917:
43:
936:(1831–1904), who had developed a rival "causal-mechanical theory" of human embryonic development. His's work specifically criticised Haeckel's methodology, arguing that the shapes of embryos were caused most immediately by mechanical pressures resulting from local differences in growth. These differences were, in turn, caused by "heredity". He compared the shapes of embryonic structures to those of rubber tubes that could be slit and bent, illustrating these comparisons with accurate drawings.
848:'s concepts. While often seen as rejecting Darwin's theory of branching evolution for a more linear Lamarckian view of progressive evolution, this is not accurate: Haeckel used the Lamarckian picture to describe the ontogenetic and phylogenetic history of individual species, but agreed with Darwin about the branching of all species from one, or a few, original ancestors. Since early in the twentieth century, Haeckel's "biogenetic law" has been refuted on many fronts.
948:
598:
2287:
795:
585:
1573:, an interpretation of vertebrate embryonic development. After this publication His arrived at another interpretation of the development of embryos: the concrescence theory, which claimed that at the beginning of development only the simple form of the head lies in the embryonic disk and that the axial portions of the body emerge only later.
1984:
Bates 1979, Wynn 1979) ... Thus, one child, having been shown the moon, applied the word 'moon' to a variety of objects with similar shapes as well as to the moon itself (Bowerman 1980). This spatial globality of reference is consistent with the archaeological appearance of graphic abstraction before graphic realism.
1543:
RĂĽtimeyer's ex-colleague, Wilhelm His, who had developed a rival, physiological embryology, which looked, not to the evolutionary past, but to bending and folding forces in the present. He now repeated and amplified the charges, and lay enemies used them to discredit the most prominent
Darwinist. But
1517:
The present interdisciplinary article offers cogent reasons why the biogenetic rule has no relevance for behavioral ontogeny. ... In contrast to anatomical ontogeny, in the case of behavioral ontogeny there are no empirical indications of 'behavioral interphenes, that developed phylogenetically from
1983:
While ontogeny does not generally recapitulate phylogeny in any direct sense (Gould 1977), both biological evolution and the stages in the child's cognitive development follow much the same progression of evolutionary stages as that suggested in the archaeological record (Borchert and
Zihlman 1990,
1237:
Its shortcomings have been almost universally pointed out by modern authors, but the idea still has a prominent place in biological mythology. The resemblance of early vertebrate embryos is readily explained without resort to mysterious forces compelling each individual to reclimb its phylogenetic
1004:
Embryos do reflect the course of evolution, but that course is far more intricate and quirky than
Haeckel claimed. Different parts of the same embryo can even evolve in different directions. As a result, the Biogenetic Law was abandoned, and its fall freed scientists to appreciate the full range of
863:
history of a species. Haeckel claimed that the development of advanced species passes through stages represented by adult organisms of more primitive species. Otherwise put, each successive stage in the development of an individual represents one of the adult forms that appeared in its evolutionary
963:
Darwin proposed that embryos resembled each other since they shared a common ancestor, which presumably had a similar embryo, but that development did not necessarily recapitulate phylogeny: he saw no reason to suppose that an embryo at any stage resembled an adult of any ancestor. Darwin supposed
1084:
In the late 20th century, studies of symbolism and learning in the field of cultural anthropology suggested that "both biological evolution and the stages in the child's cognitive development follow much the same progression of evolutionary stages as that suggested in the archaeological record".
871:
in the neck of the human embryo not only roughly resembled gill slits of fish, but directly represented an adult "fishlike" developmental stage, signifying a fishlike ancestor. Embryonic pharyngeal slits, which form in many animals when the thin branchial plates separating pharyngeal pouches and
1053:
used
Haeckel's theories as the basis for his theories of child development. His most influential work, "Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education" in 1904 suggested that each individual's life course recapitulated
988:) within the body of aspects of embryonic development would change the shape of a descendant's body compared to an ancestor's, were first formulated by Haeckel in the 1870s. These elements of his thinking about development have thus survived, whereas his theory of recapitulation has not.
