20:
583:
755:
473:
775:
203:
599:
266:
357:
736:
150:
458:
278:
219:
249:
290:
compressive strength might require more cement. But addition of more cement can affect the permeability of the walls. Indeed, properly constructed rammed earth endures for thousands of years, as many ancient structures that are still standing around the world demonstrate. Rammed earth walls are reinforced with rebars in areas of high
338:
Rammed earth can effectively regulate humidity if unclad walls containing clay are exposed to an internal space. Humidity is regulated between 40% and 60%. The material mass and clay content of rammed earth allows an edifice to breathe more than concrete edifices. This avoids problems of condensation
256:
The construction of an entire wall begins with a temporary frame, the "formwork", which is usually made of wood or plywood, as a mold for the desired shape and dimensions of each section of wall. The form must be durable and well braced, and the two opposing faces must be clamped together to prevent
661:
when the cost of modern construction materials decreased. Rammed earth is considered substandard, and is opposed by many contractors, engineers, and tradesmen. The prevailing perception that such materials and techniques perform poorly in regions prone to earthquakes has prevented their use in much
420:
for agriculture. When the soil excavated in preparation for a foundation can be used, the cost and energy consumption of transportation are minimal. Rammed earth is probably the least environmentally detrimental construction material and technique that is readily and commercially available today to
289:
of rammed earth is dictated by factors such as soil type, particle size distribution, amount of compaction, moisture content of the mix and type/amount of stabiliser used. Well-produced cement-stabilised rammed earth walls can be anywhere between 5 and 20 MPa (700 and 3,000 psi). Higher
393:
630:
constructed experimental rammed-earth edifices with architect Thomas Hibben. The houses were inexpensively constructed and were sold to the public along with sufficient land for gardens and small plots for livestock. The project successfully provided homes to low-income families.
448:
can add significantly to the overall emissions of modern rammed earth construction. The most basic kind of traditional rammed earth has very low greenhouse gas emissions but the more engineered and processed variant of rammed earth has the potential for significant emissions.
257:
bulging or deformation caused by the large compressing forces. Formwork plays an important role in building rammed earth walls. Historically, wooden planks tied using rope were used to build walls. Modern builders use plywood and/or steel to build formwork.
731:
instructed project leaders to make do with what was available, including building rammed earth housing so that more resources could be directed to production. This policy came to be expressed through the slogan, "First build the factory and afterward
697:. The "Daqing Spirit" represented deep personal commitment in pursuing national goals, self-sufficient and frugal living, and urban-rural integrated land use. Daqing's urban-rural landscape was said to embody the ideal communist society described by
617:
extensively researched and constructed almost one hundred weathering walls of rammed earth. For over 30 years the college investigated the use of paints and plasters in relation to colloids in soil. In 1943, Clemson
Agricultural College of
407:
Edifices of rammed earth are more sustainable and environmentally friendly than other building techniques that use more cement and other chemicals. Because rammed-earth edifices use locally available materials, they usually have low
435:
Mixing cement with the soil can counteract sustainable benefits such as low embodied energy because manufacture of the cement itself creates 1.25 tonnes of carbon dioxide per tonne of cement produced. Although it has low
195:, in batches or courses, so as to gradually erect the wall up to the top of the formwork. Tamping was historically manual with a long ramming pole by hand, but modern construction systems can employ
868:- This French institute provides training in earth construction techniques and in conjunction with UNESCO seeks to disseminate scientific and technical know-how on earthen architecture.
428:
Rammed earth can contribute to the overall energy efficiency of edifices: the density, thickness, and thermal conductivity of rammed earth render it an especially suitable material for
335:
panels within internal and external layers of rammed earth. Depending on the type and content of binder, it must also be protected from heavy rain and insulated with vapour barriers.
954:
421:
construct solid edifices. Rammed earth has potentially low manufacturing impact, contingent on the amount of cement and the amount that is locally sourced; it is often
555:. Six of the 27 dependencies and portions of the main house were constructed using this ancient technique which was introduced to this country in 1806 through the book
364:
The thickness varies widely based on region and code. It can be as little as 6 inches (150 mm) for non load-bearing walls and up to 24 inches (600 mm) for
727:
to develop strategic industries in China's rugged interior to prepare for potential invasion by the United States or Soviet Union, Planning
Commission Director
1315:
532:
226:
After a wall is complete, it is sufficiently strong to immediately remove the formwork. This is necessary if a surface texture is to be applied, e.g., by
301:
observed in 1925 that rammed-earth structures endure indefinitely and can be constructed for less than two-thirds of the cost of standard frame houses.
