760:, and controversy has arisen over selective enforcement. Historically, particularly in the United States, exclusionary covenants were used to exclude racial minorities. Some covenants exist for safety purposes, such as a covenant forbidding the construction of tall buildings in the vicinity of an airport or one restricting the height of fences/shrubs at street corners (so as not to interfere with drivers' sight lines). Covenants may restrict everything from the height and size of buildings to the materials used in construction to superficial matters such as paint color and holiday decorations. In residential areas, covenants may forbid "dirty" businesses (such as
1184:. For example, a restrictive covenant covering a large neighborhood in Seattle declared that "no part of said property hereby conveyed shall ever be used or occupied by any Hebrew or by any person of the Ethiopian, Malay or any Asiatic Race", thus banning Jews and anyone of African, Filipino, or Asian ancestry. The exclusionary language varied widely. Some neighborhoods were reserved for the "White or Caucasian race". Others enumerated banned populations. One subdivision near Seattle specified that "This property shall not be resold, leased, rented or occupied except to or by persons of the Aryan race." The Lake Shore Club District in
49:
1236:
1068:
1364:) which outlawed housing discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. In 1988, it was expanded to prohibit discrimination based on familial status (e.g. the presence of children) or disability. It wasn't until 1972 that the Mayers v Ridley decision ruled that the covenants themselves violated the Fair Housing Act and that county clerks should be prohibited from accepting deeds with such clauses.
1588:, sometimes included in deeds to real property, are (1) that the grantor is lawfully seized (in fee simple) of the property, (2) that the grantor has the right to convey the property to the grantee, (3) that the property is conveyed without encumbrances (this covenant is frequently modified to allow for certain encumbrances), (4) that the grantor has done no act to encumber the property, (5) that the grantee shall have
1349:, and the fear of "black invasion" into white neighborhoods, which residents felt would result in depressed property prices, increased nuisance (crime), and social instability. Many African Americans openly defied these covenants and attempted to "pioneer" restricted areas. But even still the covenants played a role as "gentlemen agreements", it wasn't until 1962, that the
713:, land-related covenants are called "real covenants", " covenants, conditions and restrictions " (CCRs) or "deed restrictions" and are a major form of covenant, typically imposing restrictions on how the land may be used (negative covenants) or requiring a certain continuing action (affirmative covenant). These may also "run with the land" (called a
780:), the FCC declined to extend this preemption. Some US states have enacted legislation requiring homeowners' associations to provide reasonable accommodations for amateur radio antennas under the rationale that amateur radio provides public service communications in the event of an emergency, major disaster, or special event.
1376:
policies often contain exclusions preventing coverage of such restrictions. It is not always easy to remove them from the chain of title. Since 2010, the
Seattle Civil Rights & Labor History Project has located more than 500 restrictive covenants and deeds covering more than 20,000 properties in
1041:
became widespread. However, many modern developments are also restricted by covenants on property titles; this is often justified as a means of preserving the values of the houses in the area. Covenant restrictions can be removed through court action, although this process is lengthy and often very
1036:
These CCRs might, for example, dictate the types of structures that can be built (e.g., a CCR may prohibit any type of modular, prefabricated, or mobile home or may require the structure to be a minimum size), appearance (e.g., no junk cars), or other uses (e.g., no operation of home-based business,
974:
The covenant may be negative or affirmative. A negative covenant is one in which property owners are unable to perform a specific activity, such as block a scenic view. An affirmative covenant is one in which property owners must actively perform a specific activity, such as keeping the lawn tidy or
966:
US courts interpret covenants relatively strictly and give the words of the agreement their ordinary meaning. Generally if there is any unclear or ambiguous language regarding the existence of a covenant courts will favor free alienation of the property. Courts will not read any restrictions on the
1592:
of the property, and (6) that the grantor will execute such further assurances of the land as may be requisite (Nos. 3 and 4, which overlap significantly, are sometimes treated as one item). The
English covenants may be described individually, or they may be incorporated by reference, as in a deed
950:
held by the original party (strict vertical privity of estate). Note that because strict vertical privity is required for a burden to run, a lessee could not have a burden enforced against them. However, a benefited party could sue the owner of the reversion of the estate, and the owner could
1381:
and its suburbs. In response, the
Washington State legislature passed a law that since January 1, 2019 allows property owners to "modify" property records, disavowing the offensive restriction. Mapping Inequality, a collaboration of three teams at four universities, has identified restrictive
832:
is limited to cases where the benefit can be linked to a specific burden and where the covenantor's successors in title can physically elect to take the benefit. For example, a restrictive covenant to contribute to the maintenance costs of a common area will not be binding if the covenantor's
1249:
Racial covenants emerged during the mid-19th century and started to gain prominence from the 1890s onwards. It was not until the 1920s that they gained widespread national significance, and continued to spread through the 1940s. Racial covenants were an alternative to racially restrictive
1050:
issues is often governed by local planning schemes or other regulatory frameworks rather than through the use of covenants, there are still many covenants imposed, particularly in states that limit the level of control over real property use that may be exercised by local governments.
