Pytheas - Knowledge

10750: 10616: 9775: 9708: 9577: 8960: 8562: 1863:, even though north of Ireland/Ierne. North of southern Scotland the longest day is 19 hours. Strabo, based on theory alone, states that Ierne is so cold that any lands north of it must be uninhabited. In the hindsight given to moderns Pytheas, in relying on observation in the field, appears more scientific than Strabo, who discounted the findings of others merely because of their strangeness to him. The ultimate cause of his skepticism is simply that he did not believe Scandinavia could exist. This disbelief may also be the cause of alteration of Pytheas' data. 1091:... he might possibly seem to have made adequate use of the facts as regards the people who live close to the frozen zone, when he says that, ... the people live on millet and other herbs, and on fruits and roots; and where there are grain and honey, the people get their beverage, also, from them. As for the grain, he says, – since they have no pure sunshine – they pound it out in large storehouses, after first gathering in the ears thither; for the threshing floors become useless because of this lack of sunshine and because of the rains. 739: 2027:). Markham proposes a possible answer to the funding question: seeing that Pytheas was known as a professional geographer and that north Europe was as yet a question mark to Massalian merchants, he suggests that "the enterprise was a government expedition of which Pytheas was placed in command." In another suggestion the merchants of Marseille sent him out to find northern markets. These theories are speculative but perhaps less so than Strabo's contention that Pytheas was a charlatan just because a professional geographer doubted him. 1112: 549: 679: 58: 1249: 1589:, possibly kept as the ship's log. There is little hint of native hostility; the Celts and the Germans appear to have helped him, which suggests that the expedition was put forward as purely scientific. In any case all voyages required stops for food, water and repairs; the treatment of voyagers fell under the special "guest" ethic for visitors. 1577:. Electronic navigational systems have made even this simple measure unnecessary. Longitude was beyond Pytheas and his peers, but it was not of as great a consequence, because ships seldom strayed out of sight of land. East–west distance was a matter of contention to the geographers; they are one of Strabo's most frequent topics. Because of the 304: 582:. Using Herodotus' standard of 600 feet (180 m) for one stadium gives 4,545 miles (7,314 km); however, there is no way to tell which standard foot was in effect. The English foot is an approximation. Strabo wanted to discredit Pytheas on the grounds that 40,000 stadia is outrageously high and cannot be real. 1566:(refer to the next subsection). Strabo's angular report of this line as being at 24° may well be based on a tangent known to Pytheas, but he did not say that. In whatever mathematical form Pytheas knew the location, he could only have determined when he was there by taking periodic readings of the elevation of the pole ( 1751:, the length of the forearm from the elbow to the tip of the little finger) as a measure of the elevation of the Sun. The term "cubit" in this context is obscure; it has nothing to do with distance along either a straight line or an arc, does not apply to celestial distances, and has nothing to do with the gnōmōn. 1434:." Some authors consider this leg a second voyage, as it does not seem likely he would pass by Marseille without refitting and refreshing the crew. It is striking that he encountered the border of Scythia, turned around, and went around Europe counter-clockwise until he came to the southern side of Scythia on the 1005:. It seems that Eratosthenes altered the base line to pass through the northern extreme of Celtica. Pytheas, as related by Hipparchus, probably cited the place in Celtica where he first made land. If he used the same practice in Norway, Thule is at least somewhere on the entire northwest coast of Norway from 1084:. The fact that Pytheas returned from the vicinity of the Baltic favors Procopius's opinion. The fact that Pytheas lived centuries before the colonization of Iceland and Greenland by European agriculturalists makes them less likely candidates, as he stated that Thule was populated and its soil was tilled. 3366:

discrepancy, he arrives at Maire Island or Cape Croisette, which Pytheas would have selected for better viewing over the south horizon. To date there is no archaeological or other evidence to support the presence of such an observatory; however, the deficit of antiquities does not prove non-existence.

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The objection although partially true is itself flawed. Strabo interjected his own view of the location of Celtica, that it was opposite to Britain, end to end. Pytheas, however, places it further south, around the mouth of the Loire (see above), from which it might justifiably be several days' sail.

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Strabo did explain his reasons for doubting Pytheas' veracity. Citing numerous instances of Pytheas apparently being far off the mark on details concerning known regions, he said: "however, any man who has told such great falsehoods about the known regions would hardly, I imagine, be able to tell the

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of angles of elevation to celestial bodies. They were measured on the gnōmōn, the vertical leg of a right triangle, and the flat leg of the triangle. The imaginary hypotenuse looked along the line of sight to the celestial body or marked the edge of a shadow cast by the vertical leg on the horizontal

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Pytheas also spoke of the waters around Thule and of those places where land properly speaking no longer exists, nor sea nor air, but a mixture of these things, like a "marine lung", in which it was said that earth and water and all things are in suspension as if this something was a link between all

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The perimeter, according to Nansen based on the 23,800 stadia, was 2,375 miles (3,822 km). This number is in the neighborhood of what a triangular perimeter ought to be, but it cannot be verified against anything Pytheas may have said, nor was Diodorus Siculus very precise about the locations of

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Pytheas described his travels in a work that has not survived; only excerpts remain, quoted or paraphrased by later authors. Much of what is known about Pytheas comes from commentary written by historians during the classical period hundreds of years after Pytheas's journeys occurred, most familiarly

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is 16 hours at the baseline through Celtica. At 2500 stadia, approximately 283 miles, or 3.6°, north of Celtica, are a people Hipparchus called Celtic, but whom Strabo thought were the British, a discrepancy he might not have noted if he had known that the British were also Celtic. The location

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Pytheas took the altitude of the Sun at Massalia at noon on the longest day of the year and found that the tangent was the proportion of 120 (the length of the gnōmōn) to 1/5 less than 42 (the length of the shadow). Hipparchus, relying on the authority of Pytheas (says Strabo), states that the ratio

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Herodotus said that the Neuri had Scythian customs, but they were at first not considered Scythian. During the war between the Scythians and the Persian Empire, the Scythians came to dominate the Neuri. Strabo denied that any knowledge of the shores of the eastern Baltic existed. He had heard of the

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Nansen later states that Pytheas must have stopped to obtain astronomical data. Presumably, the extra time was spent ashore. Using the stadia of Diodorus Siculus, one obtains 42.5 days for the time that would be spent in circumnavigating Britain. It may have been a virtual circumnavigation; see

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with a treaty defining their mutual interests. Rome could use Sicilian markets, Carthage could buy and sell goods at Rome, and slaves taken by Carthage from allies of Rome were to be set free. Rome was to stay out of the western Mediterranean, but these terms did not apply to Massalia, which had its

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That daily tides should be caused by full moons and new moons is manifestly wrong, which would be a surprising view in a Greek astronomer and mathematician of the times. He could have meant that spring and neap tides were caused by new and full moons, which is partially correct in that spring tides

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between 2008 and 2026 at that location will be 14.64 m (48.0 ft) on 29 September 2015. Even allowing for geologic and climate change, Pytheas' 80 cubits far exceeds any known tides around Britain. One well-circulated but unevidenced answer to the paradox is that Pytheas was referring to a

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The basis for division into zones was the two distinct paths of the heavenly bodies: that of the stars and that of the Sun and Moon. Astronomers know today that the Earth revolving around the Sun is tilted on its axis, bringing each hemisphere now closer to the Sun, now further away. The Greeks had

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explained this apparent fantasy of Pytheas as a mistake of Timaeus. Strabo and Diodorus Siculus never saw Pytheas' work, says Nansen, but they and others read of him in Timaeus. Pytheas reported only days' sail. Timaeus converted days to stadia at the rate of 1,000 per day, a standard figure of the

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Book I.4.2–4 covers the astronomical calculations of Pytheas and calls him a prevaricator. Book II.3.5 excuses his prevarication on the grounds of his being a professional. Book III.2.11 and 4.4, Book IV.2.1 criticises him again, Book IV.4.1 mentions his reference to the Celtic Ostimi. Book IV.5.5

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Based partly on data taken from Pytheas, Hipparchus correlated cubits of the Sun's elevation at noon on the winter solstice, latitudes in hours of a day on the summer solstice, and distances between latitudes in stadia for some locations. Pytheas had proved that Marseille and Byzantium were on the

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Pytheas sailed northward with the intent of locating the Arctic Circle and exploring the "frigid zone" to the north of it at the extreme of the Earth. He did not know the latitude of the circle in degrees. All he had to go by was the definition of the frigid zone as the latitudes north of the line

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This etymology suggests Pytheas most likely did not have much interaction with the Irish as their language was Q-Celtic. Rather, Pytheas brought back the P-Celtic form from more geographically accessible regions where Welsh or Breton are spoken presently. Furthermore, some proto-Celtic was spoken

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added that Pytheas said he traversed the whole of Britain on foot, of which he, Polybius, was skeptical. Despite Strabo's conviction of a lie, the perimeter said to have been given by Pytheas is not evidence of it. The issue of what he did say can never be settled until more fragments of Pytheas's

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by Xenophon and Basilia by Pytheas. Modern scholars note that Pytheas gives this Scythian island the same name that Timaeus later gave to Pytheas's Abalus which Pliny placed in Germania. This raises doubts about the reliability of Pliny's interpretation of older geographers of this region, but it

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or "estuary" of 6000 stadia, which using the Herodotean standard of 600 feet (180 m) per stadium is 681 miles (1,096 km). Although it is most often considered to be on the Baltic coast, it has also been argued that Pliny is referring to the North Sea coast, west of present day Denmark.

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Pliny reported that "Pytheas of Massalia informs us, that in Britain the tide rises 80 cubits." The passage does not give enough information to determine which cubit Pliny meant; however, any cubit gives the same general result. If he was reading an early source, the cubit may have been the

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It is unlikely that any gnōmōn could be read accurately on the pitching deck of a small vessel at night. Pytheas must have made frequent overnight stops to use his gnōmōn and talk to the natives, which would have required interpreters, probably acquired along the way. The few fragments that have

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The astronomic model on which ancient Greek navigation was based, which is still in place today, was already extant in the time of Pytheas, the concept of the degrees only being missing. The model divided the universe into a celestial and an earthly sphere pierced by the same poles. Each of the

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had emerged. The former Scythia was now entirely Sarmatia. Evidently the Sarmatians conquered westward to the Vistula. The Goths moved to the south. That the Balts lived east of the Vistula from remote prehistoric times is unquestioned. The Baltic languages, however, are only known from the 2nd

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Nansen claimed that according to this statement, Pytheas was there in person and that the 21- and 22-hour days must be the customary statement of latitude by length of longest day. He calculates the latitudes to be 64° 32′ and 65° 31′, partially confirming Hipparchus' statement of the

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refer to the end of the world) is the most northerly of the British Isles. There the circle of the summer tropic is the same as the Arctic Circle (see below on Arctic Circle). Moreover, said Strabo, none of the other authors mention Thule, a fact which he used to discredit Pytheas, but which to

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is Cornwall. The Sun stands at 6 cubits and the longest day is 17 hours. At 9100 stadia, approximately 1032 miles, north of Marseille, 5400 or 7.7° north of Celtica, the elevation is 4 cubits and the longest day is 18 hours. This location is in the vicinity of the

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Most students of Pytheas presume that his differences from modern calculations represent error due to primitive instrumentation. Rawlins assumes the opposite, that Pytheas observed the sun correctly, but his observatory was a few miles south of west-facing Marseille. Working backward from the

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Strabo's other objections are similarly flawed or else completely wrong. He simply did not believe the earth was inhabited north of Ierne. Pytheas however could not then answer for himself, or protect his own work from loss or alteration, so most of the questions concerning his voyage remain

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stated that it had had many definitions over the centuries. Many more authors have written about it than remembered Pytheas. The question of the location of Pytheas' Thule remains. The latitudes given by the ancient authors can be reconciled. The missing datum required to fix the location is

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Strabo reported that Pytheas said he "travelled over the whole of Britain that was accessible". Because there are scant first-hand sources available regarding Pytheas's journey, historians have looked at the etymology for clues about the route he took up the north Atlantic. The word

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Nelson points out that this passage in Strabo contains "ambiguity": he could mean either one drink made from grain and honey, in which case it would have to be mead unless one classified it as a combination of mead and beer, or two drinks, mead and beer. Strabo used the singular

556:. The map is a result of a combination of the lines of roads and of the coasting expeditions during the first century of Roman occupation. One great fault, however, is a lopsided Scotland, which in one hypothesis is the result of Ptolemy using Pytheas' measurements of latitude ( 426:, written about in "Sail Around". As is common with ancient texts, multiple titles may represent a single source, for example, if a title refers to a section rather than the whole. Mainstream consensus is that there was only one work, "on the Ocean", which was based on a 1633:

the opposite model, that the stars and the Sun rotated around the Earth. The stars moved in fixed circles around the poles. The Sun moved at an oblique angle to the circles, which obliquity brought it now to the north, now to the south. The circle of the Sun was the

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Pytheas crossed the waters northward from Berrice, in the north of the British Isles, but whether to starboard, larboard, or straight ahead is not known. From the time of the Roman Empire all the possibilities were suggested repeatedly by each generation of writers:

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said that Pytheas says ..." either because he never read Pytheas' manuscript (because it was not available to him) or in deference to Hipparchus, who appears to have been the first to apply the Babylonian system of representing the sphere of the Earth by 360°.

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Pretani is generally believed to mean "painted" or rather "tattooed", likely referring to the use by the Britons of the blue dye extracted from woad. ... it is more likely to be a nickname given them by outsiders ... It may be compared with the word

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casts a shadow extending in theory to the horizon over 360° as the Sun does not set. Under the pole the Arctic Circle is identical to the Equator and the Sun never sets but rises and falls on the horizon. The shadow of the gnōmōn winds perpetually around it.

1274:; if the statement is true, there are no other possibilities. As to whether he explored it in person, he said that he explored the entire north in person (see under Thule above). As the periplus was a sort of ship's log, he probably did reach the Vistula. 850:

Strabo, taking his text from Polybius, related that "Pytheas asserts that he explored in person the whole northern region of Europe as far as the ends of the world." Strabo did not believe it but he explained what Pytheas meant by the ends of the world.

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own treaty. During the second half of the 4th century BC, the time of Pytheas' voyage, Massaliotes were presumably free to operate as they pleased; there is, at least, no evidence of conflict with Carthage in any of the sources that mention the voyage.

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Diodorus did not mention Pytheas by name. The association is made as follows: Pliny reported that "Timaeus says there is an island named Mictis … where tin is found, and to which the Britons cross." Diodorus said that tin was brought to the island of

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millennium AD. They are known to have developed in tribal contexts, as they were originally tribal. The first mention of any tribes is in Ptolemy's description of European Sarmatia, where the main Prussian tribes are mentioned for the first time.

1438:. It is possible to speculate that he may have hoped to circumnavigate Europe, but the sources do not say. In other, even more speculative interpretations, Pytheas returned north and the Tanais is not the Don but is a northern river, such as the 973:... the Barbarians showed us the place where the sun goes to rest. For it was the case that in these parts the nights were very short, in some places two, in others three hours long, so that the sun rose again a short time after it had set. 1971:

Pytheas was a central source of information on the North Sea and the subarctic regions of western Europe to later periods, and possibly the only source. The only ancient authors we know by name who certainly saw Pytheas' original text were

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Here Strabo launched another quibble. Hipparchus, relying on Pytheas, according to Strabo, placed this area south of Britain, but he, Strabo, calculated that it was north of Ireland (Ierne/Ἰέρνη). Pytheas, however, rightly knew what is now

1550:. Pytheas reported that the pole was an empty space at the corner of a quadrangle, the other three sides of which were marked by stars. Their identity has not survived but based on calculations these are believed to have been α and κ in 1644:

The shadow cast by a vertical rod at noon was the basis for defining zonation. The intersection of the northernmost or southernmost points of the ecliptic defined the axial circles passing through those points as the two tropics

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stage, and likely spoke a number of related dialects. By turning back at what he thought was the limit of Germany, he not only missed the Balts, but did not discover that more Germans, the Goths, had moved into the Baltic area.

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Pytheas* speaks of an estuary of the Ocean named Metuonis and extending for 750 miles, the shores of which are inhabited by a German tribe, the Guiones. From here it is a day's sail to the Isle of Abalus, to which, he states,

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gave a similar number: 42,500 stadia, about 4,830 miles (7,770 km), and explains that it is the perimeter of a triangle around Britain. The consensus has been that he probably took his information from Pytheas through

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209/600, which is the inverse of the tangent, but the angle is greater than 45° and it is the tangent that Strabo states. His number system did not permit him to express it as a decimal but the tangent is about 2.87.

1719:, "circle of the bear". The terrestrial Arctic Circle was regarded as fixed at this latitude. The celestial Arctic Circle was regarded as identical to the circumference of the circumpolar stars and therefore a variable. 1396:), he said lies a days' sail off Scythia, where amber is collected. To him the limit of Germany was the Vistula. In contrast to Strabo, he knew that the Goths live around the Vistula, but these were definitely Germans. 1463:

Strabo used the degrees, based on Hipparchus. Neither say that Pytheas did. Nevertheless, Pytheas did obtain latitudes, which, according to Strabo, he expressed in proportions of the gnōmōn ("index"), or trigonometric

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through the river-mouth also crossed the coast of "Celtica", the distance due north from Marseille to Celtica was 3700 stadia, a baseline from which Pytheas seems to have calculated latitude and distance.

2907:. The Greeks must be allowed some inaccuracy for their measurements. In any case damming has changed the river a great deal and a few thousand years has been enough to change the courses of many rivers. 735:

over all of Greater Britain, and this particular spelling is prototypical of those more populous regions, but there is no evidence that Pytheas distinguished between the peoples of the archipelago.