1591:: "Haeckel sensed correctly that His was a far more serious competitor than his empirical critics... His would have substituted a drastically different approach and relegated the biogenetic law to irrelevancy—a fate far worse and far more irrevocable than any odor of inaccuracy."
907:
that often overemphasized similarities between embryos of related species. Modern biology rejects the literal and universal form of
Haeckel's theory, such as its possible application to behavioural ontogeny, i.e. the psychomotor development of young animals and human children.
1305:
Faulty logic and problematic proposals relating the development of an individual to the development of the species turn up even today. The hypothesis that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny has been applied and extended in a number of areas, including cognition and mental
1151:
message does, in fact, inform the work's identity (its ontology), even though that was an unlikely concern of the composer. Music or even an abstract visual artwork can not be truly autonomous ("absolute") because it is defined by its historical and social reception.
995:
where their morphology is strongly shaped by their phylogenetic position, rather than selective pressures, but that means only that they resemble other embryos at that stage, not ancestral adults as
Haeckel had claimed. The modern view is summarised by the
1039:
If there be an order in which the human race has mastered its various kinds of knowledge, there will arise in every child an aptitude to acquire these kinds of knowledge in the same order... Education is a repetition of civilization in
1030:
was one of the most energetic proponents of evolutionary ideas to explain many phenomena. In 1861, five years before
Haeckel first published on the subject, Spencer proposed a possible basis for a cultural recapitulation theory of
1097:
in 2005 applied the phrase "ontogeny becomes phylogeny" to the process of creating and recasting music history, often to assert a perspective or argument. For example, the peculiar development of the works by modernist composer
1274:
The so-called basic law of biogenetics is wrong. No buts or ifs can mitigate this fact. It is not even a tiny bit correct or correct in a different form, making it valid in a certain percentage. It is totally
1054:
humanity's evolution from "savagery" to "civilization". Though he has influenced later childhood development theories, Hall's conception is now generally considered racist. Developmental psychologist
1077:
outlook with justification from the recapitulation theory. Freud also distinguished between physical and mental recapitulation, in which the differences would become an essential argument for his
1471:
763:, and became a prominent part of his ideas. It suggested that past transformations of life could have been through environmental causes working on the embryo, rather than on the adult as in
944:
that His's attack on
Haeckel's recapitulation theory was far more fundamental than that of any empirical critic, as it effectively stated that Haeckel's "biogenetic law" was irrelevant.
1518:(primordial) behavioral metaphenes. ... These facts lead to the conclusion that attempts to establish a psychological theory on the basis of the biogenetic rule will not be fruitful.
1125:
is the investigation of what exactly something is, and
Taruskin asserts that an art object becomes that which society and succeeding generations made of it. For example,
314:
1544:
Haeckel argued that his figures were schematics, not intended to be exact. They stayed in his books and were widely copied, but still attract controversy today.
755:
The embryological theory was formalised by Serres in 1824–1826, based on Meckel's work, in what became known as the "Meckel-Serres Law". This attempted to link
2174:; Wright, Glenda M (1997). "There is no highly conserved embryonic stage in the vertebrates: Implications for current theories of evolution and development".
1110:
of the "collapse of traditional tonality" are faulted by music historians as asserting a rhetorical rather than historical point about tonality's "collapse".
701:, the shortcomings of the theory had been recognized by the early 20th century, and it had been relegated to "biological mythology" by the mid-20th century.
1005:
embryonic changes that evolution can produce—an appreciation that has yielded spectacular results in recent years as scientists have discovered some of the
1652:"The Origin of Species: "Chapter Thirteen: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs" (1859), by Charles R. Darwin"
1651:
1502:
997:
976:(evo-devo) follows von Baer, rather than Darwin, in pointing to active evolution of embryonic development as a significant means of changing the
1073:, also favored Haeckel's doctrine. He was trained as a biologist under the influence of recapitulation theory during its heyday, and retained a
1822:
629:
237:
1102:(here an "ontogeny") is generalized in many histories into a "phylogeny" – a historical development ("evolution") of Western music toward
2322:
851:
Haeckel formulated his theory as "Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny". The notion later became simply known as the recapitulation theory.