752:
are similar and in 1986, a symposium discussed whether the law of easements, equitable servitudes, and real covenants should be unified. As time passes and the original promisee of the covenant is no longer involved in the land, enforcement may become lax.
1037:
no pets except traditional household animals). The purpose of this is to maintain a neighborhood character or prevent improper use of the land. Many covenants of this nature were imposed in the United States in the 1920s through the 1940s, before
661:
for breach of covenant, which in most jurisdictions must be relatively severe breaches; however, the covenant to pay rent is one of the more fundamental covenants. The forfeiture of a private home involves interference with social and economic
1016:
In contemporary practice in the United States, a covenant typically refers to restrictions set on contracts like deeds of sale. "Covenants, conditions, and restrictions," commonly abbreviated "CC&Rs" or "CCRs", are a complicated system of
967:
land by implication (as is done with easements for example). A covenant can be terminated if the original purpose of the covenant is lost. In some cases property owners can petition a court to remove or modify the covenants, and
725:). Under English law, affirmative covenants typically do not run with the land; in the United States such covenants are examined more closely, but with exceptions affirmative covenants have been permitted to run with the land.
1514:
during the 1890s as an attempt to prevent
Indians from acquiring properties in more expensive areas, and were commonplace across the country by the 1930s. They were later used as a tool to further the cause of
1475:
employed racial covenants to bar a diverse array of ethnic groups, such as
Armenians and foreign-born Italians and Jews. Opposition to exclusionary covenants was significant in Canada, culminating in the 1945
1357:, prohibiting using federal funds to support racial discrimination in housing. This caused the FHA to "cease financing subdivision developments whose builders openly refused to sell to black buyers."
1927:
1071:
A Florida subdivision plat from 1926 with a racially-discriminatory deed restriction: "At no time shall the land included in said tract ... be occupied by any negro or person of negro extraction".
2353:
2275:
946:
Vertical privity characterizes the relationship between the original party to the covenant and the subsequent owner. To be bound by the covenant, the successor must hold the entire
918:
Horizontal privity is found if, at the time the original parties enter into the agreement, those parties share some interest in the subject land independent of the covenant (e.g.,
2555:
934:. Privity may be instantaneous and mutual; instantaneous privity is present when the restrictive covenant is within the deed initially conveyed from the grantor to the grantee.
793:
In Canada, governmental authorities may use restrictive covenants as well as zoning. For instance, the city of
Calgary's requirement that buildings in the general vicinity of
828:
Ch 169, a covenant requiring the upkeep of roads was found to bind the successor in title to the original covenantor because he had elected to take the benefit. The rule in
871:
The risk of an undisclosed restrictive covenant coming to the notice of a buyer or developer after they have acquired a site has been seen as especially high in regard to
1554:
that the person making the disposition has the right (with the concurrence of any other person conveying the property) to dispose of the property as he purports to, and
2496:
1272:
776:
state and local restrictions, but not private restrictions; in 2012 after
Congress passed a law requiring study of this issue (at the urging of amateur radio group
1168:
Often the restrictions applied only to
African Americans wishing to buy property or rent a house or apartment, but other populations might also be banned, such as
887:. Although scholars have argued that some of the following should be significantly relaxed, in order for the burden to run with the land the following must apply:
588:. Because the presence of a seal indicated an unusual solemnity in the promises made in a covenant, the common law would enforce a covenant even in the absence of
1759:
1330:
decision, stating that exclusionary covenants were unconstitutional under the
Fourteenth Amendment and were therefore legally unenforceable. On December 2, 1949
822:
The burden can be enforced at law in limited circumstances under the benefit/burden test - that is, whoever takes the benefit must also shoulder the burden. In
1300:
1005:
797:
be under a certain height is registered against virtually every title in the northeast quadrant of the city as a restrictive covenant, not as a zoning by-law.
1711:"There is a Porn Store in Mr. Roger's Neighborhood: Will You Be Their Neighbor? How to Apply Residential Use Restrictive Covenants to Modern Home Businesses"
1285:
1482:
ruling by the
Ontario High Court which invalidated their use. This judgment was influential in guiding similar decisions in the United States and elsewhere.
978:
An agreement not to open a competing business on adjacent property is generally enforceable as a covenant running with the land. However, under the federal
631:
means that conditions are tied to the ownership or use of land. A "covenant running with the land", meeting tests of wording and circumstances laid down in
1570:(b) that there is no subsisting breach of a condition or tenant’s obligation, and nothing which at that time would render the lease liable to forfeiture.