1489:, or angle of that tangent. Moderns look it up in a table. Hipparchos is said to have had a table of some angles. The altitude, or angle of elevation, is 70° 47′ 50″ but that is not the 497:

An alternate theory is that by the 4th century BC, the western Greeks, especially the Massaliotes, were on amicable terms with Carthage. In 348 BC, Carthage and Rome came to terms over the

1415:. From these few references, which are the only surviving evidence apart from glottochronology and place name analysis, it would seem that the Balts of Pytheas' time were well past the Common 1292:

is carried in spring by currents, being an excretion consisting of solidified brine. He adds that the inhabitants of the region use it as fuel instead of wood and sell it to the neighbouring

272:. The theoretical existence of some Northern phenomena that he described, such as a frigid zone, and temperate zones where the nights are very short in summer and the sun does not set at the 790:), 100 stadia, about 11 miles (18 km), from the land, but the text is ambiguous: "the land" could be either Britain or the continent. Four days' sail beyond that is another promontory, 1165:("places") mentioned in Strabo's apparent description of spring drift ice, which would have stopped his voyage further north and was for him the ultimate limit of the world. Strabo says: 3830:

in later times; some of the things that they told were so extraordinary, so contrary to common experience, that wise and prudent men could not believe them and concluded they were fables

2012:, though Strabo discussed him and Tacitus may likely have known about his work. Either of the two could have known him through other writers or could have read his work in the original. 1896:

storm surge. Despite the modern arguments, the fact remains that Pytheas experienced tides that exceeded by far the usual tides in the Mediterranean, and particularly those at Massilia.

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the legs. The "perimeter" is often translated as "coastline", but this translation is misleading. The coastline, following all the bays and inlets, is 7,723 miles (12,429 km) (see

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so long ago that if the connection between cubits and degrees was known in either Babylonia or Ionia it did not survive. Strabo stated degrees in either cubits or as a proportion of a

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for "beverage" but the neuter singular does not exclude a type of which there are two specifics. Some mead also is and was made with hops and is strained briefly through grain (see

1880:, which records tides at tidal gauges placed in about 55 ports of the UK Tide Gauge Network on an ongoing basis, records the highest mean tidal change between 1987 and 2007 at 1496:

At noon on the longest day the plane of longitude passing through Marseille is exactly on edge to the Sun. If the Earth's axis were not tilted toward the Sun, a vertical rod at the

1373:, "the deep", in the sense of water country. Later Lithuanians would be "the people of the shore". The Vistula was the traditional limit of Greater Germany. Place names featuring * 990:. The northernmost location cited in Britain at the Firth of Clyde is now northern Scotland. To get this country south of Britain to conform to Strabo's interpretation of Pytheas, 950:. The parallel running through that mouth also passes through Celtica and is Pytheas' base line. Using 3700 or 3800 stadia (approximately 420–430 miles or 5.3°–5.4°) north of 7430: 1955:

occur at those times. A gravitational theory (objects fall to the center) existed at the time but Pytheas appears to have meant that the phases themselves were the causes (αἰτίαι

1613:, was known for his ability to measure the distance of a ship at sea from a cliff by the very method Pytheas used to determine the latitude of Massalia, the trigonometric ratios. 1455:

In discussing the work of Pytheas, Strabo typically used direct discourse: "Pytheas says ..." In presenting his astronomical observations, he changed to indirect discourse: "

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As the observer's latitude increases (traveling north) so does the declination. The pole rises over the horizon by an angle of the same amount. The elevation at the terrestrial

4312: 727:, meaning "form". The British were the "people of forms", with the sense of shapes or pictures, thought to refer to their practice of tattooing or war painting. The Roman word 494:. Others believed that, to avoid the Carthaginian blockade, he may have stayed close to land and sailed only at night, or taken advantage of a temporary lapse in the blockade. 931:. If this is his route, in all likelihood he did not actually circumnavigate Britain, but returned along the coast of Germany, accounting for his somewhat larger perimeter. 1692:. Strabo gives it as 24°, which may be based on a previous tangent of Pytheas, but he does not say. The Arctic Circle would then be at 66°, accurate to within a degree. 649:

by Pytheas, but no copies of this work survive. The earliest existing records of the word are quotations of the periplus by later authors, such as those within Strabo's

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The logical outcome of this tendency is the historical novel with Pytheas as the main character and the celebration of Pytheas in poetry, beginning as far back as

1329: 1198:("salt-water lung"). William Ogle, a major translator and annotator of Aristotle, attributes the name sea-lung to the lung-like expansion and contraction of the 486:

to all ships from other nations. Some historians, mainly of the late 19th century and early, speculated that he must have traveled overland to the mouth of the

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in the south. Still, some of the Celtic lands were on the channel and were visible from it, which Pytheas should have mentioned but Strabo implies he did not.

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When the observer is on the terrestrial Arctic Circle and the radius of the circumpolar stars is 66° the celestial Arctic Circle is identical to the celestial

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unresolved, to be worked over by every generation. To some he was a daring adventurer and discoverer; to others, a semi-legendary blunderer or prevaricator.

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was an easier passage to Celtica than across the Ocean, is somewhat ambiguous: apparently he knew or knew of both routes, but he does not say which he took.

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is several days' sail from Celtica when it is visible from Gaul across the channel. If Pytheas had visited the place he should have verified it personally.

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Strabo said that Ierne (written Ἰέρνη, meaning Ireland) is under 5000 stadia (7.1°) north of this line. These figures place Celtica around the mouth of the

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cubit, an early Greek cubit, of 463.1 mm, in which case the distance was 37 metres (121 ft). This number far exceeds any modern known tides. The

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Forsyth, Katherine (2005). "Origins: Scotland to 1100". In Wormald, Jenny (ed.). Scotland: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199601646.

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times. However, Pytheas only sailed 560 stadia per day for a total of 23,800, which in Nansen's view is consistent with 700 stadia per degree.

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of the elevation gives the latitude. The Sun is even higher in the sky due to the tilt. The angle added to the elevation by the tilt is known as the

1320:, as he does in a related geographical passage about the Germanic part of the northern Oceanic coasts. "Mentonomon" is unambiguously stated to be an 982:

Pytheas of Massalia tells us that Thule ... is farthest north, and that there the circle of the summer tropic is the same as the Arctic Circle.

366:. Assuming that Ictis, Mictis and Corbulo are the same, Diodorus appears to have read Timaeus, who must have read Pytheas, whom Polybius also read. 3315:: "If, then, we cut the greatest circle of the Earth into three hundred and sixty sections, each of these sections will have seven hundred stadia." 457:(died about 285 BC) did not trust the stories of Pytheas. That is all the information that survives concerning the date of Pytheas' voyage. 1703:

appear, now unblocked by the Earth. At the Tropic of Cancer the radius of the circumpolar stars reaches 24°. The edge stands on the horizon. The

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The first written reference to Scotland was in 320 BC by Pytheas, who called the northern tip of Britain "Orcas", the source of the name of the

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If we seek a meaning, the favoured view is that it arises from an older word implying 'people of the forms, shapes or depictions' (*krt-en-o-).

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to mark the approximate location of the North celestial pole, which it does nearly exactly. This was not the case in Pytheas' time, due to the

818:. They mined the ore, smelted it and then worked it into pieces in the shape of knuckle-bones, after which it was transported to the island of 3166: 3137: 412:

Scholars of the 19th century tended to interpret these titles as the names of distinct works covering separate voyages; for example, Smith's

4316: 2326: 1524:, north in the northern hemisphere. Seen from zero latitude the north pole's elevation is zero; that is, it is a point on the horizon. The 3003: 216: 9975: 8036: 6592: 4915: 3018: 2511: 1500:

would have no shadow. A rod further north would have a north–south shadow, and as an elevation of 90° would be a zero latitude, the

4302: 3621: 2277: 1296:. His belief is shared by Timaeus, who, however, calls the island Basilia. Philemon denies the suggestion that amber gives off a flame. 899:(at the summer solstice), a reaffirmation that it is on the Arctic Circle. He added that the crossing to Thule started at the island of 10518: 10498: 5553: 4044: 1262:

as far as Scythia", which he, Strabo, thought was false. In the geographers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire, such as

1218: 762:) and are content with plain fare. They are ruled by many kings and princes who live in peace with each other. Their troops fight from 509:

that Strabo said are false because they were taken from Pytheas. Apparently, Pytheas said that tides ended at the "sacred promontory" (

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Most of the ancients do refer to his work by his name: "Pytheas says …" Two late writers give titles: the astronomical author

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Concerning the location of Thule, a discrepancy in data caused subsequent geographers some problems, and may be responsible for

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for a base line obtains a latitude of 64.8° or 64.9° for Thule, well short of the Arctic Circle. It is in fact the latitude of

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is said to be 5 days' sail. Strabo complained about this distance, and about Pytheas' portrayal of the exact location of

10035: 9754: 7937: 4400: 4211: 4107: 4030: 3965: 3819: 3294: 2575: 2408: 1951:

are meant, or whether full and new moons or the half-cycles in which they occur. Different translators take different views.

1767:. The Greeks also used the length of day at the summer solstice as a measure of latitude. It is stated in equinoctial hours ( 10778: 10456: 5883: 622: 6748: 4137: 822:

by wagon, which could be done at low tide. Merchants that purchased it there packed it on horses for 30 days to the river

10788: 10783: 10503: 10407: 9646: 7831: 7512: 7334: 7224: 6993: 5582: 5531: 4872: 4668: 1726:. That is what Pytheas means when he says that Thule is located at the place where the Arctic Circle is identical to the 17: 1345:

Pytheas claimed to have explored the entire north; however, he turned back at the mouth of the Vistula, the border with

986:

Eratosthenes extended the latitudinal distance from Massalia to Celtica to 5000 stadia (7.1°), placing the base line in

10808: 10798: 7282: 6863: 6802: 3633: 1053:, which sounds like Norway. If one sails west from Norway one encounters Iceland. Burton himself espoused this theory. 3958:

North to Thule: an imagined narrative of the famous "lost" sea voyage of Pytheas of Massalia in the fourth century B.C

2754:

The section numeration differs somewhat in different translations; the material is to be found near the end of Book V.

1779:

same parallel (see above). Hipparchus, through Strabo, added that Byzantium and the mouth of the Borysthenes, today's

383:), literally "things about the Ocean", sometimes translated as "Description of the Ocean", "On the Ocean" or "Ocean"; 10513: 9903: 7305: 4424: 4126: 4002: 3946: 3118: 2963: 2701: 2218: 1206:, during locomotion. The ice resembled floating circles in the water. The modern English term for this phenomenon is 358:. The last link was supplied by Strabo, who said that an emporium on the island of Corbulo in the mouth of the river 3416:

That is, the altitude of the elevated pole is equal to the declination of the zenith, which is equal to the latitude

1099:

for threshing grain rather than the Mediterranean outside floor of sun-baked mud and manufactured a drink, possibly

10823: 10803: 10538: 10445: 9405: 7383: 4393: 3924: 2019:, accused Pytheas of promulgating a fictitious journey he could never have funded, as he was a private individual ( 754:", and not "under the Arctic pole", as some translations say. The numerous population of natives, he says, live in 245:). He made a voyage of exploration to Northern Europe in about 325 BC, but his account of it, known widely in 226: 830:

were civilized in manner and especially hospitable to strangers because of their dealings with foreign merchants.

750:

Diodorus - based on Pytheas - reported that Britain is cold and subject to frosts, being "too much subject to the

10265: 9616: 9241: 8383: 8029: 7614: 7600: 7574: 7411: 5382: 4908: 4228: 63: 8304: 6305: 1072:

islands are more of a problem, as they could be Scandinavia, but other islands had that name as well. Moreover,

10255: 9662: 9641: 7437: 7407: 5750: 5740: 5324: 5026: 1959:). However imperfect or imperfectly related the viewpoint, Pytheas was the first to associate the tides to the 1676:, the Greek geographers judged it uninhabitable. Symmetry requires that there be an uninhabitable Frigid Zone ( 1512:

of the elevation less the obliquity is 43° 13′, only 5′ in error from Marseille's latitude, 43° 18′.

10556: 7048: 10599: 10581: 10229: 9261: 7210: 6720: 5853: 4805: 3515:

Strabo's extensive presentation of the geographic model including the theory of the Arctic is to be found in

2746:

Siculi, Diodori; L. Rhodoman; G. Heyn; N. Eyring (1798). "Book V, Sections 21–22". In Peter Wesseling (ed.).

1715:, "little bear") was entirely contained within the circumpolar region. The latitude was therefore called the 3988:. Oxford: Blackwell, Classics Department for the Board of Management of the Myres Memorial Fund. 090356307X. 10818: 10813: 10523: 10120: 9739: 9678: 9508: 9318: 7119: 7005: 6848: 5894: 5355: 5123: 3472: 1877: 1353:. They occupied the lands to the east of the Vistula. In the west they began with the people living around 3398: 3059: 1661:(therinē tropē) rods there cast no shadow. The latitudes between the tropics were called the torrid zone ( 1539:

is 90° (straight up) and the celestial pole has a declination of the same value. The latitude also is 90.

1190:

as being free-floating and insensate. They are not further identifiable from what Aristotle says but some

10576: 9953: 9856: 9395: 9154: 7567: 7189: 7023: 6964: 6918: 5147: 5036: 2592: 2072: 1547: 758:

cottages, store their grain in subterranean caches and bake bread from it. They are "of simple manners" (

2186:

Stein-Hölkeskamp, Elke; Engels, Johannes; Gärtner, Hans Armin; Albiani, Maria Grazia (2006). "Pytheas".

1426:

related: "... on his return thence (from the north), he traversed the whole of the coast of Europe from

276:, was already known. Similarly, reports of a country of perpetual snow and darkness (the country of the 10793: 10432: 9695: 9538: 9410: 9300: 8058: 8022: 7927: 6652: 6626: 6619: 6070: 5971: 5963: 5946: 5564: 5110: 4962: 4901: 3670: 2587: 6359: 3566: 3553: 3516: 3503: 3488: 3327: 3312: 2836: 1947:). The words are too ambiguous to make an exact determination of Pytheas' meaning, whether diurnal or 1001:

rather than at the mouth. It does place Pytheas on the Arctic Circle, which in Norway is south of the

10828: 10665: 10594: 10169: 10025: 9958: 9184: 9127: 7750: 7360: 7056: 6855: 6640: 6522: 6325: 6207: 6058: 5907: 5845: 5832: 5705: 5431: 5083: 4602: 3778: 3597: 3093: 2931: 2866: 2814: 2551:

Book I.4.2–4, Book II.3.5, Book III.2.11 and 4.4, Book IV.2.1, Book IV.4.1, Book IV.5.5, Book VII.3.1

2539: 2487: 2426: 2341: 2292: 10086: 1597:

The ancient Greek view of the heavenly bodies on which their navigation was based was imported from

1332:

and Pytheas described a very large island which lay three days' sail from the Scythian coast called

10706: 10426: 10211: 9918: 9445: 9440: 9246: 8977: 8527: 8180: 8045: 7900: 7491: 7485: 7403: 7277: 7062: 6788: 6664: 6514: 6402: 6186: 4276: 4252: 1606: 1381:- are wide-ranging over the vast Proto-Baltic homeland, occupying western Russia before the Slavs. 946:

places Thule at a parallel 11500 stadia (1305 miles, or 16.4°) north of the mouth of the

675:

than it's Classical Latin variants. From this Greek spelling, the name is treated a feminine noun.

470: 10313: 5202: 3906: 3697: 3038: 2255: 10773: 10655: 10528: 10184: 10132: 9835: 9626: 9533: 9420: 9055: 8406: 7967: 7630: 6783: 6657: 6577: 6086: 5913: 5115: 4597: 4416: 3916: 1520:

A second method of determining the latitude of the observer measures the angle of elevation of a

1465: 1279: 10571: 8995: 4194:

Warmington, Eric Herbert; Spawforth, Antony (2015). "Pytheas, Greek navigator, c. 310–306 BCE".

4169: 2031:

truth about places that are not known to anybody." As an example he mentioned that Pytheas says

1803:, an emporium for the trading of British tin. The part of Ireland referenced is the vicinity of 10693: 10561: 10206: 10015: 10010: 9940: 9830: 9673: 9545: 9278: 8708: 8659: 8602: 8547: 8401: 7905: 7471: 5403: 4744: 4617: 4552: 4287: 4266: 4242: 3846: 1013: 896: 525:. Mention of these places in a journal of the voyage indicates that Pytheas passed through the 6738: 4203: 3792: 3450: 1948: 1811:

from the coast of Spain to the mouth of the Loire, or reached it along the coast, crossed the

560:).Whether Ptolemy would have had Pytheas' real latitudes at that time is a much debated issue. 10684: 10566: 10240: 10216: 10071: 9550: 9435: 9333: 9308: 8900: 8779: 8733: 8664: 8629: 7910: 7879: 7684: 7637: 7536: 7340: 7259: 7202: 6951: 6945: 6795: 6753: 6715: 6695: 6290: 6065: 5901: 5811: 5793: 5710: 5681: 5671: 5559: 5496: 5270: 4780: 4709: 4447: 1574: 1551: 1080:, Chapter 15) that the earlier name of Scandinavia was Thule and that it was the home of the 663: 333: 8865: 8373: 5951: 4333: 4088: 2693: 1831:

Islands. A statement of Eratosthenes attributed by Strabo to Pytheas, that the north of the

1742: 1649:, "circles at the turning points") later named for the zodiacal constellations found there, 10660: 10533: 10473: 10326: 10260: 10103: 10091: 9935: 9744: 9503: 9498: 9400: 9360: 9164: 9060: 9050: 9043: 8597: 7764: 7756: 7699: 7287: 7151: 7077: 7069: 6869: 6809: 6768: 6381: 6372: 6243: 6238: 6142: 6006: 5763: 5725: 5332: 5102: 5070: 5014: 4994: 4851: 4592: 4542: 4462: 4437: 4177: 4056: 3939:

The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek: The Man Who Discovered Britain (Revised ed.)