548:
2317:
356:
62:
2008:
1414:
1298:
678:), goes through stages resembling or representing successive adult stages in the evolution of the animal's remote ancestors (
543:
490:
1113:
Taruskin also developed a variation of the motto into the pun "ontogeny recapitulates ontology" to refute the concept of "
1901:
Adolescence: Its
Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education
2312:
973:
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622:
351:
182:
20:
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1259:
1222:
760:
2230:
Gerhard Medicus (2017, chapter 8). Being Human – Bridging the Gap between the Sciences of Body and Mind, Berlin VWB
84:
964:
further that embryos were subject to less intense selection pressure than adults, and had therefore changed less.
784:
341:
309:
2215:
775:. The theory was widely supported in the Edinburgh and London schools of higher anatomy around 1830, notably by
2039:
563:
346:
822:
615:
602:
1779:
Kalinka, A. T.; Tomancak, P. (2012). "The evolution of early animal embryos: Conservation or divergence?".
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89:
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67:
1828:
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The Haeckelian form of recapitulation theory is considered defunct. Embryos do undergo a period or
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425:
247:
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1978:
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RICHARDSON, MICHAEL K.; KEUCK, GERHARD (2002). "Haeckel's ABC of evolution and development".
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of adult bodies. Two of the key principles of evo-devo, namely that changes in the timing (
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420:
192:
77:
34:
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is the growth (size change) and development (structure change) of an individual organism;
8:
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47:
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The tragic sense of life : Ernst Haeckel and the struggle over evolutionary thought
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Richardson, M. K; Hanken, James; Gooneratne, Mayoni L; Pieau, Claude; Raynaud, Albert;
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1387:
1190:
George Romanes's 1892 version of the figure is often attributed incorrectly to Haeckel.
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269:
197:
162:
2271:
Of Parts and Wholes: Self-similarity and Synecdoche in Science, Culture and Literature
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The idea that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny has been applied to some other areas.
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122:
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1882:
1530:
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741:
683:
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2222:
Bates, E., with L. Benigni, I. Bretherton, L. Camaioni, & V. Volterra. (1979).
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1751:
1712:
1622:
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840:
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Analogies to recapitulation theory have been formulated in other fields, including
289:
2029:
1878:
1288:
1210:
1050:
1027:
933:
932:
Haeckel's theory and drawings were criticised by his contemporary, the anatomist
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709:
242:
232:
94:
1827:, Evolution 101, University of California Museum of Paleontology, archived from
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42:
2301:
2171:
2158:
2082:
The politics of evolution: morphology, medicine, and reform in radical London
1915:
Lesko, Nancy (1996). "Past, Present, and Future Conceptions of Adolescence".
1603:"Rautenlippe Redux -- toward a unified view of the precerebellar rhombic lip"
1498:
1424:
1375:
1293:. Instructor's resource manual and test bank. Houghton Mifflin. p. 352.
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495:
480:
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259:
177:
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1232:
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with a "pattern of unification" in the organic world. It was supported by
1055:
505:
222:
172:
1738:
Drost, Hajk-Georg; Janitza, Philipp; Grosse, Ivo; Quint, Marcel (2017).
2256:
2229:
2125:
2101:
1970:
1969:
Foster, Mary LeCron (1994). "Symbolism: the foundation of culture". In
1724:
1676:
Hall, B. K. (2003). "Evo-Devo: evolutionary developmental mechanisms".
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phylogeny because the two are subject to similar external constraints.
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831:
764:
749:
279:
202:
157:
137:
51:
1490:
1472:"The Inapplicability of the Biogenetic Rule to Behavioral Development"
947:
867:
For example, Haeckel proposed that the pharyngeal grooves between the
2235:
Wynn, Thomas (1979). "The Intelligence of Later Acheulean Hominids".