1557:
that that person will at his own cost do all that he reasonably can to give the person to whom he disposes of the property the title he purports to give.
1089:
in most towns and cities, becoming widespread in the 1920s and proliferating until they were declared unenforceable in 1948 in the Supreme Court case
1866:
2771:
836:
A positive burden can run in law, but not in equity, as it is deemed to be analogous to a contract, to which equitable principles do not apply (
819:
At common law, the burden of a restrictive covenant does not run except where strict privity of estate (a landlord/tenant relationship) exists.
2776:
1429:– covenants forbade the sale of real property to blacks or Jews, but allowed for colored servants to reside in the homes in which they served.
2501:
701:
takes steps to merge the concepts as servitudes. Real covenant law in the US has been referred to as an "unspeakable quagmire" by one court.
1372:
Although exclusionary covenants are not enforceable today, they still exist in many original property deeds as "underlying documents", and
1464:
Although most commonly associated with the United States, racially or ethnically restrictive covenants have been used in other countries:
1059:
Covenants have been used to exclude certain classes based on race, religion or ethnicity. These groups are generally marginalized groups.
2733:
2766:
2563:
1538:
Title covenants serve as guarantees to the recipient of property, ensuring that the recipient receives what he or she bargained for.
1560:(a) where the title to the interest is registered, it shall be presumed that the disposition is of the whole of that interest; (b)
1116:
2324:"Injunction Against the Recording of Deeds Containing Racial Covenants: The Last of the Racial Covenant Cases? - Mayers v. Ridley"
2283:
2254:(First ed.). New York ; London: Liveright Publishing Corporation, a division of W. W. Norton & Company. p. 88.
2194:(First ed.). New York ; London: Liveright Publishing Corporation, a division of W. W. Norton & Company. p. 87.
1529:
were excluded from purchasing or occupying homes in European areas by restrictive racial covenants written into most title deeds.
1227:
was more commonly achieved through the use of high property prices, minimum cost requirements, and application reference checks.
1086:
1832:
1576:
Others as to charges, incumbrances, and third-party rights vary depending on whether full or limited title guarantee is agreed.
1154:
Said premises shall not be rented, leased, or conveyed to, or occupied by, any person other than of the white or Caucasian race.
1331:
769:
559:
2050:"Racial Restrictive Covenants: Enforcing Neighborhood Segregation in Seattle - Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project"
1239:
Restrictions on "any person of Chinese, Japanese, Moorish, Turkish, Negro, Mongolian, Semetic or African blood or descent", (
133:
2761:
1676:
458:
1834:
1799:
1755:
1710:
1342:
1025:
of all the lots in a common interest development, particularly in the tens of millions of American homes governed by a
979:
2259:
2199:
1971:
1845:
717:), meaning that any future owners of the land must abide by the terms, or may apply to a particular person (called a
1833:
Chief, FCC Wireless Telecommunications Bureau; Chief, Public Safety and Homeland Security Bureau (August 16, 2012).
1774:
1275:(NAACP) sponsored several unsuccessful legal challenges against racial covenants. In a blow to campaigners against
428:
17:
2152:
1423:
to permit African Americans on their property with the exception of chauffeurs, gardeners, and domestic servants.
1303:. This cleared the way for racial restrictive covenants to proliferate across the US during the 1920s and 1930s.
342:
1992:"Racist language is still woven into home deeds across America. Erasing it isn't easy, and some don't want to"
1122:
were racially restricted by such covenants. Cities known for their widespread use of racial covenants include
1444:
1416:, Los Angeles, California – covenants forbade an owner to sell or rent a house to anyone not of the white or
1341:
Some commentators have attributed the popularity of exclusionary covenants at this time as a response to the
868:, in which it was determined that the burden could run in equity subject to the qualifications listed above.
812:
The covenant must 'touch and concern' the land – it must affect how the land is used or the value of the land
794:
440:
1398:, Queens, New York – covenants forbade the sale of real property to black, Jewish, and working-class people.
512:
407:
1991:
1943:
912:
The covenant must touch or concern the land. The covenant must relate to the use or enjoyment of the land.
2035:
1811:
1438:
1407:
413:
2164:
552:
333:
219:
1099:
from allowing use or occupancy by members of a given race, ethnicity, or religion as specified in the
2470:
1501:
1354:
1160:
1000:, as enforcement would require the court to act in a racially discriminatory manner, contrary to the
805:
At common law, the benefit of a restrictive covenant runs with the land if three conditions are met:
675:
464:
325:
320:
153:
2455:
Miyares, Ines M. (2004). From exclusionary covenant to ethnic diversity in Jackson Heights, Queens.
1386:
project at the University of Minnesota has collected restrictive covenants in the Minneapolis area.
1742:
1361:
898:
The original parties to the agreement must have intended that successors be bound by the agreement.
