373:Tim Newburn
2916:Criminology
2766:(1): 1213.
1814:: 443–480.
1664:Devaluation
1486:Restoration
1480:vigilantism
1456:Retribution
1378:misdemeanor
1376:", while a
1374:seriousness
1359:Misdemeanor
1313:or Dante's
1287:Inquisition
1181:coevolution
1111:retaliatory
991:Barbed wire
982:Definitions
968:reciprocity
895:retribution
888:corrections
871:confinement
844:rule of law
681:Development
656:Criminology
578:Integrative
516:Utilitarian
511:Retributive
501:Restorative
488:in penology
374:Qualitative
348:Ethnography
333:Comparative
239:Blue-collar
147:Victimology
107:Psychopathy
30:Criminology
3751:Punishment
3745:Categories
3632:Mack, Eric
3566:Punishment
3532:References
3486:2017-09-10
3394:2014-09-03
3347:2011-09-26
3314:2012-08-27
3121:: 303–305.
2359:: 95–100.
2223:2010-09-16
1987:2010-08-04
1953:2010-08-04
1913:2010-08-04
1711:Telishment
1669:Discipline
1476:blood feud
1398:Deterrence
1388:See also:
1353:See also:
1311:myth of Er
1161:great apes
1094:conflation
954:amputation
934:reprimands
923:punishment
899:deterrence
820:conformity
797:Punishment
676:Demography
598:Positivist
477:Recidivism
418:Deterrence
310:Victimless
137:Subculture
3680:750831024
3453:cite book
3252:144282576
3158:153961464
2997:144528020
2788:2045-2322
2723:1476-4687
2373:147798726
1718:Citations
1706:Suffering
1562:Criticism
1529:, Germany
1472:societies
1271:theocracy
1222:guardians
1194:Criminals
1165:falsifies
1153:honey bee
1098:aversives
946:ostracism
940:, fines,
930:sanctions
801:authority
792:, England
701:Political
630:Subfields
553:Classical
543:Anarchist
438:abolition
338:Profiling
283:Political
278:Organized
263:Corporate
251:Cold case
207:Types of
3634:(2008).
3430:18125723
2833:(1886).
2806:36681708
2741:18354481
2654:11805825
2570:21638607
2519:14049776
2267:11105478
1654:Coercion
1610:See also
1578:, says:
1380:is not.
1334:timeline
1252:churches
1248:demotion
1226:teachers
1214:Children
1208:such as
1089:spanking
1085:negative
1081:positive
976:pedagogy
956:and the
932:such as
884:penology
856:coercion
813:behavior
734:Journals
661:Critical
651:Conflict
636:American
607:Realism
573:Feminist
563:Critical
558:Conflict
455:Prisoner
402:Penology
268:Juvenile
219:Humanity
215:Against
92:Deviance
34:penology
3642:(ed.).
3244:3504678
2962:3600555
2797:9867775
2768:Bibcode
2732:2292414
2703:Bibcode
2662:4310962
2634:Bibcode
2562:7816134
2542:Bibcode
2324:9187358
2316:5522998
2175:5, 2003
2081:3120772
2031:3120772
1572:revenge
1539:pillory
1523:pillory
1521:Gothic
1283:Taliban
1267:penance
1244:masters
1230:coaches
1218:parents
1177:viruses
1149:insects
1024:Hungary
938:liberty
915:revenge
867:penalty
666:Culture
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