Read-only memory - Knowledge

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electrical response when addressed, than spaces in the grid where the transistors are not connected, a connected transistor may represent a 1 and an unconnected one a 0, or viceversa. This is the least expensive, and fastest way of making mask ROM as it only needs one mask with data, and has the lowest density of all mask ROM types as it is done at the metallization layer, whose features can be relatively large in respect to other parts of the ROM. This is known as contact-programmed ROM. In ROM with a NAND configuration, this is known as metal-layer programming and the mask defines where to fill the areas surrounding transistors with metal which short-circuits the transistors instead, a transistor that is not short circuited may represent a 0, and one that is may represent a 1, or viceversa.

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implantation (the "1" transistors), and another defines where to deposit the other (the "0" transistors). This is known as voltage threshold ROM (VTROM) as the different ion implantation types define different voltage thresholds in the transistors, and it's the voltage threshold on a transistor that defines a 0, or a 1. Can be used with NAND and NOR configurations. This technique offers a high level of resistance against optical reading of the contents as ion-implantation regions are difficult to distinguish optically, which may be attempted with

1776:. The mask defines physical features or structures that will be removed, or added in the ROM chips, and the presence or absence of these features will represent either a 1 or a 0 bit, depending on the ROM design. Thus by design, any attempts to electronically change the data will fail, since the data is defined by the presence or absence of physical features or structures that cannot be electronically changed. For every software program, even for revisions of the same program, the entire mask must be changed, which can be costly. 1540: 2237: 4393: 2609: 2871:, rewriteable ROMs can withstand only a limited number of write and erase cycles before the insulation is permanently damaged. In the earliest EPROMs, this might occur after as few as 1,000 write cycles, while in modern Flash EEPROM the endurance may exceed 1,000,000. The limited endurance, as well as the higher cost per bit, means that Flash-based storage is unlikely to completely supplant magnetic 2847:

large DRAM read/write caches and the implementation of memory cells which can store more than one bit (DLC, TLC and MLC). The latter approach is more failure prone but this has been largely mitigated by overprovisioning (the inclusion of spare capacity in a product which is visible only to the drive controller) and by increasingly sophisticated read/write algorithms in drive firmware.

2313:. Mask ROMs used to be the most inexpensive, and are the simplest semiconductor memory devices, with only one metal layer and one polysilicon layer, making it the type of semiconductor memory with the highest manufacturing yield (the highest number of working devices per manufacturing run). ROM can be made using one of several semiconductor device fabrication technologies such as 1975:. (Until then it was not a stored-program computer as every program had to be manually wired into the machine, which could take days to weeks.) Read-only memory was simpler to implement since it needed only a mechanism to read stored values, and not to change them in-place, and thus could be implemented with very crude electromechanical devices (see 4967: 2757:, also known as wire braid memory, which couples drive lines to sense lines through ferrite cores, used where size, weight, and/or cost were critical. Core rope stores multiple bits of ROM per core (unlike normal read/write core memory), and was programmed by weaving "word line wires" inside or outside of 2882:

of the memory cell transistors. Early generation EEPROM's, in the mid-1980s generally cited 5 or 6 year data retention. A review of EEPROM's offered in the year 2020 shows manufacturers citing 100 year data retention. Adverse environments will reduce the retention time (leakage is accelerated by high

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All of these technologies improved the flexibility of ROM, but at a significant cost-per-chip, so that in large quantities mask ROM would remain an economical choice for many years. (Decreasing cost of reprogrammable devices had almost eliminated the market for mask ROM by the year 2000.) Rewriteable

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Mask ROM transistors can be arranged in either NOR or NAND configurations and can achieve one of the smallest cell sizes possible as each bit is represented by only one transistor. NAND offers higher storage density than NOR. OR configurations are also possible, but compared to NOR it only connects

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For those types of ROM that can be electrically modified, writing speed has traditionally been much slower than reading speed, and it may need unusually high voltage, the movement of jumper plugs to apply write-enable signals, and special lock/unlock command codes. Modern NAND Flash can be used to

2135:. With software usually tightly coupled to hardware, program changes are rarely needed in such devices (which typically lack hard disks for reasons of cost, size, or power consumption). As of 2008, most products use Flash rather than mask ROM, and many provide some means for connecting to a PC for 1906:

in the early 1980s and commercialized in the late 1980s, is a form of EEPROM that makes very efficient use of chip area and can be erased and reprogrammed thousands of times without damage. It permits erasure and programming of only a specific part of the device, instead of the entire device. This

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in an SSD. This has been enabled by the increased investment in both consumer and enterprise solid-state drives and flash memory products for higher end mobile devices. On a technical level the gains have been achieved by increasing parallelism both in controller design and of storage, the use of

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in 1956, allowed users to program its contents exactly once by physically altering its structure with the application of high-voltage pulses. This addressed problems 1 and 2 above, since a company can simply order a large batch of fresh PROM chips and program them with the desired contents at its

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In the pulse-transformer technique, the drive lines are coupled to the sense lines through ferrite cores, but the core magnetization is not flipped, nor does this methoddepend on the magnetization hysteresis loop, using them only as transformers. This operates in the same way as the Dimond Ring

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In a ROM with transistors in a NOR configuration, using a photomask to define only specific areas of a grid with transistors, to fill with metal thus connecting to the grid only part of all the transistors in the ROM chip thus making a grid where transistors that are connected cause a different

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Using two masks to define two types of ion implantation regions for transistors, to change their electrical properties when addressed in a grid and define two types of transistors. The type of transistor defines if it represents a 1 or a 0 bit. One mask defines where to deposit one type of ion

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Inductively coupled printed circuit board memory, which uses inductive coupling but no ferrite cores, instead coupling between drive lines and sense lines on separate planes of a printed circuit board. This operates on the same principle as the Dimond Ring Translator, and was used in the

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Using two levels of thickness for a gate oxide in transistors, and using a mask to define where to deposit one thickness of oxide, and another mask to deposit the other. Depending on the thickness a transistor can have different electrical properties and thus represent either a 1 or a

2096:(see below), to permit in-place reprogramming should the need for a firmware upgrade arise. However, simple and mature sub-systems (such as the keyboard or some communication controllers in the integrated circuits on the main board, for example) may employ mask ROM or 4612: 2713:, named after Bell Labs inventor Thomas L. Dimond, in which wires are threaded through a sequence of large ferrite rings that function as transformers, coupling drive pulses to sense windings. Invented in the early 1940s, the Dimond Ring Translator was used in the #5 2299:

Using several masks to define the presence or absence of the transistors themselves, on a grid. Addressing a non-existent transistor may be interpreted as a 0, and if a transistor is present it may be interpreted as a 1, or viceversa. This is known as active-layer

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However, the one-time masking cost is high and there is a long turn-around time from design to product phase. Design errors are costly: if an error in the data or code is found, the mask ROM is useless and must be replaced in order to change the code or data.

1995:(comprising 5-20 transistors) to retain its contents, while a ROM cell might consist of the absence (logical 0) or presence (logical 1) of one transistor connecting a bit line to a word line. Consequently, ROM could be implemented at a lower cost-per- 2468:"window" which allows UV light to enter. After programming, the window is typically covered with a label to prevent accidental erasure. Some EPROM chips are factory-erased before they are packaged, and include no window; these are effectively PROM. 2887:). Masked ROM and fuse/antifuse PROM do not suffer from this effect, as their data retention depends on physical rather than electrical permanence of the integrated circuit, although fuse re-growth was once a problem in some systems. 2177:

Since ROM (at least in hard-wired mask form) cannot be modified, it is only suitable for storing data which is not expected to need modification for the life of the device. To that end, ROM has been used in many computers to store

2908:. Another example is making backups of firmware/OS ROMs from older computers or other devices - for archival purposes, as in many cases, the original chips are PROMs and thus at risk of exceeding their usable data lifetime. 2761:

transformer cores. Two different kinds of core rope memory, distinguished by whether the magnetization of the cores is flipped during operation, are known as the pulse-transformer technique and the switching-core technique

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It is also possible to write the contents of a Laser ROM by using a laser to alter the electrical properties of only some diodes on the ROM, or by using a laser to cut only some polysilicon links, instead of using a mask.

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Although the relative speed of RAM vs. ROM has varied over time, as of 2007 large RAM chips can be read faster than most ROMs. For this reason (and to allow uniform access), ROM content is sometimes copied to RAM or

4383: 2480:) to be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they need not be removed from the computer (whether general-purpose or an embedded computer in a camera, MP3 player, etc.). Writing or 2531:) is a modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984. Flash memory can be erased and rewritten faster than ordinary EEPROM, and newer designs feature very high endurance (exceeding 1,000,000 cycles). Modern 2458:

light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then rewritten with a process that again needs higher than usual voltage applied. Repeated exposure to UV light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but the

1926:. As of 2021, NAND has nearly completely achieved this goal by offering throughput higher than hard disks, lower latency, higher tolerance of physical shock, extreme miniaturization (in the form of 4877:

J. J. Lee and N. R. Strader, "CMOS ROM arrays programmable by laser beam scanning," in IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 622-624, Aug. 1987, doi: 10.1109/JSSC.1987.1052783.