729:
128:
1404:, Queens, New York – covenants employed to restrict occupancy to white, non-immigrant Protestants.
1085:. Thus, deed restrictions and restrictive covenants became an important instrument for enforcing
646:
assures the purchaser that the grantor has the ownership rights that the deed purports to convey.
2751:
2406:
1401:
1255:
1104:
1030:
1001:
737:
733:
698:
451:
315:
809:
The covenant must not be personal in nature – it must benefit the land rather than an individual
580:, is a solemn promise to engage in or refrain from a specified action. Under historical English
48:
2141:
As long as they don't move next door: segregation and racial conflict in American neighborhoods
1963:
1957:
1807:
1452:
1026:
392:
361:
2723:
2556:"SWC: Reported Vichy-Era Statute Forbidding Côte d'Azur Property Sales to Jews Still In Force"
2518:"'Curse of covenant' persists — restrictive rules, while unenforceable, have lingering legacy"
1295: (1926) judgment ruling that such clauses constituted "private action" not subject to the
2756:
2718:
2517:
2323:
1448:
1426:
1350:
1289:
1235:
1018:
989:
968:
757:
577:
545:
433:
2072:"Racial Restrictive Covenants: Neighborhood by neighborhood restrictions across King County"
2014:
1435:, Maryland – covenants provided for exclusion against negros or persons of negro extraction.
2497:"On the Books, Unenforceable: Restrictive Covenant an Echo of Williamstown's Racist Legacy"
2471:"An Old Brochure Reveals How the Palos Verdes Peninsula Became a Massive Planned Community"
2382:"Racial Restrictive Covenants Neighborhood by neighborhood restrictions across King County"
2049:
1602:
1413:
1395:
1212:
286:
2018:
8:
2705:
Unjust Deeds: The Restrictive Covenant Cases and the Making of the Civil Rights Movement.
1934:, published on 15 November 2006, archived on 28 March 2007, accessed on 26 September 2024
1621:
Holmes, Eric M. (1993). "Stature and Status of Promise Under Seal as a Legal Formality".
1432:
1281:
1241:
906:
749:
694:
376:
247:
2178:
Unjust Deeds: The Restrictive Covenant Cases and the Making of the Civil Rights Movement
992:
1 (1948), a covenant that restricts sale to a minority person (commonly used during the
845:
The burden of a restrictive covenant will run in equity if these prerequisites are met:
2354:"Nancy H. Welsh, Racially Restrictive Covenants in the United States: A Call to Action"
2232:
1322:
1296:
1292:
1276:
1264:
1224:
1108:
1091:
1081:
984:
872:
773:
647:
266:
123:
108:
77:
31:
1338:
announced that the "FHA could no longer insure mortgages with restrictive covenants".
883:
The covenant will typically be written in the deed, and must be in writing due to the
768:
antenna. Amateur radio restrictions have been particularly controversial; in 1985 the
764:
or chemical production facilities) or business use entirely, or modifications such as
2335:
2255:
2236:
2195:
1967:
1860:
1547:
1472:
1383:
1306:
Even the invalidation of such a covenant by the US Supreme Court in the 1940 case of
940:
931:
892:
884:
875:. Restrictive covenant indemnity insurance is often available to mitigate this risk.
862:
The leading case on restrictive covenants in equity is generally regarded as that of
849:
The burden cannot be a positive burden (that is, it requires expenditure to meet it);
824:
620:
209:
192:
118:
72:
2119:
Correa-Jones, M. (2000). The Origins and Diffusion of Racial Restrictive Covenants.
635:, imposes duties or restrictions upon the use of that land regardless of the owner.
2381:
2224:
2215:
Cooley, Will (July 2010). "Moving On Out: Black Pioneering in Chicago, 1915–1950".
2071:
1841:
1478:
1441:, in 1939 prohibited any non-white not in domestic service from living in the town.
1308:
1259:
1216:
923:
838:
658:
654:
643:
593:
474:
445:
271:
214:
87:
2712:
Caucasians Only: The Supreme Court, the NAACP, and the Restrictive Covenant Cases.
1959:
Privatopia: Homeowner Associations and the Rise of Residential Private Governments
1763:
1589:
1526:
1455:) – restrictive covenants used to exclude African American and "Semitic" persons.
1373:
1317:
1193:
1169:
402:
305:
202:
197:
2543:
Race, rights and the law in the Supreme Court of Canada: historical case studies
2698:
Saving the Neighborhood: Racially Restrictive Covenants, Law, and Social Norms.