269:
Detail of the surface of an eroded rammed-earth wall: apart from the patches of damage, the surface shows regular horizontal lines caused by the wooden
701:
because it eliminated (1) the gap between town and country, (2) the gap between workers and peasants, and (3) the gap between manual and mental labor.
568:
350:, are not used by some people because they impair the ability of a wall to desorb moisture, which quality is necessary to preserve its strength.
622:
published the results of their research of rammed earth in a pamphlet titled "Rammed Earth
Building Construction". In 1936, on a homestead near
602:
1065:
1096:
970:
319:, it absorbs heat during the day and releases heat at night. This action moderates daily temperature variations and reduces the need for
191:
to a depth of 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 in) and then compacted to approximately 50% of its original volume. The soil is compacted
19:
1025:
720:
promoted the use of rammed earth construction as a low-cost method which was indigenous to China and required little technical skill.
141:
The French term "pisé de terre" or "terre pisé" was sometimes used in
English for architectural uses, especially in the 19th century.
666:, for example, rammed earth edifices normally cannot be conventionally insured against damage or even be approved by the government.
984:
635:
627:
298:
304:
Rammed earth works require at least one skilled person for quality control. All other workers can be unskilled or semi-skilled.
1488:
906:
1429:
1397:
1361:
1216:"National Register Properties in South Carolina: Borough House Plantation, Sumter County (SC Hwy 261, vicinity of Stateburg)"
1191:
1242:"National Register Properties in South Carolina: Church of the Holy Cross, Sumter County (SC Hwy 261, Stateburg vicinity)"
1498:
297:
Adding cement to soil mixtures low in clay can also increase the load-bearing capacity of rammed-earth edifices. The
739:
670:
1473:
704:
Drawing on the Daqing experience, China encouraged rammed earth construction in the mid-1960s. Starting in 1964,
551:
complex contains the oldest and largest collection of 'high style' pise de terre (rammed earth) buildings in the
689:
Rammed earth construction was both practically and ideologically important during the rapid construction of the
234:
of rammed earth increases as it cures. Cement-stabilised rammed earth is cured for a minimum period of 28 days.
1421:
1389:
1353:
1294:
712:, Mao urged that planners should avoid the use of Soviet-style prefabricated materials and instead embrace the
651:
1271:. Clemson, South Carolina: The Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina, Engineering Experiment Station.
1493:
927:
1468:
230:, carving, or mold impression, because the walls become too hard to work after approximately one hour. The
1416:
Meyskens, Covell F. (2022). "China's Cold War Motor City". In
Altehenger, Jennifer; Ho, Denise Y. (eds.).
1478:
540:
1483:
1385:
850:
614:
582:
432:
heating. Warmth requires almost 12 hours to be conducted through a wall 35 cm (14 in) thick.
955:"Farmers' Bulletin No. 1500: Rammed Earth Walls for Buildings - Rammed Earth Books - The Boden Hauser"
1503:
996:
606:
591:
536:
238:
1241:
1137:
1073:
855:
717:
587:
548:
528:
437:
1248:. Columbia, South Carolina, USA: South Carolina Department of Archives and History. April 20, 2009
860:
647:
1183:
1177:
1033:
990:
837:
422:
192:
1463:
639:
286:
231:
1215:
1182:. New Haven, CT, USA: Yale University Press and Beijing, China: New World Press. pp.
642:
to improve the engineering of rammed-earth houses. It also financed the authorship of the
327:. In colder climates, rammed-earth walls can be insulated by inserting insulation such as
8:
724:
623:
466:
242:
472:
401:
754:
1425:
1393:
1357:
1222:. Columbia, SC, USA: South Carolina Department of Archives and History. 20 April 2009
1197:
1187:
1000:
962:
709:
365:
93:
78:
1448:
821:
774:
747:
690:
674:
496:
492:
488:
320:
237:
In modern rammed earth buildings, the walls are constructed on top of conventional
177:, and stabilizer, if any, into a formwork (an externally supported frame or mold).
613:
From the 1920s through the 1940s rammed-earth construction in the US was studied.