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The term "ROM" is sometimes used to refer to a ROM device containing specific software or a file with software to be stored in a writable ROM device. For example, users modifying or replacing the

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can be erased and re-programmed. But usually, this can only be done at relatively slow speeds, may require special equipment to achieve, and is typically only possible a certain number of times.

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The contents of ROM chips can be extracted with special hardware devices and relevant controlling software. This practice is common for, as a main example, reading the contents of older video

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The timespan over which a ROM remains accurately readable is not limited by write cycling. The data retention of EPROM, EAROM, EEPROM, and Flash may be time-limited by charge leaking from the

1876:(EPROM) in 1971. The 1971 invention of EPROM essentially solved problem 3, since EPROM (unlike PROM) can be repeatedly reset to its unprogrammed state by exposure to strong ultraviolet light. 2927:

originated when most console games were distributed on cartridges containing ROM chips, but achieved such widespread usage that it is still applied to images of newer games distributed on

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and peripheral control units), is a transformer matrix ROM technology operating in the same way as the Dimond Ring Translator. It is faster and more compact than IBM's CCROS used in the

1953:(that is, storage that retains its data when power is removed) to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution (a process known as 1617:

and the removal or replacement of components, ICs cannot. Correction of errors, or updates to the software, require new devices to be manufactured and to replace the installed device.

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often included magnetic disk drives, and larger amounts of RAM, allowing them to load their operating systems from disk into RAM, with only a minimal hardware initialization core and

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The switching-core technique does flip the magnetization of the ferrite cores. This is significantly different than the operation of a Dimond Ring Translator. This was used in

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Classic mask-programmed ROM chips are integrated circuits that physically encode the data to be stored, and thus it is impossible to change their contents after fabrication.

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manufacturer (rather than by the user). The desired memory contents are furnished by the customer to the device manufacturer. The desired data is converted into a custom

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ROM images of commercial games, firmware, etc. usually contain copyrighted software. The unauthorized copying and distribution of copyrighted software is a violation of

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depending on location. In any case, there is a thriving community engaged in the distribution and trading of such software for preservation/sharing purposes.

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In mask ROM, the data is physically encoded in the circuit, so it can only be programmed during fabrication. This leads to a number of serious disadvantages:

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Iizuka, H.; Masuoka, F.; Sato, Tai; Ishikawa, M. (1976). "Electrically alterable avalanche-injection-type MOS READ-ONLY memory with stacked-gate structure".

4965:, T.L Dimond, "Electronic Induction Number Group Translator", issued October 14, 1952, assigned to Bell Telephone Laboratories, Incorporated 2650:

matrix ROM, used in many computers until the 1970s. Like diode matrix ROM, it was programmed by placing components at selected locations between a matrix of

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Some integrated circuits contain only mask ROM. Other integrated circuits contain mask ROM as well as a variety of other devices. In particular, many

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Mask ROM can be made in several ways, all of which aim to change the electrical response of a transistor when it is addressed on a grid, such as:

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when used as a replacement for older ROM types, but not in applications that take advantage of its ability to be modified quickly and frequently.

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matrix ROM achieves higher density storage than diode, resistor, or capacitor matris ROMs, by using each matrix element to store multiple bits.

4575: 1613:(IC), that cannot be electronically changed after manufacture. Although discrete circuits can be altered in principle, through the addition of 4930: 2500:) than is used for read access. EAROMs are intended for applications that require infrequent and only partial rewriting. EAROM may be used as 4736: 2811:

and 9100B calculators for the main control store (in addition to a pules-transformer core rope memory used for the microinstruction decoder).

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in silicon chips; however, a ROM memory cell could be implemented using fewer transistors than an SRAM memory cell, since the latter needs a

1650:" after the type of storage the file used to be written to, and they may distinguish between ROM (where software and data is stored, usually 1890:

if the containing device provides a means to receive the program contents from an external source (for example, a personal computer via a

4539: 1918:, also invented at Toshiba. Its designers explicitly broke from past practice, stating plainly that "the aim of NAND flash is to replace 4505: 5438: 5128: 4553: 4856: 1543:

Many game consoles use interchangeable ROM cartridges, allowing for one system to play multiple games. Shown here is the inside of a

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of most EPROM chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can often be identified by the prominent

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The use of ROM to store such small amounts of data has disappeared almost completely in modern general-purpose computers. However,

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The turnaround time between completing the design for a mask ROM and receiving the finished product is long, for the same reason.

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Forms of read-only memory were employed as non-volatile storage for programs in most early stored-program computers, such as

1067: 2143:. Some hobbyists have taken advantage of this flexibility to reprogram consumer products for new purposes; for example, the 5180: 5072: 2484:

an EEPROM is much slower (milliseconds per bit) than reading from a ROM or writing to a RAM (nanoseconds in both cases).

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Business Intelligence: Second European Summer School, eBISS 2012, Brussels, Belgium, July 15-21, 2012, Tutorial Lectures

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of early personal computers stored tables of bitmapped font characters in ROM. This usually meant that the text display

4633: 2919:, and can be used to produce duplicate ROMs - for example to produce new cartridges or as digital files for playing in 1276: 228: 273: 1829: 1015: 958: 278: 5350: 1961:" or "booting up"). Likewise, every non-trivial computer needs some form of mutable memory to record changes in its 2995: 2662:'s Function Tables were resistor matrix ROM, programmed by manually setting rotary switches. Various models of the 2344:– for the development phase of a project, and to switch to mask ROM when the code has been finalized. For example, 126: 4330: 3512: 3084: 2721:

telephone exchanges. Dimond Ring was the basis for most later forms of transformer-coupled or "core rope" memory.

1341: 1001: 945: 2628:. This ROM was programmed by installing discrete semiconductor diodes at selected locations between a matrix of 4800: 1027: 696: 508: 104: 2539:

as of 2007; this feature, along with its endurance and physical durability, has allowed NAND flash to replace

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strongly depends on its size, mask ROM is significantly cheaper than any other kind of semiconductor memory.

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See chapters on "Combinatorial Digital Circuits" and "Sequential Digital Circuits" in Millman & Grable,

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Tarui, Y.; Hayashi, Y.; Nagai, K. (1972). "Electrically reprogrammable nonvolatile semiconductor memory".

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There are other types of non-volatile memory which are not based on solid-state IC technology, including:

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The main advantage of mask ROM is its cost. Per bit, mask ROM was more compact than any other kind of

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work since designers frequently need to quickly modify the contents of memory as they refine a design.

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switches, and can represent an arbitrary look-up table with a regular physical layout and predictable

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makes efficient use of silicon chip area, resulting in individual ICs with a capacity as high as 32

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storage for critical system setup information; in many applications, EAROM has been supplanted by

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computers). This arrangement allowed for a more complex and easily upgradeable operating system.

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Semi-invasive attacks - A new approach to hardware security analysis. SP Skorobogatov. 2005.

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achieve the highest write speeds of any rewritable ROM technology, with speeds as high as 10

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at a time. Writing is a very slow process and again needs higher voltage (usually around 12

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It is only economical to buy mask ROM in large quantities, since users must contract with a

5242: 4669: 4413: 4319: 3389: 2868: 2593: 2352: 2166: 2131:, etc.) all of which are designed for specific functions, but are based on general-purpose 2120: 1861: 1841: 1837: 1712: 1624: 1455: 1323: 1102: 1062: 985: 598: 503: 393: 288: 151: 131: 114: 109: 46: 42: 4864: 4441: 2963: 8: 5734: 5631: 2367: 2333: 2183: 1992: 1950: 1726: 1564: 1361: 1052: 990: 975: 842: 794: 647: 458: 156: 17: 5548: 5246: 4673: 2165:

data, as it makes them difficult to replace, which may be desirable in order to enhance

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ROM, used in small amounts in many computers in the 1960s as well as electronic desk

2439: 2225: 2112: 2069: 1761: 1138: 1133: 1057: 1022: 876: 854: 753: 712: 615: 453: 178: 5698: 5270: 2955: 1575:. Data stored in ROM cannot be electronically modified after the manufacture of the 1545: 5250: 4990: 4721:

Detlev Richter (Sep 12, 2013). "Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Non-Volatile Memories".