2432:"Visualizing the hidden histories of race and privilege in the urban landscape"
1743:
Nicholson v. 300 Broadway Realty Corp., 7 NY 2d 240 - NY: Court of Appeals 1959
1511:
1417:
1335:
1201:
1047:
947:
683:
667:
522:
418:
171:
162:
138:
2431:
2305:
2252:
The color of law: a forgotten history of how our government segregated America
2192:
The color of law: a forgotten history of how our government segregated America
1677:"Integration of the Law of Easements, Real Covenants and Equitable Servitudes"
1410:, Chicago, Illinois – restrictive covenants used to exclude African Americans.
1279:, the legality of racially restrictive covenants was affirmed by the landmark
584:, a covenant was distinguished from an ordinary contract by the presence of a
2745:
2728:
2693:
2339:
2228:
1913:
1593:
granting property "with general warranty and English covenants of title...".
1220:
1177:
1096:
997:
993:
902:
864:
765:
741:
624:
589:
585:
255:
82:
975:
paying homeowner's association dues for the upkeep of the surrounding area.
671:
1507:
1493:
1489:
1313:
1189:
1185:
1119:
1112:
710:
663:
517:
281:
261:
238:
40:
1550:
on "limited" or "full title guarantee" (unless expressly overridden) are:
1067:
1346:
1139:
1076:
952:
679:
423:
397:
291:
229:
224:
187:
2737:. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 339.
1497:
1197:
1100:
1079:
were used to prevent integrating neighborhoods but were struck down in
1043:
930:). Individual state statutes can alter the requirements of horizontal
581:
535:
504:
484:
176:
103:
57:
1661:
The Law of Quiet Enjoyment and Title in Respect of Landlord and Tenant
1033:. There are some office or industrial parks subject to CCRs as well.
2722:
1516:
1147:
1135:
1127:
927:
632:
508:
469:
276:
1693:
1563:(a) that the lease is subsisting at the time of the disposition, and
2655:
Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1994 section 4(1)(b)
2646:
Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1994 section 4(1)(a)
2628:
Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1994 section 2(1)(b)
2619:
Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1994 section 2(1)(a)
1879:
Gray et al., Property Law in New South Wales, second edition, p 547
1522:
1312:
did little to reverse the trend, because the ruling was based on a
919:
745:
690:
650:
in relation to contract law are also called restrictive covenants.
604:
494:
366:
356:
181:
143:
732:
and should be disclosed to prospective purchasers; it may also be
1640:"Developments in the Law of Seal and Consideration in New York".
1378:
1360:
In 1968, Congress passed the Fair Housing Act (Title VIII of the
1181:
1143:
1131:
1123:
761:
296:
148:
2637:
Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1994 section 2(3)
2610:
Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1994 section 8(1)
1786:
1504:, some condominiums inserted clauses forbidding selling to Jews.
858:
The covenant must be intended to run with the covenantor's land.
1485:
1468:
1251:
1205:
1038:
915:
There must be horizontal privity between the original parties.
1672:
1670:
27:
Solemn promise to engage in or refrain from a specified action
2664:
Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1994 section 3
1800:"Payroll Tax Bill Includes Provision for Amateur Radio Study"
674:), that has prompted lobbying for and government measures of
2306:"Mayers v. Ridley, 465 F.2d 630 | Casetext Search + Citator"
1667:
1173:
1022:
1021:, known generically as "deed restrictions", built into the
777:
639:
499:
351:
113:
1694:"Restating Implied, Prescriptive, and Statutory Easements"
1273:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
531:
2545:. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp204-205.
1367:
623:) or to refrain from an action (negative covenant). In
1382:
covenants in various parts of the United States. The
833:
successors in title have no legal right to use them.
611:
makes a promise to a covenantee to perform an action
1211:
Some covenants, such as those tied to properties in
1046:
of nearby property owners. Although control of such
2714:
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1967.
971:may include procedures for removing the covenants.
2034:Michelle Maternowski; Joy Powers (March 3, 2017).
1188:sought to exclude various minorities, including "
909:(record) of the covenant at the time of purchase.
2743:
2386:Seattle Civil Rights & Labor History Project
2280:U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
2276:"Title VIII: Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity"
2076:Seattle Civil Rights & Labor History Project
1075:In the United States, in the early 20th century
926:, mortgagee and mortgagor, or holders of mutual
2680:, 251 Va. 151, 160, 466 S.E.2d 103, 107 (1996).
2036:"How Did Metro Milwaukee Become So Segregated?"
1579:
1115:" neighborhoods "white". Ninety percent of the
961:
891:The covenant must be in writing to satisfy the
855:The covenant must benefit the covenantee's land
30:For restrictive covenants in contract law, see
2700:Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013.
1990:Watt, Nick; Hannah, Jack (February 25, 2020).
1756:Easements, Covenants, and Equitable Servitudes
852:The purchaser must have notice of the covenant
783:
689:Restrictive covenants are somewhat similar to
1928:Restrictive covenants - are they enforceable?
1117:housing projects built in the years following
553:
2707:Chapel Hill, NC: North Carolina Press, 2015.