3706: 2101: 1997: 1900: 1784: 1509: 1501: 526: 458: 388: 355: 9690: 7132: 5537: 5520: 4022: 2355: 1477:

and that the two therefore are on the same parallel. Nansen and others prefer to give the

895:

added that it had no nights at midsummer when the sun was passing through the sign of the

887:

Thule was described as an island six days' sailing north of Britain, near the frozen sea (

571:, at root "come upon", does not imply any specific method, and Pytheas did not elaborate. 8: 10833: 10722: 10650: 10478: 10468: 10439: 10307: 10140: 10081: 9651: 9560: 9460: 9450: 9390: 9385: 9380: 9370: 9365: 9350: 9345: 9266: 9122: 9000: 8945: 8870: 8294: 8258: 7885: 7807: 7272: 7195: 7111: 6892: 6884: 6833: 6473: 6431: 5926: 5889: 5778: 5542: 5412: 5215: 5020: 4622: 4527: 4477: 4452: 3032: 2788:. Translated by Forster, E. S.; Furley, D. J. Harvard University Press. pp. 360–361. 2781: 1977: 1654: 709: 702: 590: 483: 442: 384: 5525: 4060: 3850: 3702: 3691: 2249: 738: 10419: 10076: 9876: 9861: 9656: 9611: 9606: 9455: 9005: 8617: 7606: 7498: 7479: 7043: 7018: 6560: 6454: 6418: 6394: 6285: 6132: 6107: 6103: 6093: 5999: 5977: 5956: 5837: 5827: 5574: 5462: 5390: 5063: 5054: 5046: 4957: 4937: 4856: 4770: 4354: 4296: 4072: 3894: 3609:

Strabo II.1.18. The notes of the Loeb Strabo summarized and explained this information.

3394: 3106: 3055: 2464: 2456: 2381: 2116: 1792: 1605:

Greeks, who used it to become a seafaring nation of merchants and colonists during the

657: 461:

estimated that Pytheas' voyage occurred about 330 BC, derived from three main sources.

342: 38: 4370: 1006: 916: 10339: 10000: 9948: 9930: 9871: 9493: 9430: 9425: 9355: 9251: 9211: 9206: 9189: 9159: 8825: 8769: 8763: 8612: 8589: 8411: 8341: 8299: 7978: 7784: 7778: 7734: 7719: 7648: 7620: 7528: 7465: 7375: 7347: 7327: 7265: 7173: 7137: 7011: 6978: 6971: 6924: 6906: 6823: 6572: 6441: 6389: 6295: 6248: 6176: 6165: 5877: 5867: 5859: 5755: 5745: 5656: 5651: 5634: 5600: 5467: 5454: 5275: 5181: 5139: 5134: 4924: 4765: 4612: 4517: 4472: 4207: 4122: 4103: 4026: 3998: 3961: 3942: 3920: 3815: 3655: 3466: 3290: 3114: 2959: 2697: 2468: 2404: 2214: 1832: 1700: 1388:

Herodotus had mentioned these Sauromatai as a distinct people living near the Neuri.

962: 418:

hypothesizes a voyage to Britain and Thule written about in "Ocean" and another from

370: 2686: 1787:

and were separated by 3700 stadia, 5.3° at Strabo's 700 stadia per a degree of

1699:) is a point on the horizon. As the observer moves northward the pole rises and the 1684:

seemed to confirm it. The edge of the Frigid Zone ought to be as far south from the

303: 10645: 10380: 10096: 9840: 9749: 9470: 9465: 9216: 9199: 9169: 9100: 8875: 8654: 8532: 8459: 8279: 8155: 7995: 7727: 7419: 7299: 7125: 7098: 7038: 6913: 6843: 6828: 6567: 6496: 6491: 6465: 6460: 6342: 6265: 6218: 5985: 5805: 5770: 5666: 5661: 5595: 5509: 5291: 5283: 5169: 5089: 5041: 5031: 5004: 4877: 4830: 4800: 4790: 4739: 4714: 4199: 4064: 4040: 4018: 3886: 3876: 2777: 2448: 2195: 2191: 2040: 1985: 1727: 1723: 1650: 1626: 1562:

where the celestial arctic circle was equal to the celestial Tropic of Cancer, the

1407:

In Tacitus, only the language of the Aestii is mentioned. Strabo distinguished the

915:

was in the outer Hebrides, the crossing would have brought Pytheas to the coast of

672: 585: 475:

Pytheas was the first documented Mediterranean mariner to reach the British Isles.

337: 265: 166: 10332: 10201: 2058:. The process continues into modern times; for example, Pytheas is a key theme in 256:. He was the first known Greek scientific visitor to see and describe the Arctic, 10061: 9415: 9375: 9313: 8416: 8351: 8205: 7985: 7932: 7917: 7823: 7818: 7742: 7707: 7643: 7542: 7457: 7424: 7156: 6939: 6931: 6900: 6816: 6776: 6530: 6486: 6426: 6350: 6320: 6315: 6275: 6253: 6201: 6137: 6127: 6078: 5800: 5785: 5638: 5607: 5569: 5319: 5247: 5241: 5164: 5129: 4989: 4825: 4760: 4729: 4627: 4557: 4291: 4084: 3910: 2671: 2646: 2621: 2597: 1843: 1839: 1812: 1731: 1658: 1505: 1389: 1139: 1096: 1002: 892: 884:

moderns indicates Pytheas was the first explorer to arrive there and tell of it.

860: 642: 625:). Pytheas could have travelled any perimeter between that number and Diodorus'. 609: 594: 438: 273: 246: 10113: 6508: 4093:. Vol. I. Translated by Arthur G. Chater. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co. 2752:(in Ancient Greek and Latin). Argentorati: Societas Bipontina. pp. 292–297. 826:, where it was carried down to the mouth. Diodorus said that the inhabitants of 10838: 10367: 10301: 10056: 9815: 9683: 9488: 9483: 9194: 9147: 9065: 9010: 8738: 8644: 8607: 8454: 8316: 8150: 7959: 7942: 7895: 7854: 7844: 7813: 7672: 7662: 7554: 7504: 7369: 7319: 7292: 7237: 7033: 7028: 6877: 6730: 6584: 6546: 6503: 6436: 6410: 6364: 6337: 6310: 6280: 6223: 6181: 6171: 6051: 6044: 5941: 5921: 5733: 5693: 5624: 5420: 5395: 5350: 5314: 5308: 5300: 5260: 5255: 5229: 5209: 4977: 4688: 4567: 4502: 4482: 4148: 3934: 3912:

Cassiodorus, Jordanes and the History of the Goths: Studies in a Migration Myth

2372:

Whitaker, Ian (December 1981 – January 1982). "The Problem of Pytheas' Thule".

1885: 1848: 1521: 1408: 695: 579: 261: 230: 4271: 4247: 10767: 10715: 10400: 10360: 10346: 10005: 9820: 9595: 9142: 9137: 9110: 9038: 8935: 8469: 8391: 8140: 8120: 8083: 7922: 7864: 7859: 7849: 7799: 7794: 7770: 7714: 7591: 7585: 7580: 7179: 7090: 7083: 6838: 6633: 6612: 6480: 6258: 6228: 6196: 6191: 6028: 5934: 5817: 5612: 5425: 5375: 5368: 5360: 5265: 5174: 5009: 4810: 4795: 4775: 4153:

The ancient amber routes and the geographical discovery of the Eastern Baltic

3687: 3406:(Bicentennial ed.). National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. p. 243 2583: 2077: 2067: 2059: 1816: 1808: 1704: 1354: 1034: 904: 687: 683: 639: 498: 281: 253: 196: 126: 118: 10353: 8676: 4013:

Kaplan, Philip G. (2013). "Pytheas of Massalia". In Bagnall, Roger S (ed.).

3637: 997:

The 5000 stadia must be discounted: it crosses the Borysthenes upriver near

798:, as Diodorus is describing the triangular perimeter and the third point is 773: 10461: 10151: 10145: 10051: 10046: 9985: 9866: 9221: 9095: 9070: 9022: 9015: 8940: 8855: 8491: 8426: 8284: 8222: 8145: 8103: 7953: 7947: 7559: 7523: 7389: 7216: 7166: 7105: 6959: 6647: 6598: 6448: 6270: 6233: 6213: 6154: 5688: 5676: 5619: 5547: 5448: 5345: 5339: 5236: 5224: 5097: 5075: 4999: 4952: 4658: 4507: 3890: 3570: 2791: 2786:

On Sophistical Refutations. On Coming-to-be and Passing Away. On the Cosmos

1981: 1873: 1788: 1764: 1416: 1147:

A Tyle unius diei navigatione mare concretum a nonnullis Cronium appellatur

943: 514: 506: 277: 269: 10386: 4385: 3586: 3447:"Greek and Roman Science and Technology, V3; Specific subjects; Astronomy" 2066:. Details of Pytheas' voyage also serve as the backdrop for Chapter I of 1045:. A manuscript variant of a name in Pliny has abetted the Iceland theory: 920: 252:

On this voyage, he circumnavigated and visited a considerable part of the

10700: 10283: 10222: 10041: 9995: 9980: 9908: 9636: 9115: 8920: 8815: 8622: 8358: 8289: 8195: 8113: 8098: 7990: 7890: 7838: 7656: 7443: 7231: 6606: 6538: 6300: 6159: 6122: 6022: 6014: 5822: 5158: 4497: 4442: 1973: 1960: 1743:

Latitude by length of longest day, and by Sun's elevation on shortest day

1525: 1431: 1328:

In the passage about the northern Ocean coasts Pliny also mentioned that

1207: 1115: 1111: 947: 651: 454: 423: 328: 313: 249:, has not survived and is now known only through the writings of others. 10738: 8795: 4181: 4100:

Through the Pillars of Herakles: Greco-Roman Exploration of the Atlantic

3898: 3881: 3864: 645:

of the original P-Celtic term. It is believed to have appeared within a

548: 10235: 10066: 9925: 9913: 9825: 9734: 9323: 9075: 8743: 8718: 8697: 8639: 8501: 8474: 8190: 8070: 7789: 7692: 7676: 7518: 7451: 7352: 6761: 6710: 6670: 5992: 5718: 5646: 5588: 4981: 4949: 4815: 4632: 4577: 4537: 4467: 4076: 3827: 3432: 2385: 2111: 2001: 1989: 1752: 1712: 1685: 1555: 1536: 1486: 1456: 1317: 1271: 1087:

Concerning the people of Thule Strabo says of Pytheas, but grudgingly:

767: 751: 122: 9990: 2460: 1182:

of the type the ancients called sea-lung. The latter are mentioned by

10245: 10158: 9174: 9132: 9105: 8915: 8860: 8844: 8702: 8542: 8496: 8421: 8396: 8363: 8217: 8160: 8135: 7311: 6148: 5700: 5483: 4719: 4572: 4562: 4547: 4492: 4487: 4432: 2903:

The mouth was further north than it is today; even so, 48.4° is near

2773: 1881: 1824: 1756: 1598: 1478: 1474: 1435: 1362: 1214: 1199: 1194:

appear in Pliny as a class of insensate sea animal; specifically the

1183: 1179: 1073: 1042: 1018: 955: 951: 928: 815: 755: 522: 257: 238: 67: 8014: 4893: 4068: 3256:"Glottochronology and Its Application to the Balto-Slavic Languages" 2185: 1095:

What he seems to be describing is an agricultural country that used

10393: 8895: 8890: 8758: 8713: 8634: 8522: 8517: 8486: 8243: 8200: 8165: 8130: 8078: 7243: 4820: 4648: 4512: 4119:

Pytheas of Massalia: On the ocean: Text, translation and commentary

3727: 3714: 3369: 3289:. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 26–27. 2452: 2016: 1993: 1908: 1904: 1856: 1820: 1634: 1585:

survived indicate that this material was a significant part of the

1490: 1423: 1393: 1316:. An alternative interpretation is that Pliny was referring to the 1301: 1293: 1203: 1030: 987: 939: 908: 827: 795: 646: 626: 530: 479: 427: 402: 363: 234: 131: 84: 8840: 1680:, "frozen") to the north and reports from there since the time of 1427: 1337:

also makes it clear that Pytheas distinguished two large islands.

823: 715: 518: 10678: 10125: 9621: 9513: 8910: 8880: 8835: 8820: 8805: 8800: 8753: 8723: 8446: 8253: 8248: 8185: 8125: 8088: 7870: 7250: 5515: 5479: 4724: 4582: 4532: 4522: 3865:"The Greco-Roman Conception of the North from Pytheas to Tacitus" 3722: 2745: 2126: 2121: 2106: 2009: 1804: 1780: 1772: 1689: 1543: 1497: 1361:", who in that vicinity became the Baltic Prussians. On the east 1346: 1309: 1305: 1267: 1263: 1026: 991: 935: 876: 763: 705: 602: 553: 491: 295:

is the earliest one known that suggests the moon as their cause.

31: 6037: 3067:(Bicentennial ed.). National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency 2238:. Book VII.3.1 accuses him of using his science to conceal lies. 1258:

Strabo said that Pytheas gave an account of "what is beyond the

814:

The inhabitants of Cornwall were involved in the manufacture of

678: 505:

The early part of Pytheas' voyage was outlined by statements of

445:(born about 350 BC) believed Pytheas' story of the discovery of 332:(late 1st century BC, or early 1st century AD), passages in the 10729: 10374: 10195: 9179: 9085: 8930: 8885: 8830: 8790: 8774: 8748: 8692: 8537: 8464: 8368: 8336: 8326: 8274: 8175: 8108: 6116: 5441: 4835: 4785: 4734: 4607: 4457: 2904: 2055: 2044: 2005: 1828: 1771:), one being 1/12 of the time between sunrise and sunset on an 1735: 1638: 1610: 1609:. Massalia was an Ionian colony. The first Ionian philosopher, 1578: 1529: 1400: 1333: 1119: 1038: 924: 868: 839: 803: 450: 323: 308: 242: 223: 114: 95: 57: 4295: 2167: 1581:

north–south distances were accurate often to within a degree.

1515: 1312:, who are in turn generally seen as predecessors of the later 671:, which shares more similarities with spellings in the modern 268:

tribes. He is also the first person on record to describe the

9090: 9080: 8925: 8905: 8850: 8810: 8784: 8728: 8227: 5502: 3979:. Ancient Peoples and Places. New York: Frederick A. Praeger. 3574: 2956:

The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe

2772: 2731: ... which was used by the Romans in the 3rd century AD. 2576: 2235: 1939: 1930: 1921: 1912: 1860: 1800: 1760: 1681: 1673: 1669: 1602: 1485:

It is unlikely that any of the geographers could compute the

1412: 1392:, however, was much better informed. The island of Baunonia ( 1358: 1350: 1313: 1289: 1270:; thus Pytheas must have described the Germanic coast of the 1259: 1252: 1229: 1217:

has long been standard in navigational literature, including

1081: 856: 819: 743: 487: 446: 419: 392: 374: 359: 351: 288: 204: 3142: 1629:

repeated on a larger scale those of the terrestrial sphere.

178: 8687: 8346: 8331: 8311: 8212: 8093: 4371:"The Northern Lights Route: The Voyage of Pytheas to Thule" 3654:. National Oceanography Centre. 3 July 2012. Archived from 3636:. National Oceanography Centre. 3 July 2012. Archived from 2949: 2796: 2360:. Cambridge: Cambriddge University Press. pp. 152–154. 2032: 1892: 1625:) in planes at right angles to the poles. The zones of the 1439: 1349:. If he had gone on he would have discovered the ancestral 1248: 1100: 998: 787: 292: 184: 181: 3814:. New York: Courier Dover Publications. pp. 524–525. 3400:

The American Practical Navigator: an Epitome of Navigation

3061:

The American Practical Navigator: an Epitome of Navigation

1573:

Today the elevation can be obtained easily on ship with a

557: 8321: 3172: 3105: 2039:

The people across from Britain in Caesar's time were the

1266:, Scythia stretched eastward from the mouth of the river 1237: 1233: 774:

The three corners of Britain: Kantion, Belerion and Orkas

175: 2749:

Bibliothecae Historicae Libri Qui Supersunt: Nova Editio

1170:

these elements, on which one can neither walk nor sail.

6707: 4142:

A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology

2439:

Tierney, James J. (1959). "Ptolemy's Map of Scotland".

2092:, 2020) revolve around Pytheas of Massalia's journeys. 1759:, where it meant 2°. They in turn took it from ancient 1308:), are sometimes reinterpreted by modern editors to be 719:, "land of the Picts". The base word is Scottish/Irish 638:

The first known written use of the word Britain was an

4055:(6). London: The Royal Geographical Society: 504–524. 3675:. Cambridge: Cambriddge University Press. p. 225. 2535:

Book XXXIV chapter 5, which survives as a fragment in

1842:

the Sun stands at 9 cubits and the longest day on the

1668:

Based on their experience of the Torrid Zone south of

1450: 667:. According to Strabo, Pytheas referred to Britain as 633: 291:

to the geographic imagination, and his account of the

8578: 3030: 415:

Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology

187: 4090:

In Northern Mists: Arctic Exploration in Early Times

2155: 2145: 2143: 2141: 172: 4353:. Technische Universiteit Eindhoven. Archived from 4313:"Pytheas visited the Isle of Man in 300 BC – claim" 4193: 3960:. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. 2401:

Transalpine Gaul: The Emergence of a Roman Province

2260:

Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Caesar.

