2637:
actinides are also increasing. These actinides have to be consequently disposed in a safe, ecological and economical way. The promising strategy that consists of utilising plutonium and minor actinides using a once-through fuel approach within existing commercial nuclear power reactors e.g. US, European, Russian or
Japanese Light Water Reactors (LWR), Canadian Pressured Heavy Water Reactors, or in future transmutation units, has been emphasised since the beginning of the initiative. The approach, which makes use of inert matrix fuel is now studied by several groups in the world. This option has the advantage of reducing the plutonium amounts and potentially minor actinide contents prior to geological disposal. The second option is based on using a uranium-free fuel leachable for reprocessing and by following a multi-recycling strategy. In both cases, the advanced fuel material produces energy while consuming plutonium or the minor actinides. This material must, however, be robust. The selected material must be the result of a careful system study including inert matrix – burnable absorbent – fissile material as minimum components and with the addition of stabiliser. This yields a single-phase solid solution or more simply if this option is not selected a composite inert matrix–fissile component. In screening studies pre-selected elements were identified as suitable. In the 90s an IMF once through strategy was adopted considering the following properties:
2713:
optimisation can be reached by reducing the moderation and the fission product concentration in the liquid fuel/coolant. These effects can be achieved by using a maximum amount of actinides and a minimum amount of alkaline/earth alkaline elements yielding a harder neutron spectrum. Under these optimal conditions the consumption of natural uranium would be 7 tons per year and per gigawatt (GW) of produced electricity. The coupling of uranium extraction from the sea and its optimal utilisation in a molten salt fast reactor should allow nuclear energy to gain the label renewable. In addition, the amount of seawater used by a nuclear power plant to cool the last coolant fluid and the turbine would be ~2.1 giga tons per year for a fast molten salt reactor, corresponding to 7 tons of natural uranium extractable per year. This practice justifies the label renewable.
2708:
Extraction of uranium from a diluted fluid ore such as seawater has been studied in various countries worldwide. This extraction should be carried out parsimoniously, as suggested by
Degueldre (2017). An extraction rate of kilotons of U per year over centuries would not modify significantly the equilibrium concentration of uranium in the oceans (3.3 ppb). This equilibrium results from the input of 10 kilotons of U per year by river waters and its scavenging on the sea floor from the 1.37 exatons of water in the oceans. For a renewable uranium extraction, the use of a specific biomass material is suggested to adsorb uranium and subsequently other transition metals. The uranium loading on the biomass would be around 100 mg per kg. After contact time, the loaded material would be dried and burned (CO
33:
434:
water or crushed into dust without water. Once the
Materials have been physically treated, they then begin the process of being chemically treated by being doused in acids. Acids used include hydrochloric and nitrous acids but the most common acids are sulfuric acids. Alternatively if the material that the ore is made of is particularly resistant to acids then an alkali is used instead. After being treated chemically the uranium particles are dissolved into the solution used to treat them. This solution is then filtered until what solids remain are separated from the liquids that contain the uranium. The undesirable solids are disposed of as
97:
2617:
destroy the long-lived actinides safely. In contrast, the power output of a sub-critical reactor is limited by the intensity of the driving particle accelerator, and thus it need not contain any uranium or plutonium at all. In such a system, it may be preferable to have an inert matrix that does not produce additional long-lived isotopes. Having a low fraction of delayed neutrons is not only not a problem in a subcritical reactor, it may even be slightly advantageous as criticality can be brought closer to unity, while still staying subcritical.
251:. When 3% enriched LEU fuel is used, the spent fuel typically consists of roughly 1% U-235, 95% U-238, 1% plutonium and 3% fission products. Spent fuel and other high-level radioactive waste is extremely hazardous, although nuclear reactors produce orders of magnitude smaller volumes of waste compared to other power plants because of the high energy density of nuclear fuel. Safe management of these byproducts of nuclear power, including their storage and disposal, is a difficult problem for any country using nuclear power.
320:
1059:
1269:, a spike in coolant activity due to a sudden shutdown/loss of pressure (core remains covered with water), a cladding failure resulting in the release of the activity in the fuel/cladding gap (this could be due to the fuel being uncovered by the loss of water for 15–30 minutes where the cladding reached a temperature of 650–1250 °C) or a melting of the core (the fuel will have to be uncovered for at least 30 minutes, and the cladding would reach a temperature in excess of 1650 °C).
442:. In the first of these a solvent is mixed into the solution. The dissolved uranium binds to the solvent and floats to the top while the other dissolved materials remain in the mixture. During ion exchange a different material is mixed into the solution and the uranium binds to it. Once filtered the material is panned out and washed off. The solution will repeat this process of filtration to pull as much usable uranium out as possible. The filtered uranium is then dried out into U
789:
within the reactor core. Furthermore, for efficiency reasons, it is not a good policy to put the new assemblies exactly at the location of the removed ones. Even bundles of the same age will have different burn-up levels due to their previous positions in the core. Thus the available bundles must be arranged in such a way that the yield is maximized, while safety limitations and operational constraints are satisfied. Consequently, reactor operators are faced with the so-called
281:
263:
380:" isotope. The nucleus of a U-238 atom on the other hand, rather than undergoing fission when struck by a free neutron, will nearly always absorb the neutron and yield an atom of the isotope U-239. This isotope then undergoes natural radioactive decay to yield Pu-239, which, like U-235, is a fissile isotope. The atoms of U-238 are said to be fertile, because, through neutron irradiation in the core, some eventually yield atoms of fissile Pu-239.
1228:) of the caesium. The physical or nuclear half-life of Cs is about 30 years. This is a constant which can not be changed but the biological half-life is not a constant. It will change according to the nature and habits of the organism for which it is expressed. Caesium in humans normally has a biological half-life of between one and four months. An added advantage of the Prussian blue is that the caesium which is stripped from the animal in the
1375:) or potentially in a common facility away from reactor sites. If on-site pool storage capacity is exceeded, it may be desirable to store the now cooled aged fuel in modular dry storage facilities known as Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installations (ISFSI) at the reactor site or at a facility away from the site. The spent fuel rods are usually stored in water or boric acid, which provides both cooling (the spent fuel continues to generate
563:
3738:"The isotopic analyses disclosed a species of mass 248 in constant abundance in three samples analysed over a period of about 10 months. This was ascribed to an isomer of Bk with a half-life greater than 9 . No growth of Cf was detected, and a lower limit for the β half-life can be set at about 10 . No alpha activity attributable to the new isomer has been detected; the alpha half-life is probably greater than 300 ."
4369:
2237:. After the emplacement and the retrievability period, drillholes would be backfilled and sealed. A series of tests of the technology were carried out in November 2018 and then again publicly in January 2019 by a U.S. based private company. The test demonstrated the emplacement of a test-canister in a horizontal drillhole and retrieval of the same canister. There was no actual high-level waste used in this test.
2356:
916:
854:. In used fuel the solid state structure of most of the solid remains the same as that of pure cubic uranium dioxide. SIMFUEL is the name given to the simulated spent fuel which is made by mixing finely ground metal oxides, grinding as a slurry, spray drying it before heating in hydrogen/argon to 1700 °C. In SIMFUEL, 4.1% of the volume of the solid was in the form of metal
2340:
2455:
concentration to make a new combined metal oxide fuel with 1% Reactor Grade plutonium and a U-235 concentration of 4%. These fuel rods are suitable for use in standard PWR reactors as the
Plutonium content is no higher than that which exists at the end of cycle in the spent nuclear fuel. As of February 2020 Russia was deploying this fuel in some of their fleet of
1426:, which is why the fuel had to be removed. These fissile and fertile materials can be chemically separated and recovered from the spent fuel. The recovered uranium and plutonium can, if economic and institutional conditions permit, be recycled for use as nuclear fuel. This is currently not done for civilian spent nuclear fuel in the
1100:, hence it remains in the upper layers of soil where it can be accessed by plants with shallow roots (such as grass). Hence grass and mushrooms can carry a considerable amount of Cs which can be transferred to humans through the food chain. But Cs is not able to migrate quickly through most soils and thus is unlikely to contaminate
2497:) changes in favour of fission as the neutron energy increases. Thus with a sufficiently high neutron energy, it should be possible to destroy even curium without the generation of the transcurium metals. This could be very desirable as it would make it significantly easier to reprocess and handle the actinide fuel.
501:), the input stock for most commercial uranium enrichment facilities. A solid at room temperature, uranium hexafluoride becomes gaseous at 57 °C (134 °F). At this stage of the cycle, the uranium hexafluoride conversion product still has the natural isotopic mix (99.28% of U-238 plus 0.71% of U-235).
299:
2332:
2707:
To fulfill the conditions required for a nuclear renewable energy concept, one has to explore a combination of processes going from the front end of the nuclear fuel cycle to the fuel production and the energy conversion using specific fluid fuels and reactors, as reported by
Degueldre et al. (2019).
1264:
assume that under normal operation the coolant of a water-cooled reactor will contain some radioactivity but during a reactor accident the coolant radioactivity level may rise. The IAEA states that under a series of different conditions different amounts of the core inventory can be released from the
1075:
The nuclear chemistry associated with the nuclear fuel cycle can be divided into two main areas; one area is concerned with operation under the intended conditions while the other area is concerned with maloperation conditions where some alteration from the normal operating conditions has occurred or
504:
There are two ways to convert uranium oxide into its usable forms uranium dioxide and uranium hexafluoride; the wet option and the dry option. In the wet option the yellowcake is dissolved in nitric acid then extracted using tributyl phosphate. The resulting mixture is then dried and washed resulting
100:
The lifecycle of fuel in the present US system. If put in one place the total inventory of spent nuclear fuel generated by the commercial fleet of power stations in the United States, would stand 7.6 metres (25 ft) tall and be 91 metres (300 ft) on a side, approximately the footprint of one
1441:
and plutonium and depleted uranium which behaves similarly, although not identically, to the enriched uranium feed for which most nuclear reactors were designed. MOX fuel is an alternative to low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel used in the light water reactors which predominate nuclear power generation.