1348:
Roskam, Cole (2022). "The Brick". In
Altehenger, Jennifer; Ho, Denise Y. (eds.).
886:
409:
353:
Blemishes can be repaired using the soil mixture as a plaster and sanded smooth.
202:
67:
827:
810:
619:
441:
181:
75:
1457:
1283:
1201:
1114:
1004:
966:
678:
552:
520:
503:, dating to 5000 BCE. By 2000 BCE, rammed-earth architectural techniques (怯ć
429:
373:
347:
343:
281:
Surface of a newly built rammed earth wall just after the removal of formwork
58:
foundations, floors, and walls using compacted natural raw materials such as
598:
265:
779:
669:
A notable example of 21st-century use of rammed earth is the façade of the
658:
308:
207:
153:
Traditional model of construction of a wall of rammed earth on a foundation
131:
97:
55:
1101:
Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers - Construction Materials
1382:
Building for Oil: Daqing and the
Formation of the Chinese Socialist State
989:
Betts, Morris
Cotgrave; Miller, Thomas Arrington Huntington (May 1937) .
953:
Betts, Morris
Cotgrave; Miller, Thomas Arrington Huntington (May 1937) .
914:
816:
713:
708:
advocated for a "mass design revolution movement". In the context of the
397:
101:
24:
1115:"Soils for Rammed Earth, Caliche Block, and Soil Material Construction"
928:"Rammed earth lecture theatre, Centre for Alternative Technology (CAT)"
705:
572:
332:
291:
227:
108:
28:
813:, a very similar material that adds organic fiber to increase strength
728:
698:
484:
377:
328:
196:
112:
89:
44:
1275:
356:
107:
Edifices formed of rammed earth are found on every continent except
1316:"A Rammed-Earth Wall for the Ages at Nk'Mip Desert Cultural Centre"
865:
832:
783:
316:
270:
188:
127:
116:
32:
1176:
Xujie, Liu; et al. (2002). Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (ed.).
824:, the architectural practice of using earth against building walls
845:
841:
787:
763:
743:
735:
576:
417:
413:
381:
369:
342:
Rammed-earth walls have the colour and texture of natural earth.
324:
211:
135:
123:
457:
149:
759:
694:
564:
477:
445:
392:
166:
119:
71:
277:
74:. It is an ancient method that has been revived recently as a
844:(and other natural additives) that can be utilized in normal
805:
800:
663:
508:
500:
412:
and generate very little waste. The soils used are typically
312:
63:
40:
36:
1293:. No. 21 (1453 ed.). College Station, Texas, USA:
1097:"Humidity buffering using stabilised rammed earth materials"
778:
Rammed-earth walls form part of the entrance edifice of the
677:, Canada. As of 2014 it is the longest rammed earth wall in
910:
387:
248:
218:
174:
170:
162:
158:
59:
527:
by S. W. Johnson. The technique was used to construct the
483:
Evidence of ancient use of rammed earth has been found in
157:
Making rammed earth involves compacting a damp mixture of
1449:
Rammed earth wall construction at Central Arizona College
1066:"A Traditional Research Paper: Rammed Earth Construction"
1234:
946:
1282:
Wolfskill, Lyle A.; Dunlap, Wayne A.; Gallaway, Bob M.
716:
spirit of on-site construction using rammed earth. The
210:
house-building technique in the subtropical climate of
273:
and subtler horizontal strata from successive courses.
1269:"Bulletin No. 3: Rammed Earth Building Construction."
987:, Washington, DC, USA. An alternative version is at:
563:
An outstanding example of a rammed-earth edifice in
307:
One significant benefit of rammed earth is its high
1281:
222:
Old rammed-earth wall with deterioration, in France
519:In the 1800s, rammed earth was popularized in the
507:) were commonly used for walls and foundations in
491:, dating to the 9thâ7th millennium BC, and of the
360:A wall surface with oxide colour for visual appeal
1164:A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Architecture
130:regions. The availability of suitable soil and a
1455:
138:are two factors that make its use favourable.
1208:
1095:Allinson, David; Hall, Matthew (2013-01-10).
372:of rammed-earth walls make them suitable for
1388:monograph series. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
1094:
988:
952:
514:
184:or animal blood were used to stabilize it.
