20:
805:
683:
1161:
114; Rabinowitz 9–10; Among the minor differences between the accounts is
Rabinowitz's rendering of "Khamlif" in place of "Khamlidj" and his reference to the "Yourts of the Toghozghuz" as opposed to Yurt and Toghuzghuz as separate entities. Rabinowitz's version, translated, means "Tents of the
918:
The economy of Europe was profoundly affected by the disappearance of the
Radhanites. For example, documentary evidence indicates that many spices in regular use during the early Middle Ages completely disappeared from European tables in the 10th century. Jews had previously, in large parts of
777:
to transport large quantities of money without the risk of theft from at least classical times. This system was developed and put into force on an unprecedented scale by medieval Jewish merchants such as the
Radhanites; if so, they may be counted among the precursors to the
737:
intermediaries, the
Radhanites were among the first to establish a trade network that stretched from Western Europe to Eastern Asia. They engaged in this trade regularly and over an extended period of time, centuries before
718:
of both sides raided the shipping of their adversaries at will. The
Radhanites functioned as neutral go-betweens, keeping open the lines of communication and trade between the lands of the old
750:
to the
Christians and the Muslims, respectively. Ibn Battuta is believed to have traveled with the Muslim traders who traveled to the Orient on routes similar to those used by the Radhanites.
311:), in about 870. Ibn Khordadbeh described the Radhanites as sophisticated and multilingual. He outlined four main trade routes used by the Radhanites in their journeys; all four began in the
911:
The
Radhanites had mostly disappeared by the end of the 10th century; there have been suggestions that a collection of 11th century Jewish scrolls discovered in a cave in Afghanistan's
797:
to
Judaism. In addition, they may have helped establish Jewish communities at various points along their trade routes, and were probably involved in the early Jewish settlement of
1467:
1132:
was a generic term used by Arabs (and
Eastern Christians) for Western Europeans generally. It is possible that Ibn Khordadbeh uses "Frank" as a counterpoint to "Roman" (
517:, and other products of the Eastern countries to al-Kolzum and bring them back to Farama, where they again embark on the Western Sea. Some make sail for
1374:
1324:
Alexandre Skirda: La traite des Slaves. L’esclavage des Blancs du VIIIe au XVIIIe siècle. Les Éditions de Paris, Paris 2010, p. 171. Robert C. Davis:
1485:
1364:
1002:
1022:
370:
306:
40:
1271:
869:
415:
languages. They journey from West to East, from East to West, partly on land, partly by sea. They transport from the West
1563:
1143:
Though some, such as Moshe Gil, maintain that "Firanja" as used in this context refers to the
Frankish-occupied areas of
876:
some sixty years later (circa 968–969). Trade routes became unstable and unsafe, a situation exacerbated by the rise of
1528:
246:. They claim that the center of Radhanite activity was probably in France as all of their trade routes began there.
144:
Only a limited number of primary sources use the term, and it remains unclear whether they referred to a specific
1523:
1568:
1558:
864:
The activities of the Radhanites appear to cease during the 10th century. The causes may have been the fall of
765:, some believe that Jewish merchants such as the Radhanites were instrumental in bringing paper-making west.
117:
continued to function during that period, largely through their efforts. Their trade network covered much of
1326:
Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800
323:'s east coast. Radhanites primarily carried commodities that combined small bulk and high demand, including
996:
726:. As a result of the revenue they brought, Jewish merchants enjoyed significant privileges under the early
1548:
1533:
1414:
1313:
Die Geburt Europas aus dem Geist der Gewalt. Eroberung, Kolonisierung und kultureller Wandel von 950–1350
585:
These different journeys can also be made by land. The merchants that start from Spain or France go to
1518:
605:
848:
as trading sites along the Radhanite route. In the early 12th century, a French-Jewish trader named
1133:
1094:
754:
877:
833:
730:
in France and throughout the Muslim world, a fact that sometimes vexed local Church authorities.
113:
during roughly the 8th to the 10th centuries. Many trade routes previously established under the
1543:
1538:
1455:
1007:
526:
387:), Ibn Khordadbeh listed four routes along which Radhanites traveled in the following account.