743:
to reduce potential radiation exposures. In the case of some materials, such as fresh uranium fuel assemblies, the radiation levels are negligible and no shielding is required. Other materials, such as spent fuel and high-level waste, are highly radioactive and require special handling. To limit the
2712:
neutral) with heat conversion into electricity. The uranium ‘burning’ in a molten salt fast reactor helps to optimize the energy conversion by burning all actinide isotopes with an excellent yield for producing a maximum amount of thermal energy from fission and converting it into electricity. This
2616:
and are thus important to keep a critical reactor stable; this limits the amount of minor actinides that can be destroyed in a critical reactor. As a consequence, it is important that the chosen matrix allows the reactor to keep the ratio of fissile to non-fissile nuclei high, as this enables it to
1049:
that diffuse out of the lattice of the fuel into voids such as the narrow gap between the fuel and the cladding. After diffusing into these voids, it decays to caesium isotopes. Because of the thermal gradient which exists in the fuel during use, the volatile fission products tend to be driven from
788:
process that consumes the fuels, the old fuel rods must be replaced periodically with fresh ones (this is called a (replacement) cycle). During a given replacement cycle only some of the assemblies (typically one-third) are replaced since fuel depletion occurs at different rates at different places
718:
is an integral part of the nuclear fuel cycle. There are nuclear power reactors in operation in several countries but uranium mining is viable in only a few areas. Also, in the course of over forty years of operation by the nuclear industry, a number of specialized facilities have been developed in
586:
produced from natural uranium sources must be enriched to a higher concentration of the fissionable isotope before being used as nuclear fuel in such reactors. The level of enrichment for a particular nuclear fuel order is specified by the customer according to the application they will use it for:
569:
begins when uranium is mined, enriched and manufactured to nuclear fuel (1) which is delivered to a nuclear power plant. After usage in the power plant the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (if fuel is recycled) (2) or to a final repository (if no recycling is done) (3) for geological
433:
When
Uranium is mined out of the ground it does not contain enough pure uranium per pound to be used. The process of milling is how the cycle extracts the usable uranium from the rest of the materials, also known as tailings. To begin the milling process the ore is either ground into fine dust with
2685:
If the actinides are incorporated into a uranium-metal or uranium-oxide matrix, then the neutron capture of U is likely to generate new plutonium-239. An advantage of mixing the actinides with uranium and plutonium is that the large fission cross sections of U and Pu for the less energetic delayed
2636:
The raison d’être of the
Initiative for Inert Matrix Fuel (IMF) is to contribute to Research and Development studies on inert matrix fuels that could be used to utilise, reduce and dispose both weapon- and light water reactor-grade plutonium excesses. In addition to plutonium, the amounts of minor
2454:
in which the spent nuclear fuel is put through a process like
Pyroprocessing that separates the reactor Grade Plutonium and remaining Uranium from the fission products and fuel cladding. This mixed metal is then combined with a small quantity of medium enriched Uranium with approximately 17% U-235
1083:
The releases of radioactivity from normal operations are the small planned releases from uranium ore processing, enrichment, power reactors, reprocessing plants and waste stores. These can be in different chemical/physical form from releases which could occur under accident conditions. In addition
751:
While transport casks vary in design, material, size, and purpose, they are typically long tubes made of stainless steel or concrete with the ends sealed shut to prevent leaks. Frequently the casks' shell will have at least one layer of radiation-resistant material, such as lead. The inside of the
2591:
not being optimized for long continuous operation at least the first generation of accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor is unlikely to be able to maintain a constant operation period for equally long times as a critical reactor, and each time the accelerator stops then the fuel will cool down.
1165:
In dairy farming, one of the best countermeasures against Cs is to mix up the soil by deeply ploughing the soil. This has the effect of putting the Cs out of reach of the shallow roots of the grass, hence the level of radioactivity in the grass will be lowered. Also after a nuclear war or serious
2698:
It is also possible to create a matrix made from a mix of the above-mentioned materials. This is most commonly done in fast reactors where one may wish to keep the breeding ratio of new fuel high enough to keep powering the reactor, but still low enough that the generated actinides can be safely
1054:
as a function of distance from the centre of a 20 mm diameter pellet with a rim temperature of 200 °C. The uranium dioxide (because of its poor thermal conductivity) will overheat at the centre of the pellet, while the other more thermally conductive forms of uranium remain below their
2931:
is at least 4-5 times more abundant in nature than all of uranium isotopes combined; thorium is fairly evenly spread around Earth with a lot of countries having huge supplies of it; preparation of thorium fuel does not require difficult and expensive enrichment processes; the thorium fuel cycle
2974:
reactor which began operation in 1962. The cost of recovering U-233 from the spent fuel was deemed uneconomical, since less than 1% of the thorium was converted to U-233. The plant's owner switched to uranium fuel, which was used until the reactor was permanently shut down in 1974.
2888:
970:), the effect of adding an alpha emitter (Pu) to uranium dioxide on the leaching rate of the oxide has been investigated. For the crushed oxide, adding Pu tended to increase the rate of leaching, but the difference in the leaching rate between 0.1 and 10% Pu was very small.
732:) which is considered a gas. Most of the material used in nuclear fuel is transported several times during the cycle. Transports are frequently international, and are often over large distances. Nuclear materials are generally transported by specialized transport companies.
1512:. Strong and long-term international cooperation, and many decades of research and huge investments remain necessary before to reach a mature industrial scale where the safety and the economical feasibility of partitioning and transmutation (P&T) could be demonstrated.
2482:, have been designed for this rather different fuel cycle. In principle, it should be possible to derive energy from the fission of any actinide nucleus. With a careful reactor design, all the actinides in the fuel can be consumed, leaving only lighter elements with short
2936:
which makes it harder to use in a normal, pre-assembled nuclear weapon which is stable over long periods of time (unfortunately drawbacks are much lower for immediate use weapons or where final assembly occurs just prior to usage time); elimination of at least the
509:
and dihydrogen monoxide or water. After that the uranium dioxide is mixed with four parts hydrogen fluoride resulting in more water and uranium tetrafluoride. Finally the end product of uranium hexafluoride is created by simply adding more fluoride to the mixture.
3062:
is high enough to allow its use as fuel for reactors capable of using natural uranium based fuel. However, this would require at least mechanical and/or thermal reprocessing (forming the spent fuel into a new fuel assembly) and is thus not currently widely done.
345:, discovered by geophysical techniques, is evaluated and sampled to determine the amounts of uranium materials that are extractable at specified costs from the deposit. Uranium reserves are the amounts of ore that are estimated to be recoverable at stated costs.
405:. In this technology, uranium is leached from the in-place ore through an array of regularly spaced wells and is then recovered from the leach solution at a surface plant. Uranium ores in the United States typically range from about 0.05 to 0.3% uranium oxide (U
1430:, however it is done in Russia. Russia aims to maximise recycling of fissile materials from used fuel. Hence reprocessing used fuel is a basic practice, with reprocessed uranium being recycled and plutonium used in MOX, at present only for fast reactors.
1300:) to investigate the effects of a large iodine release from the reprocessing of short cooled fuel. It is normal in reprocessing plants to scrub the off gases from the dissolver to prevent the emission of iodine. In addition to the emission of iodine the
842:, where used fuel is examined to know more about the processes that occur in fuel during use, and how these might alter the outcome of an accident. For example, during normal use, the fuel expands due to thermal expansion, which can cause cracking. Most
2157:
has responsibility for the development of the waste disposal system for spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste. Current plans call for the ultimate disposal of the wastes in solid form in a licensed deep, stable geologic structure called a
2660:
This once-through then out strategy may be adapted as a last cycle after multi-recycling if the fission yield is not large enough, in which case the following property is required good leaching properties for reprocessing and multi-recycling.
1087:
Just because a radioisotope is released it does not mean it will enter a human and then cause harm. For instance, the migration of radioactivity can be altered by the binding of the radioisotope to the surfaces of soil particles. For example,
2447:" or "refined" from the spent fuel, the plutonium is never separated on its own, instead it comes over into the new fuel mixed with gamma and alpha emitting actinides, species that "self-protect" it in numerous possible thief scenarios.
760:
typically have no internal organization. Depending on the purpose and radioactivity of the materials some casks have systems of ventilation, thermal protection, impact protection, and other features more specific to the route and cargo.
3031:. As mining for rare earth elements occurs mainly in China and as it is not associated in the public consciousness with the nuclear fuel cycle, Thorium-containing mine tailings - despite their radioactivity - are not commonly seen as a
1032:
and then starts to react with the surface of the zirconium alloy, forming a new layer which contains both fuel and zirconium (from the cladding). Then, on the fuel side of this mixed layer, there is a layer of fuel which has a higher
702:(PWR), the tubes are assembled into bundles with the tubes spaced precise distances apart. These bundles are then given a unique identification number, which enables them to be tracked from manufacture through use and into disposal.
413:). Some uranium deposits developed in other countries are of higher grade and are also larger than deposits mined in the United States. Uranium is also present in very low-grade amounts (50 to 200 parts per million) in some domestic
723:
material occur between different stages of the cycle, but occasionally a material may be transported between similar facilities. With some exceptions, nuclear fuel cycle materials are transported in solid form, the exception being
1358:(BWR) designs. Each tube can be individually isolated and refueled by an operator-controlled fueling machine, typically at a rate of up to 8 channels per day out of roughly 400 in CANDU reactors. On-load refueling allows for the
739:, it is important to ensure that radiation exposure of those involved in the transport of such materials and of the general public along transport routes is limited. Packaging for nuclear materials includes, where appropriate,
2261:, as well as uranium, plutonium, and other transuranic elements. Where plutonium is recycled, it is normally reused once in light water reactors, although fast reactors could lead to more complete recycling of plutonium.
1362:
to be dealt with continuously, leading to more efficient use of fuel. This increase in efficiency is partially offset by the added complexity of having hundreds of pressure tubes and the fueling machines to service them.
683:. The tubes are sealed to contain the fuel pellets: these tubes are called fuel rods. The finished fuel rods are grouped in special fuel assemblies that are then used to build up the nuclear fuel core of a power reactor.
348:
Naturally occurring uranium consists primarily of two isotopes U-238 and U-235, with 99.28% of the metal being U-238 while 0.71% is U-235, and the remaining 0.01% is mostly U-234. The number in such names refers to the
793:, which consists of optimizing the rearrangement of all the assemblies, the old and fresh ones, while still maximizing the reactivity of the reactor core so as to maximise fuel burn-up and minimise fuel-cycle costs.
1232:
is in a form which is not available to plants. Hence it prevents the caesium from being recycled. The form of
Prussian blue required for the treatment of humans or animals is a special grade. Attempts to use the
1166:
accident, the removal of top few cm of soil and its burial in a shallow trench will reduce the long-term gamma dose to humans due to Cs, as the gamma photons will be attenuated by their passage through the soil.