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lines (the address input) and bit lines (the data output), selectively joined with

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in 1972, went a long way to solving problem 4, since an EEPROM can be programmed

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in order to facilitate faster computation). This was especially effective when

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updates; for example, a digital audio player might be updated to support a new

2132: 2046: 1813: 1801: 1680: 1672: 1485: 1403: 1246: 903: 765: 701: 573: 558: 538: 533: 478: 443: 398: 348: 338: 333: 318: 213: 203: 136: 5064: 5028: 4681: 5759: 5262: 4994: 4689: 4580: 4164: 4126: 2905: 2879: 2569:, some types of reprogrammable ROMs may temporarily become read-only memory. 2179: 2162: 2061: 2015: 2003: 1899: 1857: 1741: 1722: 1620: 1592: 1576: 1491: 1118: 1113: 1082: 837: 747: 563: 553: 548: 528: 363: 353: 233: 218: 5254: 4314: 3254: 2902: 2617: 2600:

supports erase-rewrite cycles (analogous to EEPROM); both are designed for

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If a product is shipped with faulty mask ROM, the only way to fix it is to

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https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/pdf/2b7ba7f2db6ae96cc7869282a1ab5d25fbe02f5b

1972: 1882:(EEPROM), developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at the 5357: 5170:"A chronological list of Intel products. The products are sorted by date" 4401:

was created from a revision of this article dated 12 April 2005

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for the evaluation of mathematical and logical functions (for example, a

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describe files containing a modified or replacement operating system as "

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Flash Memories: Economic Principles of Performance, Cost and Reliability

3550: 3472: 3385: 2872: 2825: 2666: 2621: 2532: 2398: 2322: 2318: 2217: 2124: 2077: 2038: 1988: 1984: 1915: 1757: 1729: 1647: 1588: 1092: 918: 672: 438: 433: 308: 173: 99: 3860: 3749: 2935: 2896: 2670: 2647: 2548: 2390: 2289: 2273: 2253: 2236: 2144: 1919: 1853: 1825: 1765: 1614: 1568: 1539: 1479: 1444: 1281: 1210: 1108: 979: 970: 667: 610: 378: 298: 37:"ROM" redirects here. For the country with the country code ROM, see 2446:) within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only be programmed once. 1922:," rather than the traditional use of ROM as a form of non-volatile 1787:

to produce a custom design for every piece, or revision of software.

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that is rarely changed during the life of the system, also known as

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could not be changed interactively. This was the case for both the

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cartridge. The ROM is the IC on the right labeled "MX23C1603-12A".

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Because they are written by forcing electrons through a layer of

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could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable ROM, which led to

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the product and physically replace the ROM in every unit shipped.

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of RAM and 20 KB of ROM containing a BASIC interpreter and the

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In modern PCs, "ROM" is used to store the basic bootstrapping

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As of 2003, four companies produce most such mask ROM chips:

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operating system. Later home or office computers such as the

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needed to internally control self-contained devices such as

1695:(WCS) for additional diagnostics and emulation support. The 3739: 3625: 3586: 2790: 2589: 2505: 2497: 2348:

microcontrollers come in both EEPROM and mask ROM formats.

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is a read-only memory whose contents are programmed by the

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technologies were envisioned as replacements for mask ROM.

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Subsequent developments have addressed these shortcomings.

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Transformer matrix ROM (TROS), from the IBM System 360/20

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on their MP3 players and wireless routers, respectively.

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Marie-Aude Aufaure; Esteban Zimányi (17 January 2013).

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before its first use, and subsequently read from RAM.

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in ROM as other forms of non-volatile storage such as

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laws in many jurisdictions, although duplication for

5718: 5716: 4517: 4515: 4434:"flash ROM Definition from PC Magazine Encyclopedia" 5102:"1965: Semiconductor Read-Only-Memory Chips Appear" 5087: 4891:

https://pdfserv.maximintegrated.com/en/an/AN937.pdf

4725:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6. 2473:

Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory

1983:in the 1960s, both ROM and its mutable counterpart 1907:can be done at high speed, hence the name "flash". 1880:

Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory

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electrically erasable programmable read-only memory