270:
86:
66:
828:
mentions them, but much of ibn al-Faqih's information was derived from ibn Khordadbeh's work.
733:
While most trade between Europe and East Asia had historically been conducted via Persian and
1553:
1394:
1136:), indicating that the Radhanites spoke the languages of both Eastern and Western Christians.
1125:
1038:
1017:
1298:
The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean, David Abulafia, Oxford university press
552:), where they arrive after three days’ march. There they embark on the Euphrates and reach
529:
to place their goods. Sometimes these Jewish merchants, when embarking from the land of the
1311:. 6. Auflage. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2002, p. 377; Robert Bartlett:
164:
Several etymologies have been suggested for the word "Radhanite". Many scholars, including
793:
Some scholars believe that the Radhanites may have played a role in the conversion of the
8:
1513:
1418:
1027:
885:
787:
727:
266:
1497:
Zur Geschichte der Einführung der jetzigen Ziffern in Europa durch Gerbert: eine Studie
1276:
966:
924:
889:
165:
820:
Besides ibn Khordadbeh, the Radhanites are mentioned by name by a handful of sources.
694:. Much of the Radhanites' overland trade between Tangier and Mesopotamia was by camel.
1384:
1121:
1032:
928:
912:
849:
774:
699:
443:
292:
99:
1472:
vol. 3, ed. Cynthia Clark Northrup, p. 763–764. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2005.
1435:
1090:
783:
769:, possibly a Radhanite, is credited by some sources with introducing the so-called
522:
412:
408:
396:
200:
138:
134:
1475:
1117:
770:
766:
762:
758:
392:
376:
185:
181:
77:
57:
927:
appears to have been continued by other agents, for example, for the year 1168,
1354:
873:
798:
518:
400:
298:
280:
35:
1341:
vol. 1, ed. Cynthia Clark Northrup, p. 29. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2005.
1507:
1012:
991:
629:
539:
243:
884:
largely collapsed for centuries. This period saw the rise of the mercantile
191:
Another hypothesis suggests that the name might be derived from the city of
1113:
986:
976:
865:
821:
809:
734:
719:
707:
219:
130:
122:
114:
110:
1488:. "Dzieje Gospodarcze Żydów Korony i Litwy w Czasach Przedrozbiorowych."
757:
had been transmitted to Europe via Arab merchants who got the secret from
1344:
971:
940:
936:
920:
743:
703:
687:
670:
658:
586:
462:
177:
173:
126:
106:
1104:
It is unclear to what specific language Ibn Khordadbeh refers. The word
841:
961:
739:
404:
284:
215:
1425:
1212:
Encyclopedia of World Trade — From Ancient Times to the Present
944:
881:
715:
666:
561:
549:
545:
192:
169:
1445:
1158:
981:
723:
613:
601:
514:
506:
474:
452:
274:
254:
223:
794:
691:
654:
650:
597:
591:
553:
534:
510:
478:
356:
344:
332:
328:
153:
24:
1339:
Encyclopedia of World Trade: From Ancient Times to the Present,
1109:
948:
905:
897:
853:
747:
714:
often banned each other's merchants from entering their ports.
711:
633:
557:
530:
486:
482:
428:
424:
416:
316:
295:
227:
118:
1112:" and thus most likely the language referred to is either the
19:
1144:
932:
893:
837:
662:
646:
625:
621:
609:
577:
573:
569:
498:
494:
490:
458:
432:
348:
324:
320:
312:
288:
235:
145:
915:
in 2011 may represent a remnant of Radhanites in that area.
773:
from India to Europe. Historically, Jewish communities used
249:
English-language and other Western sources added the suffix
901:
845:
813:
779:
642:
617:
565:
502:
470:
420:
336:
196:
149:
102:
999:(The Kaifeng Jews originated from the Tang dynasty period)
947:
area, slave trade appears to have been taken over by the
682:
352:
340:
1430:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
199:. Still others think the name possibly derives from the
804:
44:; other trade routes of the period are shown in purple.