2761:
1308:
are released from the fuel when it is dissolved. It has been proposed that by voloxidation (heating the fuel in a furnace under oxidizing conditions) the majority of the tritium can be recovered from the
1115:
is the ratio of the soil's radioactivity (Bq g) to that of the soil water (Bq ml). If the radioisotope is tightly bound to the minerals in the soil, then less radioactivity can be absorbed by crops and
2699:
destroyed without transporting them to another site. One way to do this is to use fuel where actinides and uranium is mixed with inert zirconium, producing fuel elements with the desired properties.
1020:
The study of the nuclear fuel cycle includes the study of the behaviour of nuclear materials both under normal conditions and under accident conditions. For example, there has been much work on how
2443:
potential or possible diversion of fissile material as the processing facility is in-situ. Similarly as plutonium is not separated on its own in the pyroprocessing cycle, rather all actinides are "
2309:. Some countries, notably Finland, Sweden and Canada, have designed repositories to permit future recovery of the material should the need arise, while others plan for permanent sequestration in a
981:(VI) forms soluble anionic carbonate complexes such as and . When carbonate ions are absent, and the water is not strongly acidic, the hexavalent uranium compounds which form on oxidation of
816:
packages have been written to support fuel management. This is an ongoing issue in reactor operations as no definitive solution to this problem has been found. Operators use a combination of
4241:
Claude
Degueldre, Richard James Dawson, Vesna Najdanovic-Visak Nuclear fuel cycle, with a liquid ore and fuel: toward renewable energy, Sustainable Energy and Fuels 3 (2019) 1693-1700.
923:
Uranium dioxide is minimally soluable in water, but after oxidation it can be converted to uranium trioxide or another uranium(VI) compound which is much more soluble. Uranium dioxide (UO
1322:. These were found by gamma spectroscopy to contain Ce, Ce, Ru, Ru, Cs, Zr and Nb. Additionally, a zinc activation product (Zn) was found, which is thought to be due to the corrosion of
2602:
Depending on the matrix the process can generate more transuranics from the matrix. This could either be viewed as good (generate more fuel) or can be viewed as bad (generation of more
2568:
1350:, can be refueled without being shut down. This is achieved through the use of many small pressure tubes to contain the fuel and coolant, as opposed to one large pressure vessel as in
587:
light-water reactor fuel normally is enriched to 3.5% U-235, but uranium enriched to lower concentrations is also required. Enrichment is accomplished using any of several methods of
2270:
1445:
Currently, plants in Europe are reprocessing spent fuel from utilities in Europe and Japan. Reprocessing of spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel is currently not permitted in the
425:
and other phosphate chemicals, at some phosphate processing plants the uranium, although present in very low concentrations, can be economically recovered from the process stream.
3959:
1169:
Even after the radioactive element arrives at the roots of the plant, the metal may be rejected by the biochemistry of the plant. The details of the uptake of Sr and Cs into
1460:
proposed that the U.S. form an international partnership to see spent nuclear fuel reprocessed in a way that renders the plutonium in it usable for nuclear fuel but not for
3390:
2905:, a breeding cycle similar to but more efficient than that with U-238 and plutonium can be created. The Th-232 absorbs a neutron to become Th-233 which quickly decays to
2516:(Japanese design) is directed into a target. In the case of protons, very fast neutrons will spall off the target, while in the case of the electrons, very high energy
719:
various locations around the world to provide fuel cycle services and there is a need to transport nuclear materials to and from these facilities. Most transports of
1371:
After its operating cycle, the reactor is shut down for refueling. The fuel discharged at that time (spent fuel) is stored either at the reactor site (commonly in a
773:
is composed of a few hundred "assemblies", arranged in a regular array of cells, each cell being formed by a fuel or control rod surrounded, in most designs, by a
1542:
1084:
the isotope signature of a hypothetical accident may be very different from that of a planned normal operational discharge of radioactivity to the environment.
2677:. U is fissile, and has a larger fission cross section than both U and U, and thus it is far less likely to produce higher actinides through neutron capture.
4017:
1104:
water. Colloids of soil minerals can migrate through soil so simple binding of a metal to the surfaces of soil particles does not completely fix the metal.
3638:
Baetslé, L.H.; De Raedt, Ch. (1997). "Limitations of actinide recycle and fuel cycle consequences: a global analysis Part 1: Global fuel cycle analysis".
438:. Once the solution has had the tailings removed the uranium is extracted from the rest of the liquid solution, in one of two ways, solvent exchange or
178:(LWR) uses water in the form that occurs in nature, and requires fuel enriched to higher concentrations of fissile isotopes. Typically, LWRs use uranium
2564:
As an alternative, the curium-244, with a half-life of 18 years, could be left to decay into plutonium-240 before being used in fuel in a fast reactor.
1220:. The cyanide is so tightly bonded to the iron that it is safe for a human to eat several grams of Prussian blue per day. The Prussian blue reduces the
3906:
2571:
A pair of fuel cycles in which uranium and plutonium are kept separate from the minor actinides. The minor actinide cycle is kept within the green box.
2166:
as the location for the repository. Its opening has been repeatedly delayed. Since 1999 thousands of nuclear waste shipments have been stored at the
3814:
Muller, Richard A.; Finsterle, Stefan; Grimsich, John; Baltzer, Rod; Muller, Elizabeth A.; Rector, James W.; Payer, Joe; Apps, John (May 29, 2019).
3672:
Plus radium (element 88). While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three-element gap of instability after
2326:
280:
1009:
3624:
3987:
Warin D.; Konings R.J.M; Haas D.; Maritin P.; Bonnerot J-M.; Vambenepe G.; Schram R.P.C.; Kuijper J.C.; Bakker K.; Conrad R. (October 2002).
3796:
2883:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\overset {neutron}{n}}+ ^{232}_{90}Th -> ^{233}_{90}Th -> ^{233}_{91}Pa -> {\overset {fuel}{^{233}_{92}U}}}}}
394:
Uranium ore can be extracted through conventional mining in open pit and underground methods similar to those used for mining other metals.
3050:, in which the ratio of U-235 to U-238 is increased. In civilian reactors, the enrichment is increased to 3-5% U-235 and 95% U-238, but in
2281:, fuel is used once and then sent to storage without further processing save additional packaging to provide for better isolation from the
1185:
leaves. It was found that 12% of the caesium entered the plant, and 20% of the strontium. This paper also reports details of the effect of
1535:
1293:
247:. The buildup of fission products and consumption of fissile isotopes eventually stop the nuclear reaction, causing the fuel to become a
1276:, and that the activity of the fuel of a 1 GWe reactor is as the IAEA predicts, then the coolant activity after an accident such as the
417:-bearing deposits of marine origin. Because very large quantities of phosphate-bearing rock are mined for the production of wet-process
262:
4320:
3711:
Milsted, J.; Friedman, A. M.; Stevens, C. M. (1965). "The alpha half-life of berkelium-247; a new long-lived isomer of berkelium-248".
675:. The cylindrical pellets then undergo a grinding process to achieve a uniform pellet size. The pellets are stacked, according to each
186:, the only fissile isotope that is found in significant quantity in nature. One alternative to this low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel is
1310:
748:
are used which are designed to maintain integrity under normal transportation conditions and during hypothetical accident conditions.
3764:" nuclides with half-lives significantly in excess of Th; e.g., while Cd has a half-life of only fourteen years, that of Cd is eight
224:
Some reactors do not use moderators to slow the neutrons. Like nuclear weapons, which also use unmoderated or "fast" neutrons, these
2967:
that used Th as the fertile material and U as the fissile fuel. Due to a lack of funding, the MSR program was discontinued in 1976.
1298:
4205:
C. Degueldre, M. Pouchon, M. Dobeli, K. Sickafus, K. € Hojou, G. Ledergerber, S. Abolhassani-Dadras, J. Nucl. Mater. 289 (2001) 115
3003:
than uranium (and 550 times more abundant than uranium-235). There has been little exploration for thorium resources, and thus the
2112:
319:
3360:
3973:
2501:
2413:
rises with each pass through the cycle, there are currently no plans to reuse plutonium from used MOX fuel for a third pass in a
2314:
2163:
578:
The natural concentration (0.71%) of the fissile isotope U-235 is less than that required to sustain a nuclear chain reaction in
190:(MOX) fuel produced by blending plutonium with natural or depleted uranium, and these fuels provide an avenue to utilize surplus
3506:
For a review of the corrosion of uranium dioxide in a waste store which explains much of the chemistry, see Shoesmith DW (2000)
3397:
1528:
1418:
Spent fuel discharged from reactors contains appreciable quantities of fissile (U-235 and Pu-239), fertile (U-238), and other
4111:"Concept of a Small-scale Electron Accelerator Driven System for Nuclear Waste Transmutation Part 2. Investigation of burnup"
3344:
3189:
1062:
Temperature profile for a 20 mm diameter fuel pellet with a power density of 1 kW per cubic meter. The fuels other than
4394:
4294:
3940:
3597:
Generic Assessment Procedures for Determining Protective Actions During a Reactor Accident, IAEA-TECDOC-955, 1997, p. 171
3588:
Generic Assessment Procedures for Determining Protective Actions During a Reactor Accident, IAEA-TECDOC-955, 1997, p. 173
3579:
Generic Assessment Procedures for Determining Protective Actions During a Reactor Accident, IAEA-TECDOC-955, 1997, p. 169
2587:, it is likely that the fuel will have to be able to tolerate more thermal cycles than conventional fuel. Due to current
2520:
will be generated. These high-energy neutrons and photons will then be able to cause the fission of the heavy actinides.
1292:
isotopes to decay away. In one experiment in the US, fresh fuel which had not been allowed to decay was reprocessed (the
239:
During the nuclear reaction inside a reactor, the fissile isotopes in nuclear fuel are consumed, producing more and more
3889:
2154:
1261:
752:
tube will also vary depending on what is being transported. For example casks that are transporting depleted or unused
623:
2963:
kept hot enough to be liquid, thus eliminating the need for fabricating fuel elements. This effort culminated in the
228:
require much higher concentrations of fissile isotopes in order to sustain a chain reaction. They are also capable of
3782:
1457:
17:
1050:
the centre of the pellet to the rim area. Below is a graph of the temperature of uranium metal, uranium nitride and
2995:, although the proposed thorium fuel cycle has advantages. Some modern reactors, with minor modifications, can use
2145:
or, if the reprocessing option is used, wastes from reprocessing plants. These materials must be isolated from the
1396:
745:
4253:
Claude Degueldre, Uranium as a renewable for nuclear energy, Progress in Nuclear Energy, 94 (2017) 174-186.
4214:
L.M. Wang, S. Zhu, S.X. Wang, R.C. Ewing, N. Boucharat, A. Fernandez, Hj. Matzke, Prog. Nucl. Energy 38 (2001) 295
4028:
3765:
599:
are the commonly used uranium enrichment methods, but new enrichment technologies are currently being developed.