487:archaeological sites such as those of the
1246:National Register Sites in South Carolina
1220:National Register Sites in South Carolina
1169:
840:, individual bricks of highly compressed
1415:
995:. Denton, TX, USA: UNT Digital Library,
773:
753:
734:
657:Interest in rammed earth declined after
597:
581:
471:
456:
391:
388:Environmental effects and sustainability
355:
276:
264:
247:
217:
201:
148:
18:
1411:
1409:
1291:Texas Transportation Institute bulletin
1070:Ashland Community and Technical College
1064:Cassell, Robert O. (17 December 2001).
1063:
985:United States Department of Agriculture
636:US Agency for International Development
628:United States Department of Agriculture
339:and prevents significant loss of heat.
299:United States Department of Agriculture
111:, in a range of environments including
1456:
1418:Material Contradictions in Mao's China
1350:Material Contradictions in Mao's China
1347:
1284:"Handbook For Building Homes of Earth"
1266:
1117:. Austin, TX, USA: Sustainable Sources
1375:
1373:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1175:
1138:"Rammed Earth â Pollution and Cement"
1059:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1032:. Victoria, Australia. Archived from
684:
16:Construction material of damp subsoil
1406:
1442:
1379:
144:
13:
1370:
1332:
1135:
1107:
1048:
925:
476:Rammed-earth edifice on a farm in
260:
14:
1515:
758:"Pisé" houses of rammed earth in
579:, erected between 1838 and 1841.
252:Contemporary slip formwork in use
161:that has suitable proportions of
96:. It has been especially used in
1166:, Routledge, London 1988, p. 165
992:Rammed Earth Walls for Buildings
180:Historically, additives such as
1308:
1260:
1156:
693:and the related development of
609:, erected between 1850 and 1852
1422:University of Washington Press
1390:Harvard University Asia Center
1354:University of Washington Press
1295:Texas Transportation Institute
1129:
1088:
1018:
919:
900:
879:
652:Texas Transportation Institute
1:
1489:Soil-based building materials
872:
740:Nk'Mip Desert Cultural Centre
671:Nk'Mip Desert Cultural Centre
983:Originally published by the
187:Soil mix is poured into the
92:, usually small and made in
43:, at the eastern end of the
7:
1320:www.architecturalrecord.com
1026:"Rammed Earth Construction"
794:
766:; the technique is called "
750:, Canada, completed in 2006
603:Holy Cross Episcopal Church
541:National Historic Landmarks
376:. They are also inherently
27:(202 BCE â 220 CE) Chinese
10:
1520:
1386:Harvard-Yenching Institute
851:Polymer soil stabilization
615:South Dakota State College
569:St. Thomas Anglican Church
452:
104:, and sometimes in China.
88:it is also a material for
997:University of North Texas
607:Stateburg, South Carolina
592:Stateburg, South Carolina
547:Constructed in 1821, the
537:Stateburg, South Carolina
84:Under its French name of
1499:Sustainable technologies
856:Sustainable architecture
648:Texas A&M University
644:Handbook of Rammed Earth
588:Borough House Plantation
549:Borough House Plantation
533:Church of the Holy Cross
529:Borough House Plantation
515:United States and Canada
438:greenhouse gas emissions
31:made of rammed earth in
1142:Rammed Earth Consulting
932:Rammed Earth Consulting
861:Vernacular architecture
594:, erected in the 1820s.
384:damage, and non-toxic.
1474:Appropriate technology
1267:Howard, Glenn (1943).
838:Compressed earth block
791:
771:
751:
610:
595:
561:
480:
469:
444:and the production of
404:
361:
282:
274:
253:
223:
215:
154:
134:appropriate for local
48:
889:. Merriam-webster.com
777:
757:
738:
601:
585:
545:
475:
460:
425:rather than "earth".
395:
359:
280:
268:
251:
221:
205:
152:
22:
1494:Sustainable building
1179:Chinese Architecture
973:on February 25, 2012
725:Third Front campaign
640:developing countries
368:. The thickness and
344:Moisture-impermeable
287:compressive strength
232:compressive strength
1469:American inventions
624:Gardendale, Alabama
467:Great Wall of China
423:quarried aggregates
416:which conserve the
243:reinforced concrete
136:climatic conditions
54:is a technique for
1479:Chinese inventions
1036:on 24 January 2018
887:"Pisé terminology"
792:
772:
752:
685:20th century China
611:
596:
559:, by S. W. Johnson
481:
470:
405:
402:Design Build Bluff
366:load-bearing walls
362:
346:finishes, such as
283:
275:
254:
224:
216:
155:
49:
1484:Natural materials
1431:978-0-295-75085-9
1399:978-0-674-26022-1
1363:978-0-295-75085-9
1193:978-0-300-09559-3
1162:Gwendolyn Leick:
1136:Keable, Rowland.