2173: 578:("perimeter") for Britain of more than 40,000 541: 169: 3429:Commentary on the Phainomena of Aratos and Eudoxos 2685: 2251:Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Caesar 2213:. London, England: Penguin Group. pp. 74–76. 1021:: "Manifestly we cannot rely upon the longitude." 4306:. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). pp. 703–704. 2138: 1532:also is zero and therefore so is their latitude. 1385:Sauromatai, but had no idea where to place them. 574:Pytheas did use the word "whole" and he stated a 10765: 3955: 3812:Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece 3720:Book III Chapter 17 often included in 3696:(in Ancient Greek). Berlin: G. Reimer. pp. 3037:. London: Kegan, Paul, French & Co. p. 2722:Lords of Battle: The World of the Celtic Warrior 1695:Seen from the equator the celestial North Pole ( 1592: 1508:and at that time was 23° 44′ 40″. The 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2807: 2805: 2480: 2478: 778:Opposite Europe in Diodorus is the promontory ( 4286: 3743:Lionel Pearson, review of Hans Joachim Mette, 3569:implied 3800, still attributed to Hipparchus. 3377:DIO & the Journal for Hysterical Astronomy 3086: 3084: 3082: 2859: 2857: 1641:on which various constellations were located. 1213:The association of Pytheas' observations with 478:The start of Pytheas's voyage is unknown. The 464: 362:was associated with the Britain of Pytheas by 8030: 4909: 4401: 4161:Ultima Thule: further mysteries of the Arctic 3975:Gimbutas, Marija (1967). Daniel, Glyn (ed.). 3449:. Note 14: Swansea University. Archived from 3431:, 1.4.1, fragments of which are preserved in 2652: 2627: 2602: 2569: 2371: 2318: 2316: 2211:The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek 1807:. Pytheas then would either have crossed the 1688:in latitude as the Summer Tropic is from the 742:A reconstruction of a Celtic thatched hut in 2820: 2802: 2475: 2303: 2301: 2270: 2268: 552:A 1490 Italian reconstruction of the map of 4415: 3905: 3705:. Diels includes two matching fragments of 3370:"Pytheas' Solstice Observation Locates Him" 3349: 3347: 3345: 3178: 3159: 3157: 3148: 3133: 3079: 2854: 1516:Latitude by the elevation of the north pole 1445: 1106: 10572:Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle 10519:International Congress of Maritime Museums 10499:Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology 9791: 8037: 8023: 4916: 4902: 4408: 4394: 4310: 4158: 3862: 3855:. London and Edinburgh: William P. Nimmo. 3791:Graham, Thomas H.B. (July–December 1893). 2979: 2724:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 174. 2313: 1243: 27:Ancient Greek geographer (born ca. 350 BC) 10632: 10587:National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology 3880: 2298: 2265: 1637:. It was the center of a band called the 701:, "the island of Britain", in which is a 7974:Pole of Inaccessibility research station 4196:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics 3974: 3933: 3393: 3342: 3287:Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome 3285:Lewis, Michael Jonathan Taunton (2001). 3202: 3190: 3154: 3054: 2741: 2739: 2517: 2403:. Leiden: Brill Archive. pp. 9–15. 2208: 2161: 1247: 1110: 978:latitude of Thule. And yet Strabo said: 927:, explaining how he managed to miss the 737: 677: 547: 302: 10557:Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology 7549:Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition 4204:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5459 4116: 4039: 3992: 3986:Pytheas: Europe and the Greek Explorers 3763: 3367: 2438: 958:, where Pytheas may have reached land. 287:Pytheas introduced the idea of distant 129:for which there is a record, author of 14: 10766: 10509:European Association of Archaeologists 9273: 4097: 4083: 4012: 3983: 3857:Ultima Thule; or, A Summer in Iceland. 3845: 3809: 3790: 3662: 3652:"Highest & lowest predicted tides" 3573:has quite a different view. See under 3540: 3528: 3353: 2953: 2916: 2878: 2848: 2683: 2560: 2523: 2247: 2149: 10631: 9790: 9765:Pompey's campaign against the pirates 9723: 9593: 9592: 8975: 8577: 8056: 8044: 8018: 6693: 4935: 4923: 4897: 4389: 4176: 4135: 4023:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah21281.pub2 3852:Ultima Thule; or, A Summer in Iceland 3686: 3668: 3284: 2736: 2719: 2692:. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 2353: 2347: 2307: 1966: 903:, "the largest of all", which may be 430:, a type of navigational literature. 37:For the ancient Athenian orator, see 4373:. University Library of Tromsø. 1999 4331: 4045:"Pytheas, The Discoverer of Britain" 2398: 2254:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 2004:. Notably the list does not include 1747:Strabo used the astronomical cubit ( 1340: 1012:In his study of Thule, the explorer 802:, presumably the main island of the 536: 529:and sailed north along the coast of 433: 10504:Archaeological Institute of America 7335:Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition 5532:Norse colonization of North America 4315:. Isle of Man Today. Archived from 4311:Darbyshire, Adrian (8 April 2008). 4144:. Vol. III. London: J. Murray. 4015:The Encyclopedia of Ancient History 3826:His fate was comparable to that of 3253: 3113:. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 164. 1730:. At that point, on the day of the 1451:Latitude by the altitude of the Sun 1357:, Lithuanian Aismarės, "sea of the 634:Name and description of the British 229:, explorer and astronomer from the 24: 6864:United States Exploring Expedition 4344: 4334:"Pytheas, megaliths and the tides" 3995:Pythéas, explorateur du Grand Nord 3734:Book I Chapter 38 . 1300:The "Guiones" who Pliny places in 1228:, with Pytheas. At its edge, sea, 601:reported by Pytheas as 4,875 340:between 60 and 30 BC, and Pliny's 150:Geography, exploration, navigation 25: 10850: 10514:Institute of Nautical Archaeology 9904:Coastal defence and fortification 9279:Roman circumnavigation of Britain 8579:Navigation, and ports and harbors 7938:Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station 7306:Australasian Antarctic Expedition 4222: 4117:Roseman, Christina Horst (1994). 3956:Frye, John; Harriet Frye (1985). 3754:.3 (July 1954), pp. 212–214. 3444: 3368:Rawlins, Dennis (December 2009). 1888:of 6.955 m (22.82 ft). 1617:spheres were divided into zones ( 1369:, a name related to Old Prussian 1174:The term used for "marine lung" ( 1118:in the Baltic in spring near the 1068:in the same list of islands. The 10748: 10614: 10539:Society for American Archaeology 9773: 9706: 9575: 8958: 8560: 7832:Amundsen's South Pole expedition 7225:Amundsen's South Pole expedition 4338:from: L'Atlantide des Mégalithes 3863:Chevallier, R. (December 1984). 3799:. Vol. CCLXXV. p. 179. 3169:or IV.13.95 in the Loeb edition. 3136:, pp. 25–31) citing Pliny, 3111:A Gothic Etymological Dictionary 3031:Aristotle; William Ogle (1882). 2563:The Scholar's History of England 1920:) to the "filling of the moon" ( 1859:as part of Britain, land of the 1161:and is probably the same as the 809: 731:, "the Picts", means "painted". 401:), a "trip around the earth" or 165: 62:A statue of Pytheas outside the 56: 9971:Phoenician discovery of America 4340:. Editions France-Empire, 1999. 4186:. Cambridge: University Press. 4159:Stefansson, Vilhjalmur (1940). 4102:. London, New York: Routledge. 3915:. Translated by Flegal, Heidi. 3838: 3803: 3784: 3769: 3757: 3737: 3680: 3644: 3626: 3612: 3603: 3591: 3580: 3559: 3546: 3534: 3522: 3509: 3494: 3479: 3438: 3421: 3387: 3359: 3333: 3318: 3303: 3278: 3269: 3247: 3238: 3226: 3217: 3208: 3196: 3184: 3127: 3099: 3048: 3024: 3009: 2994: 2985: 2972: 2937: 2922: 2910: 2897: 2888: 2872: 2842: 2766: 2757: 2713: 2677: 2662:Book IV. Chapter IV. Section 1 2637:Book IV. Chapter II. Section 1 2554: 2545: 2529: 2502: 2493: 2441:The Journal of Hellenic Studies 2432: 2417: 2392: 2365: 2332: 2174:Warmington & Spawforth 2015 2076:. The Stone Stories trilogy by 1866: 1126:After mentioning the crossing ( 994:has to rotate Scotland by 90°. 623:Geography of the United Kingdom 9663:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 4017:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 1. 3672:A History of Ancient Geography 3669:Tozer, Henry Fanshawe (1897). 2612:Book I. Chapter IV. Section 2 2357:A History of Ancient Geography 2354:Tozer, Henry Fanshawe (1897). 2283: 2241: 2227: 2202: 2196:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1016010 2179: 13: 1: 10582:Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa 9257:Phoenician maritime expansion 7211:Japanese Antarctic Expedition 7146:Scottish Antarctic Expedition 6694: 4806:Inferior and superior planets 4188:History of Ancient Geography. 3703:Downloadable Internet Archive 3109:; Helen-Jo J. Hewitt (1986). 2883:Introduction to the Phenomena 1891:The highest predicted spring 1593:Location of the Arctic Circle 1142:made a brief statement that: 219: 212: 78: 10524:Nautical Archaeology Society 7568:Soviet Antarctic Expeditions 7384:Shackleton–Rowett Expedition 7190:French Antarctic Expeditions 7120:Swedish Antarctic Expedition 7006:Belgian Antarctic Expedition 5124:Lady Franklin Bay Expedition 4277:Resources in other libraries 4253:Resources in other libraries 4183:History of Ancient Geography 4170:Albion: the earliest history 3941:. Walker & Co, Penguin. 3339:II.1.12 and again in II.5.8. 2561:Ramsay, James Henry (1898). 1878:National Oceanography Centre 1399:By the time of Tacitus, the 1221:American Practical Navigator 7: 10779:4th-century BC Greek people 10577:Museum of Ancient Seafaring 9954:Temple of Poseidon, Sounion 9760:Kidnapping of Julius Caesar 9617:Indus–Mesopotamia relations 8976: 8057: 6653:Nuclear-powered icebreakers 6332:Austro-Hungarian Expedition 5197:Andrée's balloon expedition 3793:"Thule and the Tin Islands" 3747:(Berlin: Gruyter) 1952, in 3427:The report survives in the 2512:Book IV Chapter 30 (16.102) 2278:Book IV Chapter 30 (16.104) 2095: 2073:The Boat of a Million Years 1911:attribute the flood tides ( 1548:precession of the equinoxes 1224:, which begins Chapter 33, 833: 766:, as did the Greeks in the 465:Circumstances of the voyage 10: 10855: 10789:3rd-century BC geographers 10784:4th-century BC geographers 10433:Phoenician Ship Expedition 9724: 9274:Pytheas' voyage to Britain 9267:Circumnavigation of Africa 5854:Franklin's lost expedition 5554:Christian IV's expeditions 4936: 4883:Medieval Islamic astronomy 4680:On the Sizes and Distances 3993:Herbaux, François (2024). 2577: 2070:'s science fiction novel, 1940: 1931: 1922: 1913: 1734:, the vertical rod of the 1157:appears to match Strabo's 468: 393: 391:(4th century AD) mentions 375: 373:(1st century BC) mentions 36: 29: 10809:Ancient Greek geographers 10799:Ancient Greek astronomers 10746: 10638: 10627: 10612: 10547: 10489: 10292: 10276: 10024: 9959:Samothrace temple complex 9894: 9849: 9808: 9801: 9797: 9786: 9771: 9730: 9719: 9704: 9602: 9588: 9573: 9526: 9479: 9332: 9299: 9292: 9230: 9031: 8988: 8984: 8971: 8956: 8675: 8588: 8584: 8573: 8558: 8510: 8445: 8382: 8267: 8236: 8069: 8065: 8052: 7671: 7402: 6989: 6729: 6706: 6702: 6689: 6208:Great Northern Expedition 6102: 5884:Rae–Richardson expedition 5633: 5478: 5084:British Arctic Expedition 4976: 4948: 4944: 4931: 4873:Medieval European science 4865: 4844: 4753: 4702: 4641: 4603:Sosigenes the Peripatetic 4423: 4272:Resources in your library 4248:Resources in your library 4163:. New York: Macmillan Co. 4098:Roller, Duane W. (2006). 2958:. Routledge. p. 64. 2952:) The issue remains. See 1506:obliquity of the ecliptic 661:and Diodorus of Sicily's 298: 154: 146: 139: 109: 101: 91: 74: 55: 48: 9247:Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul 7492:British Antarctic Survey 7486:Captain Arturo Prat Base 6731:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 4292:Beazley, Charles Raymond 4049:The Geographical Journal 3797:The Gentleman's Magazine 3471:: CS1 maint: location ( 3043:On the Parts of Animals. 2684:Thomas, Charles (1997). 2565:. H. Milford. p. 2. 2248:Holmes, T. Rice (1907). 2209:Cunliffe, Barry (2001). 2132: 1755:borrowed this term from 1607:Archaic period in Greece 1446:Measurements of latitude 1107:Encounter with drift ice 1056:The standard texts have 1009:to the Lofoten Islands. 845: 471:Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul 30:Not to be confused with 10824:Explorers of the Arctic 10804:Ancient Greek explorers 10529:RPM Nautical Foundation 10266:Surviving ancient ships 10185:Marsala Punic shipwreck 7968:Pole of inaccessibility 7631:Antarctic Treaty System 5972:2nd Grinnell expedition 4598:Sosigenes of Alexandria 4417:Ancient Greek astronomy 4303:Encyclopædia Britannica 4288:Bunbury, Edward Herbert 4136:Smith, William (1880). 3984:Hawkes, C.F.C. (1977). 3917:Museum Tusculanum Press 3034:On the Parts of Animals 2881:, p. 53; Geminus, 2782:"On the Cosmos, 393b12" 2720:Allen, Stephen (2007). 2593:A Greek–English Lexicon 1570:in Strabo and others). 1244:Discovery of the Baltic 1188:On the Parts of Animals 942:. Strabo reported that 855:, he said (now spelled 694:"Britain" is most like 284:some centuries before. 199:: Πυθέας ὁ Μασσαλιώτης 10562:Giza Solar boat museum 10016:Underwater exploration 10011:Underwater archaeology 9976:Pre-Columbian theories 9831:John Sinclair Morrison 9792:Research and education 9242:Austronesian Expansion 4670:On Sizes and Distances 3997:. Les Belles Lettres. 3907:Christensen, Arne Søby 3810:Sarton, Georg (1993). 2399:Ebel, Charles (1976). 1938:) to the "lessening" ( 1899:Matching fragments of 1298: 1255: 1178:) appears to refer to 1172: 1151: 1123: 1093: 1060:presently, as well as 1014:Richard Francis Burton 984: 975: 879:I, Line 30, where the 747: 691: 561: 542:The "circumnavigation" 318: 201:Pythéās ho Massaliōtēs 10633:Legend and literature 10591:Viking ship museums: 10567:Grand Egyptian Museum 10327:Austronesian replicas 10302:Heyerdahl expeditions 10212:Caligula's Giant Ship 10072:Dover Bronze Age Boat 8734:Berenice Troglodytica 7638:Transglobe Expedition 7537:Operation Deep Freeze 6946:Challenger expedition 5812:Coppermine expedition 5333:Drifting ice stations 4781:Deferent and epicycle 4710:Antikythera mechanism 4178:Tozer, Henry Fanshawe 4155:. Stockholm: Goppers. 2584:Liddell, Henry George 2374:The Classical Journal 2043:in the north and the 1949:spring and neap tides 1929:) and the ebb tides ( 1815:from the vicinity of 1657:. During noon of the 1330:Xenophon of Lampsacus 1285: 1251: 1219:Nathaniel Bowditch's 1167: 1144: 1114: 1089: 980: 971: 891:, "solidified sea"). 741: 686:on an early medieval 681: 664:Bibliotheca historica 551: 517:), and from there to 469:Further information: 354:, where there was an 317:, published in Paris. 306: 10534:Sea Research Society 9936:Maritime archaeology 9745:Ameinias the Phocian 9740:Mediterranean piracy 4852:Babylonian astronomy 4543:Hippocrates of Chios 4357:on 18 September 2008 4041:Markham, Clements R. 3745:Pytheas von Massalia 3634:"Harmonic Constants" 2954:Nelson, Max (2005). 2102:Britain (place name) 1927:plērōsis tēs sēlēnēs 1923:πλήρωσις τῆς σελήνης 1823:, and traversed the 794:, which can only be 630:writings are found. 527:Straits of Gibraltar 459:Henry Fanshawe Tozer 389:Apollonius of Rhodes 307:The 1620 edition of 209:Pytheas Massiliensis 10819:Explorers of Europe 10814:Ancient Massaliotes 9627:Maritime Jade Route 8780:Kaveri Poompattinam 7808:South magnetic pole 6474:Brusilov expedition 5583:Danish colonization 5021:North magnetic pole 4623:Theon of Alexandria 4121:. Ares Publishing. 4061:1893GeogJ...1..504M 3882:10.14430/arctic2217 3749:Classical Philology 3726:and the other from 3395:Bowditch, Nathaniel 3107:Lehmann, Winfred P. 3056:Bowditch, Nathaniel 2668:English translation 2643:English translation 2618:English translation 2327:Book 37, Chapter 11 2082:The Walrus Mutterer 1783:, were on the same 1473:is the same as for 1283:by Pliny the Elder: 1280:The Natural History 1236:mix, surrounded by 617:under Thule below. 484:Strait of Gibraltar 449:. First century BC 387:, the scholiast on 381:ta peri tou Okeanou 376:τὰ περὶ τοῦ Ὠκεανοῦ 161:Pytheas of Massalia 64:Palais de la Bourse 50:Pytheas of Massalia 18:Pytheas of Massalia 10175:Bajo de la Campana 9877:Peter Throckmorton 9862:Jean-Yves Empereur 9836:William L. Rodgers 9657:Maritime Silk Road 7499:Operation Windmill 7480:Operation Highjump 6455:Rusanov expedition 6360:A. E. Nordenskiöld 6104:North East Passage 5908:McClure expedition 4857:Egyptian astronomy 4771:Circle of latitude 3847:Burton, Richard F. 3713:, one from Pseudo- 3622:Book II Chapter 99 2499:Book V chapter 21. 