117:
accomplish this step. However, the assumption that the delineations of linguistics always align with those of culture and ethnicity must not be made. One of the criteria is that the grouped languages usually exemplify shared innovation. This means that the languages must show common changes made throughout history. In addition, most grouped languages have shared retention. This is similar to the first criterion, but instead of changes, they are features that have stayed the same in both languages.
773:
765:
120:
Because linguistics, as in other scientific areas, seeks to reflect simplicity, an important principle in the linguistic reconstruction process is to generate the least possible number of phonemes that correspond to available data. This principle is again reflected when choosing the sound quality of
158:
The
Majority Principle is applied in identifying the most likely pronunciation of the predicted etymon, the original word from which the cognates originated. The Most Natural Development Principle describes the general directions in which languages appear to change and so one can search for those
116:
First, languages that are thought to have arisen from a common proto-language must meet certain criteria in order to be grouped together; this is a process called subgrouping. Since this grouping is based purely on linguistics, manuscripts and other historical documentation should be analyzed to
128:
set displays a certain pattern (such as a repeating letter in specific positions within a word), it is likely that this pattern was retained from its mother language. The Most
Natural Development Principle states that some alterations in languages, diachronically speaking, are more common than
104:. More generally, a reflex is the known derivative of an earlier form, which may be either attested or reconstructed. A reflex that is predictable from the reconstructed history of the language is a 'regular' reflex. Reflexes of the same source are
167:(French), one may argue that because phonetic stops generally become fricatives, the cognate with the stop is older than the cognate with the fricative and so the former is most likely to more closely resemble the original pronunciation.
124:
Comparative
Reconstruction makes use of two rather general principles: The Majority Principle and the Most Natural Development Principle. The Majority Principle is the observation that if a
363:
737:
55:
uses irregularities in a single language to make inferences about an earlier stage of that language – that is, it is based on evidence from that language alone.
356:
708:
61:, usually referred to just as reconstruction, establishes features of the ancestor of two or more related languages, belonging to the same
776:
747:
349:
232:
Historical linguistics 1995: selected papers from the 12th
International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Manchester, August 1995
742:
320:
17:
335:
305:
275:
214:
800:
683:
795:
525:
239:
732:
74:
631:
621:
530:
495:
606:
457:
78:
121:
phonemes, as the one which results in the fewest changes (with respect to the data) is preferred.
715:
690:
412:
392:
373:
52:
31:
540:
616:
520:
515:
510:
500:
474:
417:
35:
8:
651:
490:
48:
ancestor language of one or more given languages. There are two kinds of reconstruction:
85:
Texts discussing linguistic reconstruction commonly preface reconstructed forms with an
768:
752:
611:
576:
561:
432:
387:
185: – Process of language change that affects pronunciation or sound system structure
93:
66:
58:
230:
Smith, John
Charles; Bentley, Delia; Hogg, Richard M.; van Bergen, Linda (1998–2000).
764:
666:
656:
586:
535:
485:
341:
331:
316:
301:
271:
245:
235:
210:
45:
661:
641:
601:
591:
566:
505:
480:
452:
437:
402:
397:
596:
571:
427:
296:
204:
176:
62:
646:
442:
73:(the common ancestor of all the languages in a given family); examples include
70:
789:
581:
556:
249:
136:
626:
447:
182:
636:
422:
143:
86:
30:"Language reconstruction" redirects here. Not to be confused with
125:
105:
69:. A language reconstructed in this way is often referred to as a
297:
229:
206:
27:
Processes of understanding how earlier languages were spoken
738:
Institute of
Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences
371:
270:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Printing House.
44:is the practice of establishing the features of an
179: – Modification or development of a language
787:
149:Consonants become voiceless at the end of words.
709:Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages
357:
328:Language Change and Linguistic Reconstruction
89:(*) to distinguish them from attested forms.
139:sounds, often between vowels, become voiced.
96:in the proto-language is reconstructed is a
748:Russian State University for the Humanities
364:
350:
133:The final vowel in a word may be omitted.
743:Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
159:indicators. For example, from the words
129:others. There are four key tendencies:
14:
788:
345:
153:
330:(University of Chicago Press, 1960)
265:
261:
259:
315:(Cambridge University Press, 2019)
202:
24:
25:
812:
256:
772:
771:
763:
684:Journal of Language Relationship
300:(Oxford University Press, 1995)
313:The Study of Language (7th Ed.)
266:Yule, George (2 January 2020).
223:
196:
92:An attested word from which a
13:
1:
234:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
189:
733:Evolution of Human Languages
7:
209:. Oxford University Press.
170:
10:
817:
288:
268:The Study of Language 2019
111:
59:Comparative reconstruction
29:
761:
725:
700:
675:
549:
466:
408:Linguistic reconstruction
380:
42:Linguistic reconstruction
726:Institutions and schools
607:Vladislav Illich-Svitych
801:Reconstructed languages
716:The Languages of Africa
413:Internal reconstruction
393:Etymological dictionary
374:comparative linguistics
53:Internal reconstruction
32:Language revitalization
796:Historical linguistics
326:Henry M. Hoenigswald,
142:Phonetic stops become
617:Alexis Manaster Ramer
203:Fox, Anthony (1995).