27:
showing the trade network of the Radhanites (in blue),
1428:. "The Radhanite Merchants and the Land of Radhan."
1381:
2nd ed. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2006
951:, mostly selling enslaved Slavs to the Ottoman Turks.
753:
While traditionally many historians believed that the
287:, chief of police (and spymaster) for the province of
1460:
Jewish Merchant Adventurers: a study of the Radanites
1405:
The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages,
1272:"Scrolls raise questions as to Afghan Jewish history"
908:, who viewed the Radhanites as unwanted competitors.
91:
71:
852:wrote that he traveled with Radhanite merchants to
362:
279:The activities of the Radhanites are documented by
919:Western Europe, enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the
211:"one who knows", meaning "one who knows the way".
152:, or generically to Jewish merchants in the trans-
222:, have suggested a connection to the name of the
1505:
1478:. "The Khazar Kingdom's Conversion to Judaism."
1400:Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1954.
1371:. Norman Roth, ed. Routledge, 2002. pp 558–561.
812:trade was via coastal cargo ships such as this
1003:History of the Jews in pre-18th-century Poland
1407:vol. 1: 350–950. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997.
1369:Medieval Jewish Civilization: An Encyclopedia
1023:Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks
501:. On their return from China they carry back
641:Sometimes, also, they take the route behind
1128:by linguists. However, in the Middle Ages
677:
669:, and continue their journey toward Yurt,
665:, betake themselves from there across the
339:. They are also described as transporting
1154:Adler 2–3; for alternative translations
1147:, and not to France proper. Gil 299–310.
1124:originally spoken by the Franks, called
803:
681:
645:and, passing through the country of the
105:merchants, active in the trade between
18:
1150:
1506:
1492:, ed. A. Hafftka et al. Warsaw, 1936.
1217:
1116:dialect that ultimately evolved into
1100:
832:, a Hebrew account of the travels of
746:brought their tales of travel in the
172:, believe it refers to a district in
1470:: From Ancient Times to the Present,
1351:. New York: Dover Publications, 1987
1349:Jewish Travellers in the Middle Ages
1266:
1176:
878:expansionist Turco-Persianate states
1499:, Berlin: Mayer & Müller, 1892.
1389:Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum
1227:
1203:
1139:
1071:
1061:
380:
257:or names derived from place names.
81:
61:
13:
1398:The History of the Jewish Khazars,
1259:
1190:
1085:
636:, Sind, Hind, and arrive in China.
14:
1580:
1252:
1234:
1078:
1054:
801:, Central Asia, China and India.
525:; others go to the palace of the
457:. There they load their goods on
1462:. London: Edward Goldston, 1948.
1361:. New York: Putnam Books, 1983.
1169:
859:
381:كِتَاب ٱلْمَسَالِك وَٱلْمَمَالِك
363:Text of Ibn Khordadbeh's account
34:, as reported in the account of
1422:. Funk and Wagnalls, 1901–1906.
870:collapse of the Khazarian state
564:. From al-Obolla they sail for
533:, on the Western Sea, make for
214:Two western Jewish historians,
1318:
1301:
1292:
1042:(2007 Novel by Michael Chabon)
544:; thence by land to al-Jabia (
1:
1359:The Rise and Fall of Paradise
1285:
1207:Adler x.; Weissenbron 74–78;
1089:That is, the language of the
473:), a distance of twenty-five
385:Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik
260:
253:to the term, as is done with
28:
1280:, Jerusalem, 2 January 2012.
997:History of the Jews in China
556:, whence they sail down the
303:Kitab al-Masalik wal-Mamalik
7:
1468:Encyclopedia of World Trade
1328:. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
954:
521:to sell their goods to the
481:and sail from al-Kolzum to
92:
72:
10:
1585:
1564:Slavery in the Middle Ages
1391:. Leiden, 1889. Volume VI.
931:reports that 700 enslaved
755:art of Chinese papermaking
710:and Christian kingdoms of
673:, and from there to China.