2167:. The Fair Housing Center of Greater Boston.
2155:. The Fair Housing Center of Greater Boston.
2153:"1920s–1948: Racially Restrictive Covenants"
2033:
1865:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1726:
1042:expensive. In some cases it even involves a
2102:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2092:
1985:
1983:
1789:, by Ward Lucas; Hogback Publishing (2012).
1729:West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 1
1989:
1741:New York has been one such exception; see
1727:Lehman, Jeffrey; Phelps, Shirelle (2005).
1663:. Boston: Sweet & Maxwell. p. 15.
1546:Since 1989, the main covenants implied in
1208:, and various other European ethnicities.
560:
546:
2249:
2189:
1054:
1011:
878:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2108:Bourgeois Nightmares: Suburbia 1870–1930
2089:
1980:
1955:
1698:Real Property, Probate and Trust Journal
1234:
1066:
815:The benefited land must be identifiable.
670:to a large sum payable at the outset (a
653:Landlords may seek and courts may grant
2588:. 2nd Edition. London: Routledge. p181.
2468:
2012:
1541:
1268:invalidated on constitutional grounds.
1103:. Such covenants were employed by many
638:A covenant for title that comes with a
14:
2772:Anti-black racism in the United States
2744:
2717:
2515:
2494:
2214:
1620:
770:U.S. Federal Communications Commission
2777:Anti-Catholicism in the United States
2180:. University of North Carolina Press.
2126:
1731:. Detroit: Thomson/Gale. p. 200.
1368:Persistence of exclusionary covenants
134:Lost, mislaid, and abandoned property
1658:
800:
592:. In United States contract law, an
2143:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
2110:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
1111:, with the primary intent to keep "
24:
2686:
2586:The Atlas of Changing South Africa
1584:Outside of England and Wales, the
1533:
704:
603:A covenant is an agreement like a
25:
2788:
2767:Antisemitism in the United States
2495:Dravis, Stephen (July 13, 2020).
2469:Creason, Glen (August 27, 2019).
1962:. Yale University Press. p.
1846:Federal Communications Commission
1459:
1320:. It was not until 1948 that the
901:A subsequent owner must have had
756:Covenants may be imposed through
728:The covenant may be shown in the
2562:. March 23, 2007. Archived from
2541:Walker, James W. St. G. (1997).
1889:Austerberry v Oldham Corporation
1062:
576:, in its most general sense and
47:
2667:
2658:
2649:
2640:
2631:
2622:
2613:
2604:
2591:
2578:
2548:
2535:
2509:
2488:
2462:
2449:
2424:
2407:"Redlining in New Deal America"
2399:
2374:
2346:
2316:
2298:
2268:
2243:
2208:
2183:
2170:
2158:
2146:
2113:
2064:
2042:
2027:
2006:
1949:
1937:
1920:
1906:
1894:
1882:
1873:
1826:
1792:
1780:
1768:
1258:based on race), which the 1917
699:Restatement (Third) of Property
2020:Jim Crow Guide: The Way it Was
1748:
1735:
1720:
1703:
1686:
1652:
1633:
1614:
1510:– racial covenants emerged in
1353:executive order was signed by
1223:people; however, this type of
1159:Racial covenant for a home in
939:There must be strict vertical
873:infill residential development
13:
1:
1901:Thamesmead Town Ltd v Allotey
1775:Expanded outline on covenants
1519:against the black population.
1445:Kansas City metropolitan area
1345:of black Americans following
1095:. They prohibited a buyer of
795:Calgary International Airport
441:Lateral and subjacent support
2106:Fogelson, Robert M. (2005).
1608:
1580:Outside of England and Wales
1351:Equal Opportunity in Housing
962:Enforcement and modification
951:possibly sue the lessee for
408:Practicing without a license
7:
2762:Racism in the United States
2584:Christopher, A. J. (2001).
2334:(3): 403. January 1, 1974.
2250:Rothstein, Richard (2017).
2190:Rothstein, Richard (2017).
2121:Political Science Quarterly
1946:. LexisNexis Study Outline.
1812:American Radio Relay League
1596:
1439:Williamstown, Massachusetts
1408:Washington Park Subdivision
1389:
784:Application by jurisdiction
723:of a purely personal nature
678:particularly in the law of
10:
2793:
2601:. London: Routledge. p109.
2599:Race, ethnicity, and power
2165:"1948: Shelley v. Kraemer"
2139:Meyer, Stephen G. (2000).
2123:, Vol. 115, No. 4, p. 543.
2052:. University of Washington
1586:English covenants of title
1230:
334:Doctrine of worthier title
29:
2597:Baker, Donald G. (1983).
2176:Jeffrey D. Gonda (2015).
2013:Kennedy, Stetson (1959).