1058:
favored a weaker version of the formula, according to which ontogeny
1032:
860:
679:
538:
152:
72:
2248:
2003:. Vol. 4. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 358–361.
1716:
2286:
2117:
1703:
Lovtrup, S (1978). "On von Baerian and Haeckelian Recapitulation".
1458:
Eventually, the Biogenetic Law had become scientifically untenable.
1122:
924:
of chick brain compared to folded rubber tube, 1874. Ag (Anlage) =
877:
852:
794:
675:
528:
127:
2224:
The emergence of symbols: Cognition and communication in infancy.
893:
873:
726:
2169:
2163:"Riddle of the Universe at the Close of the Nineteenth Century"
1103:
897:
881:
835:
667:
584:
2060:. Cambridge Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
1854:
The Educated Mind: How Cognitive Tools Shape Our Understanding
2104:(1994). "Recapitulation Reinterpreted: The Somatic Program".
1117:" advancing the socio-artistic theories of the musicologist
1136:
1409:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 136–142.
1740:"Cross-kingdom comparison of the developmental hourglass"
1442:
1356:
Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
885:
1600:
2210:
Borchert. Catherine M. and Zihlman, Adrienne L. (1990)
1737:
2275:
1106:
styles of which Schoenberg is a representative. Such
2149:
Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University.
1143:. Taruskin claims the historical development of the
884:, the first pharyngeal arch develops into the lower
1968:
725:The idea of recapitulation was first formulated in
2079:
2053:
1209:
1135:, composed in the 1720s, was appropriated by the
830:(1834–1919) attempted to synthesize the ideas of
2299:
1841:
876:to the outside. Pharyngeal arches appear in all
748:states, it soon gained the status of a supposed
1877:
1778:
1469:
1440:
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998:University of California Museum of Paleontology
2157:
1962:
1824:Early Evolution and Development: Ernst Haeckel
1678:International Journal of Developmental Biology
1436:
1434:
1013:
2151:"Evolution and Development I: Size and shape"
1744:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
1243:
623:
1847:
1601:Ray, R. S.; Dymecki, S. M. (December 2009).
1249:
1213:; Holm, Richard W.; Parnell, Dennis (1963).
1994:
1992:
1857:. University of Chicago Press. p. 27.
1772:
1463:
1431:
1286:
823:Icons of Evolution § Haeckel's embryos
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2031:Vico, metaphor, and the origin of language
1908:
1322:
1203:
630:
616:
2212:The ontogeny and phylogeny of symbolizing
1755:
1626:
1531:"Making visible embryos: Forgery charges"
1254:. New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 32.
911:
2086:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2034:. Indiana University Press. p. 65.
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1989:
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1007:specific genes that control development
872:pharyngeal grooves perforate, open the
662:"—is an historical hypothesis that the
2300:
2027:
1975:Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology
1443:"Ernst Haeckel and the Biogenetic Law"
1329:
682:). It was formulated in the 1820s by
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1956:
1947:
1941:
1914:
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1217:. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 66.
729:from the 1790s onwards by the German
699:embryos also evolve in different ways
2234:
2100:
1904:. New York: D. Appleton and Company.
1897:
1675:
1317:
2001:The Oxford History of Western Music
1559:. Embryo Project Encyclopedia. 2007
13:
2323:Evolutionary developmental biology
2142:
1649:
1447:Developmental Biology, 8th edition
1287:Payne, D.G.; Wenger, M.J. (1998).
1088:
974:evolutionary developmental biology
21:Recapitulation theory of atonement
14:
2334:
2264:
2214:, in Foster and Botscharow (eds)
1781:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1571:Ăśber die Bildung des Lachsembryos
1147:(its ontogeny) as a work with an
928:, matching bulges in rubber tube.