371:Book of Roads and Kingdoms
308:Book of Roads and Kingdoms
264:
41:Book of Roads and Kingdoms
1529:Medieval economic history
1490:Żydzi w Polsce Odrodzonej
1480:Harvard Ukrainian Studies
1315:. Kindler, 1996, p. 366.
935:were offered for sale in
702:, Muslim polities of the
16:Jewish medieval merchants
1047:
868:in 908, followed by the
808:Much of the Radhanites'
1450:Antiquities of the Jews
1256:Brook 77; Schipper 116.
834:Yehuda HaKohen ben Meir
678:Historical significance
608:. Thence they go to ar-
419:, female slaves, boys,
159:
1524:Jewish Chinese history
1008:Jews of Bilad el-Sudan
824:'s early 10th century
817:
782:that arose during the
695:
600:, whence they walk to
435:. They take ship from
391:These merchants speak
271:Al-Andalus slave trade
45:
1569:Black Sea slave trade
1559:Slavery in al-Andalus
1495:Weissenborn, Hermann
1432:17:3 (1976). 299–328.
1403:Fossier, Robert, ed.
1379:The Jews of Khazaria.
1166:Dunlop 138, 209, 230.
1108:can be used to mean "
1039:Gentlemen of the Road
1018:Petachiah of Ratisbon
826:Book of the Countries
807:
685:
657:. They embark on the
653:, the capital of the
477:. They embark in the
195:(Rhages) in northern
188:texts of the period.
22:
1440:De Gloria Martyrorum
1068:, "Radhanites" 763–4
872:at the hands of the
538:(at the head of the
431:and other furs, and
1419:Jewish Encyclopedia
1410:Gottheil, Richard,
1307:Helmold von Bosau:
1263:Rabinowitz 150–212.
1245:, "Radanites" 764;
1243:Enc. of World Trade
1198:Enc. of World Trade
1185:Enc. of World Trade
1066:Enc. of World Trade
1028:Trans-Saharan trade
886:Italian city-states
788:early modern period
728:Carolingian dynasty
548:on the bank of the
315:Valley in southern
267:Bukhara slave trade
1549:History of slavery
1534:Medieval merchants
1277:The Jerusalem Post
1214:, "Radanites" 764.
1200:, "Radanites" 764.
967:Benjamin of Tudela
890:maritime republics
818:
696:
620:, Baghdad, and al-
527:King of the Franks
489:, then they go to
319:and terminated on
178:the land of Radhan
166:Barbier de Meynard
46:
1482:3:2 (Sept. 1978).
1456:Rabinowitz, Louis
1385:De Goeje, Michael
1122:Germanic language
1033:Volga trade route
929:Helmold von Bosau
913:Samangan Province
888:, especially the
850:Isaac ben Dorbolo
775:letters of credit
700:Early Middle Ages
207:"way, path" and
90:
70:
1576:
1519:Jewish merchants
1486:Schipper, Itzhak
1476:Pritsak, Omeljan
1436:Gregory of Tours
1395:Dunlop, Douglas.
1367:. "Rādhānites".
1365:Bareket, Elinoar
1329:
1322:
1316:
1305:
1299:
1296:
1269:
1262:
1255:
1237:
1230:
1220:
1206:
1193:
1179:
1173:Bendiner 99–104.
1172:
1153:
1142:
1103:
1091:Byzantine Empire
1088:
1081:
1075:Bareket 558–560.
1074:
1064:
1057:
943:pirates. In the
784:late Middle Ages
759:prisoners of war
606:capital of Egypt
382:
301:– when he wrote
226:River valley in
97:
85:
83:
75:
65:
63:
33:
30:
1584:
1583:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1504:
1503:
1502:
1355:Bendiner, Elmer
1333:
1332:
1323:
1319:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1134:Byzantine Greek
1050:
1045:
957:
862:
771:Arabic numerals
767:Joseph of Spain
763:Battle of Talas
680:
446:, and make for
365:
277:
263:
162:
156:trade network.