4619: 1937:, for example), and much lower power consumption. 5713: 4659: 4512: 2460: 2151:projects have enabled users to run full-featured 1822:metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor 1591:, for programmable devices can be distributed as 5757: 5289:μCOM-43 SINGLE CHIP MICROCOMPUTER: USERS' MANUAL 1667:IBM used capacitor read-only storage (CROS) and 30:The concept of read-only data can also refer to 2850: 5179:. Intel Corporation. July 2005. Archived from 4720: 4546: 2588:which is read-only (analogous to masked ROM). 5602:"History of Fujitsu's Semiconductor Business" 4980: 4634:"1971: Reusable semiconductor ROM introduced" 4487: 3957: 2911:The resultant memory dump files are known as 2194:were slow and ROM was cheap compared to RAM. 1520: 4879:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1052783 4825: 4782: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4568: 2669:and complex peripheral devices stored their 2454:(EPROM) can be erased by exposure to strong 1736:-bit address input onto arbitrary values of 5319:"Intel: 35 Years of Innovation (1968–2003)" 5226: 5015:"Core Rope & Woven-Wire Memory Systems" 4981:Aldrich, W.H.; Alonso, R.L. (August 1966). 4483: 4481: 1940: 5282: 5280: 4961: 2743:, but slower than IBM's BCROS used in the 2673:in a capacitor matrix, in variants called 2220:has taken over a new role as a medium for 2056:for the processor, as well as the various 1671:(TROS) to store microcode for the smaller 1527: 1513: 5311: 4987:IEEE Transactions on Electronic Computers 4771: 2161:ROM is also useful for binary storage of 2018:drives were too costly. For example, the 1662: 1579:. Read-only memory is useful for storing 4798: 4478: 4409:, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 4392: 2854: 2607: 2332:It is common practice to use rewritable 2256:clearly visible through the erase window 2235: 1976: 1538: 27:Electronic memory that cannot be changed 5481: 5479: 5477: 5475: 5473: 5471: 5469: 5467: 5465: 5277: 4901: 4826:Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (2011). 4746:. April 2003. p. 6. Archived from 4606: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4453: 4451: 2489:Electrically alterable read-only memory 2213:adapters available with the IBM PC XT. 2172: 815: 14: 5758: 5491:STOL (Semiconductor Technology Online) 4928: 4737:"NAND Flash Applications Design Guide" 2451:Erasable programmable read-only memory 1874:erasable programmable read-only memory 1828:in 1959, enabled the practical use of 1629:erasable programmable read-only memory 5351:"2716: 16K (2K x 8) UV ERASABLE PROM" 5235:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 4854: 4799:Whitaker, Jerry C. (3 October 2018). 4349:Other terms are used as well, e.g., " 2999: 2994: 2786:calculators, and many other machines. 2572: 2415: 2260: 1602:refers to hard-wired memory, such as 1068:Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus 5462: 4662:IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 4448: 3003: 2960:Random-access memory § Timeline 2679:balanced capacitor read-only storage 1607: 4704:"1987: Toshiba Launches NAND Flash" 4542:from the original on 27 April 2018. 4508:from the original on 27 April 2018. 4469:"ROM, EPROM, and EEPROM Technology" 1691:). On some models there was also a 24: 4379: 1840:, a function previously served by 1706: 229:Data validation and reconciliation 25: 5782: 5075:from the original on 12 July 2016 4488:Han-Way Huang (5 December 2008). 2890: 1752:. Mask ROM consists of a grid of 1593:plug-in cartridges containing ROM 1587:. Software applications, such as 279:Distributed file system for cloud 41:. For the museum in Toronto, see 4983:"The "Braid Transformer Memory"" 4494:. Cengage Learning. p. 22. 4491:Embedded System Design with C805 4391: 2695:card capacitor read-only storage 127:Areal density (computer storage) 5681: 5653: 5624: 5594: 5566: 5534: 5509: 5431: 5403: 5375: 5343: 5198: 5121: 5057: 5043: 5021: 5007: 4974: 4955: 4931:"No. 5 crossbar AMA translator" 4922: 4895: 4883: 4871: 4848: 4819: 4792: 4758: 4729: 4714: 4696: 4343: 2111:. These are in everything from 2107:such as flash are prevalent in 2041:remaining in ROM (known as the 1914:The most recent development is 1856:of Bell Labs proposed that the 946:Programmable metallization cell 4929:Dimond, T.L. (February 1951). 4653: 4600: 4426: 2964:Transistor count § Memory 2543:in some applications (such as 2434:via a special device called a 1987:were implemented as arrays of 1764:. Mask ROM is programmed with 1732:can be joined manually to map 509:Persistence (computer science) 13: 1: 5324:. Intel. 2003. Archived from 4855:Oishi, Motoyuki (July 2003). 4360: 2725:Transformer Read Only Storage 2423:Programmable read-only memory 2389:have mask ROM to store their 1810:Programmable read-only memory 1744:). With the invention of the 1669:transformer read-only storage 1377:Electronic quantum holography 5051:"The HP 9100's PC-Board ROM" 2956:Flash memory § Timeline 2851:Endurance and data retention 2766:Translator, and was used in 2430:(OTP), can be written to or 2292:of the ROM and a microscope. 1793:Mask ROM is impractical for 728:Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM) 524:Non-RAID drive architectures 7: 5724:"Japanese Company Profiles" 4576:"Transistors - an overview" 4308: 2949: 2942:purposes may be considered 2799:Apollo Spacecraft Computers 2596:(analogous to PROM), while 2551:memory is sometimes called 2397:have mask ROM to store the 1979:below). With the advent of 1884:Electrotechnical Laboratory 1774:semiconductor manufacturing 10: 5787: 4832:Cambridge University Press 2953: 2894: 2832: 2624:and keyboard encoders for 2188:tabulate the sine function 2104: 2088:– are often replaced with 1710: 1657: 1317:Holographic Versatile Disc 1216:Compact Disc Digital Audio 1088:Magnetic-tape data storage 707:Content-addressable memory 36: 29: 4682:10.1109/JSSC.1972.1052895 4528:. Springer. p. 136. 3107: 2428:one-time programmable ROM 2100:(one-time programmable). 1999:than RAM for many years. 1830:metal–oxide–semiconductor 514:Persistent data structure 409:Digital rights management 4995:10.1109/PGEC.1966.264357 4938:Bell Laboratories Record 4905:Ciarcia's Circuit Cellar 4802:The Electronics Handbook 4336: 3137:General Microelectronics 2931:or other optical media. 2869:floating transistor gate 2817: 2231: 1957:, often abbreviated to " 1947:stored-program computers 1941:Use for storing programs 1817:designers' convenience. 1697:Apollo Guidance Computer 1644:Android operating system 1389:DNA digital data storage 1372:Holographic data storage 861:Solid-state hybrid drive 147:Network-attached storage 5731:Smithsonian Institution 5547:. Intel. Archived from 5356:. Intel. Archived from 5255:10.1109/T-ED.1976.18415 5107:Computer History Museum 4902:Ciarcia, Steve (1981). 4861:Nikkei Electronics Asia 4639:Computer History Museum 4562:Computer History Museum 2782:and 9100B calculators, 2745:IBM System/360 Model 50 2741:IBM System/360 Model 30 2602:backwards-compatibility 2355:. Since the cost of an 1693:writeable control store 1384:5D optical data storage 1201:3D optical data storage 924:Universal Flash Storage 329:Replication (computing) 274:Distributed file system 164:Single-instance storage 142:Direct-attached storage 122:Continuous availability 32:file-system permissions 5733:. 1996. Archived from 5440:Component Data Catalog 4828:The Art of Electronics 4387: 4367:Listen to this article 2860: 2711:Dimond Ring Translator 2613: 2257: 2105:successor technologies 2006:of the 1980s stored a 1824:(MOSFET), invented at 1679:, and the initial two 1663:Discrete-component ROM 1553: 1257:Nintendo optical discs 474:Storage virtualization 344:Information repository 284:Distributed data store 45:. For other uses, see 5661:"D27512-30 Datasheet" 5029:"Computer for Apollo" 4989:. EC-15 (4): 502 ff. 4444:on November 10, 2013. 4386: 2971:Date of introduction 2865:electrical insulation 2858: 2809:Hewlett-Packard 9100A 2780:Hewlett-Packard 9100A 2638:printed circuit board 2611: 2515:and backed up with a 2376:Oki Electric Industry 2239: 1832:(MOS) transistors as 1721:ROM is as old as the 1717:The simplest type of 1542: 760:Mellon optical memory 748:Williams–Kilburn tube 464:Locality of reference 269:Clustered file system 95:Memory access pattern 5450:. 1978. pp. 1–3 5033:MIT Science Reporter 4418:More spoken articles 4351:Initial Program Load 4320:Random-access memory 2875:in the near future. 2594:Write Once Read Many 2353:semiconductor memory 2173:Use for storing data 2167:information security 2121:consumer electronics 1951:non-volatile storage 1862:semiconductor device 1838:semiconductor memory 1836:storage elements in 1812:(PROM), invented by 1740:-bit data output (a 1713:Semiconductor memory 1625:semiconductor memory 1456:Magnetic-core memory 1103:Digital Data Storage 1063:Quadruplex videotape 504:In-memory processing 394:Information transfer 289:Distributed database 152:Storage area network 132:Block (data storage) 47:ROM (disambiguation) 43:Royal Ontario Museum 5771:Non-volatile memory 5247:1976ITED...23..379I 4674:1972IJSSC...7..369T 2368:Samsung Electronics 2334:non-volatile memory 2327:bipolar transistors 2184:floating-point unit 2074:optical disc drives 1981:integrated circuits 1977:historical examples 1725:technology itself. 