690:, after whom it is also known as
2285:
1929:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1996.00453.x
1344:, pp. 52–53, 86–88, 337–340
967:
771:ideas led to disagreements with
660:ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
597:
596:
583:
41:
19:For the Christian doctrine, see
2318:History of evolutionary biology
2106:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1935:
1891:
1815:
1731:
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1656:The Embryo Project Encyclopedia
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1607:Current Opinion in Cell Biology
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1523:
590:Evolutionary biology portal
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1335:
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761:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
549:Creation–evolution controversy
303:History of evolutionary theory
1:
1197:
715:
1405:Richards, Robert J. (2008).
1252:The beginnings of human life
1250:Blechschmidt, Erich (1977).
534:Evolution as fact and theory
7:
1155:
1014:Applications to other areas
10:
2339:
2020:
1999:Taruskin, Richard (2005).
1801:10.1016/j.tree.2012.03.007
1569:In 1874 His published his
816:
812:
674:to gestation or hatching (
569:Nature-nurture controversy
18:
2313:Obsolete biology theories
1898:Hall, G. Stanley (1904).
1757:10.1016/j.gde.2017.03.003
1619:10.1016/j.ceb.2009.10.003
1533:. University of Cambridge
1368:10.1017/s1464793102005948
1035:with the following claim:
903:Haeckel produced several
652:embryological parallelism
456:Evolutionary neuroscience
431:Evolutionary epistemology
411:Evolutionary anthropology
391:Applications of evolution
2226:New York: Academic Press
1470:Gerhard Medicus (1992).
1441:Scott F Gilbert (2006).
1215:The process of evolution
1177:
1139:regime in the 1930s for
1065:The Austrian pioneer of
738:Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer
721:Meckel, Serres, Geoffroy
644:theory of recapitulation
446:Evolutionary linguistics
441:Evolutionary game theory
416:Evolutionary computation
2028:Danesi, Marcel (1993).
951:Embryology theories of
940:noted in his 1977 book
734:Johann Friedrich Meckel
688:Johann Friedrich Meckel
654:—often expressed using
559:Objections to evolution
466:Evolutionary psychology
461:Evolutionary physiology
406:Evolutionary aesthetics
385:Fields and applications
367:History of paleontology
2176:Anatomy and Embryology
2056:Ontogeny and Phylogeny
1650:Barnes, M. Elizabeth.
1172:Psychomotor patterning
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1011:
960:
942:Ontogeny and Phylogeny
929:
912:Contemporary criticism
809:
757:comparative embryology
491:Speciation experiments
471:Experimental evolution
426:Evolutionary economics
248:Recent human evolution
106:Processes and outcomes
2188:10.1007/s004290050082
1362:(4). Wiley: 495–528.
1127:Johann Sebastian Bach
1037:
1022:Cognitive development
1002:
950:
919:
817:Further information:
797:
779:, but was opposed by
706:cognitive development
686:based on the work of
451:Evolutionary medicine
396:Biosocial criminology
362:History of speciation
275:Evolutionary taxonomy
238:Timeline of evolution
16:Biological hypothesis
1449:. Sinauer Associates
1290:Cognitive Psychology
1026:English philosopher
731:natural philosophers
421:Evolutionary ecology
35:Evolutionary biology
2217:The Life of Symbols
1793:2012TEcoE..27..385K
984:) and positioning (
957:Karl Ernst von Baer
785:ideas of divergence
781:Karl Ernst von Baer
777:Robert Edmond Grant
670:of an animal, from
523:Social implications
511:Universal Darwinism
501:Island biogeography
436:Evolutionary ethics
401:Ecological genetics
347:Molecular evolution
285:Transitional fossil
113:Population genetics
29:Part of a series on
2076:Desmond, Adrian J.
2050:Gould, Stephen Jay
1959:, pp. 156–158
1917:Educational Theory
1705:Systematic Zoology
1079:theory of neuroses
961:
930:
890:Meckel's cartilage
810:
787:, and attacked by
646:, also called the
554:Theistic evolution
486:Selective breeding
198:Parallel evolution
163:Adaptive radiation
2010:978-0-195-38630-1
1557:"Wilhelm His, Sr"
1491:10.1159/000277108
1479:Human Development
1416:978-0-226-71219-2
1300:978-0-395-68573-0
1100:Arnold Schoenberg
1093:The musicologist
938:Stephen Jay Gould
869:pharyngeal arches
805:'s controversial
692:Meckel–Serres law
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331:Origin of Species
133:Natural selection
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1684:(7–8): 491–495.