2641:
neutron properties i.e. low absorption cross-section, optimal constant reactivity, suitable Doppler coefficient,
977:
in the water which is in contact with the used fuel has a considerable effect on the rate of corrosion, because
2964:
2439:
rather than the present day aqueous reprocessing, is claimed to potentially be able to considerably reduce the
2363:
Several countries, including Japan, Switzerland, and previously Spain and Germany, are using or have used the
4404:
3101:
2949:
2913:
designs, the Pa-233 is extracted and protected from neutrons (which could transform it to Pa-234 and then to
2218:
159:
are the most effective moderators, because they slow the neutrons through collisions without absorbing them.
3914:
2599:, then the fuel will most likely not be exposed to many more thermal cycles than in a normal power station.
4389:
3777:
M. I. Ojovan, W.E. Lee. An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,
2493:
of many actinides decreases with increasing neutron energy, but the ratio of fission to simple activation (
2486:. Whereas this has been done in prototype plants, no such reactor has ever been operated on a large scale.
2201:
1746:
1707:
1674:
1647:
1454:
839:
833:
1296:
4409:
2167:
3321:
919:
The solid state structure of uranium dioxide, the oxygen atoms are in green and the uranium atoms in red
4414:
4359:
4232:
J.P. Coulon, R. Allonce, A. Filly, F. Chartier, M. Salmon, M. Trabant, Prog. Nucl. Energy 38 (2001) 431
3988:
3676:(84) where no nuclides have half-lives of at least four years (the longest-lived nuclide in the gap is
3106:
2971:
2212:
2159:
2038:
2007:
1984:
1962:
1931:
1288:
It is normal to allow used fuel to stand after the irradiation to allow the short-lived and radiotoxic
1277:
160:
3847:
Mallants, Dirk; Travis, Karl; Chapman, Neil; Brady, Patrick V.; Griffiths, Hefin (February 14, 2020).
450:
uranium. The milling process commonly yields dry powder-form material consisting of natural uranium, "
4373:
3051:
1351:
883:
699:
611:
3184:. Woodhead Publishing series in energy. Duxford, UK: Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier.
3996:
Seventh Information Exchange Meeting on Actinide and Fission Product Partitioning and Transmutation
2221:
describes proposals to drill over one kilometer vertically, and two kilometers horizontally in the
2150:
875:
660:) powder that is then processed into pellet form. The pellets are then fired in a high temperature
4054:
3152:
1379:
as a result of residual radioactive decay) and shielding to protect the environment from residual
3936:
2215:
have relatively low radioactivity, often compared favorably to that of the original uranium ore.
2149:
until the radioactivity contained in them has diminished to a safe level. In the U.S., under the
240:
102:
32:
2918:
886:) phases of these metals were found in the SIMFUEL. Also present within the SIMFUEL was a cubic
298:
4399:
4187:
N. Nitani, T. Yamashita, T. Matsuda, S.-I. Kobayashi, T. Ohmichi, J. Nucl. Mater. 274 (1999) 15
3111:
3016:
2609:). A series of different matrices exists which can control this production of heavy actinides.
1012:
experiments, and these offer an insight into the likely leaching behaviour of uranium dioxide.
113:
2625:
The actinides will be mixed with a metal which will not form more actinides; for instance, an
3422:
3308:
3028:
2596:
2557:
2490:
2479:
2440:
2410:
2344:
2310:
1583:
1509:
1450:
1355:
797:
695:
4328:
3684:). Radium's longest lived isotope, at 1,600 years, thus merits the element's inclusion here.
4160:
C. Degueldre, U. Kasemeyer, F. Botta, G. Ledergerber, Proc. Mater. Res. Soc. 412 (1996) 15.
3720:
3625:"Russia's Nuclear Fuel Cycle | Russian Nuclear Fuel Cycle - World Nuclear Association"
3218:
2588:
2432:
2403:
2364:
2173:
1407:
1221:
879:
847:
770:
757:
725:
676:
631:
571:
494:
306:
225:
218:
69:
2580:
To date the nature of the fuel (targets) for actinide transformation has not been chosen.
2141:
A current concern in the nuclear power field is the safe disposal and isolation of either
8:
4082:"Accelerator-driven Systems (ADS) and Fast Reactors (FR) in Advanced Nuclear Fuel Cycles"
3059:
3039:
2953:
2942:
2910:
2606:
2584:
2505:
2388:
1438:
740:
615:
579:
479:
175:
164:
3724:
3222:
505:
in uranium trioxide. The uranium trioxide is then mixed with pure hydrogen resulting in
4269:
4081:
3761:
3748:
3368:
3024:
2722:
2384:
2226:
2197:
2177:
2142:
2136:
1413:
1380:
1242:
1005:
1004:
gas mixture. These gold surfaces modified with uranium dioxide have been used for both
664:
588:
574:
95% of spent fuel can be recycled to be returned to usage in a nuclear power plant (4).
248:
195:
3651:
3206:
2471:
could be used in a critical power reactor. Tests are already being conducted in which
2253:
is more accurate, because the spent fuel is never fully recycled. Spent fuel includes
3885:
3778:
3732:
3655:
3340:
3293:
3234:
3185:
2523:
Such reactors compare very well to other neutron sources in terms of neutron energy:
2258:
2132:
1255:
1204:
farming, an important countermeasure against Cs is to feed animals a small amount of
1029:
774:
592:
244:
129:
73:
3849:"The State of the Science and Technology in Deep Borehole Disposal of Nuclear Waste"
2909:-233. Protactinium-233 in turn decays with a half-life of 27 days to U-233. In some
2690:, which is likely to be both cheaper and simpler than an accelerator driven system.
3860:
3827:
3728:
3647:
3449:
3283:
3257:
3226:
3047:
2960:
2957:
2894:
2752:
2613:
2254:
2222:
1598:
1384:
1046:
986:
851:
809:
672:
603:
557:
206:
179:
96:
4223:
M.A. Pouchon, E. Curtis, C. Degueldre, L. Tobler, Prog. Nucl. Energy 38 (2001) 443
1241:
have not been successful. Note that a source of data on the subject of caesium in
3747:
This is the heaviest nuclide with a half-life of at least four years before the "
3698:
3694:
3043:
3004:
3000:
2656:
optimal properties after irradiation with insolubility for once through then out.
2534:
2494:
2414:
2380:
2376:
2193:
2189:
2099:
1616:
1575:
1493:
1489:
1473:
1372:
1327:
1182:
1097:
1063:
1051:
1021:
982:
967:
785:
691:
687:
653:
619:
526:
506:
482:) is then processed into either of two substances depending on the intended use.
418:
233:
229:
168:
140:
will occur. This allows reactors to use material with far lower concentration of
137:
4254:
1272:
Based upon the assumption that a Pressurized water reactor contains 300 tons of
540:
In the current nuclear industry, the volume of material converted directly to UO
40:
cycles describes how nuclear fuel is extracted, processed, used, and disposed of
2686:
neutrons could make the reaction stable enough to be carried out in a critical
2647:
acceptable thermo-physical properties i.e. heat capacity, thermal conductivity,
2595:
On the other hand, if actinides are destroyed using a fast reactor, such as an
2541:
2468:
2444:
2436:
2348:
2119:
1607:
1590:
1488:
elements could be removed through advanced reprocessing. After separation, the
1461:
1423:
596:
389:
366:
148:
133:
4110:
4018:"Why Accelerator-Driven Transmutation of Wastes Enables Future Nuclear Power?"
3945:
3230:
1058:
4383:
3659:
3297:
3238:
3032:
2992:
2286:
1446:
1427:
1347:
1217:
1205:
801:
402:
395:
217:, respectively, and can be separated from spent uranium and thorium fuels in
191:
109:
4281:
3130:
1280:(where a core is uncovered and then recovered with water) can be predicted.
3073:
3068:
2922:
2906:
2740:
2687:
2418:
2351:
fuel cycle below. A more detailed animation and demonstration is available.
2306:
2234:
855:
843:
753:
720:
647:
622:. As of 2008 there are vast quantities of depleted uranium in storage. The
439:
373:
327:
202:. Both plutonium and U-233 are produced from the absorption of neutrons by
53:
37:
3974:"REMIX fuel pilot testing starts at Balakovo reactor - World Nuclear News"
756:
will have sleeves that keep the rods separate, while casks that transport
236:
is one that generates more fissile material in this way than it consumes.
3300:
2988:
2984:
2938:
2933:
2914:
2898:
2748:
2744:
2728:
2674:
2407:
2230:
2181:
1579:
1559:
1419:
817:
805:
736:
652:
For use as nuclear fuel, enriched uranium hexafluoride is converted into
354:
270:
210:
203:
199:
156:
3361:"How much depleted uranium hexafluoride is stored in the United States?"
3288:
2650:
good behaviour under irradiation i.e. phase stability, minimum swelling,
372:
The atomic nucleus of U-235 will nearly always fission when struck by a
76:. If spent fuel is not reprocessed, the fuel cycle is referred to as an
3865:
3848:
3832:
3815:
3337:
Uranium for nuclear power: resources, mining and transformation to fuel
3182:
Uranium for nuclear power: resources, mining and transformation to fuel
3055:
2917:), until it has decayed to U-233. This is done in order to improve the
2736:
2451:
2331:
1485:
1376:
1331:
1330:. It is likely that the modern releases of all these isotopes from the
1246:
1174:
1101:
993:
887:
859:
744:
risk in transporting highly radioactive materials, containers known as
451:
422:
288:
3986:
2948:
One of the earliest efforts to use a thorium fuel cycle took place at
2421:
become available, they may be able to burn these, or almost any other
992:
Thin films of uranium dioxide can be deposited upon gold surfaces by ‘
4242:
4196:
R.A. Verall, M.D. Vlajic, V.D. Krstic, J. Nucl. Mater. 274 (1999) 54.
3989:"The Preparation of the EFTTRA-T5 Americium Transmutation Experiment"
3882:
Energy and the New Reality 2: Carbon-Free Energy Supply – section 8.4
3677:
3445:
3253:
2567:
2483:
2472:
2392:
2282:
2185:
2146:
1564:
1319:
1301:
1283:
1225:
1201:
1186:
1170:
1144:
1134:
1108:
1025:
974:
897:
894:
871:
863:
821:
715:
661:
562:
414:
342:
125:
64:
in which the fuel is used during reactor operation, and steps in the
3816:"Disposal of High-Level Nuclear Waste in Deep Horizontal Drillholes"
3453:
3261:
2846:
2815:
3673:
3081:
3027:
and most of the thorium is simply dumped on spoils tips similar to
3020:
2630:
2513:
2467:
It has been proposed that in addition to the use of plutonium, the
2422:
2396:
2368:
2269:
1555:
1434:
1190:
813:
686:
The alloy used for the tubes depends on the design of the reactor.