1598:Strictly speaking, 1565:non-volatile memory 1053:Phonograph cylinder 991:Electrochemical RAM 843:Solid-state storage 459:Memory segmentation 157:Block-level storage 5542:"27128A Datasheet" 5331:on 4 November 2021 5297:NEC Microcomputers 4908:. Circuit Cellar. 4830:(Third ed.). 4588:on 13 October 2022 4558:The Silicon Engine 4388: 4325:Read-mostly memory 3351:General Instrument 3301:General Instrument 2861: 2614: 2573:Other technologies 2416:Field-programmable 2357:integrated circuit 2270:integrated circuit 2261:Factory-programmed 2258: 2070:solid-state drives 1820:The advent of the 1746:integrated circuit 1611:integrated circuit 1573:electronic devices 1554: 1462:Plated-wire memory 1427:Paper data storage 1073:Magnetic recording 499:In-memory database 484:Memory-mapped file 429:Volume boot record 424:Master boot record 414:Volume (computing) 389:Data communication 314:Data deduplication 5574:"27256 Datasheet" 5517:"2764A Datasheet" 5411:"2732A Datasheet" 5186:on August 9, 2007 5129:"1702A Datasheet" 4915:978-0-07-010963-6 4841:978-0-521-37095-0 4812:978-1-4200-3666-4 4766:Microelectronics, 4535:978-3-642-36318-4 4501:978-1-111-81079-5 4384: 4331:Write-only memory 4306: 4305: 3556:Electronic Arrays 2921:console emulators 2226:secondary storage 2113:industrial robots 1762:propagation delay 1537: 1536: 1134:8 mm video format 1058:Phonograph record 877:Flash Core Module 855:Solid-state drive 754:Delay-line memory 713:Computational RAM 616:Scratchpad memory 454:Disk partitioning 179:Unstructured data 105:Secondary storage 16:(Redirected from 5778: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5745: 5739: 5728: 5720: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5706: 5697:. Archived from 5689:"History: 1990s" 5685: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5665: 5657: 5651: 5650: 5648: 5646: 5636: 5628: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5608:. Archived from 5598: 5592: 5591: 5589: 5587: 5578: 5570: 5564: 5563: 5561: 5559: 5554:on 29 April 2017 5553: 5546: 5538: 5532: 5531: 5529: 5527: 5521: 5513: 5507: 5506: 5504: 5502: 5493:. Archived from 5483: 5460: 5459: 5457: 5455: 5445: 5435: 5429: 5428: 5426: 5424: 5415: 5407: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5396: 5387: 5379: 5373: 5372: 5370: 5368: 5362: 5355: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5330: 5323: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5306: 5304: 5294: 5284: 5275: 5274: 5230: 5224: 5223: 5221: 5219: 5210: 5206:"2708 Datasheet" 5202: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5191: 5185: 5174: 5166: 5147: 5146: 5144: 5142: 5133: 5125: 5119: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5098: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5047: 5041: 5040: 5025: 5019: 5018: 5011: 5005: 5004: 5002: 5001: 4978: 4972: 4971: 4970: 4966: 4959: 4953: 4952: 4950: 4949: 4935: 4926: 4920: 4919: 4899: 4893: 4887: 4881: 4875: 4869: 4868: 4863:. Archived from 4852: 4846: 4845: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4796: 4790: 4784: 4769: 4762: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4741: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4700: 4694: 4693: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4648: 4646: 4630: 4617: 4616: 4615: 4611: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4595: 4593: 4584:. Archived from 4572: 4566: 4565: 4550: 4544: 4543: 4519: 4510: 4509: 4485: 4476: 4475: 4473: 4465: 4446: 4445: 4440:. Archived from 4430: 4408: 4406: 4395: 4394: 4385: 4375: 4373: 4368: 4354: 4347: 3959: 3005: 2992:Manufacturer(s) 2968: 2967: 2883:temperatures or 2755:Core rope memory 2630:word line traces 2567:write protection 2545:USB flash drives 2401:or all of their 2395:microcontrollers 2305:transistors to V 2199:display adapters 2109:embedded systems 2066:hard disk drives 2012:operating system 1965:as it executes. 1928:USB flash drives 1770:photolithography 1739: 1735: 1701:core rope memory 1600:read-only memory 1557:Read-only memory 1529: 1522: 1515: 1474:Thin-film memory 1468:Core rope memory 1394:Universal memory 1357:Millipede memory 1347:Racetrack memory 1312:Ultra HD Blu-ray 1124:Linear Tape-Open 1078:Magnetic storage 1046:Analog recording 489:Software entropy 449:Disk aggregation 209:Data degradation 194:Data compression 90:Memory hierarchy 80:Memory coherence 52: 51: 21: 5786: 5785: 5781: 5780: 5779: 5777: 5776: 5775: 5766:Computer memory 5756: 5755: 5754: 5753: 5743: 5741: 5740:on 27 June 2019 5737: 5726: 5722: 5721: 5714: 5704: 5702: 5687: 5686: 5682: 5672: 5670: 5663: 5659: 5658: 5654: 5644: 5642: 5634: 5630: 5629: 5625: 5615: 5613: 5600: 5599: 5595: 5585: 5583: 5576: 5572: 5571: 5567: 5557: 5555: 5551: 5544: 5540: 5539: 5535: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5514: 5510: 5500: 5498: 5497:on 25 June 2019 5485: 5484: 5463: 5453: 5451: 5443: 5437: 5436: 5432: 5422: 5420: 5413: 5409: 5408: 5404: 5394: 5392: 5390:NEC Electronics 5385: 5381: 5380: 5376: 5366: 5364: 5363:on 27 June 2019 5360: 5353: 5349: 5348: 5344: 5334: 5332: 5328: 5321: 5317: 5316: 5312: 5302: 5300: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5278: 5231: 5227: 5217: 5215: 5208: 5204: 5203: 5199: 5189: 5187: 5183: 5172: 5168: 5167: 5150: 5140: 5138: 5131: 5127: 5126: 5122: 5112: 5110: 5100: 5099: 5088: 5078: 5076: 5063: 5062: 5058: 5049: 5048: 5044: 5027: 5026: 5022: 5013: 5012: 5008: 4999: 4997: 4979: 4975: 4968: 4960: 4956: 4947: 4945: 4933: 4927: 4923: 4916: 4900: 4896: 4889:IButton AN937. 4888: 4884: 4876: 4872: 4853: 4849: 4842: 4834:. p. 817. 4824: 4820: 4813: 4797: 4793: 4785: 4772: 4763: 4759: 4750: 4739: 4735: 4734: 4730: 4719: 4715: 4702: 4701: 4697: 4658: 4654: 4644: 4642: 4632: 4631: 4620: 4613: 4605: 4601: 4591: 4589: 4574: 4573: 4569: 4552: 4551: 4547: 4536: 4520: 4513: 4502: 4486: 4479: 4471: 4467: 4466: 4449: 4432: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4421: 4410: 4404: 4402: 4399:This audio file 4396: 4389: 4380: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4366: 4363: 4358: 4357: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4311: 3817:NMOS (HMOS II) 3577:μCOM-43 (CMOS) 3463:μCOM-43 (PMOS) 2966: 2952: 2915:or abbreviated 2899: 2893: 2853: 2835: 2820: 2778:computers, the 2715:Crossbar Switch 2634:bit line traces 2582:Optical storage 2575: 2517:lithium battery 2436:PROM programmer 2418: 2387:microprocessors 2372:NEC Corporation 2312: 2308: 2263: 2248:1702, with the 2234: 2175: 2133:microprocessors 2117:home appliances 2010:interpreter or 1943: 1924:primary storage 1846:computer memory 1737: 1733: 1715: 1709: 1707:Solid-state ROM 1665: 1660: 1627:in the form of 1563:) is a type of 1533: 1504: 1503: 1422: 1414: 1413: 1367:Patterned media 1337: 1329: 1328: 1196: 1186: 1185: 1181:Hard disk drive 1048: 1038: 1037: 1018: 1007: 1006: 961: 951: 950: 872:IBM FlashSystem 867:USB flash drive 806: 789: 788: 743: 735: 734: 723:Dual-ported RAM 601: 584: 583: 544:Cloud computing 404:Copy protection 324:Data redundancy 254:Shared resource 224:Data validation 199:Data corruption 174:Structured data 85:Cache coherence 70: 56:Computer memory 50: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5784: 5774: 5773: 5768: 5752: 5751: 5712: 5680: 5652: 5641:. January 1984 5623: 5612:on 3 July 2019 5593: 5565: 5533: 5508: 5461: 5430: 5402: 5383:"1982 CATALOG" 5374: 5342: 5310: 5299:. January 1978 5276: 5241:(4): 379–387. 5225: 5197: 5148: 5120: 5086: 5056: 5042: 5020: 5006: 4973: 4954: 4921: 4914: 4894: 4882: 4870: 4867:on 2007-10-21. 4847: 4840: 4818: 4811: 4791: 4770: 4757: 4753:on 2009-10-07. 4728: 4713: 4695: 4668:(5): 369–375. 