2117:Mining in Cornwall 2023:) and a poor man ( 1967:Literary influence 1961:phases of the moon 1528:of the observer's 1411:, who were likely 1256: 1176:pleumōn thalattios 1124: 748: 712:Cruithne in Irish 692: 562: 338:Diodorus of Sicily 319: 280:) had reached the 222:320–306 BC) was a 39:Pytheas (Athenian) 10794:Ancient explorers 10761: 10760: 10757: 10756: 10623: 10622: 10610: 10609: 10230:Madrague de Giens 9949:Temple of Isthmia 9945:Maritime temples 9931:Marine navigation 9890: 9889: 9882:Shelley Wachsmann 9872:J. Richard Steffy 9782: 9781: 9715: 9714: 9584: 9583: 9571: 9570: 9522: 9521: 9252:Ocean exploration 8967: 8966: 8954: 8953: 8613:Rutter (nautical) 8569: 8568: 8556: 8555: 8412:Mortise and tenon 8046:Ancient seafaring 8012: 8011: 8008: 8007: 8004: 8003: 7466:Operation Tabarin 7328:Far Eastern Party 7174:Nimrod Expedition 6685: 6684: 6681: 6680: 6244:M. Pronchishcheva 6166:Siberian Cossacks 5635:Northwest Passage 4968:Research stations 4925:Polar exploration 4891: 4890: 4766:Celestial spheres 4319:on 8 January 2013 4229:Library resources 4213:978-0-19-938113-5 4109:978-0-415-37287-9 4032:978-1-4051-7935-5 3967:978-0-912697-20-8 3821:978-0-486-27495-9 3693:Doxographi Graeci 3517:Book II Chapter 5 3296:978-0-521-79297-4 3275:Polybius XXXIV.5. 3214:Herodotus IV.105. 3151:, pp. 25–31. 3134:Christensen (2002 2978:Translation from 2799: 2410:978-90-04-04384-8 2188:Brill's New Pauly 1833:Iberian Peninsula 1701:circumpolar stars 1568:eksarma tou polou 1341:Voyage to the Don 1159:pepēguia thalatta 963:Geminus of Rhodes 938:'s distortion of 889:pepēguia thalatta 537:Voyage to Britain 511:Hieron akrōtērion 434:Dating the voyage 371:Geminus of Rhodes 158: 157: 141:Scientific career 16:(Redirected from 10846: 10829:Iron Age Britain 10752: 10751: 10646:Ark of bulrushes 10629: 10628: 10618: 10617: 10256:Oldest surviving 9966:Nusantao network 9841:Chester G. Starr 9806: 9805: 9799: 9798: 9788: 9787: 9777: 9776: 9750:Cilician pirates 9721: 9720: 9710: 9709: 9647:Sa Huynh-Kalanay 9642:Iron Age Britain 9590: 9589: 9579: 9578: 9297: 9296: 8986: 8985: 8973: 8972: 8962: 8961: 8876:Ptolemais Theron 8586: 8585: 8575: 8574: 8564: 8563: 8156:Single-outrigger 8067: 8066: 8054: 8053: 8039: 8032: 8025: 8016: 8015: 7513:Ronne Expedition 6998: 6992: 6856:Dumont d'Urville 6704: 6703: 6691: 6690: 6239:V. Pronchishchev 4946: 4945: 4933: 4932: 4918: 4911: 4904: 4895: 4894: 4878:Indian astronomy 4831:Sublunary sphere 4801:Hipparchic cycle 4740:Mural instrument 4715:Armillary sphere 4694: 4684: 4674: 4664: 4654: 4410: 4403: 4396: 4387: 4386: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4351:Discoverer's Web 4341: 4332:Deruelle, Jean. 4328: 4326: 4324: 4307: 4299: 4217: 4190: 4164: 4145: 4132: 4113: 4094: 4085:Nansen, Fridtjof 4080: 4036: 4008: 3989: 3980: 3971: 3952: 3930: 3902: 3884: 3859: 3833: 3832: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3788: 3782: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3755: 3741: 3735: 3701: 3684: 3678: 3676: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3648: 3642: 3641: 3630: 3624: 3616: 3610: 3607: 3601: 3595: 3589: 3584: 3578: 3563: 3557: 3550: 3544: 3538: 3532: 3526: 3520: 3513: 3507: 3498: 3492: 3483: 3477: 3476: 3470: 3462: 3460: 3458: 3442: 3436: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3413: 3411: 3405: 3391: 3385: 3384: 3374: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3340: 3337: 3331: 3322: 3316: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3282: 3276: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3254:Novotná, Petra. 3251: 3245: 3242: 3236: 3230: 3224: 3221: 3215: 3212: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3179:Christensen 2002 3176: 3170: 3161: 3152: 3149:Christensen 2002 3146: 3140: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3103: 3097: 3088: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3066: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3028: 3022: 3013: 3007: 2998: 2992: 2989: 2983: 2976: 2970: 2969: 2941: 2935: 2926: 2920: 2914: 2908: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2886: 2876: 2870: 2861: 2852: 2846: 2840: 2831: 2818: 2809: 2800: 2795: 2789: 2778:Pseudo-Aristotle 2770: 2764: 2761: 2755: 2753: 2743: 2734: 2733: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2691: 2681: 2675: 2656: 2650: 2631: 2625: 2606: 2600: 2580: 2579: 2573: 2567: 2566: 2558: 2552: 2549: 2543: 2533: 2527: 2521: 2515: 2506: 2500: 2497: 2491: 2482: 2473: 2472: 2436: 2430: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2396: 2390: 2389: 2369: 2363: 2361: 2351: 2345: 2336: 2330: 2320: 2311: 2305: 2296: 2287: 2281: 2272: 2263: 2262: 2245: 2239: 2231: 2225: 2224: 2206: 2200: 2199: 2183: 2177: 2171: 2165: 2159: 2153: 2147: 2090:The Lyre Dancers 2086:The Amber Seeker 1986:Crates of Mallus 1943: 1942: 1934: 1933: 1925: 1924: 1916: 1915: 1769:hōrai isēmerinai 1728:Tropic of Cancer 1724:Tropic of Cancer 1665:, "burned up"). 1627:celestial sphere 1365:called them the 1078:De Bello Gothico 673:Celtic languages 586:Diodorus Siculus 407:), "sail around" 396: 395: 378: 377: 221: 218: 214: 194: 193: 190: 189: 186: 183: 180: 177: 174: 171: 80: 60: 46: 45: 21: 10854: 10853: 10849: 10848: 10847: 10845: 10844: 10843: 10764: 10763: 10762: 10753: 10749: 10744: 10634: 10619: 10615: 10606: 10549: 10543: 10491: 10490:Institutes and 10485: 10440:Viking replicas 10381:Balangay Voyage 10294: 10288: 10272: 10027: 10020: 9896: 9886: 9845: 9793: 9778: 9774: 9769: 9726: 9711: 9707: 9702: 9598: 9580: 9576: 9567: 9518: 9475: 9328: 9288: 9233: 9226: 9027: 8980: 8963: 8959: 8950: 8826:Mueang Phra Rot 8680: 8671: 8580: 8565: 8561: 8552: 8506: 8480:Triangular sail 8441: 8378: 8352:Sail components 8263: 8232: 8206:Tessarakonteres 8061: 8048: 8043: 8013: 8000: 7675: 7667: 7543:McMurdo Station 7412:Modern research 7410: 7398: 7133:O. Nordenskjöld 6996: 6990: 6985: 6901:Ross expedition 6725: 6698: 6677: 6106: 6098: 5639:Northern Canada 5637: 5629: 5482: 5474: 4980: 4972: 4940: 4927: 4922: 4892: 4887: 4861: 4840: 4826:Spherical Earth 4761:Callippic cycle 4749: 4730:Equatorial ring 4698: 4692: 4682: 4672: 4662: 4652: 4637: 4628:Theon of Smyrna 4419: 4414: 4376: 4374: 4369: 4360: 4358: 4345:Engels, Andre. 4322: 4320: 4297:"Pytheas" 4283: 4282: 4281: 4258: 4257: 4237: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4220: 4214: 4149:Spekke, Arnolds 4129: 4110: 4069:10.2307/1773964 4033: 4005: 3968: 3949: 3935:Cunliffe, Barry 3927: 3891:10515/sy5tb0xz8 3841: 3836: 3822: 3808: 3804: 3789: 3785: 3774: 3770: 3762: 3758: 3742: 3738: 3685: 3681: 3667: 3663: 3658:on 3 July 2012. 3650: 3649: 3645: 3640:on 3 July 2012. 3632: 3631: 3627: 3619:Natural History 3617: 3613: 3608: 3604: 3598:Strabo III.2.11 3596: 3592: 3585: 3581: 3565:However, Srabo 3564: 3560: 3551: 3547: 3539: 3535: 3527: 3523: 3514: 3510: 3499: 3495: 3484: 3480: 3464: 3463: 3456: 3454: 3443: 3439: 3426: 3422: 3409: 3407: 3403: 3392: 3388: 3372: 3364: 3360: 3352: 3343: 3338: 3334: 3323: 3319: 3308: 3304: 3297: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3270: 3260: 3258: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3231: 3227: 3222: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3201: 3197: 3189: 3185: 3177: 3173: 3164:Natural History 3162: 3155: 3147: 3143: 3132: 3128: 3121: 3104: 3100: 3089: 3080: 3070: 3068: 3064: 3053: 3049: 3029: 3025: 3016:Natural History 3014: 3010: 3001:Natural History 2999: 2995: 2990: 2986: 2980:Chevallier 1984 2977: 2973: 2966: 2942: 2938: 2927: 2923: 2915: 2911: 2902: 2898: 2893: 2889: 2877: 2873: 2862: 2855: 2847: 2843: 2832: 2821: 2810: 2803: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2744: 2737: 2718: 2714: 2704: 2682: 2678: 2672:Perseus Project 2657: 2653: 2647:Perseus Project 2632: 2628: 2622:Perseus Project 2607: 2603: 2598:Perseus Project 2574: 2570: 2559: 2555: 2550: 2546: 2534: 2530: 2522: 2518: 2509:Natural History 2507: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2483: 2476: 2437: 2433: 2422: 2418: 2411: 2397: 2393: 2370: 2366: 2352: 2348: 2344:paragraph 401). 2337: 2333: 2323:Natural History 2321: 2314: 2306: 2299: 2288: 2284: 2275:Natural History 2273: 2266: 2246: 2242: 2232: 2228: 2221: 2207: 2203: 2184: 2180: 2172: 2168: 2160: 2156: 2148: 2139: 2135: 2098: 2015:Strabo, citing 1969: 1869: 1844:summer solstice 1840:winter solstice 1838:At noon on the 1813:English Channel 1745: 1732:Summer Solstice 1717:arktikos kuklos 1659:summer solstice 1647:tropikoi kukloi 1595: 1564:tropikos kuklos 1518: 1453: 1448: 1390:Pliny the Elder 1343: 1246: 1109: 1007:Møre og Romsdal 1003:Lofoten islands 961:A statement by 917:Møre og Romsdal 861:Pliny the Elder 848: 836: 812: 776: 760:ēthesin haplous 658:Natural History 643:transliteration 636: 610:Fridtjof Nansen 564: 563: 544: 539: 482:had closed the 473: 467: 436: 343:Natural History 301: 274:summer solstice 168: 164: 87: 82: 70: 51: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10852: 10842: 10841: 10836: 10831: 10826: 10821: 10816: 10811: 10806: 10801: 10796: 10791: 10786: 10781: 10776: 10774:350s BC births 10759: 10758: 10755: 10754: 10747: 10745: 10743: 10742: 10735: 10734: 10733: 10726: 10719: 10712: 10704: 10697: 10690: 10682: 10672: 10671: 10670: 10669: 10668: 10663: 10658: 10648: 10639: 10636: 10635: 10625: 10624: 10621: 10620: 10613: 10611: 10608: 10607: 10605: 10604: 10603: 10602: 10597: 10589: 10584: 10579: 10574: 10569: 10564: 10559: 10553: 10551: 10545: 10544: 10542: 10541: 10536: 10531: 10526: 10521: 10516: 10511: 10506: 10501: 10495: 10493: 10487: 10486: 10484: 10483: 10482: 10481: 10476: 10471: 10466: 10459: 10451: 10450: 10449: 10437: 10436: 10435: 10430: 10423: 10415:Mediterranean 10413: 10412: 10411: 10404: 10397: 10390: 10383: 10378: 10371: 10368:Alingano Maisu 10364: 10357: 10350: 10343: 10336: 10324: 10323: 10322: 10311: 10298: 10296: 10290: 10289: 10287: 10286: 10280: 10278: 10274: 10273: 10271: 10270: 10269: 10268: 10263: 10258: 10250: 10249: 10248: 10243: 10238: 10233: 10226: 10219: 10217:De Meern ships 10214: 10209: 10204: 10199: 10189: 10188: 10187: 10179: 10178: 10177: 10172: 10164: 10163: 10162: 10155: 10148: 10143: 10135: 10130: 10129: 10128: 10118: 10117: 10116: 10111: 10101: 10100: 10099: 10094: 10089: 10087:Cape Gelidonya 10084: 10079: 10074: 10069: 10064: 10059: 10054: 10049: 10044: 10032: 10030: 10022: 10021: 10019: 10018: 10013: 10008: 10003: 9998: 9993: 9988: 9983: 9978: 9973: 9968: 9963: 9962: 9961: 9956: 9951: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9923: 9922: 9921: 9911: 9906: 9900: 9898: 9892: 9891: 9888: 9887: 9885: 9884: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9853: 9851: 9850:Archaeologists 9847: 9846: 9844: 9843: 9838: 9833: 9828: 9823: 9818: 9816:David Blackman 9812: 9810: 9803: 9795: 9794: 9784: 9783: 9780: 9779: 9772: 9770: 9768: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9755:Jewish pirates 9752: 9747: 9742: 9737: 9731: 9728: 9727: 9717: 9716: 9713: 9712: 9705: 9703: 9701: 9700: 9699: 9698: 9688: 9687: 9686: 9676: 9671: 9666: 9659: 9654: 9649: 9644: 9639: 9634: 9629: 9624: 9619: 9614: 9609: 9603: 9600: 9599: 9586: 9585: 9582: 9581: 9574: 9572: 9569: 9568: 9566: 9565: 9564: 9563: 9553: 9548: 9543: 9542: 9541: 9530: 9528: 9524: 9523: 9520: 9519: 9517: 9516: 9511: 9506: 9501: 9496: 9491: 9486: 9480: 9477: 9476: 9474: 9473: 9468: 9463: 9458: 9453: 9448: 9443: 9441:Lake Trasimene 9438: 9433: 9428: 9423: 9418: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9368: 9363: 9358: 9353: 9348: 9342:Mediterranean: 9338: 9336: 9330: 9329: 9327: 9326: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9305: 9303: 9294: 9290: 9289: 9287: 9286: 9281: 9276: 9271: 9270: 9269: 9264: 9254: 9249: 9244: 9238: 9236: 9228: 9227: 9225: 9224: 9219: 9214: 9209: 9204: 9203: 9202: 9197: 9187: 9182: 9177: 9172: 9167: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9151: 9150: 9145: 9140: 9130: 9125: 9120: 9119: 9118: 9113: 9108: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9088: 9083: 9078: 9073: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9048: 9047: 9046: 9035: 9033: 9029: 9028: 9026: 9025: 9020: 9019: 9018: 9013: 9003: 8998: 8992: 8990: 8982: 8981: 8969: 8968: 8965: 8964: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8951: 8949: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8853: 8848: 8838: 8833: 8828: 8823: 8818: 8813: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8782: 8777: 8772: 8767: 8761: 8756: 8751: 8746: 8741: 8736: 8731: 8726: 8721: 8716: 8711: 8706: 8700: 8695: 8690: 8684: 8682: 8673: 8672: 8670: 8669: 8668: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8649: 8648: 8647: 8645:Maritime pilot 8642: 8632: 8627: 8626: 8625: 8615: 8610: 8608:Portolan chart 8605: 8600: 8594: 8592: 8582: 8581: 8571: 8570: 8567: 8566: 8559: 8557: 8554: 8553: 8551: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8514: 8512: 8508: 8507: 8505: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8489: 8484: 8483: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8457: 8451: 8449: 8443: 8442: 8440: 8439: 8438: 8437: 8429: 8424: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8404: 8399: 8394: 8388: 8386: 8380: 8379: 8377: 8376: 8371: 8366: 8361: 8356: 8355: 8354: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8308: 8307: 8297: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8271: 8269: 8265: 8264: 8262: 8261: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8240: 8238: 8234: 8233: 8231: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8209: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8181:Oared warships 8178: 8170: 8169: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8123: 8118: 8117: 8116: 8106: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8075: 8073: 8063: 8062: 8050: 8049: 8042: 8041: 8034: 8027: 8019: 8010: 8009: 8006: 8005: 8002: 8001: 7999: 7998: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7982: 7981: 7976: 7964: 7963: 7962: 7960:Vostok Station 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7914: 7913: 7911:Cherry-Garrard 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7876: 7875: 7874: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7828: 7827: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7804: 7803: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7775: 7774: 7773: 7761: 7760: 7759: 7751:Southern Cross 7747: 7746: 7745: 7732: 7731: 7730: 7717: 7712: 7711: 7710: 7697: 7696: 7695: 7681: 7679: 7673:Farthest South 7669: 7668: 7666: 7665: 7660: 7653: 7652: 7651: 7646: 7634: 7627: 7626: 7625: 7624: 7623: 7611: 7610: 7609: 7597: 7596: 7595: 7588: 7583: 7564: 7563: 7562: 7557: 7545: 7540: 7533: 7532: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7509: 7508: 7507: 7495: 7488: 7483: 7476: 7475: 7474: 7462: 7461: 7460: 7448: 7447: 7446: 7434: 7427: 7422: 7416: 7414: 7400: 7399: 7397: 7396: 7395: 7394: 7380: 7379: 7378: 7370:Ross Sea party 7366: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7350: 7345: 7331: 7324: 7323: 7322: 7317: 7302: 7297: 7296: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7275: 7270: 7256: 7255: 7254: 7247: 7240: 7235: 7221: 7220: 7219: 7207: 7206: 7205: 7200: 7186: 7185: 7184: 7170: 7163: 7162: 7161: 7154: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7116: 7115: 7114: 7109: 7095: 7094: 7093: 7088: 7074: 7073: 7072: 7067: 7064:Southern Cross 7057:Southern Cross 7053: 7052: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7001: 6999: 6987: 6986: 6984: 6983: 6982: 6981: 6969: 6968: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6942: 6937: 6936: 6935: 6922: 6916: 6897: 6896: 6895: 6882: 6881: 6880: 6875: 6860: 6859: 6858: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6820: 6819: 6807: 6806: 6805: 6803:Bellingshausen 6793: 6786: 6781: 6780: 6779: 6766: 6765: 6764: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6735: 6733: 6727: 6726: 6724: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6700: 6699: 6687: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6679: 6678: 6676: 6675: 6674: 6673: 6662: 6650: 6645: 6638: 6631: 6630: 6629: 6617: 6616: 6615: 6603: 6602: 6601: 6589: 6588: 6587: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6564: 6563: 6551: 6550: 6549: 6535: 6534: 6533: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6500: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6470: 6469: 