435:
187:
152:
144:
4151:
Hj. Matzke, V. Rondinella, Th. Wiss, J. Nucl. Mater. 274 (1999) 47
2575:
2550:
Accelerator driven core 200 MeV (lead driven by 1.6 GeV
2184:. Unlike LWRs, in principle these fuel cycles could recycle their
1256:
Release of radioactivity from fuel during normal use and accidents
1028:
alloy tubing used to cover it. During use, the fuel swells due to
679:'s design specifications, into tubes of corrosion-resistant metal
56:
through a series of differing stages. It consists of steps in the
4133:
C. Degueldre, J.-M. Paratte (Eds.), J. Nucl. Mater. 274 (1999) 1.
3448:(Report). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI).
3444:
Greene, Sherrell; Medford, James; Macy, Sharon (August 9, 2013).
3256:(Report). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI).
3077:
3012:
3008:
2996:
2928:
2732:
2670:
2425:
2400:
2298:
2225:, for the purpose of disposing of high-level waste forms such as
2106:
1501:
1497:
1383:, although after at least a year of cooling they may be moved to
1305:
1234:
1213:
1194:
1178:
1089:
1038:
1034:
978:
927:) can be oxidised to an oxygen rich hyperstoichiometric oxide (UO
867:
778:
668:
534:
377:
362:
350:
214:
141:
121:
117:
4142:
C. Degueldre, J. Porta (Eds.), Prog. Nucl. Energy 38 (2001) 221.
3946:"Historical video about the Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) concept"
3446:
Storage and Transport Cask Data For Used Commercial Nuclear Fuel
3207:"Uranium processing: A review of current methods and technology"
292:– the form in which uranium is transported to a conversion plant
4178:
J.L. Kloosterman, P.M.G. Damen, J. Nucl. Mater. 274 (1999) 112.
3339:. Woodhead publishing series in energy. Waltham, MA: Elsevier.
3089:
3085:
2956:
technology to study the feasibility of such an approach, using
2902:
2551:
2517:
2509:
2450:
Beginning in 2016 Russia has been testing and is now deploying
2294:
2290:
2204:
1505:
1481:
1323:
1315:
1289:
1154:
1124:
1093:
1001:
891:
398:
358:
3813:
3466:
A good report on the microstructure of used fuel is Lucuta PG
2355:
2339:
3423:"Nuclear Fuel Cycle | World Nuclear Transport Institute"
2893:
After starting the reactor with existing U-233 or some other
2626:
2372:
2327:
Nuclear power proposed as renewable_energy § Fuel supply
2302:
2208:
2122:(thermal neutron capture cross section greater than 3k barns)
1477:
1273:
1238:
1229:
1117:
1042:
997:
966:
Because used fuel contains alpha emitters (plutonium and the
915:
680:
627:
607:
514:
194:
plutonium. Another type of MOX fuel involves mixing LEU with
183:
4327:. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited. Archived from
2999:. Thorium is approximately three times more abundant in the
84:); if the spent fuel is reprocessed, it is referred to as a
68:, which are necessary to safely manage, contain, and either
2456:
1569:
1343:
1209:
4056:
An overview of accelerator-driven transmutation technology
3846:
2952:
in the 1960s. An experimental reactor was built based on
544:
is typically quite small compared to that converted to UF
4352:
4295:"Thorium Reactors: Their Backers Overstate the Benefits"
3904:
3797:"Can We Drill a Hole Deep Enough for Our Nuclear Waste?"
3542:
Further reading on fuel cladding interactions: Tanaka K
3046:, but the vast majority of the world's reactors require
2653:
retention of fission products or residual actinides, and
878:) of Mo-Ru-Rh-Pd alloy, while smaller amounts of the α (
2644:
phase stability, chemical inertness, and compatibility,
2347:
concept (color), with the reactor above and integrated
1250:
Ukrainian Research Institute for Agricultural Radiology
209:
in a reactor, in particular the common uranium isotope
3960:"Nuclear Fuel Fabrication - World Nuclear Association"
3710:
3054:
there is as much as 93% U-235. The fissile content in
3023:
is currently mostly of interest due to its content of
2612:
Fissile nuclei (such as U, U, and Pu) respond well to
2500:
One promising alternative from this perspective is an
812:
have been proposed for solving it and many commercial
60:, which are the preparation of the fuel, steps in the
4357:
2983:
Currently the only isotopes used as nuclear fuel are
2764:
2735:
in either a fast or thermal reactor. The thorium-233
710:
2941:
portion of the nuclear waste problem is possible in
1181:
was found in the leaf veins, in the stem and in the
874:. Most of these metal particles are of the ε phase (
3562:P. Soudek, Š. Valenová, Z. Vavříková and T. Vaněk,
2211:diminish by a factor of 10 each century; while the
800:problem, and computationally infeasible by current
602:The bulk (96%) of the byproduct from enrichment is
27:
Process of manufacturing and consuming nuclear fuel
4108:
3907:"Management of Spent Fuel at Nuclear Power Plants"
2882:
2702:
2264:
1284:Releases from reprocessing under normal conditions
690:was used in the past, but most reactors now use a
136:of the neutrons and increase the probability that
112:relies on fissionable material that can sustain a
3443:
3035:issue and are not treated as such by regulators.
1467:
1070:
4381:
3205:Edwards, C. R.; Oliver, A. J. (September 2000).
3123:
2680:
2664:
2335:A fuel cycle in which plutonium is used for fuel
1265:fuel, the four conditions the IAEA consider are
3637:
2620:
2576:Fuel or targets for this actinide transmutation
2359:IFR concept (Black and White with clearer text)
2285:. This method is favored by six countries: the
2084:
2079:
2072:
2051:
2044:
2032:
2023:
1903:
1898:
1884:
462:. Note that the material is not always yellow.
167:or graphite as the moderator can operate using
4318:
4264:
4262:
3879:
2978:
1968:
1954:
1947:
1940:
1935:
1923:
1918:
1913:
4255:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2016.03.031
3204:
3042:and some graphite-moderated reactors can use
2932:creates mainly Uranium-233 contaminated with
2747:, which in turn is used as fuel. Hence, like
2016:
2011:
1997:
1988:
1866:
1861:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1824:
1819:
1805:
1798:
1774:
1769:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1740:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1536:
1041:ratio than most of the fuel. This is because
1015:
808:and the complexity of each computation. Many
630:. About 95% of depleted uranium is stored as
401:methods also are used to mine uranium in the
376:, and the isotope is therefore said to be a "
4062:. LAMPF user`s group meeting. Washington, DC
2462:
1524:Actinides and fission products by half-life
1496:could be converted to short-lived or stable
1314:A paper was written on the radioactivity in
1092:(Cs) binds tightly to clay minerals such as
274:– the principal raw material of nuclear fuel
4259:
3606:A. Preston, J.W.R. Dutton and B.R. Harvey,
3365:Depleted UF6 Management Information Network
2970:Thorium was first used commercially in the
1791:in the range of 100 a–210 ka ...
1662:
1653:
1635:
454:", which is sold on the uranium market as U
232:fissile isotopes from fertile materials; a
4169:H. Kleykamps, J. Nucl. Mater. 275 (1999) 1
3697:fission of uranium-235, e.g. in a typical
1543:
1529:
850:solid with a structure similar to that of
764:
3864:
3831:
3334:
3287:
3179:
1472:As an alternative to the disposal of the
1197:ions on the uptake of the radioisotopes.
827:
694:. For the most common types of reactors,
517:which do not require enriched fuel, the U
4052:
4015:
2566:
2512:(United States and European designs) or
2354:
2338:
2330:
2268:
2245:Although the most common terminology is
2113:naturally occurring radioactive material
2102:cross section in the range of 8–50 barns
1057:
914:
561:
95:
31:
3251:
2502:accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor
2315:Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository
14:
4382:
3564:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
3145:
2530:Epithermal 100 eV to 100 keV
2478:A number of reactor designs, like the
198:, which generates the fissile isotope
4321:"Towards an Energy Independent India"
3794:
3301:http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-012-53210
3153:"Nuclear Waste May Get A Second Life"
2391:are separated from the reactor-grade
2257:, which generally must be treated as
2176:can fission all actinides, while the
2065:
1784:
465:
120:. Examples of such materials include
3175:
3173:
3019:. The main thorium-bearing mineral,
2399:. Because the proportion of the non-
2395:, which can then be fabricated into
931:) which can be further oxidised to U
4109:Brolly Á.; Vértes P. (March 2005).
3680:with a half life of less than four
3252:Karpius, Peter (February 2, 2017).
3072:is not normally used in respect to
2945:and other breeder reactor designs.
2273:A once through (or open) fuel cycle
1337:
824:techniques to manage this problem.
804:methods, due to the huge number of
781:, which is water in most reactors.
331:– a compact, inert, insoluble solid
24:
4243:https://doi.org/10.1039/C8SE00610E
3391:"Susquehanna Nuclear Energy Guide"
2320:
1366:
1177:conditions has been reported. The
711:Transport of radioactive materials
624:United States Department of Energy
25:
4426:
4353:World Nuclear Transport Institute
4346:
4025:XX International Linac Conference
3948:. Nuclear Engineering at Argonne.
3795:Conca, James (January 31, 2019).
3396:. PPL Corporation. Archived from
3276:World Journal of Nuclear Medicine
3170:
3131:"Why Nuclear – Generation Atomic"
2583:If actinides are transmuted in a
2200:as waste. The highly radioactive
2162:. The Department of Energy chose
1515:
1458:Global Nuclear Energy Partnership
1390:
746:spent nuclear fuel shipping casks
705:
91:
4367:
4053:Heighway, E. A. (July 1, 1994).
2716:
2629:of actinides in a solid such as
2435:facility onsite, and the use of
1397:Spent nuclear fuel shipping cask
1111:, the distribution coefficient K
838:Used nuclear fuel is studied in
318:
297:
279:
261:
4312:
4287:
4274:
4247:
4235:
4226:
4217:
4208:
4199:
4190:
4181:
4172:
4163:
4154:
4145:
4136:
4127:
4102:
4074:
4046:
4009:
3980:
3966:
3952:
3929:
3905:Dyck, Peter; Crijns, Martin J.