4652: 4618: 4599: 4567: 4545: 4534: 4511: 4500: 4477: 4447: 4424: 4423: 4411: 4397: 4390: 4378: 4365: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4356: 4355: 4341: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4334: 4333: 4328: 4322: 4317: 4310: 4307: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4294: 4287: 4281: 4278: 4275: 4272: 4265: 4261: 4260: 4258: 4251: 4244: 4241: 4238: 4235: 4232: 4225: 4221: 4220: 4218: 4211: 4204: 4199: 4196: 4191: 4188: 4181: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4167: 4162: 4159: 4156: 4153: 4150: 4143: 4139: 4138: 4136: 4129: 4124: 4121: 4118: 4115: 4112: 4105: 4101: 4100: 4098: 4091: 4090:1,200 nm 4088: 4085: 4082: 4079: 4073: 4066: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4052: 4045: 4042: 4039: 4036: 4033: 4030: 4026: 4025: 4023: 4016: 4015:1,700 nm 4013: 4008: 4005: 4002: 3999: 3992: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3975: 3972: 3969: 3966: 3963: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3944: 3937: 3932: 3929: 3926: 3923: 3916: 3912: 3911: 3909: 3902: 3895: 3892: 3889: 3886: 3883: 3880: 3876: 3875: 3873: 3866: 3865:3,000 nm 3863: 3858: 3855: 3852: 3849: 3842: 3838: 3837: 3835: 3828: 3821: 3818: 3815: 3812: 3809: 3806: 3802: 3801: 3799: 3792: 3785: 3782: 3779: 3776: 3773: 3766: 3762: 3761: 3759: 3752: 3746: 3743: 3736: 3733: 3730: 3727: 3723: 3722: 3720: 3713: 3712:4,000 nm 3710: 3705: 3702: 3699: 3696: 3689: 3685: 3684: 3682: 3675: 3668: 3665: 3662: 3659: 3656: 3653: 3649: 3648: 3646: 3639: 3632: 3629: 3622: 3619: 3616: 3613: 3609: 3608: 3606: 3599: 3592: 3589: 3584: 3581: 3578: 3575: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3545: 3542: 3539: 3535: 3534: 3532: 3525: 3518: 3515: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3501: 3497: 3496: 3494: 3487: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3467: 3464: 3461: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3447: 3440: 3435: 3432: 3427: 3424: 3417: 3413: 3412: 3410: 3403: 3396: 3393: 3383: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3370: 3369: 3367: 3360: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3331: 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1788: 1708: 1705: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1546:Pokémon Silver 1535: 1534: 1532: 1531: 1524: 1517: 1509: 1506: 1505: 1502: 1501: 1495: 1489: 1486:Twistor memory 1483: 1477: 1471: 1465: 1459: 1453: 1447: 1442: 1436: 1430: 1423: 1420: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1406: 1404:Quantum memory 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1380: 1379: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1338: 1336:In development 1335: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1327: 1326: 1321: 1320: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1247:Super Video CD 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1213: 1208: 1197: 1192: 1191: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1183: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1131: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1106: 1100: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1049: 1044: 1043: 1040: 1039: 1036: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1019: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1004: 999: 994: 988: 983: 973: 968: 962: 957: 956: 953: 952: 949: 948: 943: 942: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 904:MultiMediaCard 901: 896: 891: 881: 880: 879: 874: 869: 864: 858: 852: 840: 835: 834: 833: 828: 818: 813: 807: 802: 801: 798: 797: 791: 790: 787: 786: 780: 774: 769: 766:Selectron tube 763: 757: 751: 744: 741: 740: 737: 736: 733: 732: 731: 730: 720: 715: 710: 704: 699: 694: 693: 692: 682: 681: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 620: 619: 618: 613: 606:Hardware cache 602: 597: 596: 593: 592: 586: 585: 582: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 559:Edge computing 556: 551: 546: 541: 539:Grid computing 536: 534:Bank switching 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 479:Virtual memory 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 444:Disk mirroring 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 399:Temporary file 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 356: 351: 349:Knowledge base 346: 341: 339:Storage record 336: 334:Memory refresh 331: 326: 321: 319:Data structure 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 214:Data integrity 211: 206: 204:Data cleansing 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 160: 159: 154: 144: 139: 137:Object storage 134: 129: 124: 119: 118: 117: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 71: 68: 67: 64: 63: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5783: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5736: 5732: 5725: 5719: 5717: 5701:on 1 May 2021 5700: 5696: 5695: 5690: 5684: 5669: 5662: 5656: 5640: 5633: 5627: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5597: 5582: 5575: 5569: 5550: 5543: 5537: 5518: 5512: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5482: 5480: 5478: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5470: 5468: 5466: 5449: 5442: 5441: 5434: 5419: 5412: 5406: 5391: 5384: 5378: 5359: 5352: 5346: 5327: 5320: 5314: 5298: 5291: 5290: 5283: 5281: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5229: 5214: 5207: 5201: 5182: 5178: 5171: 5165: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5157: 5155: 5153: 5137: 5130: 5124: 5109: 5108: 5103: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5091: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5060: 5052: 5046: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5024: 5016: 5010: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4977: 4964: 4963:USA 2,614,176 4958: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4925: 4917: 4911: 4907: 4906: 4898: 4892: 4886: 4880: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4851: 4843: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4822: 4814: 4808: 4805:. CRC Press. 4804: 4803: 4795: 4789: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4775: 4767: 4761: 4749: 4745: 4738: 4732: 4724: 4717: 4709: 4705: 4699: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4656: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4629: 4627: 4625: 4623: 4609: 4603: 4587: 4583: 4582: 4581:ScienceDirect 4577: 4571: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4549: 4541: 4537: 4531: 4527: 4526: 4518: 4516: 4507: 4503: 4497: 4493: 4492: 4484: 4482: 4470: 4464: 4462: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4454: 4452: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4429: 4425: 4419: 4415: 4400: 4352: 4346: 4342: 4332: 4329: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4312: 4302: 4300: 4299: 4295: 4293: 4292: 4288: 4285: 4282: 4279: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4270: 4266: 4263: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4256: 4252: 4250: 4249: 4245: 4242: 4239: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4230: 4226: 4223: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4216: 4212: 4210: 4209: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4186: 4182: 4179: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4172: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4160: 4157: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4148: 4144: 4141: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4122: 4119: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4110: 4106: 4103: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4096: 4092: 4089: 4086: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4064: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4051: 4050: 4046: 4043: 4040: 4037: 4034: 4031: 4028: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4021: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4006: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3997: 3993: 3990: 3989: 3986: 3984:528 mm² 3983: 3981: 3980: 3976: 3973: 3970: 3967: 3964: 3961: 3956: 3955: 3952: 3950: 3949: 3945: 3943: 3942: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3930: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3921: 3917: 3914: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3907: 3903: 3901: 3900: 3896: 3893: 3890: 3887: 3884: 3881: 3878: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3871: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3856: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3840: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3833: 3829: 3827: 3826: 3822: 3819: 3816: 3813: 3810: 3807: 3804: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3783: 3780: 3777: 3774: 3772: 3771: 3767: 3764: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3757: 3753: 3751: 3747: 3744: 3741: 3737: 3734: 3731: 3728: 3725: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3718: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3703: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3694: 3690: 3687: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3680: 3676: 3674: 3673: 3669: 3666: 3663: 3660: 3657: 3654: 3651: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3644: 3640: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3630: 3627: 3623: 3620: 3617: 3614: 3611: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3598: 3597: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3576: 3573: 3572: 3569: 3567:436 mm² 3566: 3564: 3563: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3546: 3543: 3540: 3537: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3530: 3526: 3524: 3523: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3508: 3505: 3502: 3499: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3492: 3488: 3486: 3485: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3468: 3465: 3462: 3459: 3458: 3455: 3453: 3452: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3422: 3418: 3415: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3408: 3404: 3402: 3401: 3397: 3394: 3391: 3387: 3384: 3381: 3378: 3375: 3372: 3371: 3368: 3366: 3365: 3361: 3359: 3358: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3342: 3339: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3330: 3329: 3325: 3322: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3315: 3311: 3309: 3308: 