1355:President John F. Kennedy
1219:, also sought to exclude
1161:Beverly Hills, California
788:
465:Conflict of property laws
321:Rule against perpetuities
2692:Richard R.W. Brooks and
2229:10.1177/0096144210363071
2217:Journal of Urban History
1903:(2000) 79 P & CR 557
1362:Civil Rights Act of 1968
1326:judgment overturned the
666:. In the case of leases
615:in the United States or
2734:Encyclopædia Britannica
2560:Simon Wiesenthal Center
2459:. Vol. 94, No. 4, p463.
2457:The Geographical Review
1956:McKenzie, Evan (1994).
1659:Swan, Edgar A. (1908).
1471:– Subdivisions such as
1256:residential segregation
1031:condominium association
1002:Equal Protection Clause
316:Restraint on alienation
2719:Renton, Alexander Wood
1808:Newington, Connecticut
1762:July 17, 2007, at the
1692:Hernandez MV. (2005).
1271:During the 1920s, the
1246:
1166:
1105:real estate developers
1072:
1055:Exclusionary covenants
1012:In planned communities
969:homeowner associations
879:Requirements in US law
758:homeowner associations
343:Nonpossessory interest
2516:Thomas, Judy (2005).
1944:Ch. 33 Real Covenants
1681:Washington Law Review
1642:Cornell Law Quarterly
1623:Willamette Law Review
1427:Upper Arlington, Ohio
1238:
1152:
1070:
1027:homeowner association
905:, inquiry notice, or
744:. Real covenants and
657:of leases such as in
644:title to the property
613:(affirmative covenant
292:Action to quiet title
2522:The Kansas City Star
2475:Los Angeles Magazine
2015:"Who May Live Where"
1603:Private transfer fee
1542:In England and Wales
1414:Palos Verdes Estates
1396:Forest Hills Gardens
1316:and failed to set a
1301:Fourteenth Amendment
1213:Forest Hills Gardens
1107:to "protect" entire
1006:Fourteenth Amendment
750:equitable servitudes
736:, or in the case of
715:covenant appurtenant
287:Equitable conversion
2328:Maryland Law Review
1814:. February 17, 2012
1777:Harvard Law School.
1715:Campbell Law Review
1433:Guilford, Baltimore
1328:Corrigan v. Buckley
1282:Corrigan v. Buckley
1242:Minneapolis Tribune
907:constructive notice
740:countries shown in
695:equitable servitude
648:Non-compete clauses
429:prior appropriation
377:Equitable servitude
2703:Jeffrey D. Gonda,
2411:Mapping Inequality
1917:(1848) 41 ER 1143)
1891:(1885) 29 Ch D 750
1502:Nazi occupied area
1447:(examples include
1323:Shelley v. Kraemer
1297:Due Process Clause
1277:racial segregation
1265:Buchanan v. Warley
1247:
1225:social segregation
1092:Shelley v. Kraemer
1087:racial segregation
1082:Buchanan v. Warley
1073:
985:Shelley v. Kraemer
459:Quicquid plantatur
267:Deeds registration
109:Adverse possession
78:Community property
32:Non-compete clause
2710:Clement E. Vose,
2436:Mapping Prejudice
1787:Neighbors At War!
1709:Lucas D. (2004).
1548:England and Wales
1473:Westdale, Ontario
1384:Mapping Prejudice
941:privity of estate
932:privity of estate
893:Statute of Frauds
885:statute of frauds
830:Halsall v Brizell
825:Halsall v Brizell
801:England and Wales
719:covenant in gross
697:. In the US, the
659:leasehold estates
621:England and Wales
617:positive covenant
570:
569:
210:Concurrent estate
193:Defeasible estate
73:Personal property
16:(Redirected from
2784:
2738:
2726:
2724:"Covenant"
2681:
2678:Richmond v. Hall
2671:
2665:
2662:
2656:
2653:
2647:
2644:
2638:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2620:
2617:
2611:
2608:
2602:
2595:
2589:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2566:on July 31, 2017
2552:
2546:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2492:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2481:
2466:
2460:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2417:
2403:
2397:
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2378:
2372:
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2369:
2367:
2358:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2282:. Archived from
2272:
2266:
2265:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2187:
2181:
2174:
2168:
2162:
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2150:
2144:
2137:
2124:
2117:
2111:
2104:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2068:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2010:
2004:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1987:
1978:
1977:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1924:
1918:
1910:
1904:
1898:
1892:
1886:
1880:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1864:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1842:Washington, D.C.