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1501:. Archived from
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1207:
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1132:St. John Passion
1108:historiographies
1095:Richard Taruskin
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993:phylotypic stage
841:Naturphilosophie
801:'s 1892 copy of
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564:Level of support
357:Current research
342:Modern synthesis
337:Before synthesis
290:Extinction event
48:Darwin's finches
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1145:St John Passion
1091:
1089:Music criticism
1051:G. Stanley Hall
1047:
1045:Herbert Spencer
1044:
1028:Herbert Spencer
1024:
1016:
970:
934:Wilhelm His Sr.
914:
905:embryo drawings
825:
815:
807:embryo drawings
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710:music criticism
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2265:External links
2263:
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2172:Selwood, Lynne
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2159:Haeckel, Ernst
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2118:10.1086/418541
2112:(2): 223–232.
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1944:, pp. 144
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1090:
1087:
1067:psychoanalysis
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1012:
969:
966:
913:
910:
846:Charles Darwin
819:Embryo drawing
814:
811:
799:George Romanes
791:in the 1830s.
773:Georges Cuvier
742:Étienne Serres
722:
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684:Étienne Serres
648:biogenetic law
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746:Marcel Danesi
744:after which,
743:
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713:
711:
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693:
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656:Ernst Haeckel
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476:Phylogenetics
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328:
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321:
320:Before Darwin
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27:
22:
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2109:
2105:
2081:
2055:
2030:
2000:
1982:
1974:
1964:
1937:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1900:
1893:
1887:. p. 5.
1883:
1873:
1853:
1849:Egan, Kieran
1843:
1833:, retrieved
1829:the original
1823:
1817:
1784:
1780:
1774:
1747:
1743:
1733:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1659:. Retrieved
1655:
1645:
1613:(6): 741–7.
1610:
1606:
1596:
1580:
1570:
1568:
1561:. Retrieved
1551:
1542:
1535:. Retrieved
1525:
1516:
1510:. Retrieved
1503:the original
1482:
1478:
1465:
1457:
1451:. Retrieved
1446:
1406:
1400:
1359:
1355:
1349:
1342:Desmond 1989
1337:
1324:
1313:
1304:
1289:
1282:
1273:
1251:
1245:
1236:
1214:
1205:
1186:
1167:Stage theory
1149:anti-Semitic
1144:
1130:
1112:
1092:
1083:
1064:
1059:
1049:
1038:
1025:
1017:
1003:
990:
982:heterochrony
971:
962:
941:
931:
902:
880:embryos: in
866:
861:evolutionary
850:
839:
826:
789:Richard Owen
769:naturalistic
754:
724:
703:
696:
691:
659:
658:'s phrase "
651:
647:
643:
641:
496:Sociobiology
481:Paleontology
329:
265:Biogeography
260:Biodiversity
178:Coextinction
168:Co-operation
143:Polymorphism
68:Introduction
2102:Mayr, Ernst
1979:pp. 386-387
1977:. pp.
1587:, pp.
1330:Danesi 1993
1306:activities.
1056:Jean Piaget
926:Optic lobes
922:Wilhelm His
920:Drawing by
664:development
506:Systematics
315:Renaissance
193:Convergence
183:Contingency
173:Coevolution
2302:Categories
2041:0253113709
1971:Tim Ingold
1957:Gould 1977
1942:Gould 1977
1835:2013-02-20
1585:Gould 1977
1563:27 October
1537:27 October
1512:2008-04-30
1485:(1): 1–8.
1453:2008-05-03
1198:References
1162:Glottogony
1141:propaganda
1075:Lamarckian
986:heterotopy
978:morphology
832:Lamarckism
765:Lamarckism
750:biogenetic
716:Embryology
280:Cladistics
203:Extinction
188:Divergence
158:Speciation
138:Adaptation
52:John Gould
1884:Education
1750:: 69–75.