3898:
3873:
3840:
3807:
3788:
3771:
3754:
3741:
3704:
3687:
3666:
3631:
3617:
3600:
3591:
3582:
3573:
3556:
3536:
3516:
3500:
3480:
3460:
3437:
3415:
2703:Uranium cycle in renewable mode
2693:
2265:Once-through nuclear fuel cycle
1449:due to the perceived danger of
1401:
846:is uranium dioxide, which is a
470:Usually milled uranium oxide, U
243:, most of which are considered
3640:Nuclear Engineering and Design
3383:
3353:
3328:
3268:
3245:
3198:
2965:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
2793:
2240:
1468:Partitioning and transmutation
1360:optimal fuel reloading problem
1342:Some reactor designs, such as
1071:Normal and abnormal conditions
1024:based fuel interacts with the
985:often form insoluble hydrated
791:optimal fuel reloading problem
641:
341:A deposit of uranium, such as
336:
128:. Most nuclear reactors use a
13:
1:
3652:10.1016/S0029-5493(96)01374-X
3117:
2950:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
2681:Actinides in a uranium matrix
2665:Actinides in a thorium matrix
2219:Horizontal drillhole disposal
2202:medium-lived fission products
996:’ using uranium metal and an
551:
4284:for discussion of abundance.
4016:Gudowski, W. (August 2000).
3785:, Amsterdam, 315 pp. (2005).
3733:10.1016/0029-5582(65)90719-4
3335:Hore-Lacy, Ian, ed. (2016).
3038:Virtually all ever deployed
2621:Actinides in an inert matrix
2537:) 100 keV to 3 MeV
2067:... nor beyond 15.7 Ma
1508:irradiation. This is called
1080:) an accident is occurring.
840:Post irradiation examination
834:Post irradiation examination
735:Since nuclear materials are
606:(DU), which can be used for
525:may instead be converted to
513:For use in reactors such as
254:
7:
4395:Nuclear fuel infrastructure
3095:
3015:in some countries, notably
2979:Current industrial activity
2213:long-lived fission products
2168:Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
1786:No fission products have a
1519:
533:) which can be included in
485:For use in most reactors, U
10:
4431:
3254:Uranium Mining and Milling
3107:Deep Geological Repository
2727:In the thorium fuel cycle
2720:
2669:Upon neutron bombardment,
2431:The use of a medium-scale
2324:
2160:deep geological repository
2130:
1411:
1405:
1394:
1278:Three Mile Island accident
1016:Fuel cladding interactions
831:
700:pressurized water reactors
645:
612:kinetic energy penetrators
555:
428:
387:
3231:10.1007/s11837-000-0181-2
3007:are comparatively small.
2921:which is low compared to
2873:
2840:
2809:
2792:
2475:is being used as a fuel.
2463:Minor actinides recycling
2249:some argue that the term
2094:
1574:
1563:
1554:
1522:
1352:pressurized water reactor
1107:According to Jiří Hála's
383:
357:, which is the number of
2866:
2860:
2833:
2827:
2802:
2796:
2785:
2779:
2527:Thermal 0 to 100 eV
2508:. Here a beam of either
2153:of 1982 as amended, the
2151:Nuclear Waste Policy Act
2143:spent fuel from reactors
493:is usually converted to
52:, is the progression of
4319:Chidambaram R. (1997).
3880:Harvey, L.D.D. (2010).
3180:Hore-Lacy, Ian (2016).
3011:is more plentiful than
2489:It so happens that the
2180:produces low levels of
1045:isotopes are formed as
765:In-core fuel management
582:cores. Accordingly, UF
103:American football field
82:once-through fuel cycle
2884:
2572:
2360:
2352:
2336:
2317:in the United States.
2274:
1067:
920:
828:The study of used fuel
696:boiling water reactors
575:
421:used in high analysis
106:
41:
4089:Nuclear Energy Agency
3029:uranium mine tailings
2885:
2597:Integral Fast Reactor
2589:particle accelerators
2570:
2558:Muon-catalyzed fusion
2547:DT fusion 14 MeV
2491:neutron cross-section
2480:Integral Fast Reactor
2441:nuclear proliferation
2411:isotopes of plutonium
2358:
2345:integral fast reactor
2342:
2334:
2311:geological repository
2272:
2174:Fast-neutron reactors
2111:№, primarily a
2098:₡, has thermal
1455:Bush Administration's
1451:nuclear proliferation
1422:materials, including
1356:boiling water reactor
1120:growing on the soil.
1061:
973:The concentration of
918:
798:discrete optimization
565:
226:fast-neutron reactors
99:
35:
4405:Nuclear reprocessing
4331:on December 17, 2007
4034:on November 29, 2007
3917:on December 10, 2007
3403:on November 29, 2007
3371:on December 23, 2007
3102:Horizontal Drillhole
3060:light water reactors
3040:heavy water reactors
2762:
2673:can be converted to
2607:transuranic elements
2367:services offered by
2155:Department of Energy
1492:and some long-lived
1408:Nuclear reprocessing
1224:(different from the
1222:biological half-life
1216:compound acts as an
1066:are not compromised.
771:nuclear reactor core
758:uranium hexafluoride
726:uranium hexafluoride
677:nuclear reactor core
632:uranium hexafluoride
495:uranium hexafluoride
313:– used in enrichment
147:than are needed for
4390:Hazardous materials
3725:1965NucPh..71..299M
3548:J Nuclear Materials
3528:J Nuclear Materials
3508:J Nuclear Materials
3486:V.V. Rondinella VV
3472:J Nuclear Materials
3289:10.1055/s-012-53210
3282:(4). October 2019.
3223:2000JOM....52i..12E
3025:rare earth elements
2972:Indian Point Unit 1
2954:molten salt reactor
2911:molten salt reactor
2855:
2824:
2751:, thorium-232 is a
2585:Subcritical reactor
2506:subcritical reactor
2389:reprocessed uranium
2385:activation products
2198:activation products
1439:reprocessed uranium
616:radiation shielding
580:light water reactor
480:triuranium octoxide
361:plus the number of
219:reprocessing plants
176:light water reactor
4410:Nuclear technology
4374:Nuclear technology
4282:Thorium occurrence
4270:thorium fuel cycle
3866:10.3390/en13040833
3833:10.3390/en12112052
3762:classically stable
3749:sea of instability
3693:Specifically from
3133:. January 26, 2021
2880:
2723:Thorium fuel cycle
2573:
2361:
2353:
2337:
2275:
2227:spent nuclear fuel
2178:thorium fuel cycle
2137:Spent nuclear fuel
1675:> 9 a
1414:Spent nuclear fuel
1381:ionizing radiation
1334:event is smaller.
1245:fallout exists at
1068:
1006:cyclic voltammetry
921:
858:which are made of
626:alone has 470,000
589:isotope separation
576:
567:Nuclear fuel cycle
466:Uranium conversion
249:spent nuclear fuel
107:
74:spent nuclear fuel
50:nuclear fuel chain
46:nuclear fuel cycle
42:
4415:Radioactive waste
3760:Excluding those "
3492:Radiochimica Acta
3346:978-0-08-100307-7
3316:Missing or empty
3191:978-0-08-100307-7
2877:
2876:
2865:
2864:
2863:
2856:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2784:
2783:
2782:
2774:
2773:
2770:
2743:-233 and then to
2133:Radioactive waste
2129:
2128:
2090:0.7–14.1 Ga
2086:
2081:
2074:
2053:
2046:
2034:
2025:
2018:
2013:
1999:
1990:
1970:
1956:
1949:
1942:
1937:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1905:
1900:
1886:
1868:
1863:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1826:
1821:
1807:
1800:
1776:
1771:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1742:
1737:
1730:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1664:
1655:
1637:
1484:matrix, the most
1326:fuel cladding in
1226:nuclear half-life
1141:= 10000 to 100000
1030:thermal expansion
890:phase which is a
810:numerical methods
593:Gaseous diffusion
245:radioactive waste
207:fertile materials
86:closed fuel cycle
18:Reactor refueling
16:(Redirected from
4422:
4372:
4371:
4370:
4363:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4336:
4316:
4310:
4308:
4306:
4304:
4299:
4291:
4285:
4278:
4272:
4266:
4257:
4251:
4245:
4239:
4233:
4230:
4224:
4221:
4215:
4212:
4206:
4203:
4197:
4194:
4188:
4185:
4179:
4176:
4170:
4167:
4161:
4158:
4152:
4149:
4143:
4140:
4134:
4131:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4115:
4106:
4100:
4099:
4097:
4095:
4086:
4078:
4072:
4071:
4069:
4067:
4061:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4039:
4033:
4027:. Archived from
4022:
4013:
4007:
4006:
4004:
4002:
3993:
3984:
3978:
3977:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3933:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3922:
3913:. Archived from
3902:
3896:
3895:
3877:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3844:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3811:
3805:
3804:
3792:
3786:
3775:
3769:
3758:
3752:
3745:
3739:
3736:
3708:
3702:
3691:
3685:
3670:
3664:
3663:
3646:(1–3): 191–201.
3635:
3629:
3628:
3621:
3615:
3604:
3598:
3595:
3589:
3586:
3580:
3577:
3571:
3560:
3554:
3540:
3534:
3520:
3514:
3504:
3498:
3484:
3478:
3464:
3458:
3457:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3430:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3408:
3402:
3395:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3378:
3376:
3367:. Archived from
3357:
3351:
3350:
3332:
3326:
3325:
3319:
3314:
3312:
3304:
3291:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3202:
3196:
3195:
3177:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3127:
3048:enriched uranium
2958:thorium fluoride
2895:fissile material
2889:
2887:
2886:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2861:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2842:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2811:
2797:
2780:
2775:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2753:fertile material
2614:delayed neutrons
2377:Fission products
2255:fission products
2194:fission products
2085:
2080:
2073:
2052:
2045:
2033:
2024:
2017:
2012:
2008:1.61–6.5 Ma
1998:
1989:
1969:
1955:
1948:
1941:
1936:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1904:
1899:
1885:
1874:8.3–8.5 ka
1867:
1862:
1855:4.7–7.4 ka
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:1.3–1.6 ka
1825:
1820:
1806:
1799:
1789:
1775:
1770:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1741:
1736:
1729:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1663:
1654:
1636:
1576:Fission products
1545:
1538:
1531:
1520:
1494:fission products
1437:, is a blend of
1433:Mixed oxide, or
1424:reaction poisons
1385:dry cask storage
1338:On-load reactors
1328:spent fuel pools
1267:normal operation
1055:melting points.