133:, and parts of
31:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1582:
1572:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1501:
1500:
1493:
1483:
1473:
1463:
1453:
1443:
1433:
1423:
1408:
1401:
1392:
1382:
1372:
1362:
1352:
1342:
1334:
1331:
1330:
1317:
1300:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1264:
1257:
1250:
1232:
1231:Rabinowitz 91.
1225:
1215:
1201:
1188:
1174:
1167:
1148:
1137:
1098:
1083:
1076:
1069:
1059:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
994:
989:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
958:
956:
953:
861:
858:
799:Eastern Europe
679:
676:
675:
674:
638:
637:
582:
581:
519:Constantinople
364:
361:
281:Ibn Khordadbeh
262:
259:
161:
158:
100:early medieval
36:Ibn Khordadbeh
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1581:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1544:Medieval Asia
1542:
1540:
1539:Medieval Jews
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1498:
1494:
1491:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1465:"Radanites".
1464:
1461:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1406:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1327:
1321:
1314:
1310:
1309:Slawenchronik
1304:
1295:
1291:
1279:
1278:
1273:
1270:Shefler, Gil
1268:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1175:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1160:
1157:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1013:Joseph Rabban
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
993:
992:Eldad ha-Dani
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
959:
952:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
916:
914:
909:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
860:Disappearance
857:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
830:Sefer haDinim
827:
823:
815:
811:
806:
802:
800:
796:
791:
789:
785:
781:
776:
772:
768:
764:
761:taken at the
760:
756:
751:
749:
745:
741:
736:
735:Central Asian
731:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
693:
689:
686:A caravan of
684:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
593:
588:
584:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
541:
540:Orontes River
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
454:
449:
445:
441:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
389:
388:
386:
378:
374:
373:
372:
360:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
309:
304:
300:
297:
294:
290:
286:
282:
276:
272:
268:
258:
256:
252:
247:
245:
242:(Ῥοδανός) in
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
212:
210:
206:
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198:
194:
189:
187:
183:
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167:
157:
155:
151:
147:
142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
101:
96:
95:
88:
79:
74:
68:
59:
55:
51:
43:
42:
37:
32: 870 AD
26:
21:
1554:Trade routes
1496:
1489:
1479:
1466:
1459:
1449:
1439:
1429:
1417:
1411:
1404:
1397:
1388:
1378:
1375:Brook, Kevin
1368:
1358:
1348:
1345:Adler, Elkan
1338:
1325:
1320:
1312:
1308:
1303:
1294:
1275:
1267:
1260:
1253:
1249:Pritsak 265.
1246:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1228:
1221:
1218:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1184:
1180:
1177:
1170:
1163:
1155:
1151:
1140:
1129:
1126:Old Frankish
1114:Vulgar Latin
1105:
1101:
1086:
1082:Gil 299–310.
1079:
1072:
1065:
1062:
1058:Gil 299–328.
1055:
1037:
987:Caravanserai
977:Kaifeng Jews
917:
910:
863:
829:
825:
822:Ibn al-Faqih
819:
810:Indian Ocean
792:
752:
732:
720:Roman Empire
708:North Africa
697:
661:, arrive at
649:, arrive at
596:and then to
589:
537:
466:
450:
447:
439:
436:
384:
369:
368:
366:
307:
302:
291:, under the
278:
250:
248:
239:
231:
220:Claude Cahen
213:
208:
204:
190:
163:
143:
131:Central Asia
123:North Africa
115:Roman Empire
111:Muslim world
94:ar-Raðaniyya
93:
53:
49:
47:
39:
1415:"Commerce".
1222:Antiquities
972:Cochin Jews
937:Mecklenburg
925:slave trade
921:spice trade
744:ibn Battuta
704:Middle East
698:During the
688:dromedaries
587:Sus al-Aksa
444:Western Sea
299:al-Mu'tamid
230:, which is
174:Mesopotamia
127:Middle East
107:Christendom
1514:Asian Jews
1508:Categories
1426:Gil, Moshe
1286:References
1187:, "China".
1162:Uyghurs".