1839:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1778:
1772:
1766:
1752:
1746:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1724:
1718:
1707:
1701:
1690:
1684:
1674:
1665:
1664:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1618:
1590:quiet possession
1479:Re Drummond Wren
1309:Hansberry v. Lee
1260:US Supreme Court
1164:
839:Rhone v Stephens
676:leasehold reform
578:historical sense
562:
555:
548:
529:Higher category:
475:Security deposit
272:Estoppel by deed
215:Leasehold estate
88:Unowned property
51:
37:
36:
21:
18:Racial covenants
2792:
2791:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2742:
2741:
2689:
2687:Further reading
2684:
2672:
2668:
2663:
2659:
2654:
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2627:
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2540:
2536:
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2514:
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2493:
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2479:
2477:
2467:
2463:
2454:
2450:
2440:
2438:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2415:
2413:
2405:
2404:
2400:
2390:
2388:
2380:
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2356:
2352:
2351:
2347:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2289:
2287:
2286:on July 8, 2015
2274:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2248:
2244:
2213:
2209:
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2055:
2053:
2048:
2047:
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2011:
2007:
1997:
1995:
1988:
1981:
1974:
1954:
1950:
1942:
1938:
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1921:
1911:
1907:
1899:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1858:
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1850:
1848:
1837:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1815:
1798:
1797:
1793:
1785:
1781:
1773:
1769:
1764:Wayback Machine
1753:
1749:
1740:
1736:
1725:
1721:
1708:
1704:
1691:
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1653:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1599:
1582:
1544:
1536:
1534:Title covenants
1527:coloured people
1462:
1402:Jackson Heights
1392:
1374:title insurance
1370:
1318:legal precedent
1233:
1165:
1158:
1065:
1057:
1014:
964:
881:
803:
791:
786:
707:
705:Related to land
684:service charges
566:
527:
414:Property rights
412:
260:
198:Future interest
186:
163:Estates in land
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2790:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2752:Covenant (law)
2740:
2739:
2729:Chisholm, Hugh
2715:
2708:
2701:
2688:
2685:
2683:
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2461:
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2423:
2398:
2373:
2345:
2315:
2297:
2267:
2260:
2242:
2223:(4): 485–506.
2207:
2200:
2182:
2169:
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2112:
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2063:
2041:
2026:
2005:
1979:
1972:
1948:
1936:
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1905:
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1555:
1543:
1540:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1520:
1505:
1483:
1461:
1460:Outside the US
1458:
1457:
1456:
1453:Johnson County
1442:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1418:Caucasian race
1411:
1405:
1399:
1391:
1388:
1369:
1366:
1336:Philip Perlman
1232:
1229:
1156:
1064:
1061:
1056:
1053:
1013:
1010:
982:'s holding in
963:
960:
959:
958:
957:
956:
948:estate in land
937:
936:
935:
913:
910:
899:
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853:
850:
817:
816:
813:
810:
802:
799:
790:
787:
785:
782:
706:
703:
629:real covenants
627:law, the term
568:
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419:Mineral rights
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385:Related topics
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337:
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331:
328:Shelley's Case
323:
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277:Quitclaim deed
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233:
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172:Allodial title
166:
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139:Treasure trove
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2699:
2695:
2694:Carol M. Rose
2691:
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2301:
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2277:
2271:
2263:
2261:9781631492853
2257:
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2201:9781631492853
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2021:
2016:
2009:
1993:
1986:
1984:
1975:
1973:0-300-06638-4
1969:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1952:
1945:
1940:
1933:
1929:
1926:Edwards, L.,
1923:
1916:
1915:
1914:Tulk v Moxhay
1909:
1902:
1897:
1890:
1885:
1876:
1868:
1862:
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1836:
1829:
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1539:
1528:
1525:– Asians and
1524:
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1513:
1509:
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1266:
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1228:
1226:
1222:
1221:working class
1218:
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1203:
1199:
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1133:
1129:
1125:
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1118:
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1102:
1098:
1097:real property
1094:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1078:
1069:
1063:United States
1060:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1040:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1009:
1007:
1003:
999:
998:unenforceable
995:
991:
987:
986:
981:
980:Supreme Court
976:
972:
970:
954:
949:
945:
944:
942:
938:
933:
929:
925:
921:
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904:
903:actual notice
900:
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890:
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886:
876:
874:
869:
867:
866:
865:Tulk v Moxhay
857:
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848:
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831:
827:
826:
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796:
781:
779:
775:
772:issued PRB-1
771:
767:
766:amateur radio
763:
759:
754:
751:
747:
743:
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2391:January 17,
2081:January 17,
2056:December 5,
1998:December 5,
1347:World War I
1180:, and some
1140:Los Angeles
1077:zoning laws
230:Land tenure
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2480:August 28,
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1754:Schnably.
1262:ruling of
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1194:Mongolians
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536:Common law
485:common law
446:Assignment
306:Future use
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154:Alienation
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2237:144603139
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1609:Footnotes
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1390:Examples
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762:feedlots
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367:Usufruct
357:Easement
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282:Mortgage
182:Fee tail
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119:Conquest
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