6468: 6463: 6451: 6446: 6445: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6415: 6414: 6413: 6399: 6398: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6369: 6368: 6367: 6362: 6347: 6346: 6345: 6340: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6262: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6112: 6110: 6108:Russian Arctic 6100: 6099: 6097: 6096: 6091: 6090: 6089: 6075: 6074: 6073: 6068: 6054: 6049: 6048: 6047: 6033: 6032: 6031: 6019: 6018: 6017: 6004: 6003: 6002: 5990: 5989: 5988: 5983: 5968: 5967: 5966: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5938: 5937: 5932: 5924: 5919: 5904: 5899: 5898: 5897: 5892: 5880: 5875: 5874: 5873: 5865: 5850: 5849: 5848: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5797: 5796: 5783: 5782: 5781: 5768: 5767: 5766: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5723: 5722: 5721: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5697: 5696: 5691: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5643: 5641: 5631: 5630: 5628: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5616: 5615: 5610: 5598: 5593: 5592: 5591: 5579: 5578: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5550: 5545: 5543:Snæbjörn galti 5540: 5535: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5506: 5499: 5494: 5488: 5486: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5472: 5471: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5445: 5438: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5410: 5400: 5399: 5398: 5393: 5379: 5372: 5365: 5364: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5336: 5329: 5328: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5305: 5304: 5303: 5289: 5280: 5279: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5233: 5232: 5227: 5212: 5207: 5206: 5205: 5193: 5192: 5191: 5179: 5178: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5144: 5143: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5120: 5119: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5100: 5095: 5080: 5079: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5051: 5050: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4986: 4984: 4978:Farthest North 4974: 4973: 4971: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4942: 4941: 4929: 4928: 4921: 4920: 4913: 4906: 4898: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4869: 4867: 4863: 4862: 4860: 4859: 4854: 4848: 4846: 4842: 4841: 4839: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4757: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4706: 4704: 4700: 4699: 4697: 4696: 4690:On the Heavens 4686: 4676: 4666: 4663:(Eratosthenes) 4656: 4645: 4643: 4639: 4638: 4636: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4568:Philip of Opus 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4429: 4427: 4421: 4420: 4413: 4412: 4405: 4398: 4390: 4384: 4383: 4367: 4342: 4329: 4308: 4280: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4263: 4259: 4256: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4239: 4238: 4227: 4226: 4224: 4223:External links 4221: 4219: 4218: 4212: 4191: 4174: 4173:(Dublin, 2016) 4165: 4156: 4146: 4133: 4127: 4114: 4108: 4095: 4081: 4037: 4031: 4010: 4003: 3990: 3981: 3972: 3966: 3953: 3947: 3931: 3925: 3903: 3875:(4): 341–346. 3860: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3834: 3820: 3802: 3783: 3768: 3766:, p. 510. 3756: 3736: 3690:, ed. (1879). 3688:Diels, Hermann 3679: 3661: 3643: 3625: 3611: 3602: 3590: 3587:Éire#Etymology 3579: 3558: 3545: 3533: 3521: 3508: 3493: 3478: 3453:on 6 July 2012 3437: 3420: 3386: 3358: 3341: 3332: 3317: 3302: 3295: 3277: 3268: 3246: 3237: 3225: 3216: 3207: 3205:, p. 101. 3195: 3183: 3171: 3153: 3141: 3126: 3119: 3098: 3078: 3047: 3023: 3008: 2993: 2984: 2971: 2964: 2936: 2921: 2909: 2896: 2887: 2871: 2853: 2841: 2819: 2801: 2765: 2756: 2735: 2712: 2702: 2688:Celtic Britain 2676: 2651: 2626: 2601: 2568: 2553: 2544: 2528: 2516: 2501: 2492: 2474: 2453:10.2307/627926 2431: 2416: 2409: 2391: 2380:(2): 148–164. 2364: 2346: 2331: 2312: 2297: 2282: 2264: 2240: 2226: 2219: 2201: 2178: 2166: 2154: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2130: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2097: 2094: 1968: 1965: 1886:Severn Estuary 1868: 1865: 1849:Firth of Clyde 1744: 1741: 1621:) by circles ( 1594: 1591: 1522:celestial pole 1517: 1514: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1342: 1339: 1245: 1242: 1226:Ice Navigation 1155:mare concretum 1108: 1105: 847: 844: 840:Orkney islands 835: 832: 811: 808: 775: 772: 635: 632: 546: 545: 543: 540: 538: 535: 466: 463: 435: 432: 300: 297: 156: 155: 152: 151: 148: 144: 143: 137: 136: 111: 110:Known for 107: 106: 103: 99: 98: 93: 89: 88: 83: 76: 72: 71: 61: 53: 52: 49: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10851: 10840: 10837: 10835: 10832: 10830: 10827: 10825: 10822: 10820: 10817: 10815: 10812: 10810: 10807: 10805: 10802: 10800: 10797: 10795: 10792: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10780: 10777: 10775: 10772: 10771: 10769: 10741: 10740: 10736: 10732: 10731: 10727: 10725: 10724: 10720: 10718: 10717: 10716:Metamorphoses 10713: 10711: 10709: 10708:The Histories 10705: 10703: 10702: 10698: 10696: 10695: 10691: 10689: 10687: 10686:The Histories 10683: 10681: 10680: 10676: 10675: 10673: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10653: 10652: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10643: 10641: 10640: 10637: 10630: 10626: 10601: 10598: 10596: 10593: 10592: 10590: 10588: 10585: 10583: 10580: 10578: 10575: 10573: 10570: 10568: 10565: 10563: 10560: 10558: 10555: 10554: 10552: 10546: 10540: 10537: 10535: 10532: 10530: 10527: 10525: 10522: 10520: 10517: 10515: 10512: 10510: 10507: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10496: 10494: 10488: 10480: 10477: 10475: 10472: 10470: 10467: 10465: 10464: 10460: 10458: 10455: 10454: 10452: 10448: 10447: 10443: 10442: 10441: 10438: 10434: 10431: 10429: 10428: 10424: 10422: 10421: 10417: 10416: 10414: 10410: 10409: 10405: 10403: 10402: 10401:Marumaru Atua 10398: 10396: 10395: 10391: 10389: 10388: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10376: 10372: 10370: 10369: 10365: 10363: 10362: 10361:Samudra Raksa 10358: 10356: 10355: 10351: 10349: 10348: 10347:Te Au o Tonga 10344: 10342: 10341: 10337: 10335: 10334: 10330: 10329: 10328: 10325: 10321: 10320: 10316: 10312: 10310: 10309: 10305: 10304: 10303: 10300: 10299: 10297: 10291: 10285: 10282: 10281: 10279: 10275: 10267: 10264: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10254: 10253: 10251: 10247: 10244: 10242: 10239: 10237: 10234: 10232: 10231: 10227: 10225: 10224: 10220: 10218: 10215: 10213: 10210: 10208: 10207:Blackfriars I 10205: 10203: 10202:Arles Rhône 3 10200: 10198: 10197: 10193: 10192: 10190: 10186: 10183: 10182: 10180: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10167: 10165: 10161: 10160: 10156: 10154: 10153: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10139: 10138: 10136: 10134: 10131: 10127: 10124: 10123: 10122: 10119: 10115: 10112: 10110: 10107: 10106: 10105: 10102: 10098: 10095: 10093: 10090: 10088: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10078: 10075: 10073: 10070: 10068: 10065: 10063: 10060: 10058: 10055: 10053: 10050: 10048: 10045: 10043: 10040: 10039: 10037: 10034: 10033: 10031: 10029: 10023: 10017: 10014: 10012: 10009: 10007: 10006:Thalassocracy 10004: 10002: 9999: 9997: 9994: 9992: 9991:Shell middens 9989: 9987: 9984: 9982: 9979: 9977: 9974: 9972: 9969: 9967: 9964: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9952: 9950: 9947: 9946: 9944: 9942: 9941:Naval warfare 9939: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9920: 9917: 9916: 9915: 9912: 9910: 9907: 9905: 9902: 9901: 9899: 9893: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9854: 9852: 9848: 9842: 9839: 9837: 9834: 9832: 9829: 9827: 9824: 9822: 9821:Lionel Casson 9819: 9817: 9814: 9813: 9811: 9807: 9804: 9800: 9796: 9789: 9785: 9766: 9763: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9733: 9732: 9729: 9722: 9718: 9697: 9694: 9693: 9692: 9689: 9685: 9682: 9681: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9667: 9665: 9664: 9660: 9658: 9655: 9653: 9652:Incense trade 9650: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9608: 9605: 9604: 9601: 9597: 9591: 9587: 9562: 9559: 9558: 9557: 9556:South America 9554: 9552: 9549: 9547: 9544: 9540: 9537: 9536: 9535: 9532: 9531: 9529: 9525: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9505: 9504:Sailing ships 9502: 9500: 9499:Oared vessels 9497: 9495: 9492: 9490: 9487: 9485: 9482: 9481: 9478: 9472: 9469: 9467: 9464: 9462: 9459: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9447: 9444: 9442: 9439: 9437: 9434: 9432: 9429: 9427: 9424: 9422: 9421:Cape Hermaeum 9419: 9417: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9372: 9369: 9367: 9364: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9343: 9340: 9339: 9337: 9335: 9331: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9306: 9304: 9302: 9298: 9295: 9291: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9275: 9272: 9268: 9265: 9263: 9260: 9259: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9240: 9239: 9237: 9235: 9232:Migration and 9229: 9223: 9220: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9201: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9192: 9191: 9188: 9186: 9183: 9181: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9139: 9136: 9135: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9053: 9052: 9049: 9045: 9042: 9041: 9040: 9039:Ancient Egypt 9037: 9036: 9034: 9032:Civilizations 9030: 9024: 9021: 9017: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9008: 9007: 9004: 9002: 8999: 8997: 8994: 8993: 8991: 8987: 8983: 8979: 8974: 8970: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8927: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8852: 8849: 8846: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8834: 8832: 8829: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8745: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8732: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8720: 8717: 8715: 8712: 8710: 8707: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8685: 8683: 8678: 8674: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8652: 8650: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8638: 8637: 8636: 8633: 8631: 8628: 8624: 8621: 8620: 8619: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8609: 8606: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8596: 8595: 8593: 8591: 8587: 8583: 8576: 8572: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8515: 8513: 8509: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8485: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8462: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8452: 8450: 8448: 8444: 8436: 8433: 8432: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8407:Clinker built 8405: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8392:Boat building 8390: 8389: 8387: 8385: 8381: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8357: 8353: 8350: 8349: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8306: 8303: 8302: 8301: 8298: 8296: 8293: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8272: 8270: 8266: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8241: 8239: 8235: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8173: 8171: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8153: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8141:Navis lusoria 8139: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8115: 8112: 8111: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8076: 8074: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8055: 8051: 8047: 8040: 8035: 8033: 8028: 8026: 8021: 8020: 8017: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7971: 7970: 7969: 7965: 7961: 7958: 7957: 7956: 7955: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7883: 7882: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7872: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7840: 7836: 7835: 7834: 7833: 7829: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7811: 7810: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7782: 7781: 7780: 7776: 7772: 7769: 7768: 7767: 7766: 7762: 7758: 7755: 7754: 7753: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7741: 7740: 7739: 7738: 7733: 7729: 7726: 7725: 7724: 7723: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7709: 7706: 7705: 7704: 7703: 7698: 7694: 7691: 7690: 7689: 7688: 7683: 7682: 7680: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7658: 7654: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7641: 7640: 7639: 7635: 7633: 7632: 7628: 7622: 7619: 7618: 7617: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7605: 7604: 7603: 7602: 7598: 7594: 7593: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7578: 7577: 7576: 7572: 7571: 7570: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7552: 7551: 7550: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7538: 7534: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7516: 7515: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7503: 7502: 7501: 7500: 7496: 7494: 7493: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7470: 7469: 7468: 7467: 7463: 7459: 7456: 7455: 7454: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7442: 7441: 7440: 7439: 7435: 7433: 7432: 7428: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7417: 7415: 7413: 7409: 7405: 7401: 7393: 7392: 7388: 7387: 7386: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7374: 7373: 7372: 7371: 7367: 7365: 7364: 7363: 7358: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7343: 7339: 7338: 7337: 7336: 7332: 7330: 7329: 7325: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7315: 7310: 7309: 7308: 7307: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7268: 7264: 7263: 7262: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7252: 7248: 7246: 7245: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7233: 7229: 7228: 7227: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7215: 7214: 7213: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7198: 7194: 7193: 7192: 7191: 7187: 7183: 7182: 7178: 7177: 7176: 7175: 7171: 7169: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7159: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7149: 7148: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7128: 7124: 7123: 7122: 7121: 7117: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7107: 7103: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7091:Discovery Hut 7089: 7087: 7086: 7082: 7081: 7080: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7065: 7061: 7060: 7059: 7058: 7054: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7014: 7010: 7009: 7008: 7007: 7003: 7002: 7000: 6995: 6988: 6980: 6977: 6976: 6975: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6955: 6950: 6949: 6948: 6947: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6933: 6929: 6928: 6923: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6911: 6910: 6905: 6904: 6903: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6891: 6890: 6889: 6888: 6883: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6873: 6868: 6867: 6866: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6852: 6851: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6818: 6815: 6814: 6813: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6801: 6800: 6799: 6798: 6794: 6792: 6791: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6778: 6775: 6774: 6773: 6772: 6767: 6763: 6760: 6759: 6758: 6757: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6736: 6734: 6732: 6728: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6708: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6692: 6688: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6663: 6661: 6660: 6656: 6655: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6643: 6639: 6637: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6625: 6624: 6623: 6622: 6621:A. Sibiryakov 6618: 6614: 6611: 6610: 6609: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6597: 6596: 6595: 6594: 6593:Glavsevmorput 6590: 6586: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6580: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6562: 6559: 6558: 6557: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6545: 6544: 6543: 6542: 6541: 6536: 6532: 6529: 6528: 6527: 6526: 6525: 6519: 6518: 