1156:see, e.g.,
962:Amber Road
880:, and the
866:Tang China
740:Marco Polo
716:Privateers
671:Toghuzghuz
659:Jorjan Sea
463:go by land
461:-back and
285:postmaster
265:See also:
261:Activities
216:Cecil Roth
50:Radhanites
1337:"China."
1181:See, e.g.
945:Black Sea
882:Silk Road
562:al-Obolla
550:Euphrates
546:al-Hanaya
487:al-Jeddah
467:al-Kolzum
442:, on the
351:weapons,
255:ethnonyms
170:Moshe Gil
87:romanized
67:romanized
54:Radanites
1446:Josephus
1247:see also
1209:see also
1164:See also
1159:De Goeje
1106:"Firanj"
982:Red Jews
955:See also
842:Przemyśl
840:, named
724:Far East
722:and the
651:Khamlidj
624:, cross
614:Damascus
612:, visit
604:and the
602:Kairouan
515:cinnamon
479:East Sea
475:farsakhs
453:Pelusium
440:(France)
329:perfumes
275:Saqaliba
240:Rhodanos
232:Rhodanus
176:called "
154:Eurasian
109:and the
1120:or the
795:Khazars
692:Algeria
655:Khazars
598:Tangier
592:Morocco
554:Baghdad
535:Antioch
511:camphor
437:Firanja
421:brocade
417:eunuchs
409:Spanish
397:Persian
367:In his
345:incense
333:jewelry
293:Abbasid
201:Persian
148:, to a
98:) were
89::
82:الرذنية
73:Radanim
69::
38:in the
25:Eurasia
23:Map of
1412:et al.
1224:18.6.3
1130:Firanj
1118:French
949:Tatars
941:Slavic
923:. The
906:Amalfi
904:, and
898:Venice
854:Poland
748:Orient
712:Europe
634:Kerman
576:, and
558:Tigris
531:Franks
523:Romans
497:, and
483:al-Jar
448:Farama
433:swords
429:marten
425:castor
411:, and
403:, the
393:Arabic
377:Arabic
357:slaves
355:, and
335:, and
325:spices
317:France
296:Caliph
283:– the
273:, and
228:France
203:terms
186:Hebrew
182:Arabic
125:, the
119:Europe
103:Jewish
78:Arabic
58:Hebrew
1195:e.g.,
1145:Italy
1110:Frank
1095:Greek
1048:Notes
933:Danes
894:Genoa
838:Mainz
780:banks
663:Balkh
647:Slavs
626:Ahvaz
622:Basra
616:, al-
610:Ramla
578:China
570:Sindh
560:, to
507:aloes
499:China
495:India
459:camel
405:Frank
401:Roman
349:steel
321:China
313:Rhone
289:Jibal
244:Greek
236:Latin
224:Rhône
180:" in
146:guild
139:China
135:India
62:רדנים
1239:e.g.
902:Pisa
874:Rus'
846:Kiev
844:and
814:dhow
786:and
742:and
706:and
667:Oxus
643:Rome
630:Fars
618:Kufa
590:(in
574:Hind
566:Oman
503:musk
491:Sind
485:and
471:Suez
413:Slav
353:furs
341:oils
337:silk
251:-ite
238:and
218:and
197:Iran
184:and
168:and
160:Name
150:clan
137:and
48:The
1357:.
1347:.
939:by
836:of
690:in
465:to
234:in
209:dān
205:rah
193:Ray
52:or
1510::
1458:.
1448:.
1438:.
1387:.
1377:.
1274:,
1241:,
1183:,
1093:,
900:,
896:,
892:,
856:.
790:.
632:,
628:,
572:,
568:,
513:,
509:,
505:,
493:,
427:,
423:,
407:,
399:,
395:,
383:,
379::
359:.
347:,
343:,
331:,
327:,
269:,
141:.
129:,
121:,
84:,
80::
76:;
64:,
60::
29:c.
1452:.
1442:.
1097:.
816:.
594:)
580:.
542:)
469:(
455:)
451:(
375:(
305:(
56:(
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