1047:fission products
987:uranium trioxide
852:calcium fluoride
673:enriched uranium
667:to create hard,
604:depleted uranium
570:disposition. In
558:Enriched uranium
322:
301:
283:
265:
241:fission products
21:
4430:
4429:
4425:
4424:
4423:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4380:
4379:
4378:
4368:
4366:
4358:
4349:
4344:
4334:
4332:
4317:
4313:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4293:
4292:
4288:
4279:
4275:
4267:
4260:
4252:
4248:
4240:
4236:
4231:
4227:
4222:
4218:
4213:
4209:
4204:
4200:
4195:
4191:
4186:
4182:
4177:
4173:
4168:
4164:
4159:
4155:
4150:
4146:
4141:
4137:
4132:
4128:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4107:
4103:
4093:
4091:
4084:
4080:
4079:
4075:
4065:
4063:
4059:
4051:
4047:
4037:
4035:
4031:
4020:
4014:
4010:
4000:
3998:
3991:
3985:
3981:
3972:
3971:
3967:
3958:
3957:
3953:
3944:
3941:Wayback Machine
3934:
3930:
3920:
3918:
3903:
3899:
3892:
3878:
3874:
3845:
3841:
3812:
3808:
3793:
3789:
3776:
3772:
3759:
3755:
3746:
3742:
3737:
3713:Nuclear Physics
3709:
3705:
3699:nuclear reactor
3695:thermal neutron
3692:
3688:
3671:
3667:
3636:
3632:
3623:
3622:
3618:
3605:
3601:
3596:
3592:
3587:
3583:
3578:
3574:
3561:
3557:
3541:
3537:
3521:
3517:
3505:
3501:
3485:
3481:
3465:
3461:
3454:10.2172/1553317
3442:
3438:
3428:
3426:
3421:
3420:
3416:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3393:
3389:
3388:
3384:
3374:
3372:
3359:
3358:
3354:
3347:
3333:
3329:
3317:
3315:
3306:
3305:
3274:
3273:
3269:
3262:10.2172/1342847
3250:
3246:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3178:
3171:
3161:
3159:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3136:
3134:
3129:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3098:
3044:natural uranium
3005:proven reserves
2981:
2858:
2847:
2841:
2816:
2810:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2725:
2719:
2711:
2705:
2696:
2683:
2667:
2633:could be used.
2623:
2578:
2535:nuclear fission
2495:neutron capture
2469:minor actinides
2465:
2415:thermal reactor
2381:minor actinides
2371:and previously
2329:
2323:
2321:Plutonium cycle
2267:
2243:
2192:and leave only
2190:minor actinides
2170:in New Mexico.
2139:
2131:Main articles:
2125:
2100:neutron capture
1963:327–375 ka
1932:150–250 ka
1811:430–900 a
1790:
1787:
1782:141–351 a
1567:
1550:
1549:
1518:
1490:minor actinides
1474:PUREX raffinate
1470:
1462:nuclear weapons
1416:
1410:
1404:
1399:
1393:
1373:spent fuel pool
1369:
1367:Interim storage
1340:
1286:
1258:
1160:
1150:
1140:
1130:
1114:
1098:montmorillonite
1073:
1064:uranium dioxide
1052:uranium dioxide
1022:uranium dioxide
1018:
983:uranium dioxide
968:minor actinides
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
911:
907:
903:
836:
830:
784:Because of the
767:
731:
713:
708:
692:zirconium alloy
688:Stainless steel
659:
654:uranium dioxide
650:
644:
637:
585:
560:
554:
547:
543:
537:fuel elements.
532:
527:uranium dioxide
524:
520:
507:uranium dioxide
500:
492:
488:
477:
473:
468:
461:
457:
449:
445:
431:
419:phosphoric acid
412:
408:
392:
386:
339:
332:
323:
314:
310:
302:
293:
284:
275:
266:
257:
234:breeder reactor
169:natural uranium
149:nuclear weapons
94:
78:open fuel cycle
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4428:
4418:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4377:
4376:
4356:
4355:
4348:
4347:External links
4345:
4343:
4342:
4311:
4286:
4273:
4258:
4246:
4234:
4225:
4216:
4207:
4198:
4189:
4180:
4171:
4162:
4153:
4144:
4135:
4126:
4101:
4073:
4045:
4008:
3979:
3965:
3951:
3928:
3897:
3891:978-1849710732
3890:
3872:
3839:
3806:
3787:
3770:
3753:
3740:
3703:
3686:
3665:
3630:
3616:
3599:
3590:
3581:
3572:
3555:
3535:
3515:
3499:
3479:
3459:
3436:
3414:
3382:
3352:
3345:
3327:
3267:
3244:
3197:
3190:
3169:
3144:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3097:
3094:
3076:, which fuses
3052:naval reactors
2980:
2977:
2919:breeding ratio
2891:
2890:
2872:
2869:
2853:
2850:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2822:
2819:
2814:
2808:
2805:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2778:
2721:Main article:
2718:
2715:
2709:
2704:
2701:
2695:
2692:
2682:
2679:
2666:
2663:
2658:
2657:
2654:
2651:
2648:
2645:
2642:
2622:
2619:
2577:
2574:
2562:
2561:
2555:
2548:
2545:
2538:
2531:
2528:
2464:
2461:
2437:pyroprocessing
2349:pyroprocessing
2322:
2319:
2266:
2263:
2242:
2239:
2164:Yucca Mountain
2127:
2126:
2124:
2123:
2120:neutron poison
2116:
2109:
2103:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2043:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1967:
1965:
1960:
1958:
1953:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1909:32–76 ka
1907:
1902:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1857:
1856:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1832:
1831:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1809:
1804:
1802:
1797:
1794:
1793:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1765:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1614:
1605:
1596:
1587:
1586:
1573:
1562:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1540:
1533:
1525:
1523:
1517:
1516:Waste disposal
1514:
1469:
1466:
1406:Main article:
1403:
1400:
1395:Main article:
1392:
1391:Transportation
1389:
1368:
1365:
1348:CANDU reactors
1339:
1336:
1285:
1282:
1257:
1254:
1237:grade used in
1163:
1162:
1158:
1152:
1148:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1128:
1112:
1072:
1069:
1017:
1014:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
909:
905:
901:
832:Main article:
829:
826:
766:
763:
729:
712:
709:
707:
706:Service period
704:
657:
646:Main article:
643:
640:
635:
597:gas centrifuge
583:
556:Main article:
553:
550:
545:
541:
530:
522:
518:
498:
490:
486:
475:
471:
467:
464:
459:
455:
447:
443:
430:
427:
410:
406:
390:Uranium mining
388:Main article:
385:
382:
367:atomic nucleus
338:
335:
334:
333:
324:
317:
315:
308:
303:
296:
294:
285:
278:
276:
267:
260:
256:
253:
134:kinetic energy
114:chain reaction
93:
92:Basic concepts
90:
72:or dispose of
62:service period
48:, also called
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4427:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4400:Nuclear fuels
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4375:
4365:
4364:
4361:
4354:
4351:
4350:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4315:
4296:
4290:
4283:
4277:
4271:
4265:
4263:
4256:
4250:
4244:
4238:
4229:
4220:
4211:
4202:
4193:
4184:
4175:
4166:
4157:
4148:
4139:
4130:
4112:
4105:
4090:
4083:
4077:
4058:
4057:
4049:
4030:
4026:
4019:
4012:
3997:
3990:
3983:
3975:
3969:
3961:
3955:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3932:
3916:
3912:
3911:IAEA Bulletin
3908:
3901:
3893:
3887:
3884:. Earthscan.
3883:
3876:
3867:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3843:
3834:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3810:
3802:
3798:
3791:
3784:
3783:0-08-044462-8
3780:
3774:
3767:
3763:
3757:
3750:
3744:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3707:
3700:
3696:
3690:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3669:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3634:
3626:
3620:
3613:
3609:
3603:
3594:
3585:
3576:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3552:
3549:
3545:
3539:
3532:
3529:
3525:
3519:
3512:
3509:
3503:
3496:
3493:
3489:
3483:
3476:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3424:
3418:
3399:
3392:
3386:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3356:
3348:
3342:
3338:
3331:
3323:
3310:
3302:
3299:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3248:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3201:
3193:
3187:
3183:
3176:
3174:
3158:
3154:
3148:
3132:
3126:
3122:
3113:
3112:Deep Borehole
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3070:
3064:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3036:
3034:
3033:nuclear waste
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
3001:Earth's crust
2998:
2994:
2993:plutonium-239
2990:
2986:
2976:
2973:
2968:
2966:
2962:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2924:
2923:fast reactors
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2870:
2867:
2851:
2848:
2843:
2837:
2834:
2820:
2817:
2812:
2806:
2803:
2789:
2786:
2776:
2758:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2724:
2717:Thorium cycle
2714:
2700:
2691:
2689:
2678:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2655:
2652:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2618:
2615:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2600:
2598:
2593:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2539:
2536:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2476:
2474:
2470:
2460:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2420:
2419:fast reactors
2416:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2357:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2333:
2328:
2318:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2287:United States
2284:
2280:
2271:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2223:Earth's crust
2220:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2138:
2134:
2121:
2117:
2114:
2110:
2108:
2104:
2101:
2097:
2096:
2093:
2089:
2077:
2071:
2068:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2050:
2042:
2040:
2039:15–24 Ma
2037:
2030:
2028:
2022:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1995:
1994:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1952:
1946:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1912:
1908:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1890:24.1 ka
1889:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1877:
1873:
1871:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1833:
1829:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1781:
1779:
1767:
1766:
1748:
1745:
1733:
1727:
1709:
1706:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1661:
1658:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1634:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1541:
1539:
1534:
1532:
1527:
1526:
1521:
1513:
1511:
1510:transmutation
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1447:United States
1443:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1429:
1428:United States
1425:
1421:
1415:
1409:
1398:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1364:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1318:found in the
1317:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1268:
1263:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1218:ion-exchanger
1215:
1211:
1207:
1206:Prussian blue
1203:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1161:= 0.007 to 50
1156:
1153:
1146:
1143:
1136:
1133:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1121:
1119:
1110:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1085:
1081:
1079:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
990:
988:
984:
980:
976:
971:
969:
964:
917:
913:
899:
896:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
856:nanoparticles
853:
849:
845:
841:
835:
825:
823:
819:
818:computational
815:
811:
807:
803:
802:combinatorial
799:
794:
792:
787:
782:
780:
776:
772:
762:
759:
755:
749:
747:
742:
738:
733:
727:
722:
717:
703:
701:
697:
693:
689:
684:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
663:
655:
649:
639:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
600:
598:
594:
590:
581:
573:
568:
564:
559:
549:
538:
536:
528:
516:
511:
508:
502:
496:
483:
481:
463:
453:
441:
437:
426:
424:
420:
416:
404:
403:United States
400:
397:
396:In-situ leach
391:
381:
379:
375:
370:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
346:
344:
330:
329:
321:
316:
312:
311:
300:
295:
291:
290:
282:
277:
273:
272:
264:
259:
258:
252:
250:
246:
242:
237:
235:
231:
227:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
205:
201:
197:
193:
192:weapons-grade
189:
185:
181:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
143:
139:
135:
132:to lower the
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
110:Nuclear power
104:
98:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
39:
34:
30:
19:
4333:. Retrieved
4329:the original
4324:
4314:
4301:. Retrieved
4289:
4276:
4249:
4237:
4228:
4219:
4210:
4201:
4192:
4183:
4174:
4165:
4156:
4147:
4138:
4129:
4117:. Retrieved
4104:
4092:. Retrieved
4088:
4076:
4064:. Retrieved
4055:
4048:
4036:. Retrieved
4029:the original
4024:
4011:
3999:. Retrieved
3995:
3982:
3968:
3954:
3937:Ghostarchive
3935:Archived at
3931:
3919:. Retrieved
3915:the original
3910:
3900:
3881:
3875:
3856:
3852:
3842:
3826:(11): 2052.