458:Leipzig–Jakarta list
418:Linguistic universal
36:Constructed language
652:Vitaly Shevoroshkin
75:Proto-Indo-European
18:Reflex (linguistic)
769:Linguistics portal
753:Santa Fe Institute
612:Frederik Kortlandt
577:Aharon Dolgopolsky
433:Origin of language
388:Comparative method
154:Sound construction
67:comparative method
65:, by means of the
783:
782:
667:Alfredo Trombetti
657:Georgiy Starostin
587:Harold C. Fleming
467:Language families
321:978-1-108-73070-9
16:(Redirected from
808:
775:
774:
767:
662:Sergei Starostin
642:Martine Robbeets
602:Murray Gell-Mann
592:Joseph Greenberg
567:Allan R. Bomhard
453:Dolgopolsky list
438:Paleolinguistics
403:Lexicostatistics
398:Glottochronology
366:
359:
352:
343:
342:
282:
281:
263:
254:
253:
227:
221:
220:
200:
102:
101:
21:
816:
815:
811:
810:
809:
807:
806:
805:
786:
785:
784:
779:
757:
721:
696:
671:
632:Holger Pedersen
622:Sergei Nikolaev
597:Eugene Helimski
572:Svetlana Burlak
545:
531:North Caucasian
496:Elamo-Dravidian
462:
428:Mass comparison
376:
370:
291:
286:
285:
278:
264:
257:
242:
228:
224:
217:
201:
197:
192:
177:Language change
173:
156:
114:
99:
98:
79:Proto-Dravidian
63:language family
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
814:
804:
803:
798:
781:
780:
762:
759:
758:
756:
755:
750:
745:
740:
735:
729:
727:
723:
722:
720:
719:
712:
704:
702:
698:
697:
695:
694:
687:
679:
677:
673:
672:
670:
669:
664:
659:
654:
649:
647:Merritt Ruhlen
644:
639:
634:
629:
624:
619:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
553:
551:
547:
546:
544:
543:
538:
533:
528:
526:Dené–Caucasian
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
470:
468:
464:
463:
461:
460:
455:
450:
445:
443:Proto-language
440:
435:
430:
425:
420:
415:
410:
405:
400:
395:
390:
384:
382:
378:
377:
369:
368:
361:
354:
346:
340:
339:
324:
309:
290:
287:
284:
283:
276:
255:
240:
222:
215:
194:
193:
191:
188:
187:
186:
180:
172:
169:
163:(Spanish) and
155:
152:
151:
150:
147:
140:
134:
113:
110:
83:
82:
71:proto-language
56:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
813:
802:
799:
797:
794:
793:
791:
778:
770:
766:
760:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
730:
728:
724:
718:
717:
713:
711:
710:
706:
705:
703:
699:
693:
692:
691:Mother Tongue
688:
686:
685:
681:
680:
678:
674:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
582:Vladimir Dybo
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
562:Václav Blažek
560:
558:
557:John Bengtson
555:
554:
552:
548:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
476:
472:
471:
469:
465:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
385:
383:
379:
375:
367:
362:
360:
355:
353:
348:
347:
344:
337:
336:0-226-34741-9
333:
329:
325:
322:
318:
314:
311:George Yule,
310:
307:
306:0-19-870001-6
303:
299:
298:
294:Anthony Fox,
293:
292:
279:
277:9781108499453
273:
269:
262:
260:
251:
247:
243:
237:
233:
226:
218:
216:9780198700012
212:
208:
207:
199:
195:
184:
181:
178:
175:
174:
168:
166:
162:
148:
145:
141:
138:
135:
132:
131:
130:
127:
122:
118:
109:
107:
103:
95:
90:
88:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
57:
54:
51:
50:
49:
47:
43:
37:
33:
19:
714:
707:
689:
682:
627:Sorin Paliga
541:Indo-Pacific
473:
448:Swadesh list
407:
327:
312:
295:
267:
231:
225:
205:
198:
183:Sound change
164:
160:
157:
123:
119:
115:
97:
91:
84:
41:
40:
637:Ilia Peiros
521:Sino-Uralic
516:Indo-Uralic
511:Ural-Altaic
475:Proto-human
423:Macrofamily
372:Long-range
790:Categories
501:Eurasiatic
241:9027236666
190:References
144:fricatives
46:unattested
550:Linguists
491:Nostratic
250:746925995
137:Voiceless
777:Category
676:Journals
381:Concepts
171:See also
106:cognates
87:asterisk
536:Austric
486:Amerind
289:Sources
165:chanter
126:cognate
112:Methods
506:Altaic
481:Borean
334:
319:
304:
274:
248:
238:
213:
161:cantar
100:reflex
701:Books
332:ISBN
317:ISBN
302:ISBN
272:ISBN
246:OCLC
236:ISBN
211:ISBN
94:root
77:and
34:or
792::
258:^
244:.
108:.
365:e
358:t
351:v
338:.
323:.
308:.
280:.
252:.
219:.
146:.
81:.
38:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.