3304: 3302: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3283: 3279: 3276: 3275: 3272: 3269: 3267: 3266: 3262: 3259: 3256: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3244: 3241: 3238: 3237: 3234: 3232: 3231: 3227: 3225: 3224: 3220: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3206: 3204: 3203: 3199: 3196: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3189: 3185: 3183: 3182: 3178: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3159: 3156: 3155: 3152: 3151: 3147: 3145: 3144: 3140: 3138: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3127: 3125: 3121: 3119: 3118: 3114: 3111: 3110: 3105: 3104: 3100: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3091: 3088: 3086: 3083: 3080: 3077: 3075: 3071: 3069: 3068: 3064: 3061: 3060: 3057: 3055: 3054: 3050: 3048: 3047: 3043: 3041: 3038: 3036: 3035: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3024: 3023: 3019: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3009: 3008: 3002: 2997: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2976: 2973: 2970: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2947: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2932: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2909: 2907: 2904: 2898: 2888: 2886: 2881: 2876: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2857: 2848: 2845: 2841: 2830: 2828: 2827: 2810: 2805: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2764: 2763: 2760: 2756: 2753: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2709: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2642: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2616: 2615: 2610: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2580: 2579: 2578: 2570: 2568: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2525: 2521: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2485: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2474: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2462: 2457: 2453: 2452: 2448: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2424: 2420: 2419: 2413: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2364: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2336:– such as UV- 2335: 2330: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2298: 2294: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2281: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2238: 2229: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2214: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2197:Notably, the 2195: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2170: 2168: 2164: 2163:cryptographic 2159: 2157: 2156:distributions 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2129:set-top boxes 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2101: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2062:graphic cards 2059: 2055: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2016:magnetic disk 2013: 2009: 2005: 2000: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1971: 1966: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1955:bootstrapping 1952: 1948: 1938: 1936: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1912: 1908: 1905: 1901: 1900:Fujio Masuoka 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1858:floating gate 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1818: 1815: 1811: 1803: 1799: 1796: 1792: 1789: 1786: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1742:look-up table 1731: 1728: 1727:Combinational 1724: 1723:semiconductor 1720: 1714: 1704: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1655: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1640: 1638: 1635:(EEPROM) and 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1621:Floating-gate 1618: 1616: 1612: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1577:memory device 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1541: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1518: 1516: 1511: 1510: 1508: 1507: 1499: 1496: 1493: 1492:Bubble memory 1490: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1425: 1424: 1418: 1417: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1333: 1332: 1325: 1322: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1202: 1199: 1198: 1195: 1190: 1189: 1182: 1179: 1175: 1172: 1170: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1120: 1119:Cassette tape 1117: 1115: 1114:Videocassette 1112: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1083:Magnetic tape 1081: 1079: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1050: 1047: 1042: 1041: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1017: 1011: 1010: 1003: 1000: 998: 995: 992: 989: 987: 984: 981: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 963: 960: 955: 954: 947: 944: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 886: 885: 882: 878: 875: 873: 870: 868: 865: 862: 859: 856: 853: 850: 847: 846: 844: 841: 839: 838:ROM cartridge 836: 832: 829: 827: 824: 823: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 808: 805: 800: 799: 796: 793: 792: 784: 781: 778: 775: 773: 770: 767: 764: 761: 758: 755: 752: 749: 746: 745: 739: 738: 729: 726: 725: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 708: 705: 703: 700: 698: 695: 691: 688: 687: 686: 683: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 625: 624: 621: 617: 614: 612: 609: 608: 607: 604: 603: 600: 595: 594: 591: 588: 587: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 564:Dew computing 562: 560: 557: 555: 554:Fog computing 552: 550: 549:Cloud storage 547: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 529:Memory paging 527: 525: 522: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 364:File deletion 362: 360: 357: 355: 354:Computer file 352: 350: 347: 345: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 234:Data recovery 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 219:Data security 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 158: 155: 153: 150: 149: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 116: 115:floating-gate 113: 112: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 81: 78: 76: 73: 72: 66: 65: 61: 57: 54: 53: 48: 44: 40: 33: 19: 5742:. Retrieved 5735:the original 5703:. Retrieved 5699:the original 5692: 5683: 5671:. Retrieved 5655: 5643:. Retrieved 5626: 5614:. Retrieved 5610:the original 5596: 5584:. Retrieved 5568: 5556:. Retrieved 5549:the original 5536: 5524:. Retrieved 5511: 5499:. Retrieved 5495:the original 5490: 5452:. Retrieved 5439: 5433: 5421:. Retrieved 5405: 5393:. Retrieved 5377: 5365:. Retrieved 5358:the original 5345: 5333:. Retrieved 5326:the original 5313: 5301:. Retrieved 5288: 5238: 5234: 5228: 5216:. Retrieved 5200: 5188:. Retrieved 5181:the original 5177:Intel museum 5176: 5139:. Retrieved 5123: 5111:. Retrieved 5105: 5077:. Retrieved 5069:transparentc 5068: 5059: 5045: 5032: 5023: 5009: 4998:. Retrieved 4986: 4976: 4957: 4946:. Retrieved 4941: 4937: 4924: 4904: 4897: 4885: 4873: 4865:the original 4860: 4850: 4827: 4821: 4801: 4794: 4765: 4760: 4748:the original 4731: 4722: 4716: 4707: 4698: 4665: 4661: 4655: 4643:. Retrieved 4637: 4602: 4590:. Retrieved 4586:the original 4579: 4570: 4557: 4548: 4524: 4490: 4442:the original 4437: 4428: 4345: 4315:Flash memory 4297: 4296: 4290: 4289: 4268: 4267: 4254: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4228: 4227: 4214: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4184: 4183: 4170: 4169: 4146: 4145: 4132: 4131: 4108: 4107: 4094: 4093: 4069: 4068: 4055: 4054: 4048: 4047: 4041:NMOS (HMOS) 4019: 4018: 3995: 3994: 3978: 3977: 3958:January 1984 3947: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3919: 3918: 3905: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3891:NMOS (HMOS) 3869: 3868: 3845: 3844: 3831: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3795: 3794: 3788: 3787: 3769: 3768: 3755: 3754: 3716: 3715: 3692: 3691: 3678: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3642: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3602: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3561: 3560: 3528: 3527: 3521: 3520: 3490: 3489: 3483: 3482: 3450: 3449: 3443: 3442: 3420: 3419: 3406: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3363: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3334: 3333: 3327: 3326: 3313: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3281: 3280: 3270:15 mm² 3264: 3263: 3255:silicon gate 3253:Static MOS ( 3229: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3213:Bipolar TTL 3201: 3200: 3187: 3186: 3180: 3179: 3149: 3148: 3142: 3141: 3116: 3115: 3102: 3101: 3095: 3094: 3066: 3065: 3052: 3051: 3045: 3044: 3033: 3032: 3021: 3020: 3014: 3013: 2933: 2924: 2916: 2912: 2910: 2903:game console 2900: 2877: 2862: 2836: 2824: 2821: 2728: 2694: 2690: 2678: 2674: 2655: 2651: 2633: 2629: 2618:Diode matrix 2604:with CD-ROM. 2584:media, such 2576: 2565:By applying 2564: 2557:flash EEPROM 2556: 2552: 2528: 2524:Flash memory 2522: 2511:supplied by 2502:non-volatile 2487: 2481: 2477: 2471: 2459: 2449: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2421: 2410: 2407: 2384: 2365: 2361: 2350: 2331: 2309:instead of V 2303: 2300:programming. 