3823:
3819:
3809:
3800:
3790:
3773:
3756:
3743:
3716:
3712:
3706:
3689:
3681:
3668:
3643:
3639:
3633:
3619:
3611:
3607:
3602:
3593:
3584:
3575:
3567:
3563:
3558:
3550:
3547:
3543:
3538:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3518:
3510:
3507:
3502:
3494:
3491:
3487:
3482:
3474:
3471:
3467:
3462:
3439:
3427:. Retrieved
3425:. Wnti.co.uk
3417:
3405:. Retrieved
3398:the original
3385:
3373:. Retrieved
3369:the original
3364:
3355:
3336:
3330:
3318:|title=
3309:cite journal
3279:
3275:
3270:
3247:
3217:(9): 12–20.
3214:
3210:
3200:
3181:
3160:. Retrieved
3156:
3147:
3135:. Retrieved
3125:
3074:fusion power
3069:nuclear fuel
3067:
3065:
3037:
2991:(U-238) and
2982:
2969:
2947:
2927:
2907:protactinium
2892:
2741:protactinium
2726:
2706:
2697:
2694:Mixed matrix
2688:fast reactor
2684:
2668:
2659:
2635:
2624:
2611:
2603:
2601:
2594:
2582:
2579:
2563:
2544:2.5 MeV
2522:
2499:
2488:
2477:
2466:
2449:
2433:reprocessing
2430:
2365:reprocessing
2362:
2307:South Africa
2278:
2277:Not a cycle
2276:
2250:
2246:
2244:
2235:Strontium-90
2217:
2182:transuranics
2172:
2140:
2066:
1985:1.33 Ma
1785:
1747:29–97 a
1708:10–29 a
1618:
1609:
1600:
1592:
1471:
1444:
1432:
1417:
1402:Reprocessing
1370:
1359:
1341:
1313:
1287:
1271:
1266:
1259:
1249:
1199:
1173:grown under
1168:
1164:
1106:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1074:
1019:
1010:AC impedance
991:
972:
965:
922:
844:nuclear fuel
837:
806:permutations
795:
790:
783:
768:
750:
734:
721:nuclear fuel
714:
685:
651:
648:Nuclear fuel
601:
577:
572:reprocessing
566:
539:
512:
503:
484:
469:
440:ion exchange
432:
393:
374:free neutron
371:
347:
340:
328:Nuclear fuel
325:
304:
286:
268:
238:
223:
173:
108:
85:
81:
77:
65:
61:
57:
54:nuclear fuel
49:
45:
43:
38:nuclear fuel
29:
4335:January 15,
4119:January 15,
4094:January 15,
4066:January 15,
4038:January 15,
4001:January 15,
3921:January 15,
3766:quadrillion
3522:Miserque F
3407:January 15,
3375:January 15,
3088:to release
2989:uranium-238
2985:uranium-235
2939:transuranic
2934:Uranium-232
2749:uranium-238
2745:uranium-233
2737:beta decays
2729:thorium-232
2675:uranium-233
2560:7 GeV.
2533:Fast (from
2445:electro-won
2247:fuel cycle,
2241:Fuel cycles
2231:Caesium-137
2063:80 Ma
1631:<0.001%
1628:0.04–1.25%
1560:decay chain
1420:radioactive
1302:noble gases
1151:= 80 to 150
1078:more rarely
737:radioactive
671:pellets of
642:Fabrication
423:fertilizers
355:mass number
337:Exploration
271:Uranium ore
204:irradiating
188:mixed oxide
165:heavy water
157:heavy water
4384:Categories
3859:(4): 833.
3719:(2): 299.
3614:, 689–690.
3118:References
3058:from most
3056:spent fuel
2731:absorbs a
2604:radiotoxic
2484:half-lives
2459:reactors.
2452:Remix Fuel
2325:See also:
2251:fuel chain
1648:4–6 a
1500:by either
1486:radiotoxic
1412:See also:
1377:decay heat
1212:potassium
1175:hydroponic
1171:sunflowers
994:sputtering
888:perovskite
884:tetragonal
860:molybdenum
796:This is a
698:(BWR) and
552:Enrichment
452:yellowcake
353:'s atomic
289:Yellowcake
3678:radon-222
3660:0029-5493
3570:, 236–250
3429:April 20,
3298:1450-1147
3239:1047-4838
3066:The term
2987:(U-235),
2852:−
2849:β
2821:−
2818:β
2794:⟶
2514:electrons
2473:americium
2393:plutonium
2313:like the
2283:biosphere
2186:plutonium
2147:biosphere
2118:þ,
2105:ƒ,
1788:half-life
1565:Half-life
1556:Actinides
1354:(PWR) or
1332:Windscale
1320:Irish Sea
1294:Green run
1243:Chernobyl
1230:droppings
1202:livestock
1187:potassium
1109:text book
1026:zirconium
975:carbonate
898:zirconate
895:strontium
882:) and σ (
876:hexagonal
872:palladium
864:ruthenium
822:empirical
775:moderator
754:fuel rods
741:shielding
716:Transport
662:sintering
415:phosphate
343:uraninite
255:Front end
130:moderator
126:plutonium
70:reprocess
58:front end
4325:Nu-Power
4303:March 8,
3939:and the
3853:Energies
3820:Energies
3674:polonium
3610:, 1968,
3566:, 2006,
3533::280–290
3497::527–531
3162:June 27,
3137:June 27,
3096:See also
3082:hydrogen
3078:isotopes
3021:monazite
2897:such as
2844:→
2813:→
2631:zirconia
2426:isotopes
2423:actinide
2397:MOX fuel
2369:Areva NC
1498:isotopes
1435:MOX fuel
1191:ammonium
989:phases.
814:software
436:tailings
363:neutrons
230:breeding
182:to 3–5%
180:enriched
161:Reactors
153:Graphite
145:isotopes
118:neutrons
66:back end
3721:Bibcode
3546:(2006)
3526:(2001)
3490:(2000)
3470:(1991)
3219:Bibcode
3157:NPR.org
3013:uranium
3009:Thorium
2997:thorium
2929:Thorium
2772:neutron
2733:neutron
2671:thorium
2552:protons
2518:photons
2510:protons
2401:fissile
2299:Finland
2107:fissile
1625:4.5–7%
1568:range (
1502:neutron
1316:oysters
1306:tritium
1235:pigment
1214:cyanide
1208:. This
1195:calcium
1179:caesium
1090:caesium
1039:uranium
1035:caesium
979:uranium
868:rhodium
786:fission
779:coolant
669:ceramic
665:furnace
620:ballast
535:ceramic
429:Milling
378:fissile
365:in the
359:protons
351:isotope
215:thorium
196:thorium
142:fissile
138:fission
122:uranium
4360:Portal
3888:
3801:Forbes
3781:
3768:years.
3658:
3608:Nature
3553::58–68
3544:et al.
3524:et al.
3488:et al.
3477::48-60
3468:et al.
3343:
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3237:
3188:
3090:energy
3086:helium
2903:Pu-239
2542:fusion
2387:, and
2295:Sweden
2291:Canada
2279:per se
2205:Cs-137
2115:(NORM)
1506:photon
1482:Synroc
1453:. The
1324:magnox
1290:iodine
1239:paints
1183:apical
1135:Pu-239
1131:= 1000
1125:Cs-137
1094:illite
1002:oxygen
955:and UO
892:barium
628:tonnes
399:mining
384:Mining
163:using
80:(or a
4298:(PDF)
4114:(PDF)
4085:(PDF)
4060:(PDF)
4032:(PDF)
4021:(PDF)
3992:(PDF)
3513::1–31
3401:(PDF)
3394:(PDF)
3084:into
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2915:U-234
2899:U-235
2627:alloy
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2373:THORP
2303:Spain
2259:waste
2233:, or
2209:Sr-90
1584:yield
1478:glass
1344:RBMKs
1309:fuel.
1274:water
1155:I-131
1145:Sr-90
1118:grass
1043:xenon
998:argon
880:cubic
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681:alloy
608:armor
515:CANDU
211:U-238
200:U-233
184:U-235
116:with
4337:2008
4305:2021
4280:See
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3923:2008
3886:ISBN
3779:ISBN
3682:days
3656:ISSN
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3409:2008
3377:2008
3341:ISBN
3322:help
3294:ISSN
3235:ISSN
3186:ISBN
3164:2021
3139:2021
2961:salt
2875:fuel
2457:VVER
2408:mass
2404:even
2343:The
2305:and
2207:and
2196:and
2188:and
2135:and
1304:and
1262:IAEA
1260:The
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2790:232
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2540:DD
2075:Th
2054:Pu
2035:Cm
2019:Pd
2014:Zr
2000:Np
1991:Cs
1971:Se
1957:Pu
1950:Cm
1943:Sn
1938:Tc
1916:Np
1906:Pa
1901:Th
1887:Pu
1869:Cm
1864:Cm
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1822:Ra
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1801:Am
1777:Am
1772:Cf
1763:Sn
1758:Sm
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1743:Cm
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1724:Cd
1719:Kr
1714:Sr
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1699:Cf
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1665:Bk
1656:Eu
1638:Ra
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