1499:0018-716X
1425:309071386
1376:1464-7931
1318:Mayr 1994
1060:parallels
1033:education
864:history.
857:phylogeny
740:, and by
680:phylogeny
539:Dysgenics
255:Phylogeny
153:Gene flow
123:Diversity
118:Variation
2161:(1899).
2134:84670449
2078:(1989).
2052:(1977).
1881:(1861).
1851:(1997).
1809:22520868
1766:28347942
1690:14756324
1661:18 April
1637:19883998
1392:23494485
1384:12475051
1156:See also
1123:Ontology
1043:—
959:compared
896:and the
878:tetrapod
853:Ontogeny
767:. These
676:ontogeny
603:Category
529:Eugenics
371:timeline
352:Evo-devo
310:Overview
128:Mutation
90:Evidence
85:Glossary
2292:Biology
2257:2801865
2204:2015664
2196:9278154
2126:3037718
2021:Sources
1973:(ed.).
1789:Bibcode
1725:2412887
1628:3729404
1589:189–193
1270:3414838
1040:little.
972:Modern
894:malleus
892:), the
882:mammals
874:pharynx
859:is the
813:Haeckel
727:biology
666:of the
95:History
78:Outline
2278:Portal
2255:
2202:
2194:
2132:
2124:
2090:
2064:
2038:
2007:
1861:
1807:
1764:
1723:
1688:
1635:
1625:
1497:
1423:
1413:
1390:
1382:
1374:
1297:
1275:wrong.
1268:
1258:
1233:255345
1231:
1221:
1104:atonal
898:stapes
836:Goethe
697:Since
668:embryo
601:
325:Darwin
2253:JSTOR
2200:S2CID
2130:S2CID
2122:JSTOR
1721:JSTOR
1506:(PDF)
1475:(PDF)
1388:S2CID
1238:tree.
1178:Notes
844:with
752:law.
63:Index
2192:PMID
2088:ISBN
2062:ISBN
2036:ISBN
2005:ISBN
1859:ISBN
1805:PMID
1762:PMID
1686:PMID
1663:2016
1633:PMID
1565:2016
1539:2016
1495:ISSN
1421:OCLC
1411:ISBN
1380:PMID
1372:ISSN
1295:ISBN
1266:OCLC
1256:ISBN
1229:OCLC
1219:ISBN
1137:Nazi
955:and
834:and
821:and
736:and
708:and
642:The
73:Main
2245:doi
2237:Man
2184:doi
2180:196
2114:doi
1925:doi
1797:doi
1752:doi
1713:doi
1623:PMC
1615:doi
1487:doi
1364:doi
1129:'s
886:jaw
838:'s
783:'s
650:or
50:by
2304::
2251:.
2241:14
2239:.
2198:.
2190:.
2178:.
2128:.
2120:.
2110:69
2108:.
1991:^
1981:.
1949:^
1921:46
1919:.
1803:.
1795:.
1785:27
1783:.
1760:.
1748:45
1746:.
1742:.
1719:.
1709:27
1707:.
1682:47
1680:.
1654:.
1631:.
1621:.
1611:21
1609:.
1605:.
1567:.
1541:.
1515:.
1493:.
1483:35
1481:.
1477:.
1456:.
1445:.
1433:^
1419:.
1386:.
1378:.
1370:.
1360:77
1358:.
1303:.
1272:.
1264:.
1235:.
1227:.
1121:.
1081:.
1069:,
1000::
900:.
712:.
694:.
2280::
2259:.
2247::
2206:.
2186::
2165:.
2153:.
2136:.
2116::
2096:.
2070:.
2044:.
2013:.
1931:.
1927::
1867:.
1811:.
1799::
1791::
1768:.
1754::
1727:.
1715::
1692:.
1665:.
1639:.
1617::
1489::
1427:.
1394:.
1366::
1328:(
1009:.
888:(
631:e
624:t
617:v
373:)
369:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