926:Keable, Rowland.
710:Sino-Soviet split
662:of the world. In
199:powered tampers.
37:Province of Gansu
1511:
1504:Earth structures
1443:External sources
1436:
1435:
1413:
1404:
1403:
1380:Hou, Li (2021).
1377:
1368:
1367:
1345:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1288:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1173:
1167:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1111:
1105:
1104:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1076:on 22 March 2017
1072:. Archived from
1061:
1046:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1030:Earth Structures
1022:
1016:
1015:
1013:
1011:
982:
980:
978:
969:. Archived from
959:The Boden Hauser
950:
944:
943:
941:
939:
923:
917:
904:
898:
897:
895:
894:
883:
822:Earth sheltering
748:British Columbia
691:Daqing oil field
675:British Columbia
638:is working with
586:Edifices of the
489:Fertile Crescent
321:air conditioning
292:seismic activity
145:Building process
1519:
1518:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1454:
1453:
1445:
1440:
1439:
1432:
1414:
1407:
1400:
1378:
1371:
1364:
1346:
1333:
1324:
1322:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1299:
1297:
1286:
1280:
1276:
1265:
1261:
1251:
1249:
1240:
1239:
1235:
1225:
1223:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1194:
1174:
1170:
1161:
1157:
1147:
1145:
1134:
1130:
1120:
1118:
1113:
1112:
1108:
1093:
1089:
1079:
1077:
1062:
1049:
1039:
1037:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1009:
1007:
976:
974:
951:
947:
937:
935:
924:
920:
907:17 objects made
905:
901:
892:
890:
885:
884:
880:
875:
797:
718:Communist Party
687:
517:
465:section of the
455:
410:embodied energy
400:constructed by
390:
380:, resistant to
263:
261:Characteristics
147:
132:building design
79:building method
23:The ruins of a
17:
12:
11:
5:
1517:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1452:
1451:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1430:
1405:
1398:
1369:
1362:
1331:
1307:
1274:
1259:
1233:
1207:
1192:
1168:
1155:
1128:
1106:
1087:
1047:
1017:
961:. p. 20.
945:
918:
899:
877:
876:
874:
871:
870:
869:
863:
858:
853:
848:
835:
830:
828:Green building
825:
819:
814:
808:
803:
796:
793:
686:
683:
620:South Carolina
516:
513:
454:
451:
442:transportation
389:
386:
262:
259:
146:
143:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1516:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1433:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1412:
1410:
1401:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1376:
1374:
1365:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1321:
1317:
1311:
1296:
1292:
1285:
1278:
1270:
1263:
1247:
1243:
1237:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1180:
1172:
1165:
1159:
1143:
1139:
1132:
1116:
1110:
1102:
1098:
1091:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1021:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
993:
986:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
949:
933:
929:
922:
916:
912:
908:
903:
888:
882:
878:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
843:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
823:
820:
818:
815:
812:
809:
807:
804:
802:
799:
798:
789:
785:
781:
776:
769:
765:
761:
756:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
730:
726:
721:
719:
715:
711:
707:
702:
700:
696:
692:
682:
680:
679:North America
676:
672:
667:
665:
660:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
632:
629:
625:
621:
616:
608:
604:
600:
593:
589:
584:
580:
578:
574:
570:
566:
560:
558:
557:Rural Economy
554:
553:United States
550:
544:
542:
539:, both being
538:
534:
530:
526:
525:Rural Economy
522:
521:United States
512:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
479:
474:
468:
464:
459:
450:
447:
443:
439:
433:
431:
430:passive solar
426:
424:
419:
415:
411:
403:
399:
396:Rammed-earth
394:
385:
383:
379:
375:
374:soundproofing
371:
367:
358:
354:
351:
349:
348:cement render
345:
340:
336:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
305:
302:
300:
295:
293:
288:
279:
272:
267:
258:
250:
246:
244:
240:
235:
233:
229:
228:wire brushing
220:
213:
209:
204:
200:
198:
197:pneumatically
194:
190:
185:
183:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
151:
142:
139:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
118:
114:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
82:
80:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
21:
1464:Rammed earth
1417:
1381:
1349:
1323:. Retrieved
1319:
1310:
1298:. Retrieved
1290:
1277:
1268:
1262:
1250:. Retrieved
1245:
1236:
1224:. Retrieved
1219:
1210:
1178:
1171:
1163:
1158:
1146:. Retrieved
1141:
1131:
1119:. Retrieved
1109:
1100:
1090:
1078:. Retrieved
1074:the original
1069:
1038:. Retrieved
1034:the original
1029:
1020:
1008:. Retrieved
991:
975:. Retrieved
971:the original
958:
948:
936:. Retrieved
931:
921:
902:
891:. Retrieved
881:
780:Eden Project
767:
722:
703:
688:
673:in southern
668:
659:World War II
656:
643:
633:
612:
562:
556:
546:
524:
523:by the book
518:
504:
499:cultures in
482:
462:
434:
427:
406:
363:
352:
341:
337:
309:thermal mass
306:
303:
296:
284:
255:
236:
225:
186:
179:
156:
140:
106:
98:Central Asia
85:
83:
56:constructing
52:Rammed earth
51:
50:
1420:. Seattle:
1352:. Seattle:
1252:February 4,
1184:12â14, 21â2
977:February 4,
915:Rijksmuseum
817:Earth block
723:During the
714:proletarian
440:in theory,
398:trombe wall
245:slab base.
193:iteratively
102:Tibetan art
76:sustainable
25:Han dynasty
1458:Categories
1325:2021-03-12
1300:October 6,
1226:4 February
1148:4 February
1121:4 February
1080:4 February
1040:4 February
1010:4 February
938:4 February
893:2018-10-03
873:References
706:Mao Zedong
573:Shanty Bay
333:fibreglass
206:A typical
109:Antarctica
90:sculptures
29:watchtower
1202:186413872
1005:600507592
967:600507592
913:" in the
732:housing."
729:Li Fuchun
699:Karl Marx
485:Neolithic
378:fireproof
331:or rigid
329:styrofoam
113:temperate
45:Silk Road
1144:. London
934:. London
866:Craterre
833:Mudbrick
795:See also
784:Cornwall
770:" there.
650:and the
531:and the
497:Longshan
493:Yangshao
317:concrete
271:formwork
239:footings
189:formwork
128:tropical
117:semiarid
33:Dunhuang
846:masonry
842:subsoil
788:England
764:Morocco
744:Osoyoos
577:Ontario
505:HÄng tÇ
453:History
418:topsoil
414:subsoil
382:termite
370:density
325:heating
311:: like
212:Vietnam
159:subsoil
124:montane
115:, wet,
1428:
1396:
1360:
1200:
1190:
1003:
965:
909:from "
760:Tabant
695:Daqing
626:, the
565:Canada
478:France
463:hangtu
446:cement
167:gravel
126:, and
120:desert
72:gravel
1287:(PDF)
806:Alker
801:Adobe
768:tabut
664:Chile
509:China
501:China
313:brick
241:or a
208:Hmong
94:molds
70:, or
64:chalk
60:earth
41:China
1426:ISBN
1394:ISBN
1358:ISBN
1302:2017
1254:2012
1228:2012
1198:OCLC
1188:ISBN
1150:2012
1123:2012
1082:2012
1042:2012
1012:2012
1001:OCLC
979:2012
963:OCLC
940:2012
911:loam
790:, UK
634:The
495:and
323:and
285:The
182:lime
175:silt
171:clay
163:sand
100:and
86:pisé
68:lime
811:Cob
782:in
742:in
646:by
605:in
571:in
567:is
535:in
315:or
1460::
1424:.
1408:^
1392:.
1384:.
1372:^
1356:.
1334:^
1318:.
1289:.
1244:.
1218:.
1196:.
1186:.
1140:.
1099:.
1068:.
1050:^
1028:.
999:.
957:.
930:.
786:,
762:,
746:,
681:.
654:.
590:,
575:,
543:.
511:.
461:A
294:.
173:,
169:,
165:,
122:,
81:.
66:,
62:,
39:,
35:,
1434:.
1402:.
1366:.
1328:.
1304:.
1256:.
1230:.
1204:.
1152:.
1125:.
1103:.
1084:.
1044:.
1014:.
981:.
942:.
896:.
214:.
47:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