2278: 2265: 2264: 2222:mass storage 2215: 2196: 2176: 2160: 2102: 2094:Flash memory 2051: 2022:included 64 2020:Commodore 64 2001: 1967: 1944: 1935:memory cards 1913: 1909: 1896:Flash memory 1892:serial cable 1878: 1819: 1807: 1778: 1716: 1675:models, the 1666: 1652:Flash memory 1641: 1637:flash memory 1619: 1604:diode matrix 1599: 1597: 1560: 1556: 1555: 1544: 1439:Punched tape 1433:Punched card 1399:Time crystal 1267:Hyper CD-ROM 1206:Optical disc 1098:Tape library 1033:FeFET memory 1014:Early-stage 894:CompactFlash 889:Memory Stick 849:Flash memory 811:Diode matrix 803: 795:Non-volatile 579:Kryder's law 569:Amdahl's law 494:Software rot 469:Logical disk 369:File copying 304:Data storage 259:File sharing 244:Data cluster 60:data storage 5065:"Memory Ic" 2923:. The term 2873:disk drives 2705:Transformer 2622:calculators 2527:(or simply 2513:mains power 2456:ultraviolet 2426:(PROM), or 2141:file format 2125:MP3 players 2078:TFT screens 1989:transistors 1866:Dov Frohman 1850:Dawon Kahng 1848:. In 1967, 1834:memory cell 1730:logic gates 1719:solid-state 1654:) and RAM. 1648:custom ROMs 1615:bodge wires 1589:video games 1498:Floppy disk 1450:Drum memory 884:Memory card 851:is used in: 785:(2002–2010) 750:(1946–1947) 574:Moore's law 419:Boot sector 359:Object file 264:File system 75:Memory cell 5760:Categories 5632:"MBM 2764" 5000:2024-08-26 4948:2024-08-26 4944:(2): 62 ff 4608:US3660819A 4414:Audio help 4405:2005-04-12 4361:References 4286:, Hitachi 2977:Capacity ( 2974:Chip name 2954:See also: 2913:ROM images 2906:cartridges 2667:System/360 2652:word lines 2533:NAND flash 2432:programmed 2399:bootloader 2254:wire bonds 2240:The first 2228:of files. 2218:NAND Flash 2039:bootloader 1985:static RAM 1973:after 1948 1920:hard disks 1916:NAND flash 1872:inventing 1766:photomasks 1758:transistor 1711:See also: 1681:System/370 1673:System/360 1571:and other 1421:Historical 1093:Tape drive 919:SmartMedia 742:Historical 439:Disk image 434:Disk array 309:Data store 110:MOS memory 100:Memory map 5263:0018-9383 4690:0018-9200 4438:pcmag.com 3962:MBM 2764 3861:Signetics 3784:Motorola 3217:Radiation 2984:ROM type 2936:copyright 2925:ROM image 2897:ROM image 2885:radiation 2731:) on the 2671:microcode 2656:bit lines 2648:capacitor 2626:terminals 2553:flash ROM 2549:NOR flash 2461:endurance 2444:antifuses 2391:microcode 2290:decapping 2274:photomask 2145:iPodLinux 1930:and tiny 1860:of a MOS 1854:Simon Sze 1826:Bell Labs 1631:(EPROM), 1569:computers 1480:Disk pack 1445:Plugboard 1282:DVD-Video 1211:LaserDisc 1109:Videotape 980:3D XPoint 971:Memristor 611:CPU cache 379:Core dump 299:Data bank 249:Directory 5694:SK Hynix 5487:"Memory" 5271:30491074 5190:July 31, 5073:Archived 5035:. 1965. 4592:8 August 4540:Archived 4506:Archived 4416: · 4353:" (IPL). 4309:See also 4243:Hitachi 4123:Toshiba 3974:Fujitsu 3708:Motorola 3541:EA8316F 3207:512 bit 3090:Sylvania 2950:Timeline 2944:fair use 2859:An EPROM 2826:shadowed 2749:Model 65 2644:Resistor 2541:magnetic 2482:flashing 2403:firmware 2380:Macronix 2266:Mask ROM 2137:firmware 2103:ROM and 2058:firmware 2054:firmware 1888:in-place 1750:mask ROM 1683:models ( 1608:mask ROM 1585:firmware 1581:software 1567:used in 1550:Game Boy 1409:UltraRAM 1287:DVD card 1242:Video CD 1227:CD Video 997:Nano-RAM 966:Memistor 939:XQD card 914:SIM card 772:Dekatron 658:XDR DRAM 653:EDO DRAM 590:Volatile 384:Hex dump 294:Database 189:Metadata 184:Big data 5744:27 June 5645:21 June 5639:Fujitsu 5606:Fujitsu 5522:. Intel 5501:25 June 5454:27 June 5395:20 June 5367:27 June 5335:26 June 5303:27 June 5243:Bibcode 5113:20 June 5079:22 July 4768:2nd ed. 4744:Toshiba 4670:Bibcode 4645:19 June 4403: ( 4374:minutes 4237:EEPROM 4202:Hyundai 4035:512 kb 4001:512 kb 3968:EEPROM 3935:Fujitsu 3925:256 kb 3885:256 kb 3811:128 kb 3778:EEPROM 3740:HMOS II 3701:EEPROM 3438:Toshiba 3170:Bipolar 3082:Bipolar 2996:Process 2929:CD-ROMs 2867:onto a 2833:Writing 2759:ferrite 2697:on the 2681:on the 2393:. Some 2149:OpenWrt 1959:booting 1932:microSD 1904:Toshiba 1795:R&D 1785:foundry 1772:during 1689:370/165 1685:370/155 1658:History 1494:(~1970) 1488:(~1968) 1470:(1960s) 1307:Blu-ray 1297:MiniDVD 1292:DVD-RAM 1252:Mini CD 1194:Optical 1154:U-matic 1149:MicroMV 1129:Betamax 993:(ECRAM) 934:MicroP2 909:SD card 899:PC Card 690:1T-SRAM 648:QDRSRAM 239:Storage 69:General 39:Romania 5705:6 July 5673:2 July 5616:2 July 5586:2 July 5558:6 July 5526:6 July 5423:6 July 5269: 5261: 5218:6 July 5141:6 July 4969: 4912: 4838: 4809: 4688: 4614: 4532: 4498: 4274:16 Mb 4165:600 nm 4155:EPROM 4152:16 Mb 4127:800 nm 4117:EPROM 4081:EPROM 4044:Intel 4038:EPROM 4032:27512 4004:EPROM 3965:64 kb 3928:EPROM 3894:Intel 3888:EPROM 3882:27256 3854:EPROM 3851:64 kb 3820:Intel 3814:EPROM 3808:27128 3775:32 kb 3748:3,500 3745:Intel 3738:NMOS ( 3735:EPROM 3732:64 kb 3698:16 kb 3667:Intel 3658:64 kb 3631:Intel 3624:NMOS ( 3621:EPROM 3618:32 kb 3580:16 kb 3544:16 kb 3517:Intel 3509:EPROM 3506:16 kb 3466:16 kb 3430:EEPROM 3395:Intel 3382:EPROM 3260:Intel 2988:MOSFET 2962:, and 2940:backup 2776:PDP-16 2737:360/40 2733:360/20 2717:, and 2699:360/30 2687:360/65 2683:360/50 2586:CD-ROM 2466:quartz 2378:, and 2342:EEPROM 2325:, and 2186:might 2090:EEPROM 2028:KERNAL 1802:recall 1677:360/85 1500:(1971) 1482:(1962) 1476:(1962) 1464:(1957) 1458:(1949) 1452:(1932) 1441:(1725) 1435:(1725) 1429:(1725) 1302:HD DVD 1262:CD-ROM 1218:(CDDA) 1144:MiniDV 863:(SSHD) 845:(SSS) 831:EEPROM 779:(2009) 768:(1952) 762:(1951) 756:(1947) 374:Backup 5738:(PDF) 5727:(PDF) 5668:Intel 5664:(PDF) 5635:(PDF) 5581:Intel 5577:(PDF) 5552:(PDF) 5545:(PDF) 5520:(PDF) 5448:Intel 5444:(PDF) 5418:Intel 5414:(PDF) 5386:(PDF) 5361:(PDF) 5354:(PDF) 5329:(PDF) 5322:(PDF) 5293:(PDF) 5267:S2CID 5213:Intel 5209:(PDF) 5184:(PDF) 5173:(PDF) 5136:Intel 5132:(PDF) 4934:(PDF) 4751:(PDF) 4740:(PDF) 4708:eWEEK 4472:(PDF) 4337:Notes 4327:(RMM) 4280:CMOS 4277:MROM 4264:1995 4240:CMOS 4234:1 Mb 4224:1995 4198:CMOS 4190:8 Mb 4180:1993 4158:CMOS 4142:1990 4120:CMOS 4114:4 Mb 4104:1987 4084:CMOS 4065:1984 4029:1984 4007:NMOS 3991:1984 3971:NMOS 3931:CMOS 3915:1983 3879:1983 3857:CMOS 3841:1983 3805:1982 3765:1982 3729:2764 3726:1981 3704:NMOS 3688:1980 3664:NMOS 3655:2364 3652:1978 3615:2732 3612:1978 3583:PROM 3574:1978 3538:1978 3503:2716 3500:1977 3469:PROM 3460:1977 3426:2 kb 3416:1976 3390:FGMOS 3379:8 kb 3376:2708 3373:1975 3341:EAROM 3323:1974 3287:4 kb 3277:1974 3249:EPROM 3245:2 kb 3242:1702 3239:1971 3210:PROM 3197:1970 3175:Intel 3163:1 kb 3160:3301 3157:1969 3112:1965 3062:1965 3010:1956 3000:Area 2818:Speed 2772:PDP-9 2691:CCROS 2689:, or 2675:BCROS 2660:ENIAC 2636:on a 2598:CD-RW 2529:flash 2478:banks 2440:fuses 2346:Atmel 2338:EPROM 2246:Intel 2244:, an 2242:EPROM 2232:Types 2153:Linux 2035:PC XT 2008:BASIC 2002:Most 1993:latch 1970:ENIAC 1963:state 1945:Many 1870:Intel 1748:came 1699:used 1606:or a 1362:ECRAM 1342:CBRAM 1277:DVD+R 1237:CD-RW 1174:D-VHS 1169:VHS-C 1164:S-VHS 1105:(DDS) 1028:ReRAM 1023:FeRAM 1016:NVRAM 1002:CBRAM 959:NVRAM 857:(SSD) 826:EPROM 783:Z-RAM 777:T-RAM 709:(CAM) 697:ReRAM 663:RDRAM 643:LPDDR 638:SGRAM 633:SDRAM 628:eDRAM 62:types 5746:2019 5707:2019 5675:2019 5647:2019 5618:2019 5588:2019 5560:2019 5528:2019 5503:2019 5456:2019 5425:2019 5397:2019 5369:2019 5337:2019 5305:2019 5259:ISSN 5220:2019 5192:2007 5143:2019 5115:2019 5081:2016 5037:WGBH 4942:XXIX 4910:ISBN 4836:ISBN 4807:ISBN 4686:ISSN 4647:2019 4594:2019 4530:ISBN 4496:ISBN 4194:MROM 4161:NEC 4087:NEC 3781:MOS 3661:ROM 3626:HMOS 3591:NEC 3587:CMOS 3551:NMOS 3547:ROM 3473:PMOS 3434:MOS 3386:NMOS 3346:MNOS 3293:MOS 3290:ROM 3166:ROM 3128:ROM 3078:ROM 3072:256 3040:Arma 3028:PROM 2979:bits 2917:ROMs 2791:NASA 2784:Wang 2774:and 2747:and 2729:TROS 2693:for 2685:and 2677:for 2654:and 2632:and 2590:CD-R 2506:CMOS 2494:bits 2323:pMOS 2319:nMOS 2315:CMOS 2252:and 2209:and 2203:font 2192:CPUs 2147:and 2119:and 2086:UEFI 2082:BIOS 2043:BIOS 1852:and 1754:word 1687:and 1623:ROM 1352:NRAM 1324:WORM 1232:CD-R 986:MRAM 821:PROM 816:MROM 718:VRAM 702:QRAM 685:SRAM 673:GDDR 623:DRAM 519:RAID 169:Data 58:and 5251:doi 4991:doi 4678:doi 4284:AKM 4011:AMD 3513:TTL 3478:NEC 3297:AMD 3132:MOS 3085:TTL 3074:bit 3004:Ref 2797:'s 2795:MIT 2770:'s 2768:DEC 2719:TXE 2664:IBM 2646:or 2592:is 2555:or 2547:). 2509:RAM 2442:or 2340:or 2250:die 2224:or 2211:MDA 2207:CGA 2115:to 2098:OTP 2092:or 2045:in 2032:IBM 1997:bit 1902:at 1894:). 1868:of 1844:in 1768:in 1561:ROM 1272:DVD 1159:VHS 976:PCM 929:SxS 804:ROM 678:HBM 668:DDR 599:RAM 18:ROM 5762:: 5729:. 5715:^ 5691:. 5666:. 5637:. 5604:. 5579:. 5489:. 5464:^ 5446:. 5416:. 5388:. 5295:. 5279:^ 5265:. 5257:. 5249:. 5239:23 5237:. 5211:. 5175:. 5151:^ 5134:. 5104:. 5089:^ 5071:. 5067:. 5031:. 4985:. 4940:. 4936:. 4859:. 4773:^ 4742:. 4706:. 4684:. 4676:. 4664:. 4636:. 4621:^ 4578:. 4560:. 4556:. 4538:. 4514:^ 4504:. 4480:^ 4450:^ 4436:. 4077:Mb 4075:1 3750:nm 3742:) 3628:) 3392:) 3299:, 3257:) 3124:kb 3122:1 2981:) 2958:, 2840:GB 2735:, 2658:. 2537:GB 2405:. 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