6517: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6482: 6478: 6477: 6476: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6457: 6456: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6424: 6423: 6422: 6421: 6416: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6407: 6406: 6405: 6400: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6385: 6380: 6379: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6370: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6357: 6356: 6355: 6353: 6348: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6335: 6334: 6333: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6211: 6210: 6209: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6167: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6150: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6118: 6114: 6113: 6111: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6095: 6092: 6088: 6085: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6081: 6076: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6063: 6062: 6061: 6060: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6046: 6043: 6042: 6041: 6040: 6039: 6034: 6030: 6027: 6026: 6025: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6013: 6012: 6011: 6010: 6005: 6001: 5998: 5997: 5996: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5981: 5976: 5975: 5974: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5962: 5961: 5960: 5959: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5930: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5917: 5912: 5911: 5910: 5909: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5896: 5895:J. Richardson 5893: 5891: 5888: 5887: 5886: 5885: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5872: 5871: 5866: 5864: 5863: 5858: 5857: 5856: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5844: 5843: 5842: 5841: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5813: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5795: 5792: 5791: 5790: 5789: 5784: 5780: 5777: 5776: 5775: 5774: 5769: 5765: 5762: 5761: 5760: 5759: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5735: 5732: 5731: 5730: 5729: 5724: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5715: 5714: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5686: 5685: 5684: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5657:M. Corte-Real 5655: 5653: 5652:G. Corte-Real 5650: 5648: 5645: 5644: 5642: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5603: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5575:C. Richardson 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5557: 5556: 5555: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5533: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5511: 5507: 5505: 5504: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5489: 5487: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5457: 5453: 5452: 5451: 5450: 5446: 5444: 5443: 5439: 5437: 5436: 5435: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5416: 5411: 5409: 5408: 5407: 5401: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5387: 5386: 5385: 5384:Georgiy Sedov 5380: 5378: 5377: 5373: 5371: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5343: 5342: 5341: 5337: 5335: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5312: 5311: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5296: 5295: 5290: 5288: 5287: 5286: 5281: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5271:Riiser-Larsen 5269: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5253: 5252: 5251: 5250: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5221: 5220: 5219: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5204: 5201: 5200: 5199: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5187: 5186: 5185: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5160: 5156: 5155: 5154: 5153: 5151: 5145: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5127: 5126: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5106: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5093: 5088: 5087: 5086: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5066: 5062: 5061: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5052: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4987: 4985: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4950: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4919: 4914: 4912: 4907: 4905: 4900: 4899: 4896: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4864: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4843: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4811:Metonic cycle 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4796:Heliocentrism 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4776:Counter-Earth 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4756: 4752: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4701: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4685: 4683:(Aristarchus) 4681: 4677: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4646: 4644: 4640: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4430: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4411: 4406: 4404: 4399: 4397: 4392: 4391: 4388: 4372: 4368: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4330: 4318: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4304: 4298: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4284: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4215: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4192: 4189: 4185: 4184: 4179: 4175: 4172: 4171: 4167:John Taylor, 4166: 4162: 4157: 4154: 4150: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4134: 4130: 4128:0-89005-545-9 4124: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4105: 4101: 4096: 4092: 4091: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4043:(June 1893). 4042: 4038: 4034: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4004:9782251455280 4000: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3982: 3978: 3973: 3969: 3963: 3959: 3954: 3950: 3948:0-14-200254-2 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3913: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3861: 3858: 3854: 3853: 3848: 3844: 3843: 3831: 3829: 3823: 3817: 3813: 3806: 3798: 3794: 3787: 3780: 3777: 3772: 3765: 3760: 3753: 3750: 3746: 3740: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3724: 3719: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3699: 3695: 3694: 3689: 3683: 3674: 3673: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3647: 3639: 3635: 3629: 3623: 3620: 3615: 3606: 3599: 3594: 3588: 3583: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3562: 3555: 3549: 3543:, p. 52. 3542: 3537: 3531:, p. 53. 3530: 3525: 3518: 3512: 3505: 3502: 3497: 3490: 3487: 3482: 3474: 3468: 3452: 3448: 3441: 3434: 3430: 3424: 3417: 3402: 3401: 3396: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3371: 3362: 3356:, p. 46. 3355: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3336: 3329: 3326: 3321: 3314: 3311: 3306: 3298: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3272: 3257: 3250: 3241: 3234: 3229: 3220: 3211: 3204: 3203:Gimbutas 1967 3199: 3193:, p. 22. 3192: 3191:Gimbutas 1967 3187: 3181:, p. 30. 3180: 3175: 3168: 3165: 3160: 3158: 3150: 3145: 3139: 3135: 3130: 3122: 3120:9789004081765 3116: 3112: 3108: 3102: 3095: 3092: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3063: 3062: 3057: 3051: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3035: 3027: 3020: 3017: 3012: 3005: 3002: 2997: 2988: 2981: 2975: 2967: 2965:0-415-31121-7 2961: 2957: 2951: 2947: 2940: 2933: 2930: 2925: 2919:, p. 10. 2918: 2913: 2906: 2900: 2891: 2884: 2880: 2875: 2868: 2865: 2860: 2858: 2850: 2845: 2838: 2835: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2816: 2813: 2808: 2806: 2798: 2793: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2769: 2760: 2751: 2750: 2742: 2740: 2732: 2730: 2723: 2716: 2709: 2705: 2703:9780500279359 2699: 2695: 2690: 2689: 2680: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2655: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2630: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2605: 2599: 2595: 2594: 2589: 2588:Scott, Robert 2585: 2581: 2572: 2564: 2557: 2548: 2541: 2538: 2532: 2526:, p. 51. 2525: 2520: 2513: 2510: 2505: 2496: 2489: 2486: 2481: 2479: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2435: 2428: 2425: 2420: 2412: 2406: 2402: 2395: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2359: 2358: 2350: 2343: 2340: 2335: 2328: 2324: 2319: 2317: 2309: 2304: 2302: 2294: 2291: 2286: 2279: 2276: 2271: 2269: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2252: 2244: 2237: 2230: 2222: 2220:0-7139-9509-2 2216: 2212: 2205: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2182: 2175: 2170: 2163: 2162:Cunliffe 2002 2158: 2151: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2137: 2128: 2125: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2108: 2105: 2103: 2100: 2099: 2093: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2078:Mandy Haggith 2075: 2074: 2069: 2068:Poul Anderson 2065: 2064:Maximus Poems 2061: 2060:Charles Olson 2057: 2052: 2048: 2046: 2042: 2036: 2034: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1964: 1962: 1958: 1952: 1950: 1946: 1937: 1928: 1919: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1894: 1889: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1864: 1862: 1858: 1852: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1827:to reach the 1826: 1822: 1818: 1817:Brest, France 1814: 1810: 1809:Bay of Biscay 1806: 1802: 1797: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1776: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1740: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1705:constellation 1702: 1698: 1697:boreios polos 1693: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1666: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1614: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1590: 1588: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1571: 1569: 1565: 1559: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1542:Moderns have 1540: 1538: 1533: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1483: 1480: 1476: 1470: 1467: 1461: 1458: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1402: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1386: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1355:Frisches Haff 1352: 1348: 1338: 1335: 1331: 1326: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1297: 1295: 1291: 1284: 1282: 1281: 1277:According to 1275: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1254: 1250: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1222: 1216: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1171: 1166: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1150: 1148: 1143: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1092: 1088: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1035:Faroe Islands 1032: 1028: 1022: 1020: 1015: 1010: 1008: 1004: 1000: 995: 993: 989: 983: 979: 974: 970: 968: 964: 959: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 932: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 907:in the outer 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 885: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 843: 841: 831: 829: 825: 821: 817: 810:The tin trade 807: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 771: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 745: 740: 736: 732: 730: 726: 722: 718: 717: 711: 707: 704: 700: 697: 689: 688:Pictish stone 685: 684:Pictish beast 680: 676: 674: 670: 666: 665: 660: 659: 654: 653: 648: 644: 641: 640:ancient Greek 631: 628: 624: 618: 614: 611: 608:The explorer 606: 604: 600: 596: 592: 587: 583: 581: 577: 572: 570: 559: 555: 550: 534: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 503: 500: 499:Sicilian Wars 495: 493: 489: 485: 481: 480:Carthaginians 476: 472: 462: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 431: 429: 425: 422:to the river 421: 417: 416: 410: 408: 406: 400: 390: 386: 382: 372: 367: 365: 361: 357: 353: 347: 345: 344: 339: 335: 334:world history 331: 330: 325: 316: 315: 310: 305: 296: 294: 290: 285: 283: 282:Mediterranean 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 254:British Isles 250: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 225: 210: 206: 202: 198: 197:Ancient Greek 192: 162: 153: 149: 145: 142: 138: 134: 133: 128: 127:Arctic Circle 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 97: 94: 90: 86: 77: 73: 69: 65: 59: 54: 47: 44: 40: 33: 19: 10737: 10728: 10721: 10714: 10707: 10699: 10694:On the Ocean 10692: 10685: 10677: 10674:Literature: 10462: 10444: 10425: 10418: 10408:Aotearoa One 10406: 10399: 10392: 10385: 10373: 10366: 10359: 10352: 10345: 10338: 10331: 10318: 10314: 10306: 10293:Experimental 10261:Museum ships 10228: 10221: 10194: 10166:Phoenician: 10157: 10152:Leontophoros 10150: 10114:Butuan boats 10109:Pontian boat 10047:Dufuna canoe 9986:Shipbuilding 9897:and theories 9867:Boris Rankov 9661: 9594:Economy and 9494:Incendiaries 9341: 9128:Indus Valley 9096:Tarumanagara 9023:Ubaid period 8941:Wadi al-Jarf 8856:Ostia Antica 8460:Fore-and-aft 8427:Shipbuilding 8402:Carvel built 8384:Construction 8342:Steering oar 8223:Sailing ship 8146:Obelisk ship 8104:Dugout canoe 7966: 7954:Pole of Cold 7952: 7878: 7869: 7837: 7830: 7806: 7777: 7763: 7757:Borchgrevink 7749: 7736: 7721: 7701: 7686: 7655: 7636: 7629: 7613: 7599: 7590: 7573: 7566: 7547: 7535: 7511: 7497: 7490: 7478: 7464: 7450: 7436: 7429: 7390: 7382: 7368: 7361: 7359: 7341: 7333: 7326: 7313: 7304: 7266: 7258: 7249: 7242: 7230: 7223: 7209: 7197:Pourquoi-Pas 7196: 7188: 7180: 7172: 7167:Orcadas Base 7165: 7157: 7144: 7138:C. A. Larsen 7126: 7118: 7104: 7097: 7084: 7076: 7070:Borchgrevink 7063: 7055: 7012: 7004: 6979:C. A. Larsen 6972: 6953: 6944: 6926: 6908: 6899: 6886: 6871: 6862: 6849: 6810: 6796: 6789: 6770: 6755: 6665: 6658: 6641: 6634: 6620: 6605: 6591: 6578: 6553: 6539: 6537: 6523: 6521: 6515: 6513: 6479: 6472: 6453: 6419: 6417: 6403: 6401: 6383: 6373: 6371: 6351: 6349: 6330: 6206: 6164: 6147: 6115: 6079: 6077: 6057: 6056: 6036: 6035: 6021: 6008: 5993: 5979: 5970: 5957: 5928: 5916:Investigator 5915: 5906: 5882: 5869: 5861: 5852: 5839: 5810: 5787: 5772: 5757: 5727: 5712: 5682: 5601: 5581: 5552: 5548:Erik the Red 5530: 5508: 5501: 5491: 5458:submersibles 5455: 5449:Arktika 2007 5447: 5440: 5433: 5430: 5414: 5405: 5402: 5383: 5381: 5374: 5367: 5338: 5331: 5307: 5293: 5292: 5284: 5282: 5248: 5246: 5217: 5214: 5203:S. A. Andrée 5195: 5182: 5157: 5149: 5146: 5122: 5104: 5091: 5082: 5064: 5055: 5053: 5019: 4689: 4679: 4673:(Hipparchus) 4669: 4660:Catasterismi 4659: 4649: 4587: 4508:Eratosthenes 4375:. Retrieved 4361:20 September 4359:. Retrieved 4355:the original 4350: 4337: 4321:. Retrieved 4317:the original 4301: 4267:Online books 4260: 4243:Online books 4233: 4195: 4187: 4182: 4168: 4160: 4152: 4141: 4118: 4099: 4089: 4052: 4048: 4014: 3994: 3985: 3976: 3957: 3938: 3926:87-7289-7104 3911: 3872: 3868: 3856: 3851: 3839:Bibliography 3825: 3811: 3805: 3796: 3786: 3775: 3771: 3764:Markham 1893 3759: 3751: 3748: 3744: 3739: 3731: 3721: 3717: 3710: 3692: 3682: 3671: 3664: 3656:the original 3646: 3638:the original 3628: 3618: 3614: 3605: 3593: 3582: 3571:Eratosthenes 3561: 3548: 3536: 3524: 3511: 3500: 3496: 3485: 3481: 3455:. Retrieved 3451:the original 3445:Rihll, T.E. 3440: 3428: 3423: 3415: 3408:. Retrieved 3399: 3389: 3380: 3376: 3361: 3335: 3324: 3320: 3309: 3305: 3286: 3280: 3271: 3259:. Retrieved 3249: 3240: 3232: 3228: 3219: 3210: 3198: 3186: 3174: 3163: 3144: 3129: 3110: 3101: 3090: 3069:. Retrieved 3060: 3050: 3042: 3033: 3026: 3015: 3011: 3000: 2996: 2987: 2974: 2955: 2945: 2939: 2928: 2924: 2912: 2899: 2890: 2882: 2874: 2863: 2844: 2833: 2811: 2792:Open Library 2785: 2768: 2759: 2748: 2728: 2725: 2721: 2715: 2707: 2687: 2679: 2659: 2654: 2634: 2629: 2609: 2604: 2591: 2571: 2562: 2556: 2547: 2536: 2531: 2519: 2508: 2504: 2495: 2484: 2444: 2440: 2434: 2423: 2419: 2400: 2394: 2377: 2373: 2367: 2356: 2349: 2338: 2334: 2322: 2289: 2285: 2274: 2259: 2250: 2243: 2229: 2210: 2204: 2187: 2181: 2169: 2164:, p. 2. 2157: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2071: 2063: 2053: 2049: 2037: 2029: 2024: 2020: 2014: 1982:Eratosthenes 1970: 1956: 1953: 1944: 1935: 1926: 1917: 1898: 1890: 1870: 1867:On the tides 1853: 1837: 1798: 1789:meridian arc 1777: 1768: 1765:great circle 1748: 1746: 1721: 1716: 1709:mikra arktos 1708: 1696: 1694: 1678:katepsugmenē 1677: 1667: 1663:diakekaumenē 1662: 1646: 1643: 1631: 1622: 1618: 1615: 1596: 1586: 1583: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1560: 1541: 1534: 1519: 1495: 1484: 1471: 1462: 1454: 1422: 1417:Balto-Slavic 1406: 1398: 1387: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1344: 1327: 1321: 1299: 1286: 1278: 1276: 1257: 1225: 1220: 1212: 1202:, a kind of 1195: 1191: 1187: 1175: 1173: 1168: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1152: 1146: 1145: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1125: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1077: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1055: 1050: 1046: 1023: 1011: 996: 985: 981: 976: 972: 967:On the Ocean 966: 960: 944:Eratosthenes 933: 912: 900: 888: 886: 880: 873:ultima Thule 872: 864: 852: 849: 837: 813: 799: 791: 783: 779: 777: 759: 749: 733: 728: 724: 720: 713: 699:Ynys Prydein 698: 693: 668: 662: 656: 650: 637: 619: 615: 607: 598: 584: 575: 573: 568: 565: 515:Sagres Point 510: 507:Eratosthenes 504: 496: 477: 474: 437: 413: 411: 404: 399:periodos gēs 398: 394:περίοδος γῆς 380: 368: 348: 341: 327: 320: 312: 286: 278:Hyperboreans 270:midnight sun 251: 237:(modern-day 231:Greek colony 208: 200: 160: 159: 140: 130: 43: 10701:Argonautica 10688:(Herodotus) 10651:Flood myths 10548:Museums and 10492:conferences 10457:Vital Alsar 10295:archaeology 10104:Austronesia 10097:Hjortspring 10092:Rochelongue 10042:Pesse canoe 9996:Ship burial 9981:Sea Peoples 9914:Lighthouses 9909:Grave goods 9857:George Bass 9637:Spice trade 9234:exploration 9056:Philippines 9051:Austronesia 9044:Old Kingdom 8921:Trincomalee 8871:Prosphorion 8816:Myos Hormos 8660:Micronesian 8651:By region: 8623:Lighthouses 8431:By region: 8196:Quinquereme 8121:Kunlun ship 8114:Penteconter 8099:Dragon boat 7657:Lake Vostok 7607:Tryoshnikov 7529:Schlossbach 7420:Christensen 7362:James Caird 7283:E. R. Evans 7049:Dobrowolski 7019:de Gerlache 6721:Expeditions 6607:Aviaarktika 6561:Samoylovich 6432:Kolomeitsev 6326:Middendorff 6286:Gedenshtrom 5706:I. Fyodorov 5468:Chilingarov 5356:E. Fyodorov 4963:Expeditions 4791:Geocentrism 4703:Instruments 4693:(Aristotle) 4498:Cleostratus 4463:Aristarchus 4443:Anaximander 4425:Astronomers 3776:Geographica 3541:Nansen 1911 3529:Nansen 1911 3501:Geographica 3486:Geographica 3354:Nansen 1911 3325:Geographica 3310:Geographica 3261:18 February 3091:Geographica 2929:Geographica 2917:Burton 1875 2879:Nansen 1911 2864:Geographica 2851:, p. 2 2849:Burton 1875 2834:Geographica 2812:Geographica 2540:Book II.4.1 2537:Geographica 2524:Nansen 1911 2488:Book II.4.1 2485:Geographica 2447:: 132–148. 2424:Geographica 2342:Book II.4.2 2339:Geographica 2290:Geographica 2150:Kaplan 2013 1998:Artemidorus 1974:Dicaearchus 1526:declination 1208:pancake ice 1196:halipleumon 1116:Pancake ice 1049:instead of 969:as saying: 948:Borysthenes 871:references 652:Geographica 603:Roman miles 455:Dicaearchus 403:περίπλους ( 336:written by 329:Geographica 314:Geographica 102:Citizenship 92:Nationality 10834:Peripluses 10768:Categories 10710:(Polybius) 10354:Hawaiʻiloa 10236:Nemi ships 10121:Black Sea‎ 10067:Khufu ship 10028:and relics 9926:Marine art 9919:Alexandria 9826:Fik Meijer 9809:Historians 9696:Indo-Roman 9509:Greek navy 9411:Salamis II 9401:Hellespont 9361:Artemisium 9351:Nile Delta 9314:Achaemenid 9207:Achaemenid 9076:Langkasuka 9071:Micronesia 8989:Prehistory 8916:Sounagoura 8744:Chittagong 8719:Barbarikon 8698:Alexandria 8640:Pilot boat 8590:Navigation 8422:Sewn-plank 8417:Lashed-lug 8295:Figurehead 8268:Components 8237:Propulsion 8191:Quadrireme 8172:Polyremes 8151:Outriggers 7880:Terra Nova 7785:Shackleton 7728:J. C. Ross 7687:Resolution 7677:South Pole 7452:New Swabia 7376:Mackintosh 7348:Shackleton 7267:Terra Nova 7260:Terra Nova 6994:Heroic Age 6954:Challenger 6914:J. C. Ross 6824:Bransfield 6756:Resolution 6671:icebreaker 6635:Chelyuskin 6376:expedition 6354:Expedition 6296:Matyushkin 6254:Kh. Laptev 6249:Chelyuskin 6143:Heemskerck 6133:Chancellor 6128:Willoughby 6123:Koch boats 6066:Stefansson 6000:McClintock 5964:Inglefield 5806:J. C. Ross 5713:Resolution 5565:Cunningham 5463:Sagalevich 5152:expedition 5111:Stephenson 5071:C. F. Hall 5058:expedition 5032:J. C. Ross 4995:Heemskerck 4982:North Pole 4866:Influenced 4845:Influences 4816:Octaeteris 4745:Triquetrum 4633:Timocharis 4618:Theodosius 4578:Posidonius 4538:Hipparchus 4528:Heraclides 4468:Aristyllus 4453:Apollonius 4448:Andronicus 4377:5 November 4261:By Pytheas 3828:Marco Polo 3554:II.1.12,13 3433:Hipparchos 2664:Greek text 2639:Greek text 2614:Greek text 2578:Βρεττανική 2310:, Pytheas. 2308:Smith 1880 2234:describes 2112:Euthymenes 2002:Posidonius 1990:Hipparchus 1903:in pseudo- 1753:Hipparchus 1713:Ursa Minor 1686:North Pole 1556:Ursa Minor 1537:North Pole 1510:complement 1502:complement 1487:arctangent 1457:Hipparchus 1322:aestuarium 1318:Inguaeones 1272:Baltic Sea 1041:and later 816:tin ingots 780:akrōtērion 768:Trojan War 669:Bretannikē 655:, Pliny's 576:perimetros 453:said that 441:said that 260:, and the 227:geographer 125:, and the 117:voyage to 105:Massaliote 10723:Geography 10661:Gilgamesh 10550:memorials 10474:Viracocha 10387:Faʻafaite 10340:Sarimanok 10246:Yassi Ada 10159:Syracusia 10082:Canaanite 10057:Moor Sand 9527:By region 9489:Grappling 9461:Naulochus 9451:Myonessus 9406:Echinades 9391:Arginusae 9386:Cynossema 9371:Naupactus 9366:Eurymedon 9200:Classical 9175:Phoenicia 9170:Mycenaean 9133:Tamilakam 9116:Polynesia 9106:Srivijaya 8901:Satingpra 8861:Palembang 8845:Cattigara 8787:(Kadaram) 8770:Jambukola 8764:Guangzhou 8705:(Podouke) 8703:Arikamedu 8665:Polynesia 8598:Celestial 8511:Armaments 8497:Spritsail 8455:Crab claw 8397:Careening 8364:Sternpost 8218:Reed boat 8161:Catamaran 8136:Multihull 7979:Tolstikov 7765:Discovery 7735:HMS 7720:HMS 7702:Adventure 7700:HMS 7685:HMS 7621:Tolstikov 7342:Endurance 7127:Antarctic 7112:Drygalski 7085:Discovery 7078:Discovery 7039:Arctowski 6952:HMS 6925:HMS 6919:Abernethy 6907:HMS 6885:USS 6872:Vincennes 6870:USS 6850:Astrolabe 6790:San Telmo 6771:Adventure 6769:HMS 6754:HMS 6749:Kerguelen 6711:Continent 6696:Antarctic 6573:Urvantsev 6531:Vilkitsky 6384:Jeannette 6382:USS 6374:Jeannette 6338:Weyprecht 6316:Pakhtusov 6266:Chichagov 6259:D. Laptev 6202:Permyakov 6177:Stadukhin 6172:Perfilyev 6149:Mangazeya 6087:H. Larsen 6052:Rasmussen 6007:HMS 5978:USS 5927:HMS 5914:HMS 5878:Collinson 5868:HMS 5860:HMS 5838:HMS 5786:HMS 5771:HMS 5756:HMS 5741:Mackenzie 5728:Discovery 5726:HMS 5711:HMS 5683:Discovery 5662:Frobisher 5625:Rasmussen 5538:Gunnbjörn 5484:Greenland 5413:USS 5404:USS 5276:Ellsworth 5218:Roosevelt 5148:Nansen's 5105:Discovery 5103:HMS 5090:HMS 5037:Abernethy 5005:Marmaduke 4720:Astrolabe 4653:(Ptolemy) 4573:Philolaus 4563:Oenopides 4548:Hypsicles 4493:Cleomedes 4488:Callippus 4478:Autolycus 4433:Aglaonice 4347:"Pytheas" 4138:"Pytheas" 3977:The Balts 2794:Project. 2774:Aristotle 2660:Geography 2658:Strabo's 2635:Geography 2633:Strabo's 2610:Geography 2608:Strabo's 2469:163631018 1936:ampōtides 1932:ἀμπώτιδες 1918:plēmmurai 1914:πλήμμυραι 1882:Avonmouth 1825:Irish Sea 1791:. As the 1757:Babylonia 1655:Capricorn 1599:Babylonia 1554:and β in 1479:cotangent 1475:Byzantium 1436:Black Sea 1363:Herodotus 1304:(and not 1215:drift ice 1184:Aristotle 1180:jellyfish 1128:navigatio 1074:Procopius 1043:Greenland 1019:longitude 956:Trondheim 952:Marseille 929:Skagerrak 921:Trøndelag 806:Islands. 714:Cruithen- 599:circuitus 597:gave the 569:epelthein 558:see below 523:Tartessos 405:periplous 385:Marcianus 346:(AD 77). 258:polar ice 247:antiquity 239:Marseille 113:Earliest 68:Marseille 10739:Tākitimu 10642:Legend: 10600:Roskilde 10479:Tangaroa 10420:Olympias 10394:Gaualofa 10333:Hōkūleʻa 10308:Kon-Tiki 10141:Ashkelon 10077:Uluburun 10036:Earliest 9802:Scholars 9684:shipping 9484:Boarding 9396:Mytilene 9381:Syracuse 9346:Alashiya 9309:Egyptian 9293:Military 9284:Timeline 9262:Sardinia 9185:Carthage 9101:Kalingga 9061:Sa Huỳnh 8996:Timeline 8946:Zanzibar 8896:Sarapion 8891:Rhacotis 8821:Martaban 8766:(Canton) 8759:Godavaya 8754:Giao Chỉ 8724:Barygaza 8714:Avalites 8635:Piloting 8523:Catapult 8518:Ballista 8492:Mast-aft 8305:Planking 8244:Paddling 8201:Hexareme 8166:Trimaran 8131:Longship 8079:Balangay 7991:A. Fuchs 7948:V. Fuchs 7928:McKinley 7891:E. Evans 7850:Bjaaland 7845:Amundsen 7795:Marshall 7708:Furneaux 7560:V. Fuchs 7524:E. Ronne 7519:F. Ronne 7458:Ritscher 7312:SY 7300:Filchner 7244:Framheim 7238:Amundsen 7044:Racoviță 7029:Amundsen 7024:Lecointe 6893:Ringgold 6887:Porpoise 6777:Furneaux 6613:Shevelev 6568:Begichev 6547:Amundsen 6509:Nagórski 6487:Brusilov 6481:Sv. Anna 6395:Melville 6365:Palander 6321:Tsivolko 6281:Sannikov 6276:Billings 6219:Chirikov 6138:Barentsz 6080:St. Roch 6071:Bartlett 6045:Amundsen 6029:Sverdrup 5929:Resolute 5818:Franklin 5746:Kotzebue 5613:Sverdrup 5596:Scoresby 5570:Lindenov 5421:Plaisted 5406:Nautilus 5351:Shirshov 5325:Belyakov 5320:Baydukov 5294:Nautilus 5256:Amundsen 5216:SS 5175:Sverdrup 5170:Johansen 5140:Brainard 5135:Lockwood 4990:Barentsz 4821:Solstice 4754:Concepts 4650:Almagest 4593:Seleucus 4553:Menelaus 4513:Euctemon 4294:(1911). 4180:(1897). 4087:(1911). 3937:(2002). 3909:(2002). 3899:40510297 3849:(1875). 3732:Extracta 3728:Stobaeus 3715:Plutarch 3467:cite web 3397:(2002). 3383:: 11–17. 3233:Germania 3167:IV.27.13 3058:(2002). 3019:XXXII.32 2894:Page 54. 2780:(1955). 2427:III.2.11 2096:See also 2088:, 2019; 2084:, 2018; 2017:Polybius 1994:Polybius 1909:Stobaeus 1905:Plutarch 1874:Cyrenaic 1857:Scotland 1821:Cornwall 1793:parallel 1785:meridian 1635:ecliptic 1587:periplus 1575:quadrant 1491:latitude 1466:tangents 1424:Polybius 1394:Bornholm 1359:Aistians 1302:Germania 1294:Teutones 1204:Cnidaria 1192:pulmones 1070:Scandiae 1031:Shetland 988:Normandy 940:Scotland 909:Hebrides 834:Scotland 828:Cornwall 796:Cornwall 792:Belerion 764:chariots 756:thatched 723:, Welsh 710:Q-Celtic 703:P-Celtic 647:periplus 627:Polybius 591:Timaeaus 531:Portugal 428:periplus 364:Polybius 356:emporium 266:Germanic 235:Massalia 215:350 BC, 132:Periplus 85:Massalia 10679:Odyssey 10656:Genesis 10453:Others 10252:Lists: 10241:Marausa 10191:Roman: 10181:Punic: 10146:Kyrenia 10137:Greek: 10133:Marsala 10126:Sinop D 10001:Tacking 9735:History 9622:Meluhha 9612:Fishing 9607:Whaling 9514:Ramming 9436:Aegates 9431:Drepana 9426:Ecnomus 9356:Salamis 9344: 9334:Battles 9212:Nabatea 9195:Archaic 9165:Nuragic 9155:Somalia 9006:Oceania 9001:Britain 8978:History 8911:Socotra 8881:Qandala 8866:Piraeus 8836:Muziris 8806:Madurai 8801:Manthai 8739:Canopus 8709:Arsinoe 8681:harbors 8630:History 8618:Coastal 8548:Sambuca 8533:Dolphin 8447:Rigging 8259:Poling 8249:Sailing 8186:Trireme 8126:Liburna 8089:Coracle 8059:Vessels 7996:Messner 7943:Hillary 7923:Balchen 7871:Polheim 7865:Wisting 7743:Crozier 7715:Weddell 7693:J. Cook 7663:Kapitsa 7644:Fiennes 7586:Klenova 7555:Hillary 7505:Ketchum 7431:BANZARE 7406:· 7251:Polheim 7217:Shirase 7203:Charcot 7013:Belgica 6932:Crozier 6844:Morrell 6839:Weddell 6817:Lazarev 6762:J. Cook 6716:History 6666:Arktika 6642:Krassin 6627:Voronin 6599:Schmidt 6585:Ushakov 6524:Vaygach 6492:Albanov 6461:Rusanov 6442:Kolchak 6437:Matisen 6411:Makarov 6390:De Long 6291:Wrangel 6271:Lyakhov 6224:Malygin 6182:Dezhnev 6009:Pandora 5980:Advance 5947:Kennedy 5942:Belcher 5935:Kellett 5922:McClure 5846:Beechey 5840:Blossom 5833:Simpson 5801:Crozier 5794:Hoppner 5751:J. Ross 5719:J. Cook 5667:Gilbert 5560:J. Hall 5526:Ingólfr 5516:Naddodd 5510:Vikings 5497:Brendan 5492:Pytheas 5480:Iceland 5434:Arktika 5426:Herbert 5391:Badygin 5361:Krenkel 5346:Papanin 5315:Chkalov 5301:Wilkins 5266:Wisting 5210:F. Cook 5116:Markham 5076:Bessels 5065:Polaris 5056:Polaris 5027:J. Ross 5010:Carolus 4958:History 4725:Dioptra 4588:Pytheas 4583:Ptolemy 4533:Hicetas 4523:Geminus 4518:Eudoxus 4473:Attalus 4438:Agrippa 4323:30 June 4234:Pytheas 4151:(1957) 4077:1773964 4057:Bibcode 3723:Moralia 3718:Epitome 3711:Placita 3567:II.1.18 3552:Strabo 3328:II.5.41 3313:II.5.34 2885:, vi.9. 2790:at the 2670:at the 2645:at the 2620:at the 2596:at the 2386:3296920 2127:Scythia 2122:Prydain 2107:Cruthin 2041:Germani 2021:idiōtēs 2010:Tacitus 1978:Timaeus 1945:meiōsis 1941:μείωσις 1884:in the 1805:Belfast 1781:Dnieper 1773:equinox 1690:Equator 1601:by the 1544:Polaris 1498:equator 1430:to the 1347:Scythia 1310:Gutones 1306:Scythia 1268:Vistula 1264:Ptolemy 1200:Medusae 1132:Berrice 1130:) from 1120:Swedish 1058:Berrice 1051:Berrice 1047:Nerigon 1027:Iceland 992:Ptolemy 965:quotes 936:Ptolemy 913:Berrice 901:Berrice 877:Georgic 784:Kantion 706:cognate 554:Ptolemy 492:Garonne 490:or the 443:Timaeus 211:; born 119:Britain 32:Pythias 10730:Aeneid 10446:Viking 10427:Regina 10196:Alkedo 10052:Abydos 10026:Wrecks 9895:Topics 9725:Piracy 9679:Greece 9539:Odisha 9471:Actium 9466:Mycale 9301:Navies 9190:Greece 9180:Olmecs 9148:Pandya 9123:Minoan 9086:Champa 9066:Lapita 9011:Remote 8931:Tyndis 8886:Quilon 8831:Muscat 8796:Lothal 8791:Korkai 8775:Jeddah 8749:Essina 8693:Adulis 8603:Charts 8538:Harpax 8528:Corvus 8502:Square 8470:Settee 8465:Lateen 8374:Tiller 8369:Strake 8337:Rudder 8327:Paddle 8275:Anchor 8254:Towing 8176:Bireme 8109:Galley 8084:Bangka 7906:Bowers 7901:Wilson 7860:Hassel 7855:Helmer 7824:Mackay 7814:Mawson 7779:Nimrod 7737:Terror 7722:Erebus 7649:Burton 7444:Rymill 7320:Mawson 7314:Aurora 7293:Lashly 7278:Wilson 7181:Nimrod 7158:Scotia 6965:Murray 6940:Cooper 6927:Terror 6909:Erebus 6878:Wilkes 6829:Palmer 6797:Vostok 6744:Bouvet 6668:-class 6648:Gakkel 6516:Taymyr 6497:Konrad 6466:Kuchin 6404:Yermak 6311:Lavrov 6229:Ovtsyn 6214:Bering 6192:Ivanov 6155:Hudson 6117:Pomors 6094:Cowper 6059:Karluk 5958:Isabel 5952:Bellot 5902:Austin 5870:Terror 5862:Erebus 5758:Griper 5734:Clerke 5694:Baffin 5677:Hudson 5608:Nansen 5521:Garðar 5442:Barneo 5309:ANT-25 5285:Italia 5261:Nobile 5230:Henson 5189:Amedeo 5165:Nansen 5130:Greely 5000:Hudson 4938:Arctic 4836:Zodiac 4786:Equant 4735:Gnomon 4613:Thales 4608:Strabo 4458:Aratus 4231:about 4210: 4125: 4106: 4075: 4029: 4001: 3964: 3945: 3923: 3897: 3869:Arctic 3818: 3779:II.3.5 3707:Aëtius 3504:II.5.7 3489:II.5.3 3457:7 June 3410:7 June 3293: 3244:III.5. 3223:7.2.4. 3138:Book 4 3117: 3071:7 June 2962: 2932:IV.5.5 2905:Dnipro 2837:II.5.8 2815:II.4.2 2700: 2467: 2461:627926 2459: 2407: 2384: 2293:IV.2.1 2258:–500. 2217: 2056:Virgil 2045:Belgae 2006:Strabo 1957:aitiai 1901:Aëtius 1829:Orkney 1749:pēchus 1736:gnōmōn 1651:Cancer 1639:zodiac 1623:kukloi 1611:Thales 1603:Ionian 1579:gnōmōn 1530:zenith 1432:Tanais 1409:Venedi 1401:Aestii 1377:- or * 1334:Balcia 1232:, and 1122:coast. 1076:says ( 1066:Vergos 1062:Bergos 1039:Norway 1033:, the 925:Norway 881:ultima 869:Vergil 853:Thoulē 804:Orkney 580:stadia 451:Strabo 324:Strabo 309:Strabo 299:Record 262:Celtic 243:France 147:Fields 123:Baltic 121:, the 81:350 BC 10839:Thule 10666:Greek 10469:Abora 10463:Ivlia 10375:Saina 10319:Ra II 10277:Sites 10062:Dokos 9674:Egypt 9596:trade 9561:Rafts 9546:Japan 9534:India 9446:Chios 9416:Mylae 9376:Olpae 9324:Roman 9319:Greek 9217:Aksum 9143:Chera 9138:Chola 9111:Sunda 9091:Kutai 9081:Kedah 8926:Tulum 8906:Sidon 8851:Opone 8841:Óc Eo 8811:Malao 8785:Kedah 8729:Basra 8677:Ports 8655:Inuit 8475:Tanja 8435:Egypt 8285:Cabin 8228:Tomol 8071:Types 7986:Crary 7933:Dufek 7896:Oates 7886:Scott 7819:David 7800:Adams 7771:Barne 7592:Mirny 7581:Somov 7391:Quest 7288:Crean 7273:Scott 7152:Bruce 7106:Gauss 7099:Gauss 6973:Jason 6960:Nares 6834:Davis 6811:Mirny 6784:Smith 6739:Roché 6659:Lenin 6579:Sadko 6504:Wiese 6449:Sedov 6420:Zarya 6343:Payer 6306:Litke 6301:Anjou 6234:Minin 6197:Vagin 6187:Popov 6160:Poole 6015:Young 5828:Dease 5773:Hecla 5764:Parry 5689:Bylot 5672:Davis 5647:Cabot 5620:Peary 5602:Jason 5589:Egede 5503:Papar 5415:Skate 5396:Wiese 5376:NP-37 5369:NP-36 5249:Norge 5237:Sedov 5225:Peary 5183:Jason 5098:Nares 5092:Alert 5047:Hayes 5015:Parry 4953:Ocean 4642:Works 4558:Meton 4503:Conon 4073:JSTOR 3895:JSTOR 3575:Thule 3404:(PDF) 3373:(PDF) 3235:, 45. 3094:I.4.3 3065:(PDF) 3004:IX.71 2991:IV.5. 2867:I.4.2 2729:Picti 2465:S2CID 2457:JSTOR 2382:JSTOR 2236:Thule 2133:Notes 2025:penēs 1861:Picts 1801:Loire 1761:Sumer 1682:Homer 1674:Libya 1670:Egypt 1619:zonai 1552:Draco 1469:leg. 1428:Gades 1413:Slavs 1371:narus 1367:Neuri 1351:Balts 1314:Goths 1290:amber 1260:Rhine 1253:Amber 1230:slush 1163:topoi 1140:Pliny 1097:barns 1082:Goths 911:. 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